BASE COURSE RESILIENT MODULUS FOR THE MECHANISTIC-

EMPIRICAL PAVEMENT DESIGN GUIDE

FINAL REPORT

Sponsored by the Florida Department of Transportation Research Center

Contract Number BDK-75-977-10

Dr. Dennis R. Hiltunen, P.E.

Principal Investigator

Dr. Reynaldo Roque, P.E.

Faculty Co-Investigator

Dr. Aditya Ayithi

Graduate Student Researcher

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL & COASTAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

November 2011
 DISCLAIMER

The opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed

in this publication are those of the authors and not
necessarily those of the State of Florida Department
of Transportation or the U.S. Department of
Transportation.

Prepared in cooperation with the State of Florida

Department of Transportation and the U.S.
Department of Transportation.

2
METRIC CONVERSION TABLE

3
 1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.

4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date

Base Course Resilient Modulus for the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement November 2011
Design Guide
6. Performing Organization Code

7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No.

Aditya Ayithi, Dennis R. Hiltunen, and Reynaldo Roque
9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)
Department of Civil and Coastal Engineering
University of Florida 11. Contract or Grant No.
365 Weil Hall, P.O. Box 116580 BDK-75-977-10
Gainesville, FL 32611-6580
12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address 13. Type of Report and Period Covered
Florida Department of Transportation Final Report
605 Suwannee Street, MS 30 June 2008-November 2011
Tallahassee, FL 32399
14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. Supplementary Notes

16. Abstract
The Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guidelines (MEPDG) recommend use of modulus in lieu of structural
number for base layer thickness design. Modulus is nonlinear with respect to effective confinement stress, loading
strain, and moisture. For design purposes, a single effective modulus of a base layer is desirable, and this modulus
should be able to approximately account for the nonlinearities. However, the MEPDG does not describe a procedure
for determining this single modulus value. This research focused on laboratory characterization of base modulus
nonlinearity, developing a nonlinear response model using laboratory data for nonlinear pavement analysis, and a
methodology to determine a single effective modulus for a base layer via the nonlinear response model. Resonant
column tests were conducted on two base materials used in Florida to characterize shear modulus (G) nonlinearity
under different confinements and moisture contents. The suction effect increases G in the strain range of 10-5% to 10-
1
%, with very significant increases at strain levels below 10-3%. Using laboratory nonlinear modulus data, a nonlinear
response model was developed via the Plaxis finite element methodology. The model is an effective means for
assessing the effects of unbound material nonlinearity on the response of pavements. A representative modulus can be
determined by a backcalculation procedure in which surface deflections from a nonlinear analysis are matched via an
equivalent linear analysis. The single effective modulus varies over a range of conditions, including the moisture
content of the base, pavement layer thicknesses, and the modulus of the subgrade. There is a significant effect of
moisture on the effective modulus of limerock base materials used in Florida and the modulus/moisture relationship
employed in the MEPDG underpredicts this increase. An equivalent linear analysis using effective moduli for both an
unbound base and the subgrade can predict the structural response of an asphalt surface layer in a flexible pavement. It
should be possible to utilize these structural response predictions in the assessment of cracking performance of the
surface layer. However, caution is warranted in predicting the structural response of the unbound base and subgrade
layers using an equivalent linear analysis. Use of an effective modulus for a nonlinear base layer appears reasonable
for very thick pavement structures, but appears to underpredict vertical strain at the top of subgrade as the nonlinearity
increases. Use of effective moduli for both a nonlinear base and subgrade appears to underpredict top of subgrade
vertical strain even for very thick pavements.
17. Key Word 18. Distribution Statement
Base course, finite element modeling, mechanistic- No Restrictions
empirical pavement design, resilient modulus, resonant
column testing, small-strain modulus, suction, unsaturated
soil mechanics
19. Security Classif. (of this report) 20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price
Unclassified Unclassified 259 Pages

4
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guidelines (MEPDG) recommend use of

material modulus in lieu of structural number for pavement base layer thickness design. Modulus

is nonlinear with respect to effective confinement stress, loading strain, and moisture (suction),

and modulus nonlinearity should be considered for an efficient base layer design and analysis.

For typical design purposes, a single effective modulus value of a base layer is desirable, and this

modulus value should be able to approximately account for the nonlinearities of the whole base

layer. However, the MEPDG does not describe a procedure for determining this single modulus

value. This research study focused on laboratory characterization of base modulus nonlinearity,

developing a nonlinear response model using laboratory data for nonlinear pavement analysis,

and a methodology to determine a single effective modulus for a base layer via the nonlinear

response model.

First, fixed-free and free-free resonant column tests were conducted on two base materials

used in the State of Florida to characterize shear modulus (G) nonlinearity in the strain range of

10-5% to 10-1%, including small-level strains, under different loading confinements and moisture

contents. The suction effect on nonlinear modulus due to drying was evaluated, and it was found

that unsaturated modulus is linear at strains lower than 10-5% and nonlinear thereafter. Compared

to dry materials, the presence of moisture in unsaturated material makes it more nonlinear with

respect to strain. The suction effect increases G in the strain range of 10-5% to 10-1%, with very

significant increases at strain levels below 10-3%. At any given moisture content, additional

confinement due to suction does not decrease with an increase in strain. Empirical equations

were developed to calculate very small-strain modulus (Gmax) of dry material. A procedure to

calculate an approximate G value at known moisture content, confinement, and strain magnitude

was developed.
5
 Second, using laboratory nonlinear modulus characterization data, a nonlinear response

model was developed via the Plaxis-HSsmall finite element methodology. It was demonstrated

that the model is an effective means for assessing the effects of unbound material nonlinearity on

the structural response of pavements. Practical pavement design utilizing the MEPDG will

require input of a single modulus value to represent unbound base and subgrade materials. A

representative modulus can be determined by a backcalculation procedure in which pavement

surface deflections from a nonlinear analysis are matched via an equivalent linear analysis. The

nonlinearity of unbound base materials is significant and the single effective modulus varies over

a range of conditions, including the moisture content of the base, pavement layer thicknesses,

and the modulus of the subgrade. There is a significant effect of moisture on the effective

modulus of limerock base materials used in Florida. The modulus/moisture relationship

employed in the MEPDG underpredicts the significant increase in modulus of Florida limerock

base materials when dried below OMC.Use of the MEPDG model will be conservative. An

equivalent linear analysis using effective moduli for both an unbound base and the subgrade and

based upon matching surface deflections can predict the structural response of an asphalt surface

layer in a flexible pavement. It should be possible to utilize these structural response predictions

in the assessment of cracking performance of the surface layer. However, caution is warranted in

predicting the structural response of the unbound base and subgrade layers using an equivalent

linear analysis. Use of an effective modulus for a nonlinear base layer appears reasonable for

very thick pavement structures, but appears to underpredict vertical strain at the top of subgrade

as the nonlinearity increases due to decreasing thickness, decreasing moisture content, or

softening of the subgrade. Use of effective moduli for both a nonlinear base and subgrade

appears to underpredict top of subgrade vertical strain even for very thick pavements.

6
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DISCLAIMER .................................................................................................................................2

METRIC CONVERSION TABLE ..................................................................................................3

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .............................................................................................................5

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................10

1.1 Problem Statement ............................................................................................................10

1.2 Objectives .........................................................................................................................12
1.3 Scope of Research.............................................................................................................13
1.4 Organization of Report .....................................................................................................14

2 LITERATURE REVIEW ..........................................................................................................17

2.1 Modulus of Particulate Material .......................................................................................17

2.2 Resilient Modulus .............................................................................................................18
2.3 Modulus Characterization for Complete Range of Strains ...............................................20
2.3.1 Small-Strain Modulus (Gmax or Emax) .....................................................................20
2.3.2 Shear Modulus (G) at Different Strain Levels .......................................................22
2.3.3 Analytical Models to Estimate Shear Modulus at Different Strain Levels ............27
2.4 Influence of Suction on Soil Modulus ..............................................................................32
2.5 Importance of Small-Strain Modulus Nonlinearity ..........................................................38
2.6 Pavement Response Models .............................................................................................39
2.6.1 MEPDG Nonlinear Response Model .....................................................................39
2.6.2 Effective Modulus Determination ..........................................................................40
2.6.3 Plaxis-HSsmall Model ............................................................................................41
2.7 Closing Remarks ...............................................................................................................41

3 TEST PROGRAM .....................................................................................................................43

3.1 Fixed-Free Resonant Column Testing ..............................................................................43

3.1.1 Background and Testing Mechanism .....................................................................43
3.1.2 Shear Modulus (G) .................................................................................................44
3.1.3 Shear Strain () .......................................................................................................46
3.1.4 Equipment Setup ....................................................................................................46
3.1.5 Calibration of the Drive System .............................................................................47
3.1.6 Limitations Experienced with the Testing Equipment ...........................................52
3.1.7 Equipment Credibility Verification ........................................................................53
3.2 Free-Free Resonant Column Testing (Free-Free RC) ......................................................55
3.2.1 Background and Mechanism ..................................................................................55
3.2.2 Equipment Setup ....................................................................................................56

7
4 MATERIALS AND SPECIMEN PREPARATION..................................................................59

4.1 Materials ...........................................................................................................................59

4.1.1 Sources ...................................................................................................................59
4.1.2 Characterization ......................................................................................................59
4.2 Specimen Preparation and Installation .............................................................................61
4.2.1. Dry Specimens.......................................................................................................62
4.2.2 Wet (Partially Saturated) Specimens ......................................................................63

5 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ....................................................................66

5.1 Fixed-Free Resonant Column Torsional Shear Testing....................................................66

5.1.1 Dry Specimen Testing Results ...............................................................................66
5.1.2 Unsaturated (Wet) Specimen Testing Results ........................................................73
5.2 Free-Free Resonant Column Testing ................................................................................80
5.2.1 Results and Discussion ...........................................................................................82
5.2.2 Method to Estimate Approximate Modulus ...........................................................83
5.3 Closing Remarks ...............................................................................................................85

6 NONLINEAR FINITE ELEMENT MODELING OF BASE LAYER .....................................87

6.1 Plaxis-Hardening Soil-Small Model (Plaxis-HSsmall Model) .........................................87

6.1.1 Parameters of HSsmall Model ................................................................................89
6.1.2 Compatibility of Plaxis-HSsmall Model Modulus Reduction................................90
6.2 Flexible Pavement Nonlinear Response Model ................................................................91
6.2.1 Axisymmetric Model ..............................................................................................92
6.2.2 Pavement Cross-Sections .......................................................................................92
6.2.3 Loading Conditions ................................................................................................93
6.2.4 Input Parameters for Surface and Subgrade Layers of Flexible Pavement ............94
6.3 Initial Plaxis-HSsmall Pavement Model Runs and Recalibration ....................................95
6.3.1 Footing Model Analysis and Verification ..............................................................96
6.3.2 Model Recalibration ...............................................................................................97
6.4 Recalibrated Nonlinear Input Parameters .........................................................................98
6.4.1 Recalibrated Parameters of Newberry Limerock and Georgia Granite..................99
6.4.2 Input Parameters for Miami Limerock .................................................................101
6.5 Demonstration of Response Model Nonlinear Behavior ................................................102
6.5.1 Demonstration of Input Parameter Nonlinearity ..................................................103
6.5.2 Demonstration of Pavement Model Nonlinearity.................................................103

7 BASE LAYER NONLINEAR MODELING RESULTS ........................................................105

7.1 Effective Base Modulus Determination..........................................................................105

7.1.1 Methodology.........................................................................................................105
7.1.2 Surface Deflection Matching ................................................................................106
7.1.3 Nonlinear Reduction of Effective Modulus with Increase in Load ......................107
7.2 Effective Design Moduli.................................................................................................107
7.2.1 Effective Moduli Data ..........................................................................................107

8
 7.3 Comparison of Nonlinear and Equivalent Linear Responses .........................................125

8 NONLINEAR MODELING OF SUBGRADE LAYER .........................................................131

8.1 Determination of Effective Modulus for Base and Subgrade Layers .............................131
8.1.1 Methodology.........................................................................................................131
8.1.2 Material Parameters and Structural Inputs ...........................................................132
8.1.3 Surface Deflection Basin Matching......................................................................132
8.2 Comparison of Nonlinear and Equivalent Linear Analysis Results ...............................133
8.2.1 Effective Moduli Values for Base and Subgrade .................................................134
8.2.2 Comparison of Nonlinear and Equivalent Linear Pavement Responses ..............137

9 CONCLUSIONS......................................................................................................................141

9.1 Summary of Findings .....................................................................................................141

9.1.1 Laboratory Testing on Unbound Aggregate Base Materials ................................142
9.1.2 Nonlinear Response Model and Base Layer Nonlinear Modeling and Analysis .143
9.1.3 Nonlinear Modeling and Analysis of Base and Subgrade Layers ........................146
9.2 Conclusions.....................................................................................................................147
9.3 Recommendations...........................................................................................................148

LIST OF REFERENCES .............................................................................................................151

APPENDIX

A FIXED-FREE RESONANT COLUMN TESTING DATA FOR DIFFERENT BASE

SOILS ...................................................................................................................................154

B NONLINEAR EQUIVALENT LINEAR EFFECTIVE BASE MODULI DATA FOR

DIFFERENT TYPES OF BASE SOILS ..............................................................................158

C COMPARISON OF NONLINEAR AND EQUIVALENT LINEAR RESPONSES FROM

NONLINEAR BASE ANALYSIS .......................................................................................165

D COMPARISON OF NONLINEAR AND EQUIVALENT LINEAR RESPONSES

FROM NONLINEAR BASE AND NONLINEAR SUBGRADE ANALYSIS ..................232

9
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Problem Statement

Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guidelines (MEPDG (2004)) for flexible

pavement structures recommend use of modulus in place of layer coefficient for unbound

aggregate base layer thickness design. Resilient modulus (MR) and Poissons ratio () are the two

primary input parameters required for thickness design. MR represents modulus of a material

subjected to repeated traffic loading and can be determined in the laboratory via a standard

testing protocol (AASHTO T307).

Soil is a nonlinear material and its modulus nonlinearity is dependent primarily on

effective confinement stress, loading strain, moisture content (suction) and some other

parameters. MEPDG proposes three different levels of MR input for pavement design. Level 1

MR input takes material modulus nonlinearity into account, whereas Level 2 and Level 3 MR

input assume material is elastic and assigns a single effective elastic modulus value for the whole

layer. However, the nonlinear design analysis response model based on Level 1 nonlinear MR

input has not been calibrated for practical applications. Thus, it seems that a single effective

elastic modulus approach using either Level 2 or Level 3 MR input would be most commonly

used in the near future. Therefore, determining this single elastic modulus value is critical for

pavement response model analysis.

However, since soil is a nonlinear material, a single elastic modulus approach should not

discard the importance of modulus nonlinearity. Hence, the single elastic modulus value should

be able to reflect the nonlinear behavior of a base layer under real loading conditions. In parallel,

if we can build a database of either nonlinear modulus parameters, or single effective elastic

modulus values that can also reflect nonlinear behavior approximately, for different types of base

10
materials, it may not be required to conduct expensive MR laboratory testing at the initial design

stage and the whole design process could be more economical.

MEPDG is primarily based on MR and its determination via the AASHTO protocol. By

following the AASHTO T307 testing procedure, material modulus can be characterized from

intermediate (10-3%) to larger strains (10-1%) due to the range of deviatoric stresses applied in

this test procedure and the external measurement of loads and deformations. Recent research

studies in geotechnical engineering have revealed that it is also necessary to consider modulus

nonlinearity at small-level strains (10-3%) along with nonlinearity at intermediate to larger

strains, to predetermine accurate pavement responses. Since moduli values at small strain levels

cannot be determined via the AASHTO protocol due to procedural limitations, small-strain

modulus nonlinearity cannot be characterized. Hence, it is plausible that accurate pavement

responses cannot be calculated using moduli values obtained via the AASHTO testing protocol.

Therefore, it is desirable to consider an alternative procedure that can characterize material

modulus nonlinearity at small-level strains along with intermediate to larger strains.

Moreover, the AASHTO T307 provides a set of MR values corresponding to different

stress levels and strain magnitudes, but not a single elastic modulus value that is required for

MEPDG Level 2 and Level 3 material parameter inputs. No methodology is defined either in

MEPDG or in the literature about how to determine this single elastic modulus value. Therefore,

there is a requirement to develop a proper methodology that can also approximately reflect the

modulus nonlinearity.

Suction in partially saturated soils provides additional confinement, which in turn increases

soil modulus. Research studies related to the suction effect on soil modulus at different strain

levels have revealed that suction can increase modulus at small-level strains very significantly

11
compared to intermediate and large strains. Since it is important to consider modulus

nonlinearity at small-level strain, it is important to also consider the suction effect on modulus at

small-level strains. The MEPDG incorporates moisture effect (which includes suction effect

also) on modulus via the Enhanced Integrated Climatic Model (EICM). The modulus/moisture

model in the EICM is developed based on an MR database for different types of soils. Since these

MR values have been determined via the AASHTO protocol, which can measure modulus at

intermediate to large strains only, the EICM does not consider the suction effect at small-level

strains. Therefore, it is of interest to develop a pavement response model that can also consider

the suction effect at different strain levels including small-level strains.

In view of the above issues regarding testing protocol adequacies, moisture (suction effect)

model inabilities, and no properly defined methodology to calculate single effective design

modulus for a base layer, there is a necessity to develop: 1) a laboratory testing method for

modulus determination that can more accurately characterize modulus nonlinearity at different

strain levels including small-level strains, 2) a design methodology to determine a single

effective modulus value for MEPDG Level 2 and Level 3 modulus inputs that can also reflect

modulus nonlinearity approximately, and 3) a pavement response model that can incorporate the

suction effect on modulus at small-level strains, along with intermediate and larger strains.

1.2 Objectives

The primary objective of this research work is to develop a design methodology for

characterizing base layer design modulus for use in MEPDG that can address the issues

discussed above. More detailed objectives include:

Conduct a laboratory testing program on selected base materials following a suitable

testing methodology that can effectively account for the effects of confinement, strain
magnitude, and moisture on nonlinear modulus, including small-strain nonlinear modulus,
and can characterize its nonlinear behavior.

12
 Evaluate and quantify the suction effect on nonlinear small-strain modulus.

Develop an appropriate pavement response model that can utilize the laboratory testing
results and account for the above discussed modulus nonlinearity under performance
conditions.

Based on deflections, stresses, and strain responses obtained from a pavement response
model, develop a practical design methodology to calculate single effective modulus for
whole base layer that can approximate known nonlinearities for use as MEPDG Level 2
and Level 3 material inputs.

Demonstrate by various techniques that the overall approach, as well as the laboratory test
results and pavement response model results, are credible and appear to agree with other
known properties and behavior.

1.3 Scope of Research

In the State of Florida, limerock aggregates are commonly used for base layer construction.

One limerock material and one non-limerock material were chosen for our testing: 1) Newberry

limerock and 2) Georgia granite graded aggregate base. Material collection and specimen

preparation were performed following standard procedures.

The fixed-free resonant column torsional shear (fixed-free RC) test method and the free-

free resonant column (FFRC) test method were selected for the material testing program. Fixed-

free RC tests can determine shear modulus (G) of gravel-type soils at different strain magnitudes

including small-level strains. In fixed-free RC testing, compacted specimens can be subjected to

required stress confinement. Suction effect can be evaluated by conducting tests on specimens

dried to different moisture contents. Therefore, via fixed-free RC testing, modulus nonlinearity

of gravelly base soils can be characterized with respect to 1) effective stress confinement, 2)

loading strain magnitude including small-level strains, and 3) moisture or suction effect. These

tests were conducted on standard size modified Proctor compacted specimens. The FFRC test

can determine shear modulus at very small-level strain (Gmax) at different moisture contents

13
under no confinement to evaluate the suction effect on Gmax. Credibility of these testing results is

established by comparing them with literature data.

A nonlinear pavement response model was developed via Plaxis-HSsmall, a nonlinear

finite element model system that can utilize laboratory testing results. Using our laboratory test

results, the response model can characterize material modulus nonlinearity properly with respect

to stress confinement, strain magnitude including small-level strains, and moisture or suction

effect. Flexible pavement structures with different layer thicknesses or cross-sections were

analyzed under performance loading conditions using the nonlinear response model.

A methodology to determine single effective elastic design modulus value for whole base

layer that can be utilized as MEPDG Level 2 and Level 3 material parameter input was

developed. The single effective base modulus determination methodology was developed such

that various pavement responses such as surface deflections, stresses, and strains obtained by

nonlinear base modulus analysis, and equivalent linear single elastic base modulus analysis are

approximately the same. The effect of base layer nonlinearity on pavement performance is

evaluated by comparing the responses obtained from nonlinear base modulus analysis and

equivalent linear single base modulus analysis. The effect of subgrade nonlinearity on pavement

performance is also briefly evaluated for limited cases.

1.4 Organization of Report

An overview of the remaining chapters of this report is presented here. Chapter 2 gives an

overview of resilient modulus (MR), the MR testing method and its adequacies, the importance of

modulus characterization including small-strain modulus nonlinearity in soils, possible

laboratory testing methods, and modulus nonlinearity influencing factors and its importance in

geotechnical structural designs. Different models proposed by various researchers to calculate

very small-strain modulus and modulus at different strain levels are discussed. Suction effect on
14
small-strain modulus and importance of considering suction effect in determining design

modulus is also discussed. Recent research efforts about importance of considering small-strain

modulus nonlinearity for geotechnical analysis and design are also discussed.

Different types of materials selected for testing and their properties are presented in

Chapter 3. A detailed explanation about specimen preparation methods, for both wet and dry

materials, is also given.

In Chapter 4, fixed-free RC and free-free RC test methods used in this research work are

presented. Detailed explanations about equipment development background and types of

parameters that can be measured with these devices are discussed. Equipment setup, calibration,

verification, and limitations are also explained.

Chapter 5 presents testing results obtained from both fixed-free RC and free-free RC tests.

Specimen testing conditions including moisture contents, void ratios, and pressure confinements

are mentioned. An empirical equation is proposed to calculate very small-strain modulus of dry

soils. Suction effect on small-strain modulus is evaluated and an indirect approach to calculate

additional confinement due to suction is explained. Based on these testing results, a method to

determine approximate modulus at any known moisture content, confinement, and strain

magnitude is explained.

Chapter 6 discuses the Plaxis-HSsmall model and required model input parameters.

Development of a nonlinear response model for base layer analysis via HSsmall model is

discussed, and procedures to obtain input parameters from laboratory testing results are

explained.

Chapter 7 presents the base layer nonlinear analysis results and a methodology to

determine single effective design modulus for base layer thickness design. Different pavement

15
cross-sections are analyzed using the HSsmall nonlinear response model. Single effective elastic

base moduli values for different pavement structures at different base moisture contents and

subgrade moduli are reported and analyzed. The effect of base nonlinearity on pavement

response is evaluated.

The potential importance of subgrade nonlinearity in pavement design and analysis is

discussed in Chapter 8. A methodology to determine equivalent single elastic modulus for both

base and subgrade layers is explained, and the effect of subgrade nonlinearity on pavement

response is analyzed briefly for a limited number of structures.

Based on the results presented in Chapters 5, 7 and 8, the primary findings are summarized

in Chapter 9, and conclusions and recommendations are presented.

Further test result details are presented in the appendices. Fixed-free RC test results on dry

specimens at different void ratios are given in Appendix A. A nonlinear equivalent single

effective base moduli database is given in Appendix B. Comparison plots of surface deflection,

stress, and strain responses obtained from nonlinear base analysis and equivalent linear base

analysis, for different pavement structures is presented in Appendix C. Comparison plots of

pavement responses obtained from base and subgrade nonlinearity analysis and equivalent linear

analysis are presented in Appendix D.

16
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

The primary goal of this research work is to determine the effective base modulus for

practical design purposes, while considering modulus nonlinearity. It is proposed to achieve this

through laboratory testing and nonlinear modeling. Hence, this literature review concentrates on

soil modulus and its influencing factors including suction, modulus at different strain levels

including small-level strains and its determination in laboratory, various analytical models

developed to determine modulus at different strain levels, the importance of modulus

nonlinearity in geotechnical design calculations, and pavement response models.

2.1 Modulus of Particulate Material

Modulus or stiffness is the relationship between change of stress and change of strain, is

defined by ratio of stress over strain, and represents resistance to deformation under loading.

Being a particulate material, soil modulus is nonlinear and primarily dependent on effective

confining stress (c), strain magnitude (), and void ratio (e) (Hardin and Drnevich, 1972;

Yasuda and Mastumoto, 1993). In unsaturated soils, modulus is also dependent on moisture

content and its suction effect (Wu et al., 1984; Qian et al., 1993; and Cho and Santamarina,

2001).

In a pavement base layer, strain magnitudes are not constant throughout the layer, but are

highest near or under the wheel load and diminish to zero moving away from wheel load. Soil

modulus is maximum (Gmax or Emax) at strain levels lower than 10-4%, and decreases nonlinearly

with an increase in strain (Figure 2-1), generally in an S-shaped pattern. As shown in Figure 2-1,

Atkinson and Sallfors (1981) presented a typical modulus reduction curve for soils with an

increase in strain, along with different strain levels involved in various types of geotechnical

structures. Modulus nonlinearity for different strain levels that can be observed under real

17
loading conditions should be considered for accurate geotechnical design calculations (Atkinson,

1991; Elhakim and Mayne, 2008; and Lehane et al., 2008).

Figure 2-1. Characteristic modulus-strain behavior of soils with typical strain ranges for
laboratory tests and structures (from Atkinson and Sallfors, 1991).

2.2 Resilient Modulus

According to MEPDG, resilient modulus (MR) and Poissons ratio () are the two basic

material parameter inputs required for pavement layer thickness design of a base layer. Behavior

of a base or soil subjected to repeated traffic loading in a pavement layer is characterized by MR.

MR is an elastic modulus based on recoverable strain under repeated loads and is defined as:

d
MR = (2-1)
r

where d=deviatoric stress and r=recoverable axial strain.

Since its inception in AASHTO 1986 guidelines, much research has been well

documented regarding MR. MR of soils can be determined in the laboratory via standard testing

procedures (e.g., AASHTO T307). For design calculations, MR of a soil for any given stress

condition () can be calculated using the basic constitutive equation:

18
 MR=k1 x k2 (2-2)

in which parameters k1 and k2 are material dependent and their values are determined from

laboratory testing data. In the standard MR testing procedure, a specimen is subjected to different

predetermined combinations of confinement stress and deviatoric stress and the resulting strain

magnitudes are measured using strain gauges placed outside the triaxial testing chamber. Strain

magnitudes that can be measured in AASHTO T307 testing are typically in the range of 10-3%

and higher.

MEPDG Level 2 and Level 3 design procedures for unbound aggregate base layer

thickness design require a single modulus value for the whole layer, which can be obtained from

MR laboratory testing. The laboratory testing produces a set of moduli data corresponding to

specific stress and strain levels, but not a single modulus value, and MEPDG does not define a

procedure to determine a single modulus value required for design.

To consider modulus nonlinearity with respect to stress and strain in pavement design one

first should be able to measure modulus for a wide range of strain levels at any given

confinement stress. One of the main challenges in measuring the modulus of soil at small-level

strains is choosing the right equipment and testing method for accurate strain measurements

Conventional laboratory testing equipments can measure modulus at strains as small as 10-3%

with reasonable accuracy, where the strain gauges are placed outside the testing chamber.

Moduli corresponding to a strain range of 10-5% to 10-3% can be reliably measured by using

local strain gauges attached directly to the sample (Jardine et al., 1984; Atkinson, 1991).

However, these local strain gauges cannot measure very small strains (i.e., 10-5%), which

correspond to the fundamental material property Gmax. The AASHTO T307 testing protocol

19
requires attachment of the strain gauges outside of the testing chamber. Thus, the accuracy of

strain measurements less than 10-3% becomes questionable in a standard MR test.

2.3 Modulus Characterization for Complete Range of Strains

Past research efforts have shown that nonlinearity of soil for a wide range of strains

including small-level strains needs to be considered for accurate settlement/deformation

predictions in soils (Jardine et al., 1984; Atkinson, 1991; Elhakim and Mayne, 2008; and Lehane

et al., 2008). It is now well acknowledged that strain/deformation predictions for geotechnical

structures (e.g., footings, retaining walls, braced excavations) are often not at an acceptable level

of accuracy, and one of the primary reasons for this inaccuracy is choosing a single linear elastic

modulus value to represent the soil behavior. A numbers of analytical models have been

developed to calculate G at different strain levels, using Gmax as the benchmark, and these are

discussed in following sections.

2.3.1 Small-Strain Modulus (Gmax or Emax)

Over the past several decades, a large number of research investigations have been

conducted and documented on Gmax of sands, silts, and clay soils and its influencing factors.

Hardin and Richart (1963) measured longitudinal and shear wave velocities (Vs ) of Ottawa sand,

crushed quartz sand and crushed quartz silt at small-strain levels using free-free and fixed-free

resonant column methods. They found that Vs for sands varied with approximately the power

of confining pressure. At very small-strain, Vs of sands is a function of mean effective confining

pressure ( ) and void ratio (e), and can be expressed as:

, for <2000 psf (2-3)

, for >2000 psf (2-4)

where the units of Vs are ft/sec (fps).

20
 Hardin and Drnevich (1972) conducted resonant column tests on different types of soils to

analyze the effects of confining pressure, strain amplitude, void ratio, number of loading cycles,

degree of saturation, and thixotropy. They found that shear modulus decreases and damping ratio

increases very rapidly with increase in strain amplitude. The rate of decrease or increase in Gmax

depends on many parameters and a single relationship between modulus or damping and strain

amplitude is not sufficient. For very small strain amplitudes, modulus varies with 0.5 power of

effective mean principal stress, but at larger strains modulus depends primarily on strength of

soil and the variation is more nearly with 1.0 power. Modulus and damping ratio decreases with

increase in void ratio and the effect is accounted by:

(2-5)

where e is void ratio. Shear modulus decreases for cohesive soils and increases for cohesionless

soils with increase in number of loading cycles. Degree of saturation has no effect on modulus of

cohesionless soils. In cohesive soils, modulus increases rapidly with decrease in degree of

saturation.

Hardin and Drnevich (1972) have clearly shown that moduli values for sands are strongly

influenced by three main factors: confining pressure, strain magnitude, and void ratio.

Seed et al. (1986) investigated shear moduli and damping characteristics of soils via cyclic

undrained triaxial tests and derived an empirical equation to determine Gmax as:

(2-6)

They found that values of (K2)max for dense well-graded gravels are likely to range from 80-180,

compared with the range of about 55-80 for sands, and gradation does not have much influence

on shear moduli of gravels. They developed a normalized shear modulus versus shear strain

curve for gravels similar to the curve for sands, and the curve for gravels is slightly flatter

21
compared to sand (Figure 2-2). Based on in situ shear wave velocity measurements, shear moduli

of gravelly soils are between 1.25 and 2.5 times greater than that of sands.

Figure 2-2. G/Gmax versus log curves of gravelly sandy soils reported by Seed et al. (1986).

Hardin and Richart (1963) proposed the following empirical formula to calculate Gmax for

known void ratio (e) and confinement (c):

(2-7)

where AG and nG are material constants, F(e) is function of void ratio, and c is effective mean

principal stress.

2.3.2 Shear Modulus (G) at Different Strain Levels

Kokusho (1987) pointed out that as the grain size increases the rate of reduction in strain-

dependent modulus becomes high at a smaller strain level.

Yasuda and Matsumoto (1993) conducted cyclic torsional simple shear tests and cyclic

triaxial tests to investigate the dynamic deformation characteristics of sand and rock fill

materials. They found that G can be expressed as a function of shear strain, void ratio, and

22
confining stress. They also found that the absolute value of G for the rock fill materials is

substantially higher than sand under the same relative density. The alteration of G of rock fill

material occurred at smaller strains than for sands.

Yasuda et al. (1996) conducted large-scale cyclic triaxial tests on undisturbed and

reconstituted specimens obtained from the river bed gravel foundation of an embankment dam to

determine G in the strain range of 10-6 to 10-3. Undisturbed specimens of size 300 mm in

diameter and 550 mm in height were sampled by using a freezing method. From their testing

investigation, they found that Gmax of undisturbed specimens was 1.5 to 2 times greater than

reconstituted specimens. They reported that this difference was due to cementation and fabric

produced by the effects of the geological time of sedimentation in undisturbed specimens. The

G/Gmax versus relationship was marked by almost identical declining tendencies in both

undisturbed and reconstituted specimens (Figure 2-3), thus the G versus relationship for

undisturbed specimens can be determined from in situ Gmax.

Lin et al. (2000) investigated shear modulus (G) and damping ratio (D) of gravelly cobble

deposits. They conducted resonant column and cyclic triaxial tests to obtain G for a strain range

of 10-4 to 1%. They observed a decrease of G with increase in for 0.1%, an increase in G

thereafter (Figures 2-4 and 2-5), and attributed this behavior to a gap gradation of the soils tested.

Gravel cobble deposits contain 80% gravel and the remaining is filling material. When they

artificially increased the proportion of filling material, G decreased with an increase in strain as

previously mentioned. G increases as the maximum particle size (Dmax) increases and also with

an increase in confining pressure (Figure 2-6). There is no significant effect of either Dmax or c

on the G/Gmax versus relationship. Based on their testing data, they developed an empirical

equation to calculate Gmax of a deposit at different confining pressures as shown in Figure 2-7.

23
Figure 2-3. G/Gmax versus log curves of undisturbed and reconstituted riverbed gravel for: (a)
c=0.29 MPa and (b) c=0.59 MPa (from Yasuda et al., 1996).

Menq (2003) conducted free-free resonant column tests on sandy and gravelly soils and

measured G in the strain range of 10-5 to 10-1%. He observed Gmax at strains less than 10-4% for

gravels and at strains less than 10-3% for sands. Normalized modulus versus strain curves for

gravels are flatter than for sand and follow the same trend as reported by Seed et al. (1986)

(Figure 2-8).

24
Figure 2-4. Effect of 3 on the G- relationship (dmax = 1.27 cm) (from Lin et al., 2000).

Figure 2-5. Variation of normalized shear modulus with shear strain (dmax= 1.27 cm) (from Lin et
al., 2000).

25
Figure 2-6. G- relationship (3 = 58.7 kN/m2) (from Lin et al., 2000).

Figure 2-7. Variation of Gmax of the field deposit with 3 (from Lin et al., 2000).

26
Figure 2-8. G/Gmax log relationship for gravelly soils (from Menq, 2003).

Gravelly soils are commonly used in base layer construction. Many researchers

investigated small-strain modulus of sands, silts and clays, but few efforts have been made to

determine moduli of gravel-type soils. Being a large size aggregate, testing on gravel requires 4

inch to 6 inch diameter specimens and large size equipment, which makes testing complicated

and is one reason for the lack of literature about moduli of gravels.

2.3.3 Analytical Models to Estimate Shear Modulus at Different Strain Levels

A general hyperbolic form of the stress-strain relation to estimate G at shear strain can be

written as:

(2-9)

where .

Hardin and Drnevich (1972), based on their testing database for different types of soils,

modified the hyperbolic expression as:

27
 (2-10)

where and a and b are soil constants. They proposed a = -0.5 and b= -

0.16 for clean dry sands, and a comparison between measured and calculated values is shown in

Figure 2-9.

Figure 2-9. Comparison of calculated and measured values of normalized shear modulus (from
Hardin and Drnevich, 1972).

Hardin and Kalinski (2005) found that the G/Gmax versus strain () relationship for gravels

varies with confinement stress level, whereas the G/Gmax versus /r (normalized strain)

relationship is independent of stress level. Thus, it is more convenient to use /r instead of for

the modulus reduction relationship for gravels, which is similar to sands as proposed by Hardin

and Drnevich (1972).

28
 Rollins et al. (1998) conducted an experimental program on gravels and reviewed results of

15 testing programs from the literature and concluded that the normalized shear modulus curve is

dependent on confining pressure and independent of sample disturbance, relative density and

gradation. Based on 15 different testing results data, they proposed a best-fit hyperbolic curve

model as given below and shown in Figure 2-10.

(2-11)

Figure 2-10. Data points defining G/Gmax versus relationship for gravelly soils based on
testing by all 15 investigators along with best-fit curve and one standard
deviation bounds for entire data set (from Rollins et al., 1998).

From their testing results, they observed an increase in G with increase in gravel content (Figure

2-11). They also observed that the G/Gmax versus curve moves from the low end to high end

with an increase in confining pressure (Figure 2-12). According to their review, for gravels, at

29
shear strain lower than 10-4%, shear modulus and damping remain constant and shear modulus is

at its maximum, i.e., Gmax.

Figure 2-11. (a) G versus curves and (b) G/Gmax versus curves determined for test specimens
containing 0, 20, 40 and 60% gravel size particles (from Rollins et al., 1998).

Santos and Correia (2001) proposed a modified Hardin-Drnevich hyperbolic relationship

to calculate shear modulus for different strain levels:

(2-12)

30
where G0 = maximum shear modulus, a = 0.385, and 0.7 = shear strain at G = 0.7G0. They

recommended that normalization of shear strain () with reference threshold shear strain (0.7)

makes it possible to define almost a unique strain-dependent stiffness degradation curve for sand

and clays. Their proposed stiffness degradation curve with higher and lower limits is shown in

Figure 2-13.

Figure 2-12. Mean curves defining G/Gmax versus relationships for gravelly soils at various
confining pressures along with standard deviation boundaries for reduced data set
(from Rollins et al., 1998).

Figure 2-13. Shear modulus degradation curve proposed by Santos and Correia (2001).

31
 2.4 Influence of Suction on Soil Modulus

Wu et al. (1984) conducted resonant column tests on fine-grained cohesionless soils to

investigate capillary effects on Gmax. For their testing, they used 3.6 cm diameter and 8 cm height

specimens compacted at required different moisture contents and void ratios. Specimens were

tested at 24.8, 49 and 98 kPa confinement pressure. For a given void ratio, starting from dry, they

found Gmax increases with an increase in degree of saturation to a peak value, and then decreases

thereafter with further increase in moisture content. The degree of saturation where Gmax is at

peak is called the optimum degree of saturation. Capillary effects were greatest for soils with

smallest effective grain diameter (D10) and at the lowest confining pressure (c). They

determined that an effective additional confinement provided due to capillary suction is almost

equal to 1.6 m of overburden of completely saturated soils, and found that the maximum

capillary suction occurred between 5% and 20% moisture content.

Qian et al. (1993) conducted an experimental investigation of capillary effects on low-

strain shear modulus (strains lower than 10-5) of partially saturated sands. They ran Hall-type

resonant column tests on 14 sands with different gradations (four natural sands and remaining

man-made from these four natural sands) to study the effect of void ratio (e), confining pressure

(), grain shape and grain size distribution. Specimens were prepared at different moisture

contents and void ratios, similar in procedure to that followed by Wu et al. (1984). They found

that capillary effects increase small-strain shear modulus significantly and more pronounced for

soils with low void ratio. Optimum degree of saturation increases with an increase in void ratio

and is not affected by confinement while the influence capillarity decreases with confinement.

Picornell and Nazarian (1998) conducted bender element tests on specimens of coarse

sand, fine sand, silt, and clay prepared by separating a local soil into size fractions to investigate

the effect of soil suction on low-strain shear modulus (Gmax) of soils. Predetermined soil suction
32
was applied on specimens at different moisture contents using a pressure-plate apparatus. They

observed that as the soil particle size decreases, there is a progressive increase of saturated and

residual moisture contents. As the moisture content decreases from saturated, Gmax increases for

sands by a factor of 1.8, for silts by a factor of 2.5, and for clays by a factor of 10. The larger

effect in clay specimens was attributed to presence of flatly particles that deform under forces

imposed by the menisci, resulting in an increase in number of contact points where menisci can

develop and act.

Cho and Santamarina (2001) conducted microscale particle level studies to investigate

capillary effects on low-strain stiffness at different moisture contents. They conducted bender

element tests on i) glass beads, ii) a mixture of kaolinite and glass beads , iii) granite powder, and

iv) sandboil sand. They also conducted microscale experimental study on menisci failure and

recovery. Shear wave velocities (Vs), measured from bender element tests for the above four

materials at different degree of saturation are shown in Figure 2-14. Some of the conclusions of

their study were:

The contribution of capillarity to interparticle forces involves both matric suction and
surface tension.

An equivalent effective stress due to capillary forces increases with decreasing moisture
content, decreasing particle size, and increasing coordination.

Remolding is not an appropriate specimen preparation method (as followed by Wu et al.,

1984 and Qian et al., 1992) to study the behavior of low moisture content soils, since
drying influences particle contact forces.

Observed strains for menisci failure are in the range of = 0.01 to 1 and higher than the
threshold strain for sands, so partial saturation is a stabilizing force for the soils skeleton.
This strain at menisci failure decreases with a decrease in moisture content.

On the other hand, small menisci may fail before reaching the strain at peak strength of
soils. Thus, capillary forces at low moisture contents cause an increase in low strain
stiffness of soils, but may not contribute to the peak strength.

33
Figure 2-14. Shear wave velocity versus degree of saturation for different materials: (a) clean
glass beads, (b) mixture of Kaolinite and glass beads, (c) granite powder, (d) sand
boil sand (from Cho and Santamarina, 2001).

Toros (2008) investigated suction effects on small-strain Youngs modulus (Emax) of

Florida base course gravelly soils. He conducted free-free resonant column (FFRC) tests on 6

inch 12 inch cylindrical specimens of Miami limerock, Newberry limerock, Ocala limerock,

Loxahatchee shell rock, and Georgia granite, which are typically used base layer materials in the

State of Florida. Samples were compacted at optimum moisture content and exposed to four

different conditions: i) laboratory, ii) outside, iii) constant moisture, and iv) wetting and drying.

For drying, specimens were placed in an oven, and for wetting, oven dried specimens were

soaked in a water filled tank. He investigated the time effect on Emax at constant moisture,

34
moisture content effect on Emax at laboratory ambience, outside ambience and oven drying and

water soaked wetting ambience.

Under constant moisture condition, Emax increases with time (Figure 2-15). Toros (2008)

hypothesized that the behavior observed could be due to increased suction or negative pore water

pressure that occurs as the water in the material redistributes following compaction into more

preferential positions within the inter-particle void spaces. This increased suction effectively

adds confining stress to the particulate material and thereby increases the resistance to

deformation (stiffness).

100

90

80

70

60
E (ksi)___

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Time (days)
LOXAHATCHEE NEWBERRY OCALA MIAMI GEORGIA

Figure 2-15. FFRC test results of specimen exposed to constant moisture (from Toros, 2008).

In both laboratory and oven drying methods, Emax increased significantly with a decrease in

moisture content (Figure 2-16 and 2-17). This stiffening with drying was explained by an

increase in suction, which effectively increases confinement and hence modulus. Regardless of

the drying method, the Miami limerock changed the most, and this behavior is partially

explained by the fact that this material is coarsest, well graded, and at low void ratio.

35
Figure 2-16. FFRC test results of specimens exposed to laboratory ambient (from Toros, 2008).

Figure 2-17. FFRC test results of each material during first cycle of oven drying (from Toros,
2008).

36
 Drying and wetting responses do not follow the same relationship and there is a hysteretic

phenomenon whereby a different modulus is measured while drying to certain moisture content

compared to while wetting to the same moisture content (Figure 2-18). This hysteretic

phenomenon is well known in unsaturated soil mechanics where the suction values reached at

common moisture content are different between drying and wetting.

Figure 2-18. FFRC test results of each material during first cycle of wetting (from Toros, 2008).

The MEPDG incorporates the suction effect on MR of unbound aggregate via the Enhanced

Integrated Climatic Model (EICM). The EICM model is based on a MR laboratory testing

database, and incorporates the suction effect at MR laboratory testing strain levels only (i.e.,

higher than 10-3%) and does not consider the suction effect for a complete range of strains

including very small-level strains. Moreover, this model is developed based on testing data

obtained from limited selected base soils only.

37
 2.5 Importance of Small-Strain Modulus Nonlinearity

Recent research studies in geotechnical engineering have increased the awareness of

considering modulus nonlinearity for a complete range of strain levels in realistic prediction of

ground deformations and surface settlements in geotechnical structures such as footings, braced

excavations, etc. (Jardine et al., 1986; Atkinson, 1991; Elhakim and Mayne, 2008; and Lehane et

al., 2008).

Jardine et al. (1986) studied the influence of nonlinear stress-strain characteristics in soil-

structure interaction. They used laboratory measured nonlinear stress-strain properties for a finite

element analysis of footings, pile excavations, and pressuremeter tests to assess the influence of

small-strain nonlinearity in comparison with linear elastic behavior. From their study they

concluded that although linear elasticity remains a convenient tool for expressing measurements

of soil stiffness, unless the nonlinear nature of soil is taken into account, interpretation of field

measurements can be misleading. Also, small-strain nonlinearity has a significant influence on

interpretation of equivalent elastic moduli of in situ deformation tests.

Elhakim and Mayne (2008) developed a logarithmic modulus reduction algorithm to model

and calculate soil modulus at different strain levels using Gmax as the benchmark. By

incorporating these nonlinear moduli at different strain levels in settlement analysis calculations,

they were able to predict load-displacement response of footing on soft clay very close to the

actual field measured load-displacement curve (Figure 2-19).

Lehane et al. (2008) conducted load tests on four different size footings on Perth sand. For

their settlement predictions, they incorporated modulus nonlinearity for different strain levels

including small-level strains via the Plaxis-HSsmall model. They found that foundation

settlements predicted with Plaxis-HSsmall model are much better than existing standard linear

design methods and, in some cases, close to actual measured load test settlements (Figure 2-20).
38
In their analysis they observed that settlement predictions performed with in situ measured

parameters are more accurate than predictions performed with laboratory determined parameters.

Settlements predicted with laboratory parameters were larger than settlements predicted using

measured parameters by as much as a factor of four in some cases.

Figure 2-19. Load-displacement curves at Bothkennar footing test fitted using the proposed
model (from Elhakim and Mayne, 2008).

2.6 Pavement Response Models

2.6.1 MEPDG Nonlinear Response Model

MEPDG recommends considering modulus nonlinearity of base soils for Level 1 material

parameter inputs. A nonlinear finite element response model for base layer analysis developed

for the MEPDG calculates nonlinear resilient modulus using the following equation:

(2-13)

where = bulk stress at the peak of loading, oct = octahedral shear stress at the peak of loading,

pa = atmospheric pressure, and k1 through k7 are material parameters that should be determined

from MR laboratory data.

39
 Equation 2-13 results in different MR values for different stress levels based on the

corresponding stress state. These moduli values are appropriate for the limited strain range that

can be measured in laboratory testing, but not a complete range of strains including small-level

strains required for more accurate material nonlinear modeling.

Figure 2-20. Comparison of measured foundation load settlement response at Shenton Park to
prediction using Plaxis-HSsmall model (from Lehane et al., 2008).

2.6.2 Effective Modulus Determination

Roque et al. (1992) performed a comprehensive analysis to determine whether linear

elastic layer analysis can be used to accurately predict the nonlinear response of pavements.

They performed nonlinear analysis using the finite element computer program ILLIPAVE to

predict nonlinear response of pavement structure. Surface deflections obtained from nonlinear

analysis were used to backcalculate equivalent elastic moduli using BISAR. A design load of 40

kN was used for the analysis.

40
 For nonlinear analysis, the asphalt surface layer was considered elastic and both base and

subgrade were considered nonlinear. ILLIPAVE uses stress dependent nonlinear moduli for

nonlinear analysis. For better predictions and comparison, the upper 0.30 m of the subgrade was

modeled as a separate layer. Comparison of surface deflections, stresses, and strains between

nonlinear analysis and backcalculated linear analysis was made. They found that, within the

surface layer, fairly accurate predictions of deflections, stress, and strain equal to nonlinear

analysis could be made when a single effective layer modulus was used to represent the surface

and base layers. Nonlinear response of the subgrade could be represented by two elastic layers

and corresponding effective layer moduli.

2.6.3 Plaxis-HSsmall Model

Plaxis-HSsmall model is a commercially available software that can implement modulus

nonlinearity in soils with respect to both stress confinement and strain magnitude. HSsmall

model considers nonlinear modulus at different strain levels (as high as 101) including very

small-level strain (i.e., 10-6). Lehane et al (2008) used this approach for nonlinear modeling of

soil under footings for settlement predictions and obtained fairly accurate results. Input

parameters required for nonlinear modulus modeling can be obtained from resonant column

testing, and it is proposed to use Plaxis-HS small for development of a nonlinear pavement

response model. HSsmall model characteristics, background, and required input parameters are

explained in detail in Chapter 6.

2.7 Closing Remarks

Conclusions of this literature review are:

Gmax of dry soils is primarily dependent on confining pressure (c) and void ratio (e),
whereas G also depends on strain. Gradation and maximum aggregate size are some of the
other secondary influencing parameters.

41
 Different empirical relationships have been developed to calculate Gmax and hyperbolic
models are available to calculated G at different strain levels. Normalization of G with
Gmax nullifies the effect of confinement.

An increase in suction due to drying of aggregate can increase modulus significantly.

Consideration of nonlinear small-strain modulus in geotechnical design and analysis

improves soil deformation/settlement predictions. Gmax can be considered as a benchmark
for soil modulus nonlinearity.

Nonlinear small-strain stiffness can have significant influence on determination of

equivalent elastic modulus used for linear design and analysis.

It may be possible to determine a single effective modulus that can approximate

nonlinearities for a range of pavement structures and loads.

42
 CHAPTER 3
TEST PROGRAM

The first objective of this research study was to characterize modulus nonlinearity of

selected base soils via a suitable laboratory testing program. The laboratory testing methodology

should be selected such that it can effectively account for confinement stress, loading strain

magnitude, and moisture content effects on nonlinear modulus, including small-strain nonlinear

modulus.

In the literature review of Chapter 2, various research studies conducted to determine

nonlinear small-strain shear modulus of sands and gravelly soils via resonant column testing

were discussed. Based on the literature review and testing requirements, the fixed-free and free-

free resonant column tests were selected for our laboratory testing. Background, mechanisms,

and limitations of these testing methods are discussed in this chapter.

3.1 Fixed-Free Resonant Column Testing

The fixed-free resonant column torsional shear test (fixed-free RC) is a dynamic testing

method that can determine material nonlinear shear modulus (G) under different confinement

pressures and at very small to medium-level strains.

3.1.1 Background and Testing Mechanism

The resonant column method is based on a one-dimensional wave equation derived from

the theory of linear elastic vibration. For our testing, a fixed-free resonant column torsional shear

(fixed-free RCTS) testing device was used where both resonant column and torsional shear tests

can be preformed, but only fixed-free resonant column (fixed-free RC) mechanics was utilized.

In a fixed-free RC device, the soil column is fixed at the base and free to rotate at the top, and an

external cyclic torsional load is applied to the top of the specimen. During testing, the loading

frequency is gradually changed until maximum response (strain amplitude) is found. The lowest

43
frequency at which maximum strain amplitude is obtained is the fundamental frequency (n) of

the soil specimen and driving system for that specific applied torsional load. This fundamental

frequency is a function of soil modulus, specimen geometry, and characteristics of the resonant

column device.

3.1.2 Shear Modulus (G)

The governing equation of motion for the fixed-free resonant column test idealized in

Figure 3-1a for torsional vibration with a Kelvin-Voigt soil model is derived as follows. The

torque (T) applied to an elastic soil cylinder that generates an angle of twist (d) along an

incremental length of the specimen (dz) can be expressed as:

(3-1)

(a) (b)

Figure 3-1. Fixed-free RC: (a) idealized testing specimen and (b) differential soil element.

44
where G = shear modulus of the soil and J= polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area .

From Figure 3-1b, the torque on two faces of the soil element are T and T+ . Using the torque

(T) from Equation 3-1, we obtain:

(3-2)

Applying Newtons second law to the motion of the soil column and equating this net torque to

the product of the mass polar moment of inertia and the angular acceleration produces:

(3-3)

where I = mass moment of inertia= J dz and = soil mass density. From soil mass density ()

and shear wave velocity (Vs), shear modulus (G) can be calculated as:

G = Vs2 (3-4)

Substituting from Equation 3-3 and using Equation 3-4, we obtain the wave equation in

torsion for an elastic rod:

(3-5)

The general solution to Equation 3-5 is found using separation of variables as:

(z,t)= * (3-6)

where n=natural circular frequency and A and B = constants that depend on the boundary

conditions of the soil column. The boundary conditions in this fixed-free RC system are: 1) the

angular displacement at the bottom (fixed end) is zero, and 2) the torque at the top of the soil

specimen (free end) is equal but opposite of the inertia torque of the drive system. By solving

Equation 3-1 via substituting these known boundary equations, the resulting expression is:

45
 (3-7)

where I=mass moment of inertia of soil column, I0= mass moment of inertia of drive system, and

h=height of specimen. Once the shear wave velocity (Vs) is determined from Equation 3-7, shear

modulus (G) can be calculated from Equation 3-4.

3.1.3 Shear Strain ()

The shear strain in a cylindrical resonant column loaded in torsion varies from zero at the

center line of the specimen to a maximum value at its outer edge as shown in Figure 3-2. Since a

single or unique value of shear strain amplitude with the measured shear modulus (G) is

required, conventionally requ is assumed as 2/3 of r0 for solid specimens with radius r0. Shear

strain ( (r ) ) is then calculated as follows:

requ max
(r ) = (3-8)
h
2
where requ =equivalent radius of specimen= r0 r0 =radius of solid specimen, max =maximum
3 ,

x
angle of twist= rsensor =distance of target center (or fiber optic sensor) from specimens
rsensor ,

central axis, and x=radial displacement of target. The radial displacement is measured by a fiber

optic sensor system, which can measure strains in the range of 10-5% to 10-1%.

3.1.4 Equipment Setup

The fixed-free RC equipment consists of a Perspex cylindrical chamber with leakproof top

and bottom covering plates at the ends of the chamber (Figures 3-3 and 3-4). The bottom cap of

the specimen is attached firmly to the chambers bottom plate, and the top end of the specimen is

left free to rotate, establishing the fixed- and free-end boundary conditions. A torsional loading

motor is attached to the specimens top cap and includes a supporting system. A fiber optic

46
sensor target to measure radial displacements is also attached to top cap. This target extends out

from the top cap in a radial direction. The fiber optic sensor cable is attached to one of chamber

supporting rods and positioned facing the target. This sensor system measures the radial

displacements of the target produced by the torsional loading. Finally, the entire testing chamber

unit is fixed firmly to a loading frame for stability. Tests can be run and controlled through a

software program that sends control signals to the resonant column interface and servo amplifier

unit (Figure 3-5a), which controls the torsional loading motor and the amount of load to be

applied. Air confinement can be applied via a pressure control panel (Figure 3-5b). The fiber

optic sensor system (Figure 3-5c) sends target displacement information back to the controlling

software, which calculates the resonant frequency (n) and other test parameters (Figure 3-6).

Figure 3-2. Shear strain in soil specimen.

47
Figure 3-3. Fixed-free RC equipment.

Figure 3-4. Sectional view of fixed-free RC testing equipment.

48
 (a) (b)

(c)
Figure 3-5. Controlling units of fixed-free RC equipment: (a) resonant column interface unit and
servo amplifier unit, (b) pressure control panel, and (c) fiber optic sensor placed
facing the target attached to specimen.

49
Figure 3-6. Real-time test execution window showing resonant frequency and loading loop.

50
3.1.5 Calibration of the Drive System

When a torsional load is applied during testing, the torsional motor rotates the top

specimen cap along with the testing specimen. The weight of the cap and motor, combined with

the specimen weight, form the total weight of the testing system. To nullify the effects of the top

specimen cap and motor weight and to determine the properties of specimen alone, calibration of

driving system is required.

Calibration of the driving system is performed using a metallic specimen (Figure 3-7) that

is assumed to have zero or close to zero damping and a constant torsional stiffness (k). From

Newtons second law, the mass moment of inertia is related to the natural or resonant frequency

(n) as follows:

(3-9)

Figure 3-7. Calibration specimen with added mass.

51
The recommended procedure to find the mass moment of inertia of the driving system (I0) is to

perform two resonant column tests with the metal calibration specimen, one by itself and the

other with an added mass. After performing a frequency sweep with constant force amplitude to

find the resonant frequency, the solutions will be:

Without added mass: (3-10)

With added mass : (3-11)

where I0=mass moment of inertia of the drive system and any other fixture that will be used

during actual soil testing, Ical = mass moment of inertia of the calibration specimen, Imass = mass

moment of inertia of the added mass, 1 = resonant frequency of calibration specimen without

the added mass, and 2 = resonant frequency of calibration specimen with the added mass. By

combining Equations 3-10 and 3-11, we get:

(3-12)

3.1.6 Limitations Experienced with the Testing Equipment

The maximum frequency that can be applied using the torsional loading motor of the

fixed-free RC equipment is 300 Hz, thus only specimens with a resonant frequency less than 300

Hz can be tested with this equipment. Part of our testing program (explained in detail in Chapter

5) was to run tests on specimens compacted at optimum moisture content and then dried to

different moisture contents. However, after drying specimens to below certain moisture contents

(as explained in later chapters), the resonant frequency exceeded 300 Hz due to an increase in

modulus. As a result, we were able to determine material modulus down to limiting moisture

contents below the optimum moisture content (OMC), but not to a completely dry condition.

52
3.1.7 Equipment Credibility Verification

After installation, the equipment was subjected to verification to assess that the testing

measurements were crdeible. This verification was performed by conducting tests on Ottawa

sand, since experimental results determined for shear modulus are available in the literature, thus

our testing results can be compared with literature data for verification.

Verification tests were conducted on 4 inch diameter and 8 inch height Ottawa sand

specimen compacted to a minimum void ratio (emin) of 0.435. This compacted specimen was

subjected to six different confining pressures (c) of 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, and 300 kPa. Shear

modulus (G) at strain levels in the strain range of 10-4% to 10-1% were measured at each

confinement, and these results are shown in Figures 3-8 and 3-9.

Using the very small-strain modulus (Gmax) (i.e., G at = 10-4%) data at different confining

pressures, Gmax versus log(c) data was developed and is shown in Figure 3-9. From this plot, an

empirical relationship to calculate Gmax was developed in the form proposed by Hardin and

Richart (1963):

(2-5)

where AG and nG are material constants, F(e) = (2.17-e)2/ (1+e), and Gmax and c are in kPa.

From our testing data, we obtained:

nG=0.5165

e=0.435

F(e)=2.098

By substituting values of F(e) and nG in Equation 2-5, and solving it with the testing data,

an empirical equation to calculate Gmax was obtained:

(3-13)

53
Figure 3-8. Shear modulus versus shear strain curves at different confining pressures for Ottawa
sand.

Figure 3-9. Gmax versus log c relationship for Ottawa sand.

54
An nG= 0.5165 obtained from our testing matches well with the literature data for Ottawa sand

(Hardin and Richart, 1963; Menq, 2003). Also, the value of AG=5350 falls in the range of 3300

to 9000 for sands (Menq, 2003). Thus, by comparing Ottawa sand testing results with literature

data, our fixed-free RC equipment data appears to be credible.

3.2 Free-Free Resonant Column Testing (Free-Free RC)

Free-free RC testing method (Kim and Stokoe, 1992; Menq, 2003; Toros, 2008) was used

to determine very small-strain modulus (i.e., 10-5%) of Florida base materials at different

moisture contents. This test can be conducted very quickly on laboratory compacted specimens.

Further, the free-free RC test is nondestructive, and thus can be conducted on the same specimen

at different moisture contents by drying it as required.

3.2.1 Background and Mechanism

Two different types of stress wave measurements can be conducted on a solid rod with

free-free RC testing: 1) resonance measurements, and 2) direct-arrival measurement. With

known specimen dimensions and measured resonance frequency (n), Youngs modulus (E) can

be determined using Equations 3-14 and 3-15:

Vc = 2 n l (3-14)

E = Vc2 = (2 n l)2 (3-15)

where Vc = unconstrained compression wave velocity and l=length of specimen.

The travel time (t) of a constrained compression wave is determined via direct-arrival

measurement, from which constrained compression wave velocity (Vp) is calculated as:

(3-16)

55
where l=length of the specimen, and t = measured travel time of constrained compression

wave. With known constrained compression wave velocity (Vp) and unit mass of the specimen

(), constrained modulus (M) can be calculated as:

2
2
M = p = (3-17)
t

With known constrained and unconstrained wave velocities, Poissons ratio () can also be

calculated as:

2
p
2

2

2
p
2

1 + p 1 + 8 p 1
c c c c

ME = 2
(3-18)
p
4
c

Finally, with known Poissons ratio (), Youngs modulus (E), and constrained modulus (M),

shear modulus (G) can be calculated as:

E
G= (3-19)
2(1 + )

2 M M
G= (3-20)
2( 1)

For our free-free RC testing, we used the same equipment used by Toros (2008) to

measure very small-strain modulus of Florida base materials. Detailed background and

mechanism explanations about free-free RC testing and equipment verification are given in

Toros (2008).

3.2.2 Equipment Setup

Modified Proctor compacted specimens without any confinement of casing or membrane

are tested with this equipment. Following the testing procedure of Toros (2008), our free-free RC

testing system consists of a dynamic signal analyzer (DSA) or (oscilloscope), an instrumented

56
impact hammer, and an accelerometer (transducer). Specimens are oriented horizontally and

suspended with flexible straps to achieve free-free boundary conditions (Figure 3-10). The

excitation point with impact hammer is at the center of one end of the specimen, and the location

of the accelerometer is at the center of other end of the specimen. The accelerometer is glued to

the specimen.

The main difference between our testing procedure and Toros (2008) is confinement with

casing around the specimen (Figure 3-11). Toros (2008) tested 6 inch diameter and 12 inch

height specimens with plastic casing, whereas we tested 4 inch diameter and 8 inch height naked

specimens without any confining casing.

57
 (a) (b)

Figure 3-10. Free-free resonant column test equipment setup: (a) overall setup and (b) specimen
with transducer and instrumented impact hammer.

(a) (b)
Figure 3-11. Free-rree resonant column testing specimen: (a) without confinement casing and
(b) with confinement casing (from Toros, 2008).

58
 CHAPTER 4
MATERIALS AND SPECIMEN PREPARATION

In the State of Florida, limerock aggregates are commonly used for base layer construction.

For our testing, one limerock and one non-limerock material were selected: Newberry limerock

and Georgia graded aggregate. A detailed description about their source, particle size

distribution, basic parameters, and specimen preparation are given in this chapter.

4.1 Materials

4.1.1 Sources

Newberry limerock and Georgia granite graded aggregate base were selected for our

testing. Material sources for these two materials are given in Table 4-1.

Table 4-1. List of materials used for testing and their sources.
Material Mine Number/Source Type

Newberry limerock 26-002 Limerock

Newberry Quarry
Georgia granite GA-178 Granite
Graded Aggregate Base (GAB) Macon Quarry

Representative samples of these selected materials were collected by FDOT SMO (Florida

Department of Transportation State Materials Office) staff from sources identified in Table 4-1,

and following FDOT standard method, i.e., Florida Methods 1 (FM 1) T-002 that is similar to

AASHTO T2.

4.1.2 Characterization

The collected samples were transported in bags to the FDOT SMO laboratory for further

characterization and testing. Before testing, the transported sample bags were placed in a

thermostatically-controlled drying oven at a temperature of 110 F until the samples were friable.

59
After these oven dried samples cooled, sieve analysis and other basic parameter tests were

conducted. Representative samples of these two materials are shown in Figure 4-1.

Sieve analysis was performed following the procedures in AASHTO T27. The grain size

distribution for particles larger than the #200 sieve (i.e., 0.075 mm) is shown in Figure 4-2.

(a) (b)

Figure 4-1. Representative samples of (a) Georgia granite and (b) Newberry limerock.

Figure 4-2. Grain size distribution.

60
 The specific gravity of fine and coarse aggregates were performed following the

procedures FM 1 T-084 and T-085, which are similar to the AASHTO T084 and T085

procedures, respectively. Atterberg limits were determined following AASHTO T90 for plastic

limit and plasticity index and AASHTO T89 for liquid limit. These basic material parameters are

presented in Table 4-2.

Table 4-2. Basic material parameters.

Georgia Newberry
Parameter
granite limerock

Unified soil classification GW-GM GM

D50 (mm) - mean grain size 5 3
D10 (mm) - effective grain size 0.16 0.13
Cu- the coefficient of uniformity 50 61.5
Cc- the coefficient of curvature 1.76 0.15
G - specific gravity 2.74 2.72
Maximum dry density (kN/m3) (dry max) 22.08 18.21
Optimum moisture content (OMC) (%) 5.5 13
Void ratio at OMC (eOMC) 0.20 0.45
Plastic limit NP NP
Plasticity index NP NP
Liquid limit NP NP
where: Cu = D60 / D10, Cc = (D30)2/ (D60 D10)

4.2 Specimen Preparation and Installation

Fixed-free RC tests were conducted on both dry and wet (partially saturated) compacted

cylindrical specimens and free-free RC tests were conducted on wet compacted specimens. The 4

inch (10.16 cm) diameter by 8 inch (20.32 cm) height specimens were prepared following

standard methods for specimen preparation and detailed explanation is given in the following

sections.

Aggregate passing through the -inch sieve only was used for specimen preparation. After

oven drying the mine collected samples, aggregate that does not pass through -inch sieve was
61
separated and sent through a limerock crusher, so that all the aggregate is smaller than inch.

This crushed aggregate was mixed with uncrushed aggregate and the entire material was used for

specimen preparation satisfying the gradation requirements.

4.2.1. Dry Specimens

4.2.1.1 Dry Specimen Preparation

Dry specimens were used in fixed-free RC testing and were prepared at three different void

ratios for each material as presented in Table 4-3. The dry specimens were prepared using a split

mold and membrane. Initially, a split mold with membrane on the inner wall of the mold was

attached to the resonant column bottom cap (pedestal) (Figure 4-3a). Next, dry aggregate was

placed inside the split mold and compacted by dropping a loading hammer manually (Figure 4-

3b). The amount of energy required (i.e., weight of hammer, height of drop, and number of

layers) to compact the dry aggregate to obtain required void ratio was determined by trial and

error. Following compaction, to keep the specimen intact after removal of the split mold, vacuum

was applied through the bottom drainage line (Figure 4-3c).

Table 4-3. Selected void ratios for dry specimen testing.

Material Void Ratio (e)

1 (e OMC) 2 3

Newberry limerock 0.45 0.50 0.55

Georgia granite 0.20 0.25 0.29

4.2.1.2 Dry Specimen Installation

For dry specimens, after completing compaction, the top cap with vertical and horizontal

serrations was placed firmly to achieve proper contact grip between the soil and cap. Friction due

to the serrations on both the top and bottom caps provides a good grip and the entire soil column

rotates as a single integral unit when the torsional load is applied. After attaching the top cap and

62
loading motor, a confinement chamber was placed and the required air confinement was applied

through a pressure control panel (Figure 4-3d). Once the dry compacted specimen was stablized

by the externally applied air confinement, the vacuum line was disconnected.

4.2.2 Wet (Partially Saturated) Specimens

4.2.2.1 Wet Specimen Preparation

Wet specimens were compacted at optimum moisture content (OMC) using a modified

Proctor compactor (Figure 4-4a). Before compaction, the soil-water mixture was soaked for at

least 12 hours in a nylon-sheet-covered container (Figure 4-4b) to seek a uniform distribution of

water throughout the soil mixture. After soaking, the mixture was compacted in a standard size

mold used for making 4 inch diameter and 8 inch height specimens (Figure 4-4c). The number

of layers and the number of blows required for each layer were estimated based on ASTM

D1557, Test Method for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soils Using Modified Effort.

The specimens were compacted in six layers and 36 blows per layer, which meets the required

compaction effort of 2700 kN-m/m3 according to ASTM D1557. After extruding from the

compaction mold, the specimen was covered with a 0.012-inch thick rubber membrane and

allowed to sit for 12 hours in an air-tight container at room temperature before testing.

4.2.2.2 Wet Specimen Installation

For the wet OMC compacted specimens, the top and bottom caps were glued to the

specimen using Bondo. This glue material was selected such that it should not influence the

testing measurements (i.e., resonant frequency) and material properties. Next, the bottom cap of

the specimen was attached firmly to the chambers bottom plate, and the top end of the specimen

is left free to rotate. Finally, the torsional loading motor was attached to the top cap with the

supporting system .

63
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 4-3. Dry specimen compaction and installation: (a) split mold with membrane inside, (b)
split mold with dry compacted limerock, 9c) after application of vacuum, and (d)
after installation of chamber and external confinement application.

64
 (b)

(a) (c)

Figure 4-4. Wet specimen compaction: (a ) modified Proctor compactor with 4 inch diameter
and 8 inch height specimen mold, (b) soaked aggregate trays with nylon cover sheet,
and (c) compacted wet specimens of 4 inch diameter and 8 inch height.

65
 CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

The first objective of this research work was characterization of base soil modulus

nonlinearity with respect to confinement stress, loading strain and moisture content via

laboratory testing. To achieve this objective, fixed-free resonant column tests (fixed-free RC)

and free-free resonant column (free-free RC) tests were conducted on selected representative

base soils. Testing mechanisms and their background were explained in detail in Chapter 3. Base

soils selected for testing, their basic properties characterization, and specimen preparation

methods were explained in Chapter 4.

Fixed-free RC tests were conducted on both dry and unsaturated (wet) compacted

specimens of Newberry limerock and Georgia granite to determine shear modulus (G) under

different confinement pressures and at strain levels as small as 10-5% (very small-level strains)

and as high as 10-1% (medium level strains). Free-free RC tests were conducted on unsaturated

(wet) compacted specimens of Newberry limerock and Georgia granite to determine very small-

strain shear modulus (Gmax) under no confinement. Specimen testing conditions such as moisture

content, confinement pressure, and strain magnitude are explained in the following sections, and

experimental results are discussed and analyzed.

5.1 Fixed-Free Resonant Column Torsional Shear Testing

5.1.1 Dry Specimen Testing Results

Dry compacted specimens of Newberry limerock and Georgia granite were tested at three

different void ratios (Table 4-3) to investigate the effect of void ratio. A specimen at each void

ratio was subjected to four different confining pressures of 50, 100, 150, and 200 kPa to

investigate confinement effect. Shear modulus (G) versus shear strain () testing results for eOMC

66
(i.e., e=0.45 for Newberry limerock and e=0.20 for Georgia granite) are shown in Figures 5-1

and 5-2, and plots corresponding to the remaining two void ratios are presented in Appendix A.

Based on literature (Seed et al., 1986; Menq, 2003; and Atkinson, 2000) for dry gravels,

strains less than 10-4% are referred as very small-level strains and the corresponding shear

modulus is at its maximum (i.e., Gmax). Thus, by considering G value at = 10-5% as G max,

normalized shear modulus (G/Gmax) versus shear strain curves are developed and shown in

Figures 5-3 and 5-4.

From Figures 5-1 and 5-2, it can be observed that:

At constant confining pressure, modulus decreases with an increase in strain magnitude. At

constant strain magnitude, modulus increases with increases in confinement and the rate of
increase is maximum at very small-strain (i.e., 10-5%). Modulus is maximum (i.e., Gmax)
and elastic at strains lower than 10-4% and starts decreasing thereafter with an increase in
strain. Modulus decreases linearly in the strain range of 10-4% to 10-3% and nonlinearly
thereafter. Menq (2003) reported similar results for gravelly soils. Seed et al. (1986) and
Rollins et al. (1998) also observed that in gravelly soils G starts decreasing from 10-4%
strain with increase in strain magnitude.

Based on Ottawa sand testing results (Figure 3-7a) and literature database, the modulus of
sands are maximum and elastic at strains smaller than 10-3% and decrease thereafter with
an increase in strain. By comparing results of gravelly soils with sands, it can be concluded
that presence of gravel size aggregates increases nonlinearity in modulus reduction. This
agrees with the findings of Seed et al. (1986) and Menq (2003).

The difference in moduli at different confining pressures and for the same strain magnitude
decreases with an increase in strain. This indicates that the confinement effect on modulus
decreases with an increase in strain magnitude. At strains higher than 10-1% modulus does
not vary significantly with respect to either an increase in strain or an increase in
confinement. This observation indicates that at larger strains (i.e., 10-1% and higher)
pressure confinement and strain magnitude have no significant influence on moduli of
gravelly soils.

For both soils, modulus reduction curves at constant confinement are flatter for 50 kPa and
100 kPa compared to 150 kPa and 200 kPa. This behavior implies that nonlinearity of
modulus reduction increases with increases in confinement. Pestana and Salvati (2006)
reported similar behavior for Monterey sand.

67
Figure 5-1. Shear modulus (G) versus shear strain () curves for dry Newberry limerock at eOMC
(i.e., e = 0.45).

Figure 5-2. Shear modulus (G) versus shear strain () curves for dry Georgia granite at eOMC (i.e.,
e=0.20).
68
Figure 5-3. G/Gmax versus shear strain () curves at e = eOMC for Newberry limerock.

Figure 5-4. G/Gmax versus shear strain () curves at e = eOMC for Georgia granite.

69
 G/Gmax normalized curves for any confining pressure (Figures 5-3 and 5-4) are very

similar, indicating that rate of decrease in modulus with increase in strain does not depend on

confining pressure. In Figure 5-5, normalized data points for both materials lie well within the

maximum and minimum ranges of gravel soils reported by Seed et al. (1986). Lin et al. (2000)

(Figure 2-5) and Yasuda and Matsumoto (1993) (Figure 2-3) reported similar behavior for

gravelly soils. However, Rollins et al. (1998) reported that, G/Gmax versus curves are different

for different confinements and move from the low end of the data range towards the high end

with an increase in confinement (Figure 2-12). They also point out that the deviation between

various confinements are relatively small and use of a best-fit hyperbolic curve for any confining

pressure would not likely cause significant error.

Gmax values (G at 10-5% strain) at different void ratios (e) and different confining

pressures are plotted on a log-log plot of modulus versus confining pressure and shown in

Figures 5-6 and Figure 5-7. Empirical equations in the form of Equation 2-5 were derived for

each material by plotting a trend line for the set of Gmax values at different void ratios as shown

in Figure 5-8. The empirical equations for each material are as follows:

Newberry limerock: Gmax = (2575) F(e) (c)0.772 (5-1)

Georgia granite: Gmax = (816) F(e) (c)0.6638 (5-2)

where Gmax and c are in kPa. It is noted that shear modulus of Newberry limerock is

proportional to pressure confinement to the power of 0.702 while Georgia granite is proportional

to pressure confinement to the power of 0.6638. These values agree well with values report in

literature, i.e., in the range of 0.5-0.85 for gravel type soils (Menq, 2003). These equations can

be used to calculate Gmax of dry material under any confining pressure and void ratio (e).

70
Figure 5-5. Comparison of G/Gmax versus shear strain () data of Newberry limerock and Georgia
granite with Seed and Idriss (1986) maximum and minimum limits.

Figure 5-6. Gmax versus confining pressure for Newberry limerock at different void ratios.

71
Figure 5-7. Gmax versus confining pressure for Georgia granite at different void ratios.

Figure 5-8. Gmax empirical equations for Newberry limerock and Georgia granite.

72
5.1.2 Unsaturated (Wet) Specimen Testing Results

The primary goals of conducting fixed-free RC tests on unsaturated specimens is to

characterize modulus nonlinearity at different moisture contents and strain levels, and to evaluate

the suction effect due to drying on modulus. Based on previous research investigations

conducted by Toros (2008), very small-strain modulus (Gmax) of base course soils increases with

a decrease in moisture content. He dried OMC compacted specimens in different environments

and tested them at different moisture contents during the process of drying, starting from OMC

to nearly zero moisture content. Cho and Santamarina (2001) reported that specimen drying

simulates actual drying in real field conditions and makes the material stiffer compared to

compacting the specimen at required moisture content. Thus, the modulus of the material is

higher in case of dried specimen than in the case of compacted specimen at required moisture

content. Hence, to simulate actual field conditions for our testing, we achieved different moisture

contents by drying OMC compacted specimens.

For our testing program, 4-in. by 8-in. cylindrical specimens were compacted at OMC

using modified Proctor compaction. These OMC compacted specimens were allowed to dry in

laboratory environment (i.e., at room temperature) by leaving them without any membrane

cover. Specimens dried to different moisture contents in this method were tested to determine

modulus at different shear strain levels, from as low as 10-5% (very small-strain) and as high as

10-1% (medium to large strains).

5.1.2.1 Equipment Limitations

As previously explained in section 3.1.6, the stiffness capacity of the fixed-free resonant

column apparatus is reached at a resonant frequency of 300 Hz. Based on this limitation, the

specimen moisture contents that could be tested are given in Table 5-1.

73
Table 5-1. List of unsaturated specimen moisture contents.
Moisture
Void ratio Tested Degree of
content at
Material at OMC moisture saturation, Sr
saturation
(eOMC) content (%) (%)
(%)
13 78.6
Newberry 12 72.5
0.45 16.5
limerock 11 66.5
10 60.4
5.5 75.3
Georgia granite 0.2 7.3 4.5 61.7
3.5 48

5.1.2.2 Confinement Effect on Unsaturated Specimens

Similar to dry specimen testing, initially it was planned to test unsaturated specimens

under confinement pressures of zero (i.e., no confinement), 50, 100, 150, and 200 kPa. However,

for tests conducted on unsaturated specimens under confinement, no increase in modulus was

observed for an increase in confinement. This is explained by a buildup of pore pressure inside

the specimens, as the specimens could only be tested in an undrained condition due to limitations

with the testing apparatus. Thus, as an alternative, the modulus of unsaturated material under

actual confinement can be calculated approximately by an indirect method that is explained in a

later section of this chapter.

5.1.2.3 Results and Analysis

Shear modulus versus strain plots of unsaturated specimens tested at different moisture

contents under no confinement are shown in Figure 5-9 for Newberry limerock and in Figure 5-

10 for Georgia granite. The dry specimen testing curve corresponding to 50 kPa confining

pressure is also included for comparison purposes. From these plots it can be observed that:

74
Figure 5-9. Shear modulus (G) versus shear strain () curves for Newberry limerock at different
moisture contents.

Figure 5-10. Shear modulus (G) versus shear strain () curves for Georgia granite at different
moisture contents.

75
 At constant strain magnitude, modulus increases with a decrease in moisture content and is
maximum (i.e., Gmax) at very small-strain (i.e., 10-5%). G versus curves at different
moisture contents behave similar to the dry curves at different pressure confinements
presented in Figure 5-1 and Figure 5-2. Since the void ratio is the same for both dry and
wet specimens (i.e., @eOMC), the increase in G with decrease in moisture content is likely
due to an increase in effective confinement, i.e., suction or negative pore pressure.
Although no pore pressure measurements were obtained to prove the presence of suction,
research investigations by Wu et al. (1984), Qian et al. (1993), and Cho and Santamarina
(2001) report that a decrease in moisture content increases suction and thus additional
confinement. This phenomenon is also well explained in unsaturated soil mechanics (Lu
and Likos, 2004).

At different moisture contents, the difference in moduli at the same strain magnitude
decreases with an increase in strain, similar to dry soils. This implies that the suction
confinement effect decreases with an increase in strain.

G decreases at a faster rate with increase in in low-moisture-content specimens compared

to high-moisture-content specimens. This could be due to a failure of suction menisci at
lower strains in low moisture content specimens. Cho and Santamarina (2001), from their
microscale particle menisci studies, reported that the strain at menisci failure decreases
with a decrease in moisture content and small menisci may fail before the strain at peak
strength of soil. Hence, at low moisture contents, small suction menisci cause high small-
strain modulus and modulus decreases at a faster rate due to early menisci failure.

In a dry condition, shear modulus is maximum (i.e, Gmax) at 10-4% strain and decreases to
0.15 Gmax at 10-1% strain. Whereas in an unsaturated condition, shear modulus is maximum
at 10-5% strain and decreases to 0.075 Gmax at 10-1% strain. This implies that in unsaturated
gravelly soils, the presence of moisture increases nonlinearity in modulus reduction and
modulus starts decreasing from 10-5% strain. Menq (2003) observed this same behavior in
gravelly soils. An increase in modulus nonlinearity is probably due to a water lubrication
effect, which reduces inter particle frictional contact forces, allowing easier and
irreversible soil particle movement, even at strains lower than 10-4%.

Similar to dry specimens, in wet specimens at strains of 10-1% and higher the difference in
moduli at different moisture contents is very minimal. This implies that a suction
confinement effect on modulus becomes less significant at higher strains.

In case of Newberry limerock, Gmax at 13% (OMC) and 12% moisture contents is lower
than that of dry case at 50 kPa pressure confinement, which implies that additional
confinement due to suction is less than 50 kPa at 13% and 12% moisture content and
higher than 50 kPa at moisture content 11% and lower. Similarly, in case of Gerogia
Granite, Gmax at 5.5% (OMC) moisture content is almost equal to Gmax of dry soil at 50
kPa, which means at moisture contents lower than 5.5%, confinement due to suction is
greater than 50 kPa. Additional confinement provided due to suction is calculated and
corresponding results are shown in a later section.

76
 Normalized curves of G/Gmax versus logarithmic shear strain () for both dry and wet

specimens are shown in Figure 5-11 and Figure 5-12. From these plots, it can be observed that in

the case of dry specimens, normalized curves for any confining pressure are very similar. This

indicates that the rate of decrease in modulus with increase in strain does not depend on

confining pressure. In the case of unsaturated specimens, normalized curves for any moisture

content are also very similar. This indicates that the rate of decrease in modulus of unsaturated

specimens with an increase in strain does not depend on moisture content and its suction effect.

It is also observed that the normalized curves for unsaturated specimens are below those of dry

specimens, and this indicates that the rate of decrease in modulus with increase in strain is higher

in unsaturated soils and hence the modulus nonlinearity is higher in an unsaturated condition.

Based on microscale particle level studies of Cho and Santamarina (2001), higher modulus

nonlinearity in unsaturated specimens is due to early failure of small menisci at very small-level

strains. Menq (2003) observed the same difference in case of dry and partially saturated gravelly

soils behavior.

Shear modulus (G) normalized with shear modulus at OMC (GOMC) versus moisture

content plots for different strain levels are shown in Figures 5-13 and Figure 5-14. At any given

strain magnitude, the increase in G/GOMC with decrease in moisture content is approximately the

same. In other words, additional confinement provided due to the suction effect (various

magnitudes at different moisture contents) is not changing, i.e., it is the same at different strain

levels. It appears that, unsaturated material under additional confinement due to suction, behaves

similar to dry material under external constant confinement. Cho and Santamrina (2001) reported

in their particle level studies that menisci failure strains (=0.01 to 1) are higher than threshold

strains for sands. Since strain magnitudes are smaller than threshold strains, Cho and

77
Figure 5-11. G/Gmax versus shear strain curves for Newberry limerock for both dry and wet
specimens.

Figure 5-12. G/Gmax versus shear strain curves for Georgia granite for both dry and wet
specimens.

78
Figure 5-13. G/GOMC versus moisture content at different strain levels for Newberry limerock.

Figure 5-14. G/GOMC versus moisture content at different strain levels for Georgia granite.

79
Santamarinas findings support our observations that the suction effect remains the same

irrespective of strain magnitude. A further detailed particle study is required to analyze the strain

level effect on menisci failure and its suction effect.

5.1.2.4 Additional Confinement Pressure Due to Suction

By comparing dry and wet specimen testing results, the additional confinement pressure

provided by suction can be evaluated and a detailed procedure is explained below.

From dry specimen testing results, Equations 5-1 and 5-2 were derived to calculate Gmax

(i.e., G at =10-5%) of dry material at different confining pressures. At eOMC, Gmax for any chosen

confining pressure can be calculated using Equations 5-1 and 5-2. By substituting the unsaturated

specimen Gmax value obtained at a given moisture content into these equations, the confinement

pressure required to obtain the dry specimens Gmax can be calculated. Following this procedure,

the additional effective stress or confinement due to suction at different moisture contents or

degree of saturation was determined and are shown in Figures 5-15 and 5-16. It can be observed

that the increase in additional confinement for decreasing moisture content is much higher in

Georgia granite compared to Newberry lime rock. This is due to low eOMC and a higher reduction

in degree of saturation (Sr) in Georgia granite. For the same amount of reduction in moisture

content, in soils with low void ratio the degree of saturation reduces more rapidly than soils with

high void ratio. As the degree of saturation decreases faster, suction magnitude increases

proportionally faster and hence an increase in additional confinement at a faster rate.

5.2 Free-Free Resonant Column Testing

Free-free resonant column (free-free RC) tests were run on modified Proctor compacted

specimens of Newberry limerock and Georgia Granite under no confinement to measure very

small-strain Youngs modulus (E). OMC compacted specimens were placed in a laboratory

environment and tested at different moisture contents during drying, starting at OMC and down

80
Figure 5-15. Additional confinement provided due to suction at 10-5% strain at different moisture
contents.

Figure 5-16. Additional confinement provided due to suction at 10-5% strain at different degrees
of saturation.

81
to nearly zero. Toros (2008) conducted similar tests, but used a plastic cylindrical case around

the specimens that likely provides some confinement. Results are presented, compared, and

discussed in the following sections.

5.2.1 Results and Discussion

Free-free RC with no confinement test results for both Newberry lime rock and Georgia

granite are shown in Figures 5-17 and 5-18, respectively. These results show that in both

materials very small-strain Youngs modulus (Emax) increases with a decrease in moisture

content. These trends are similar to results reported by Toros (2008). Toros (2008) concluded

that the increase in modulus with decrease in moisture content is probably due to an increase in

additional confinement due to suction. Free-free results are compared with fixed-free RC test

results at very small-strain (i.e., 10-5%) and free-free RC results of Toros (2008) and presented

in Figures 5-19 and 5-20. It can be observed that:

Fixed-free RC moduli values at 10-5% strain are nearly equal to those of free-free RC
results at corresponding moisture contents. This implies that the strain magnitudes of free-
free RC testing are close to 10-5%. A close observation of these plots suggests that fixed-
free RC moduli values are slightly higher. This difference is possibly due to the weight of
motor and top specimen cap attached to specimen top in fixed-free RC testing, which
might provide some actual confinement, hence resulting in slightly higher moduli values
compared to free-free RC moduli values at no confinement.

At the same moisture content, the Toros (2008) free-free RC moduli values are higher than
our free-free RC moduli values. The materials and method of compaction were the same
for both tests with the only difference being the casing confinement. Our free-free RC tests
were run on specimens with no casing and Toros (2008) free-free RC tests were run on
specimens with plastic mold. Toros compacted specimens in plastic cylindrical molds and
tested specimens with the mold. These plastic cylinders might provide some confinement
around the side surface of the specimen, which might have resulted in higher moduli
values compared to that of specimens with no confinement.

82
Figure 5-17. Youngs modulus versus moisture content results from free-free RC test on
Newberry limerock.

Figure 5-18. Youngs modulus versus moisture content results from free-free RC test on Georgia
granite.

83
Figure 5-19. Comparison of Newberry limerock free-free RC test data with fixed-free RC at very
small-strain data and Toros (2008) data.

Figure 5-20. Comparison of Georgia granite free-free RC test data with fixed-free RC at very
small-strain data and Toros (2008) data.

84
5.2.2 Method to Estimate Approximate Modulus

Gmax of dry material can be determined via Equations 5-1 and 5-2, which were derived

based on dry material fixed-free RC testing results. By knowing Gmax at any moisture content

under no confinement (either from fixed-free RC or free-free RC) and substituting this value in

Equation 5-1 or 5-2, the additional effective stress provided due to suction can be calculated by

following the procedure explained in section 5.1.2.4. By adding this additional confinement

stress to the initial confinement where where an estimate of modulus is required, an approximate

Gmax value can be calculated via Equations 5-1 and 5-2. From Figures 5-11 and 5-12, it is

understood that G/Gmax versus strain curves behave similarly at any moisture content. Thus, after

calculating Gmax at a given confinement and moisture content using Equations 5-1 and 5-2, the

value of G/Gmax at a required strain level can be determined from Figures 5-11 and 5-12, from

which an approximate value of G can be calculated.

5.3 Closing Remarks

Gmax of dry Newberry limerock and dry Georgia Granite at eOMC and known confinement
can be determined using Equations 5-1and 5-2.

Shear modulus of dry gravelly soils is maximum and elastic at strains lower than 10-4%
and starts decreasing linearly in the strain range of 10-4% to 10-3% and nonlinearly
thereafter. The presence of gravel size aggregate makes modulus of gravelly soils more
nonlinear compared to sands.

In unsaturated gravelly soils, capillary suction confinement increases with a decrease in

moisture content and has significant effect on Gmax.

Shear modulus of unsaturated gravelly soils is maximum at 10-5% strain and decreases
thereafter with an increase in strain. The presence of moisture increases modulus
nonlinearity in unsaturated gravelly soils compared to dry gravelly soils.

In dry gravelly soils, the rate of decrease in G with an increase in strain is independent of
confinement pressure. In unsaturated gravelly soils, the rate of decrease in G with increase
in strain is independent of moisture content and its suction confinement.

In unsaturated gravelly soils, at any moisture content, the suction effect on G does not
change with an increase in strain.

85
 Strain magnitudes generated in free-free RC testing are approximately 10-5% and
corresponding moduli are nearly equal to very small-strain moduli obtained from fixed-
free RC testing.

At 10-5% strain, additional confinement due to suction can be as high as 900 kPa, which is
equivalent to 39 m of overburden pressure confinement. Since confinement due to suction
can influence soil modulus significantly, it is important to consider suction effects in
determination of base layer design modulus.

86
 CHAPTER 6
NONLINEAR FINITE ELEMENT MODELING OF BASE LAYER

One of the main objectives of this research study was to develop a nonlinear pavement

response model that can utilize the laboratory testing results presented in Chapter 5 and

incorporate base modulus nonlinearity with respect to effective stress confinement, loading

strain, and moisture content. The Plaxis Hardening Soil small model (Plaxis-HSsmall), a

nonlinear finite element model software was selected for our nonlinear analysis. A detailed

discussion of its features, suitability for our analysis, and analysis methodology are presented in

this chapter.

6.1 Plaxis-Hardening Soil-Small Model (Plaxis-HSsmall Model)

Plaxis is a special purpose two-dimensional finite element computer program used to

perform deformation and stability analysis for various types of geotechnical applications. Either

a plain strain or an axisymmetric model may model real situations.

HSsmall model is an elastoplastic type of hyperbolic model and incorporates strain

dependent stiffness moduli simulating the different reaction of soils to small strain (i.e., strains

below 10-3%) and large strains (i.e., strains above 10-1%). Soil modulus behaves elastic at very

small-strains (i.e., lower than 10-4%) and decreases nonlinearly with an increase in strain

amplitude. Figure 6-1 shows an example of a typical S-shaped soil modulus reduction curve.

The most frequently used hyperbolic model to estimate nonlinear modulus reduction in

soils (Figure 6-1), including both small and large strains, is the Hardin-Drnevich relationship:

(6-1)

where threshold strain is quantified as:

(6-2)

87
Figure 6-1. Characteristic modulus versus strain behavior of soil with typical strain ranges for
laboratory tests and structures (from Atkinson and Sallfors, 1991).

HSsmall uses a modified Hardin-Drnevich relationship proposed by Santos and Correia (2001):

(6-3)

where = 0.385 and 0.7 is the shear strain at G = 0.7 * Gmax. Figure 6-2 shows the fit of the

relationship (Equation 6-3) with Santos and Correia (2001) testing data. Therefore, two

parameters are needed to describe the modulus behavior at small strains:

The initial or very small-strain modulus Gmax

The shear strain level 0.7

Some additional basic characteristics of the HSsmall model include:

Stress-dependent stiffness according to a power law (input parameter m)

Plastic straining due to primary deviatoric loading (input parameter E50ref)

Plastic straining due to primary compression (input parameter Eoedref)

Elastic unloading/reloading (input parameters Eurref and ur)

Failure according to the Mohr-Coulomb model (iInput parameters c, and )

Nonlinear reduction of small-strain modulus (input parameters Gmax and 0.7)

88
Figure 6-2. Results from modified Hardin-Drnevich relationship compared to test data by Santos
and Correia (2001).

6.1.1 Parameters of HSsmall Model

The input parameters required for the HSsmall model are presented in Table 6-1. All

stiffness related parameters (i.e., Gmaxref, E50ref, Eoedref and Eurref) are defined at a particular

reference stress at which they are determined in laboratory testing. Based on the stiffness value

defined at a particular reference stress, Plaxis-HSsmall model calculates stiffness values at any

required stress for given conditions using the following equations:

(6-4)

(6-5)

(6-6)

(6-7)

89
Table 6-1. Input parameters of Plaxis-HSsmall model.
Failure parameters
c Cohesion
Angle of internal friction
Angle of dilatancy

Basic parameters for nonlinear small-strain stiffness

Gmaxref Initial or very small-strain modulus at reference stress
0.7 Shear strain level at which shear modulus G is reduced to 70% of Gmax

Basic parameters for soil stiffness

E50ref Secant stiffness in standard drained triaxial test
Eoedref Tangent stiffness for primary oedometer loading
Eurref Unloading /reloading stiffness (default Eurref = 3 E50ref)
m Power for stress-level dependency

Advanced parameters
ur Poissons ratio for unloading-reloading (default ur = 0.2)
pref Reference stress for stiffness
K0nc K0 -value for normal consolidation (default K0nc = 1-sin)
Rf Failure ratio qf/qa (default Rf = 0.9)
tension Tensile strength (default tesnsion = 0 stress units)
cincrement As-in Mohr-Coulomb model (default c incrememt = 0)

where 1 = vertical stress at which test was conducted and 3 = confining stress or minor

principal stress at which test was conducted. Based on parameter values for different soils found

in the literature (Benz, 2006 and Lehane et al., 2008), it can be approximated that Eur = Emax/3 =

Gmax 2 (1+)/3. The Plaxis-HSsmall model manual suggests E50 = Eoed = Eur/3 by default.

6.1.2 Compatibility of Plaxis-HSsmall Model Modulus Reduction

In order to use Plaxis-HSsmall model for Newberry limerock and Georgia granite, it was

necessary to check the compatibility between the HSsmall model nonlinear modulus reduction

curve and modulus reduction curves from our laboratory testing. For both materials, G/Gmax

90
versus /0.7 curves were developed following the Santos and Correia (2001) modified hyperbolic

curve (Equation 6-3), and comparisons are shown in Figure 6-3. It can be concluded that the

HSsmall model hyperbolic curve can be used to represent the nonlinear small-strain modulus

reduction behavior of Newberry limerock and Georgia granite.

Figure 6-3. Comparison of Newbery limerock and Georgia granite data with Santos and Correia
(2001) modified hyperbolic curve.

6.2 Flexible Pavement Nonlinear Response Model

The primary basis of our finite element model for flexible pavement is adapted from

MEPDG (2004), Appendix-RR (Finite Element Procedures for Flexible Pavement Analysis).

Some of the main features of MEPDG (2004) finite element model are:

Axisymmetric model

91
 Static single wheel load with 150 mm radius circular cross-sectional area and 550 kPa tire
contact stress

Vertical side boundaries are 10 to 12 radii from center of wheel load and horizontal
bottom boundaries are 50 radii below the top of surface layer

Linear elastic surface asphalt concrete (AC) layer and linear elastic subgrade layer

Nonlinear base layer

These MEPDG features were implemented for our pavement model and explained in detail in the

following sections.

6.2.1 Axisymmetric Model

An axisymmetric model with 15-node triangular elements was chosen for the pavement

modeling and a typical pavement cross-section and FE mesh is shown in Figure 6-4. The size of

the elements, i.e., fineness of mesh, was selected such that: 1) there is a smooth continuity of

resulting stresses and strains between two adjacent elements and 2) the time required for

processing is not too long. Since the surface AC layer and subgrade layer are considered elastic,

the fineness of mesh is critical for the base layer. Vertical side boundaries are at least 12 radii

(i.e., > 1.8 m) from load center and the bottom horizontal boundary is at least 50 radii (i.e., 7.5

m) below the top of AC layer. It was also eunsured that the location of boundaries has no

influence on the resulting deformations by checking that the deformations near boundaries are

either zero or almost zero. Vertical side boundaries were fixed horizontally and allowed to move

vertically. Horizontal boundaries were fixed both in the horizontal and vertical directions.

6.2.2 Pavement Cross-Sections

A total six different pavement cross-sections with different layer thicknesses were considered for

nonlinear analysis (Table 6-2 and Figure 6-5).

92
Figure 6-4a. Typical Plaxis-HSsmall model cross-section used for nonlinear analysis.

93
Figure 6-4b. Typical HSsmall model finite element mesh of a pavement cross-section.

6.2.3 Loading Conditions

A circular single wheel with 150 mm radius and 550 kPa of static contact stress was the only

loading condition considered for this analysis.

6.2.4 Input Parameters for Surface and Subgrade Layers of Flexible Pavement

Since the focus was on modulus nonlinearity of base layer, the AC surface and subgrade

were modeled as linear elastic, and we utilized the MEPDG finite element analysis for material

property selection. Three elastic moduli for AC and four elastic moduli for subgrade were chosen

for the analsis (Table 6-3).

94
Table 6-2. Pavement structures considered for analysis.
Asphalt Concrete Surface
Structure Number Base Thickness (mm)
Thickness (mm)

1 200 450
2 200 300
3 100 450
4 100 300
5 100 200
6 50 300

Table 6-3. Material input parameters for surface asphalt concrete and subgrade layers.
Elastic Modulus Poisson's ratio Unit weight
(MPa) () (kN/m3)
12500
Asphalt
3000 0.39 23
Concrete
1000
125
70
Subgrade 0.32 18
50
30

6.3 Initial Plaxis-HSsmall Pavement Model Runs and Recalibration

Before conducting pavement response analyses via a nonlinear response model, it was

desirable to check the model applicability and accuracy by comparing against known in situ

measured pavement results. However, we found that no such data exists in conjunction with

nonlinear base material properties. We did find that in situ measured results were available from

Perth footing field studies conducted by Lehane et al. (2008) and these results were selected for

our model verification. Lehane et al. (2008) conducted load tests on four footings built in Perth

sand and made in situ measurement of actual settlements for each footing. Comparison of

95
settlements obtained from their in situ measurements and settlement predictions from HSsmall

model for footing 1 was utilized for our verification.

Structure-1 Structure-2
200 mm (8)
AC AC 200 mm (8)

Base Base
450 mm (18) 300 mm (12)

Subgrade
Subgrade
(a)

Structure-3 Structure-4
100 mm (4) 100 mm (4)
AC AC
450 mm (18)
Base Base 300 mm (12)
Subgrade
Subgrade
(c) (d)

Structure-5 Structure-6
50 mm (2)
AC 100 mm (4)
Base 200 mm (8) Base 300 mm (12)
Subgrade Subgrade

Note: AC = Asphalt Concrete

Figure 6-5. Cross-sections considered for nonlinear base pavement analysis.

96
6.3.1 Footing Model Analysis and Verification

Similar to Lehanes finite element model, a footing 1 (1.5 m1.5 m1 m) nonlinear

response model was developed via Plaxis-HSsmall model (Figure 6-6). The material properties

used by Lehane were used for our model (Table 6-4), and the footing model was subjected to

loads similar to actual field test loads. The settlement predictions are compared with actual

measured settlements in Figure 6-7a. This initial nonlinear analysis comparison revealed that the

HSsmall model is soft and predictions are overestimated. Lehane et al. (2008) reported similar

observations. Thus, we decided to recalibrate the Plaxis model by equating the model and field

results.

Figure 6-6. Finite element mesh used for model recalibration analysis (footing 1 from Lehane et
al., 2008).

6.3.2 Model Recalibration

From Section 6.1.1, it is understood that Gmaxref and 0.7 are the basic model input

parameters for HSsmall model should be determined from laboratory testing. Other stiffness

parameters, i.e., E50ref, Eoedref, Eurref and m, are useful in analysis at larger strains. Plaxis

recommends using default values for these stiffness parameters that are calculated from Gmaxref,

0.7 and Possions ratio ().

97
Table 6-4. Input parameters for footing settlement predictions (from Lehane et al. 2008).
Parameter Unit Value
kN/m3 18
P ref kPa 100
E50ref MPa 20
Eoedref MPa 20
Eurref MPa 45
G0ref MPa 160
m 0.5
c kPa 1
35 o
0
ur 0.2
0.7 2.50E-05

One possible to way to recalibrate our response model was to modify these input

parameters such that actual footing settlements were equal to model predicted settlements. Since

Gmaxref, 0.7 and m were determined from our laboratory testing, these parameters were utilized

directly. Alternatively, it was decided to modify the remaining non-measured stiffness

parameters, i.e., E50ref, Eoedref and Eurref, to recalibrate the response model. These non-measured

stiffness parameters were modified by trial and error to achieve an equivalence between model

and actual settlements. Following this adjustment, the recalibrated parameters shown in Table 6-

5 are compared with the original parameters, and a comparison of settlement prediction after

recalibration is shown in Figure 6-7b.

6.4 Recalibrated Nonlinear Input Parameters

Based on recalibration carried out in Section 6.3.2, input parameters for materials used in

our analysis were modified accordingly and the details are discussed in the following paragraphs.

98
Figure 6-7a. Comparison of actual settlements with settlements predicted using suggested
parameters and Plaxis-HSsmall footing model.

Figure 6-7b. Comparison of actual settlements with settlements predicted using recalibrated
parameters and Plaxis-HSsmall footing model.

99
Table 6-5. Comparison of suggested and modified material parameters.
Suggested Modified Values
Stiffness Parameter
Values Through Calibration
The initial or very small-strain
Gmax Gmax
modulus at reference stress
Secant stiffness in standard drained
E50 Eur/3
triaxial test

Tangent stiffness for primary

Eoedref Eur/3
oedometer loading

Unloading /reloading stiffness *

Eur 0.85 Emax
(default Eurref = 3 E50ref)
Note: * Emax = 2 (1+)Gmax

6.4.1 Recalibrated Parameters of Newberry Limerock and Georgia Granite

The recalibrated input parameters for Newberry limerock and Georgia granite are

presented in Tables 6-6 and Table 6-7, respectively. As explained in Chapters 3 and 4,

compacted unsaturated specimens of Newberry limerock and Georgia granite were tested at

different moisture contents under no confinement. Thus, the reference stress (pref) for model

input was specified as a very low value of 1 kPa (zero is not a possible input). The value of m

indicates the stiffness dependence on stress, and was obtained from testing results of the dry

material (Figure 5-6). Gmax was obtained from fixed-free RC tests conducted on Newberry

limerock at 13, 12, 11, and 10% moisture contents; Gmax for moisture contents lower than 10%

were obtained from free-free RC test results. The Gmax values for Georgia granite were all

obtainted from fixed-free RC tests.

100
Table 6-6. Recalibrated HSsmall input parameters for Newberry limerock.
Newberry limerock
Moisture
13 12 11 10 8 5.5
content (%)
Gmax (MPa) 47.38 84.48 190.3 221.39 449.61 906.536
0.7 5.E-06 5.E-06 5.E-06 5.E-06 5.E-06 5.E-06
P ref (kPa) 1 1 1 1 1 1
Emax (MPa) 132.66 234.85 525.23 606.61 1227.44 2465.78
Eur (MPa) 112.76 199.63 446.44 515.62 1043.32 2095.91
Eoed (MPa) 56.38 99.81 223.22 257.81 521.66 1047.96
E50 (MPa) 56.38 99.81 223.22 257.81 521.66 1047.96
m 0.702 0.702 0.702 0.702 0.702 0.702
(kN/m3) 21.42 20.45 20.2 20 19.64 18.95
0.4 0.39 0.38 0.37 0.365 0.36

Table 6-7. Recalibrated HSsmall input parameters for Georgia granite.

Georgia granite
Moisture content (%)
5.5 4.5 3.5
Gmax (MPa) 46.67 162.65 238.22
0.7 5.E-06 5.E-06 5.E-06
P ref (kPa) 1 1 1
Emax (MPa) 133.48 455.42 657.49
Eur (MPa) 113.45 387.11 558.86
Eoed (MPa) 56.73 193.55 279.43
E50 (MPa) 56.73 193.55 279.43
m 0.6389 0.6389 0.6389
(kN/m3) 21.42 20.45 20.2
0.43 0.4 0.38

101
6.4.2 Input Parameters for Miami Limerock

Miami limerock is another base layer material commonly used in the State of Florida.

Studies by Toros (2008) on Miami limerock reported that its modulus behavior is relatively

different from other limerocks available in Florida and increases tremendously with drying

compared to other limerocks. Therefore, it was decided to also perform nonlinear model analysis

on Miami limerock.

Since fixed-free resonant column tests were not conducted on Miami limerock, Gmax versus

moisture content curves from free-free RC testing results of Toros (2008) were utilized herein.

These results were adjusted for an assumed influence of casing confinement to produce

approximate free-free test moduli values for Miami limerock with no casing confinement (Figure

6-8). HS-Small model parameters were then developed and are reported in Table 6-8.

Figure 6-8. Gmax versus moisture content for Miami limerock.

102
Table 6-8. Recalibrated HSsmall input parameters for Miami limerock.
Miami limerock
Moisture content (%) 8 6 4

Gmax (MPa) 12.22 226.95 1286.8

0.7 5.E-06 5.E-06 5.E-06
P ref (kPa) 1 1 1
Emax (MPa) 35.19 640.00 3500.10
Eur (MPa) 29.91 544.00 2975.08
Eoed (MPa) 14.96 272.00 1487.54
E50 (MPa) 14.96 272.00 1487.54
m 0.702 0.702 0.702
(kN/m3) 21.42 20.45 20.2
0.44 0.41 0.36

6.5 Demonstration of Response Model Nonlinear Behavior

One of the main objectives of developing this response model and recalibrated material

parameters was to incorporate both stress-dependent and strain-dependent modulus nonlinearity

in base layer nonlinear analysis.

6.5.1 Demonstration of Input Parameter Nonlinearity

For nonlinear soils, deformations or strains should increase nonlinearly with an increase in

load. This nonlinearity is demonstrated in Figure 6-9 for the footing 1 model discussed above

using Newberry limerock HSsmall parameters at 10% moisture content.

6.5.2 Demonstration of Pavement Model Nonlinearity

As a further demonstation of nonlinearity, the pavement model shown in Figure 6-4a was

subjected to different wheel loads via a change in contact pressure from 350 to 800 kPa. Surface

deflection profiles obtained from this analysis are plotted in Figure 6-10. The deflection basins

vary nonlinearly with load, which demonstrates the nonlinearity of the pavement model.

103
Figure 6-9. Load versus settlement curve to demonstrate material input parameters nonlinearity.

Figure 6-10. Pavement surface deflection basins for different loads demonstrating pavement
model nonlinearity.

104
 CHAPTER 7
BASE LAYER NONLINEAR MODELING RESULTS

Characterization of modulus nonlinearity of base soils via a laboratory testing program was

discussed in Chapter 5. Using these laboratory test results, a nonlinear response model for

pavement analysis was developed via Plaxis. Model development, model characteristics and

calibration, pavement cross-sections proposed for analysis, material parameters, and verification

and demonstration of model nonlinearity are presented in Chapter 6. With a nonlinear model

now available, the next objective was to develop a methodology to calculate an effective, linear

elastic modulus for the whole base layer that can approximate known nonlinearities and can be

used for MEPDG Level 2 and Level 3 design inputs for practical design applications. Effective

modulus determination and the influence of moisture content, subgrade modulus, and overall

structural cross-section on effective modulus are discussed in this chapter.

7.1 Effective Base Modulus Determination

7.1.1 Methodology

To derive an effective elastic modulus value for a base layer, it is proposed to use

pavement surface deflection as the single matching criterion between a nonlinear and a linear

analysis. For nonlinear analysis, both AC surface and subgrade layers are considered linear and

the base layer is considered nonlinear. Using the maximum surface deflection obtained from a

nonlinear analysis as the criterion, an equivalent, linear elastic modulus value for the whole base

layer is determined by trial and error. Once the effective base modulus is determined, pavement

responses obtained at critical locations (Figure 7-1) for both linear and nonlinear cases can be

compared to examine the influence of the simplification.

105
 1 AC Surface 2

3 Base 4

5 Subgrade

Figure 7-1. Critical locations for pavement response analysis (1=top of AC surface layer,
2=bottom of AC surface layer, 3=top of base layer, 4=bottom of base layer, and 5=top
of subgrade layer).

Figure 7-2. Surface deflection basin comparison for nonlinear and linear cases.

7.1.2 Surface Deflection Matching

To illustrate via an example, nonlinear analysis via the Plaxis-HSsmall nonlinear pavement

response model (Chapter 6) was performed on Structure 1 (Figure 6-5) with the base layer at

10% moisture content. The AC surface layer and subgrade layer were considered elastic with

moduli of 1000 MPa and 50 MPa, respectively. From the nonlinear analysis a maximum surface

106
deflection of 0.582 mm was obtained under a wheel load of 550 kPa. Keeping the elastic moduli

of the surface and subgrade layers the same, an effective modulus for the base layer was

determined by trial and error using a linear analysis for the base layer and producing the same

maximum surface deflection of 0.582 mm. For this case, the surface deflection basins for the

nonlinear and linear models are plotted in Figure 7-2 where it is observed that the entire surface

deflection basins are in good agreement.

7.1.3 Nonlinear Reduction of Effective Modulus with Increase in Load

In mechanics, it is well known that the modulus of a particulate material decreases

nonlinearly with an increase in strain or load. One of the main objectives of our research work

was to incorporate this modulus nonlinearity in pavement design. Hence, it is of interest to

demonstrate that the effective modulus of a base layer decreases nonlinearly with an increase in

load. The results of such a demonstration are shown Figures 7-3 and 7-4. The analyses were

performed for Structure 1 and Structure 4 using Newberry limerock base at 13% and 10%

moisture contents and Georgia granite base at 5.5% and 3.5% moisture contents. The moduli of

the AC surface layer and subgrade layer were 1000 MPa and 50 MPa, respectively. The effective

base modulus at each load level was determined using the procedure described above. It is

clearly observed that the effective base modulus decreases nonlinearly with an increase in load.

It is also observed that the modulus nonlinearity increases with a decrease in moisture content.

7.2 Effective Design Moduli

7.2.1 Effective Moduli Data

Nonlinear analyses were conducted viathe Plaxis-HSsmall response model on six different

pavement structures presented in Figure 6-5 and using material parameters listed in Tables 6-6,

6-7, and 6-8 for Newberry limerock, Georgia granite, and Miami limerock. The AC surface layer

was considered elastic with a modulus of 1000 MPa. Elastic modulus values presented in Table

107
Figure 7-3. Nonlinear variation of effective modulus with increase in load for Newberry
limerock base at 13% and 10% moisture contents.

Figure 7-4. Nonlinear variation of effective modulus with increase in load for Georgia granite
base at 5.5% and 3.5% moisture contents.

108
6-3 were assigned to subgrade layer to analyze the effect of subgrade on base layer effective

modulus. The methodology described in section 7.1.1 was followed to determine the effective

design moduli presented in Tables 7-1 to 7-3.

Table 7-1. Effective moduli (in MPa) for different pavement structures and subgrade moduli for
Newberry limerock base.

Subgrade Moisture Content (%)

Modulus Structure
13 12 11 10 8 5.5
(MPa)
1 65 79 112 118 142 171
2 58 70 92 94 118 139
30
3 54 67 90 101 108 130
4 49 60 69 70 76 78
1 79 102 140 153 196 230
2 74 92 120 125 155 178
3 66 89 112 124 148 168
50
4 62 80 108 112 123 132
5 73 --- 100 --- --- 102
6 76 --- 90 --- --- 107
1 90 117 170 175 230 267
2 85 109 143 149 184 207
70
3 73 100 135 142 195 205
4 71 96 129 135 139 144
1 108 157 227 241 310 387
2 107 147 210 220 278 308
3 93 141 214 220 281 311
125
4 84 127 196 206 228 240
5 105 --- 189 --- --- 209
6 103 --- 180 --- --- 187

Table 7-1 presents effective moduli values for Newberry limerock, Table 7-2 for Georgia

granite, and Table 7-3 for Miami limerock. Following the procedure explained in section 5.2.2

and using Equations 5-1 and 5-2, maximum Youngs modulus (Emax) values of base soil were

calculated at the middle depth of base layer. Effective moduli values, corresponding Emax, and the

ratio of effective to maximum modulus (i.e., E/Emax) are presented in Appendix B. It can be

109
observed that E/Emax decreases with a decrease in moisture content, which indicates that modulus

nonlinearity increases with a decrease in moisture content.

Table 7-2. Effective moduli (in MPa) for different pavement structures and subgrade moduli for
Georgia granite base.

Moisture Content (%)

Subgrade
Structure
Modulus (MPa) 5.5 4.5 3.5
1 63 104 117
2 56 94 104
30
3 54 88 100
4 46 74 75
1 76 135 152
2 70 112 124
50
3 66 115 119
4 60 100 106
1 86 155 178
2 82 135 150
70
3 73 133 162
4 67 123 137
1 112 210 243
2 105 195 220
125
3 90 207 220
4 84 184 220

Table 7-3. Effective moduli (in MPa) for different pavement structures and subgrade moduli for
for Miami limerock base.

Moisture Content (%)

Subgrade
Structure
Modulus (MPa) 8 6 4
1 30 168 337
50
4 6 54 159
1 31 260 545
125
4 7 122 320

110
7.2.1.1 Influence of Moisture Content on Effective Modulus

For Structures 1 to 6 and at constant subgrade modulus, the variation of effective modulus

with decreasing moisture content is shown in Figures 7-5, 7-6, and 7-7 for Newberry limerock,

Georgia granite, and Miami limerock, respectively. From these plots it can be observed that

effective base modulus increases significantly with decreasing moisture content similar to our

laboratory test results. Among the three base materials, Miami limerock base has the highest

effective modulus values. From the laboratory testing results, it is observed that the increase in

small-strain modulus due to suction also is highest for Miami limerock.

7.2.1.2 Influence of Subgrade Modulus on Effective Modulus

From the column plots in Figures 7-5, 7-6, and 7-7 it can be observed that for any given

structure and base moisture content, the effective base modulus increases with an increase in

subgrade modulus. This behavior can be explained by fundamentals of pavement mechanics.

Pavement deformation is mainly dependent on subgrade modulus and deformation decreases

with an increase in subgrade modulus. As the subgrade modulus increases,the magnitude of the

deviatoric stresses acting on the base layer decreases. Since base soil modulus is nonlinear and

increases with a decrease in deviatoric stress (or shear strain), the base layer effective modulus

increases with an increase in subgrade modulus.

7.2.1.3 Influence of Structure Type on Effective Modulus

The variation of effective modulus for different pavement structures and subgrade moduli

is shown in Figures 7-8, 7-9, and 7-10 for Newberry limerock, Georgia granite, and Miami

limerock, respectively. It can be observed, at any given moisture content and subgrade modulus

combination, the effective modulus is dependent on structure type, i.e., layer thicknesses. As the

layer thicknesses vary, the magnitude of the deviatoric stress transferred from the top to bottom

111
 a b

c d

e f

Figure 7-5. Newberry limerock effective base modulus versus subgrade modulus relationship for
different moisture contents and structures: (a) Structure 1, (b) Structure 2, (c)
Structure 3, (d) Structure 4, (e) Structure 5, and (f) Structure 6.

112
 a b

c d

Figure 7-6. Gerogia granite effective base modulus versus subgrade modulus for different
moisture contents and structures: (a) Structure 1, (b) Structure 2, (c) Structure 3, and
(d) Structure 4.

113
 a

Figure 7-7. Miami limerock effective base modulus versus subgrade modulus for different
moisture contents and structures: (a) Structure 1and (b) Structure 4.

114
 a b

c d

e f

Figure 7-8. Newberry limerock effective base modulus versus subgrade modulus for different
structures and at constant moisture contents of: (a) 13%, (b) 12%, (c) 11%, (d) 10%,
(e) 8%, and (f) 5.5%.

115
 a

Figure 7-9. Georgia granite effective base modulus versus subgrade modulus for different
structures and at constant moisture contents of: (a) 5.5%, (b) 4.5%, and (c) 3.5%.

116
 a

Figure 7-10. Miami limerock effective base modulus versus subgrade modulus for different
structures and at constant moisture contents of: (a) 8%, (b) 6%, and (c) 4%.

117
layers also varies. Usually, as the thickness of a layer increases, the deviatoric stress transferred

to the layer beneath it decreases, and the corresponding modulus increases.

7.2.1.4 Comparison of Effective Design Moduli for Different Materials

Effective design moduli obtained at 8% moisture content for Newberry limerock, 3.5% for

Georgia granite, and 4% for Miami limerock are compared with modulus values at their

respective optimum moisture contents (OMC) in Figure 7-11. These plots provide insight on the

effect that drying has on the effective modulus of each material. It is observed that Miami

limerock behaves very differently as its effective modulus increases at a much faster rate as the

material dries out. At OMC, the effective modulus of Miami limerock is much lower than that of

Newberry limerock and Georgia granite, but as the material dries out, its modulus increases

significantly faster compared to the other two materials.

To further compare the three materials, normalized effective base moduli obtained at

different base moisture contents are compared in Figure 7-12a for Structure 1 and Figure 7-12b

for Structure 4. Each plot contains results for subgrade moduli of 50 MPa and 125 MPa. The

effective modulus (E) at each moisture content is normalized with the effective modulus at

optimum moisture content (Eopt), and the normalized modulus is plotted versus the reduction in

degree of saturation due to drying from optimum moisture content. Again, it is observed that the

Newberry limerock and Georgia granite exhibit similar behavior whereas the Miami limerock

displays a much faster rate of increase in modulus upon drying. Toros (2008) also observed very

significant increases in Emax of Miami limerock as the material dries out as compared to

Newberry limerock and Georgia granite.

7.2.1.5 MEPDG Moisture Effect Model

The MEPDG (2004) recommends the following generalized regression model to predict

the influence of moisture on resilient modulus (MR):

118
 a

Figure 7-11. Comparsion of effetive moduli of all three materials at different base moisture
contents and twosubgrade moduli for: (a) Structure1 and (b) Structure 4.

119
 a

Figure 7-12. Comparsion of normalized effetive moduli of all three materials with subgrade
moduli of 50 MPa and 125 MPa and for: (a) Structure 1and (b) Structure 4.

120
 (7-1)

For coarse grains soils a=-0.3123, b=0.3, =-0.0401, and ks=6.8157. It is of interest to determine

if the MEPDG model can accurately estimate the modulus of Florida base materials by

comparing model predictions with the effective moduli values previously presented in Tables 7-

1, 7-2, and 7-3. Figures 7-13, 7-14, and 7-15 compare MEPDG modulus predictions with

effective moduli for Newberry limerock, Georgia granite, and Miami limerock, respectively, and

for selected pavement structures and subgrade moduli shown in the legend. The moduli are

shown normalized using the modulus at optimum moisture content (Eopt or MR opt), and the results

are plotted versus the reduction in degree of saturation due to drying from optimum moisture

content. It is observed that the modulus value from the MEPDG model can increase up to two

times upon drying from optimum moisture content whereas the effective moduli values for our

materials all experience a larger increase. In the case of Miami limerock the increase can be as

much as 45 times over the range of moisture contents evaluated by our analyses. In general, for

structures with low subgrade modulus (50 MPa), effective moduli are near the MEPDG model

values. However, as the subgrade modulus increases, E/Eopt values are much higher than those

from the MEPDG model, and up to 3.5 times for Newberry limerock, 2.5 times for Georgia

granite, and 47 times for Miami limerock. From these observations it can be concluded that the

MEPDG model does not well represent the moisture/suction effect for Florida base materials.

Use of the MEPDG model would be a conservative estimate at best.

121
Figure 7-13. Comparison of Newberry limerock effective base moduli with MEPDG model.

122
Figure 7-14. Comparison of Georgia granite effective base moduli with MEPDG model.

123
Figure 7-15. Comparison of Miami limerock effective base moduli with MEPDG model.

124
 7.3 Comparison of Nonlinear and Equivalent Linear Responses

A methodology to determine an effective design modulus for a base layer was developed

by equating maximum surface deflection between a nonlinear and linear response analysis. It

was also demonstated that the complete surface deflection basin generated from a nonlinear

analysis and a corresponding equivalent linear analysis match well. As a next step, it is of

interest to compare other pavement responses generated from the nonlinear and equivalent linear

analysis models to more fully assess the applicability of the effective modulus in lieu of a

nonlinear analysis. For this purpose, pavement responses at critical locations obtained from

nonlinear and corresponding equivalent linear analysis are compared.

Responses obtained from nonlinear and corresponding equivalent linear analyses at several

locations within a pavement structure (Figure 7-1) were as follows:

Surface deflection

Horizontal stress (xx) and strain (xx) at top of AC layer

Horizontal stress (xx) and strain (xx) at bottom of AC layer

Vertical stress ( yy) and strain (yy) at top of base layer

Vertical stress ( yy) and strain (yy) at bottom of base layer

Vertical stress ( yy) and strain (yy) at top of subgrade layer

The basis for selecting these responses for comparison is found in the fundamentals of

pavement mechanics. Surface cracking and rutting are two important distresses that occur in

pavement structures. Surface cracking is primarily dependent on the horizontal strain (xx) at the

bottom of AC layer, and rutting is dependent on vertical strain (yy) at the top of subgrade layer.

Comparison of these two responses for nonlinear and linear analyses can illustrate whether

adopting an effective modulus in place of nonlinear analysis would influence the rutting and

125
cracking performance of a pavement. Surface deflection was chosen as the criterion of

equivalency between the nonlinear and equivalent linear analysis and a comparison will illustrate

the accuracy of the match. The remaining stress and strain responses provide further information

regarding how well the stresses and strains at different layer intersections agree between the

nonlinear and equivalent linear analyses.

A complete demonstration of pavement responses obtained from nonlinear and equivalent

linear analysis of selected pavement structures (Table 7-4) with an AC surface modulus of 1000

MPa, a subgrade modulus of 50 MPa, and base materials at specified moisture contents are

presented in Appendix C. Because it is particuraly important, the horizontal strain (xx) at the

bottom of AC layer of Structure 1 and Structure 4 with different base moisture contents is

compared in Figure 7-16a for Newberry limerock and Figure 7-16b for Georgia granite.

Similarly, the vertical strain (yy) at the top of subgrade layer is shown in Figure 7-17a for

Newberry limerock and Figure 7-17b for Georgia granite.

Table 7-4. List of pavement structures analyzed for response comparisons.

Moisture
Type of
Base Material Content
Structure
(%)
13
Newberry 10
1 and 4
limerock 8
5.5
5.5
Georgia granite 1 and 4
3.5

From the surface deflection plots (Figures C-1 to C-8 for Newberry limerock and Figures

C-89 to C-92 for Georgia granite), it can be observed that the surface deflection profiles for

nonlinear and equivalent linear analyses match well. This demonstates that the procedure for

126
determining an effective modulus based upon matching the maximum surface deflection also

results in a more general matching of the complete surface deflection profile.

From the comparison plots of horizontal tensile strain (xx) at bottom of AC layer (Figure

7-16), it can be observed that the nonlinear analysis and the equivalent linear case with an

effective base modulus produce similar results. This suggests that an equivalent linear analysis

can produce an accurate prediction of pavement response in the AC surface layer. This may also

suggest that the cracking performance of a flexible pavementcan be reasonably assessed via a

linear elastic analysis of the pavement so long as appropriate effective elastic moduli are chosen

for the analysis.

Comparison plots of vertical strain (yy) at the top of subgrade for nonlinear and equivalent

linear cases are compared in Figure 7-17. In the case of Structure 1 and for both materials at

different moisture contents, it can be observed that the nonlinear analysis and the equivalent

linear case with an effective base modulus produce similar results. In the case of Structure 4, the

top of subgrade strains from the nonlinear analysis are higher than the corresponding equivalent

linear analysis, and this difference increases with a decrease in moisture content. This suggests

that the base material nonlinearity becomes more important with a decrease in moisture content.

Since structre 4 is thinner than Structure 1, this also suggests that material nonlinearity increases

as the structure thickness decreases, which should be expected. Thus, as the base nonlinearity

increases with a decrease in structure thickness or a decrease in base layer moisture content, an

effective elastic modulus based upon matching surface deflection should be used with caution.

According to pavement mechanics, vertical strain at the top of subgrade is a strong indicator of

rutting performance. Thus, the differences in strain might suggest that a linear elastic analysis

would overestimate rutting performance. However, this could only be demonstrated by

127
comparing a rutting performance analysis conducted via a suitably-calibrated nonlinear model

with a similar model based upon a linear elastic analysis. Such a comparision is beyond the

scope of this investigation. Finally, it should also be noted that the differences in strain found in

these comparisons are probably accentuated due to the choice of a relatively soft subgrade

modulus of 50 MPa. A softer subgrade is expected to increase the nonlinear behavior similar to

the effect of decreasing the structure thickness.

128
Figure 7-16. Comaprision of horizontal tensile strain at bottom of AC layer for Structure 1 and
Structure 4 and for different base moisture contents: (a) Newberry limerock and (b)
Georgia granite.

129
 a

Figure 7-17. Comaprision of vertical compressive strain at top of subgrade for Structure 1 and
Structure 4 and for different base moisture contents: (a) Newberry limerock and (b)
Georgia granite.

130
 CHAPTER 8
NONLINEAR MODELING OF SUBGRADE LAYER

It was demonstrated in Chapter 7 that by keeping both the AC surface and subgrade layers

elastic, and incorporating nonlinearity just in the base layer, results in more vertical strain at the

top of subgrade compared to an equivalent linear analysis. Since subgrade soils are also

nonlinear materials, it is expected that incorporating modulus nonlinearity in the subgrade layer

may result in increased vertical strain. Hence, we conducted an analysis incorporating

nonlinearity in both the base and subgrade layers and the results are shown in the following

sections.

8.1 Determination of Effective Modulus for Base and Subgrade Layers

8.1.1 Methodology

Two cases are modeled and compared herein:

A pavement with a linear elastic AC surface layer, nonlinear base, and nonlinear subgrade.

A pavement with a linear elastic AC surface layer, equivalent elastic base, and equivalent

elastic subgrade.

Similar to the analysis in Chapter 7, to derive effective moduli for both nonlinear base and

nonlinear subgrade, pavement surface deflection was used as the matching criterion. Since both

base and subgrade layers are considered nonlinear, deriving effective moduli for both layers by a

trial and error method based on surface deflection is more difficult. Hence, we used a Falling

Weight Deflectometer (FWD)-type analysis procedure that can backcalculate elastic modulus

values for multiple layers using a surface deflection basin and layer thicknesses as inputs. The

surface deflection basin for the backcalculation was produced by the Plaxis-HS small model for

nonlinear base and nonlinear subgrade. Pavement responses obtained from the nonlinear analysis

were then compared with an equivalent linear analysis using the effectivie moduli.

131
8.1.2 Material Parameters and Structural Inputs

Two pavements, Structure 1 and Structure 4 (Figure 6-5), were considered for this

analysis, and material moduli used for different layers are presented in Table 8-1. For the

subgrade layer, Ottawa sand was chosen for the nonlinear analysis since this material was tested

as part of the laboratory testing program (Figure 3-7), and HSsmall input parameters for the sand

are presented in Table 8-2.

Table 8-1. Material properties for nonlinear base and nonlinear subgrade analysis.
Pavement Layer Material Modulus (MPa)

Surface AC 1000
Values at 13, 12, 11, and 10%
Newberry limerock
moisture
Base
Values at 5.5, 4.5, and 3.5%
Georgia granite
moisture
HS small parameters are
Subgrade Ottawa sand
given in Table 8-2.

Table 8-2. HS small model parameters for Ottawa sand.

Parameter Value

Gmax (MPa) 120

0.7 5.0E-04
P ref (kPa) 100
Emax (MPa) 316.80
Eur (MPa) 269.28
Eoed (MPa) 134.64
E50 (MPa) 134.64
m 0.5
(kN/m3) 18.11
0.32

132
8.1.3 Surface Deflection Basin Matching

By way of example, nonlinear analysis via the Plaxis-HSsmall response model was

performed on Structure 1 with Newberry limerock base at 10% moisture content and Ottawa

sand subgrade. From the analysis, a maximum surface deflection of 0.62 mm was obtained for a

wheel load of 550 kPa. Using this surface deflection basin, effective moduli for the surface, base,

and subgrade layers were backcalculated via the FWD-type analysis (Figure 8-1). The surface

deflection basins for both the nonlinear and equivalent linear cases are compared in Figure 8-2

where it is observed that the basins match very well.

Figure 8-1. FWD analysis of Structure 4.

133
Figure 8-2. Nonlinear and linear surface deflections for Structure 1 with 10% moisture base and
Ottawa sand subgrade.

8.2 Comparison of Nonlinear and Equivalent Linear Analysis Results

8.2.1 Effective Moduli Values for Base and Subgrade

Backcalculated effective moduli values for Structure 1 and Structure 4 with different

moisture contents of Newberry limerock base and Ottawa sand subgrade are presented in Tables

8-3 and Table 8-4. Similar results for Georgia granite base and Ottawa sand subgrade are

presented in Tables 8-5 and 8-6.

First, for the base layer, it is observed that effective moduli values increase with material

drying as expected. When we compare the backcalculated base effective moduli results with

those from Chapter 7, here the effective modulus for any moisture content is smaller than the

corresponding value obtained with an elastic subgrade of 50 MPa (Tables 7.1 to 7.3). This

decrease in base effective modulus suggests an additional effect of subgrade nonlinearity that

causes greater strain and lower effective moduli.

134
Table 8-3. Equivalent elastic moduli for Structure 1 with Newberry limerock base and Ottawa
sand subgrade.
Structure 1
Nonlinear Plaxis-HSsmall Linear Analysis
Layer
Model Analysis (MPa) (MPa)
AC Surface Layer 1000 862
Base 13% 67.75
Subgrade Ottawa sand 54.95
AC Surface Layer 1000 858.12
Base 12% 86.60
Subgrade Ottawa sand 55.64
AC Surface Layer 1000 795.10
Base 11% 124.24
Subgrade Ottawa sand 53.92
AC Surface Layer 1000 780.686
Base 10% 125.69
Subgrade Ottawa sand 58.67

Table 8-4. Equivalent elastic moduli for Structure 4 with Newberry limerock base and Ottawa
sand subgrade.
Structure 4
Nonlinear Plaxis-HSsmall Linear Analysis
Layer
Model Analysis (MPa) (MPa)

AC Surface Layer 1000 1073.79

Base 13% 24.82
Subgrade Ottawa sand 44.61
AC Surface Layer 1000 1099.37
Base 12% 31.44
Subgrade Ottawa sand 43.85
AC Surface Layer 1000 1012.98
Base 11% 42.06
Subgrade Ottawa sand 43.85
AC Surface Layer 1000 1019.66
Base 10% 42.33
Subgrade Ottawa sand 44.26

135
Table 8-5. Equivalent elastic moduli for Structure 1 with Georgia granite base and Ottawa sand
subgrade.
Structure 1
Nonlinear Plaxis-HSsmall Linear FWD Analysis
Layer
Analysis (MPa) (MPa)

AC Surface Layer 1000 (elastic) 851.77

Base 5.5% 61.36
Subgrade Ottawa sand 55.80
AC Surface Layer 1000 (elastic) 823.99
Base 4.5% 114.04
Subgrade Ottawa sand 58.67
AC Surface Layer 1000 (elastic) 820.82
Base 3.5% 124.00
Subgrade Ottawa sand 56.67

Table 8-6. Equivalent elastic moduli for Structure 4 with Georgia Granite base and Ottawa sand
subgrade.
Structure 4
Nonlinear Plaxis-HSsmall Linear Analysis
Layer
Analysis (MPa) (MPa)

AC Surface Layer 1000 (elastic) 1058

Base 5.5% 24.54
Subgrade Ottawa sand 44.5
AC Surface Layer 1000 (elastic) 1005.32
Base 4.5% 40.47
Subgrade Ottawa sand 44.68
AC Surface Layer 1000 (elastic) 944.44
Base 3.5% 46.19
Subgrade Ottawa sand 45.02

Next, backcalculated effective moduli for the subgrade layer are in the range of 55 to 60

MPa for Structure 1 and 42 to 44 MPa for Structure 4. The decrease in subgrade effective

modulus in Structure 4 indicates an increase in subgrade nonlinearity due to the decrease in

structure thickness and is consistent with pavement mechanics fundamentals.

For Structure 1, backcalculated effective moduli for the base layer are greater than the

moduli of the subgrade, whereas for Structure 4, backcalculated effective moduli for the base

136
layer are usually lower than that of the subgrade. As noted above, the decrease in structure

thickness increases modulus nonlinearity and results in lower effective moduli for the base.

Finally, backcalculated elastic moduli for the AC surface layer are in the range of 800 MPa

for Structure 1 and 1050 MPa for Structure 4, while the modulus value assigned to the AC layer

in the nonlinear analysis was 1000 MPa.

8.2.2 Comparison of Nonlinear and Equivalent Linear Pavement Responses

As in Chapter 7, pavement responses obtained at important locations in the pavement

structure were compared for the nonlinear and corresponding equivalent linear analyses. A list of

cases that were analyzed is given in Table 8-7, and the entire collection of nonlinear and

equivalent linear response comparison plots are presented in Appendix D. For example, the

horizontal strain at the bottom of AC layer for Structure 1 and with different base moisture

contents are compared in Figure 8-3a for Newberry limerock and Figure 8-3b for Georgia

granite. Similarly, comparison plots for vertical strain at the top of subgrade layer are shown in

Figure 8-4a for Newberry limerock and Figure 8-4b for Georgia granite.

Table 8-7. List of pavement structures analyzed for response comparis.

Moisture
Base Material Structure
Content (%)
13
Newberry 1
10
limerock
4 10
5.5
Georgia granite 1
3.5

From surface deflection (Figures D-1 to D-3 for Newberry limerock and Figures D-34 to

D-35 for Georgia granite), it can be observed that the surface deflection profiles for nonlinear

137
and equivalent linear analyses match well. This demonstates that the procedure for determining

effective moduli based upon matching surface deflection is successful.

From the comparison plots of horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of AC layer (Figure 8-

3a and 8-3b), it can be observed that the horizontal strains for the nonlinear case are similar to

the equivalent linear case with backcalculated effective moduli. Similar to the results in Chapter

7, this suggests that an equivalent linear analysis can produce an accurate prediction of pavement

response in the AC surface layer. This may also suggest that the cracking performance of a

flexible pavementcan be reasonably assessed via a linear elastic analysis of the pavement so long

as appropriate effective elastic moduli are chosen for the analysis.

From the comparison plots of vertical strain at the top of subgrade (Figure 8-4a and 8-4b),

it can be observed that vertical strains for the nonlinear case are almost two times greater than

the corresponding values for the equivalent linear analysis. Since these results come from

Structure 1, the thickest pavement, it is expected that the deviations would be even larger for

thinner pavement structures. This indicates that the subgrade behavior cannot be modeled well

with an equivalent linear analysis based upon matching surface deflection when both base and

subgrade nonlinearity is taken into account.

138
 a

Figure 8-3. Horizontal tensile strain at bottom of AC layer of Structure 1 with Ottawa sand
subgrade and two base moisture contents for: (a) Newberry limerock and (b) Georgia
granite.

139
 a

Figure 8-4. Vertical compressive strain at top of subgrade for Structure 1 with Ottawa sand
subgrade and two base moisture contents for: (a) Newberry limerock and (b) Georgia
granite.

140
 CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSIONS

9.1 Summary of Findings

The primary goal of this research investigation was to develop a methodology to determine

a single effective modulus of a base layer that can approximate known material modulus

nonlinearities and can be used as MEPDG Level 2 or Level 3 material parameter input. In order

to achieve this goal a laboratory testing program was conducted on base materials and a

nonlinear response model was developed using the laboratory testing results. First, a laboratory

testing program was conducted on two base materials used in the State of Florida to characterize

modulus nonlinearity with respect to stress, strain, including small-level strains, and moisture

content. Fixed-free resonant column torsional shear (fixed-free RC) tests that can measure shear

modulus in the strain range of 10-5% to 10-1% while varying pressure confinement and moisture

content were conducted on modified Proctor compacted cylindrical specimens of Newberry

limerock and Georgia granite. Second, utilizing these laboratory tested parameters, a nonlinear

finite element pavement response model that can account for the modulus nonlinearities was

developed via the Plaxis-HSsmall model. Various types of pavement structures with nonlinear

base and elastic AC surface and subgrade layers were analyzed for single wheel loading via the

nonlinear response model. Based on pavement responses obtained from this nonlinear analysis, a

methodology was developed to determine an effective elastic modulus for the base layer that can

approximately account for nonlinearity. The influence of base layer nonlinearity on pavement

response was evaluated, and the influence of both base and subgrade modulus nonlinearity on

pavement response was also evaluated for a few selected pavement structures. The following

sections provide a discussion of the findings in more detail.

141
9.1.1 Laboratory Testing on Unbound Aggregate Base Materials

Limerock is commonly used for pavement base layer construction in the State of Florida.

Newberry limerock and Georgia granite were selected for laboratory testing, representing one

limerock aggregate and one non-limerock graded aggregate. Fixed-free resonant column

torsional shear tests (fixed-free RC) and free-free resonant column test methods were followed.

The fixed-free RC equipment was updated to measure strains as small as 10-5% using a fiber

optic sensor. Credibility of this updated apparatus was evaluated and verified by conducting tests

on Ottawa sand specimens and comparing sand test results with data available in the literature.

Fixed-free RC were conducted on modified Proctor specimens of Newberry limerock and

Georgia granite to investigate the influence of effective confinement stress, loading strain,

including small-level strains, and moisture content. Modulus in the strain range of 10-5% to 10-
1
% was measured to analyze small-strain modulus nonlinearity of these materials. Specimens

were dried in a laboratory environment and tested at different moisture contents in the process of

drying. Additional effective confinement due to suction at different moisture contents was

evaluated. Empirical equations to calculate maximum shear modulus (Gmax) of dry materials

were developed. An approximate methodology to calculate shear modulus at any given effective

confinement, strain level, and moisture content was also proposed. Free-free resonant column

tests were also conducted on compacted specimens to determine very small-strain modulus (i.e.,

Gmax at 10-5% strain) at different moisture contents ranging from OMC to near dry condition.

Based upon the laboratory testing program, the following findings have been derived:

For dry materials, the shear modulus of Newberry limerock is proportional to pressure
confinement to the power of 0.702, and for Georgia granite the modulus is proportional to
pressure confinement to the power of 0.6389.

For dry materials, the shear modulus is maximum and elastic at strains lower than 10-4%,
starts decreasing linearly in the strain range of 10-4% to10-3%, and decreases nonlinearly

142
 thereafter. The presence of gravel-size aggregate makes modulus more nonlinear compared
to sands.

The Gmax of dry Newberry limerock and dry Georgia granite at known void ratio (e) and
confinement (c) can be determined using the following empirical equations:

Newberry limerock: Gmax = (2575) F(e) (c)0.772

Georgia granite: Gmax = (816) F(e) (c)0.6638

where

In an unsaturated condition, the shear modulus is maximum at 10-5% strain, and starts
decreasing thereafter with an increase in strain.

In a dry condition, shear modulus is maximum (i.e , Gmax) at 10-4% strain, and decreases to
0.15 Gmax at 10-1% strain. Whereas, in an unsaturated condition, shear modulus is
maximum at 10-5% strain, and decreases to 0.075 Gmax at 10-1% strain. Compared to the
dry material, the presence of moisture increases modulus nonlinearity.

In unsaturated soils, a decrease in moisture content due to drying provides additional

suction confinement and increases Gmax significantly.

Additional confinement due to suction at different moisture contents is material specific

and needs to be evaluated separately for each material for accurate modulus nonlinearity
characterization.

In dry materials, the rate of decrease in G (i.e., G/Gmax) with increase in strain is
approximately independent of confinement pressure. In unsaturated materials, the rate of
decrease in G with increase in strain is independent of moisture content and its suction
confinement.

In an unsaturated condition, at any given moisture content, the suction effect on G does not
change with an increase in strain over the range of strains tested in the laboratory.

The strains generated in free-free RC testing are approximately in the range of 10-5%, and
corresponding moduli are nearly equal to the small-strain moduli from fixed-free RC tests.

9.1.2 Nonlinear Response Model and Base Layer Nonlinear Modeling and Analysis

Utilizing the laboratory testing data as material inputs, a nonlinear finite element response

model that can account for modulus nonlinearity was developed via the Plaxis-HSsmall model.

This response model can incorporate modulus nonlinearity with respect to effective stress

confinement, strain magnitude, including small-level strains, and moisture content. From some

143
initial pavement modeling and analysis exercises via the Plaxis-HSsmall, it was observed that the

response model behaves too soft, and as a result produces high deformations. Hence, the

response model was recalibrated using Lehane et al. (2008) footing analysis results. Input

parameters of the HSsmall model were recalibrated such that Lehanes footing analysis produces

deformations matching with measured footing settlements. This recalibrated nonlinear response

model was used for further pavement base layer modeling and analysis. Based on laboratory

testing data of Newberry limerock, Georgia granite, and Miami limerock, calibrated material

input parameters for the nonlinear response model were developed and functional capabilities of

the response model to incorporate modulus nonlinearity were illustrated.

To single out the influence of base layer modulus nonlinearity on pavement response, the

AC surface layer and subgrade were considered elastic, and the base layer was considered

nonlinear. Using the maximum surface deflection as the matching criterion between nonlinear

and linear analysis, a methodology to determine an effective elastic modulus that can

approximate the nonlinearities of the base layer was developed. An effective moduli database for

a range of pavement structures, subgrade moduli, and base moisture contents was developed

from repeated runs of the nonlinear response model, and the influence of moisture content,

subgrade modulus, and structure type (thickness) on effective modulus was evaluated. Effective

moduli values of the three materials were compared with each other, and also compared with the

MEPDG moisture (suction) model to assess the suitability of the MEPDG model for our base

materials. Nonlinear and equivalent linear pavement responses obtained at critical locations were

compared to evaluate the applicability of base layer effective modulus as a substitute for a more

complete nonlinear analysis. Based upon the base layer nonlinear modeling and analysis results,

the following findings have been derived:

144
 The effective base modulus increases significantly with a decrease in moisture content and
the rate of increase is material specific.

Our laboratory testing data showed that a decrease in moisture content increases the
additional confinement caused by suction, which in turn increases small-strain modulus.
This increase in small-strain modulus is being reflected on effective modulus and hence
single effective modulus increases with a decrease in moisture content.

For any given structure and base moisture content, the effective base modulus increases
with an increase in subgrade modulus, i.e., the effective design modulus of a base layer at
any given moisture content depends on modulus of the subgrade that supports the base
layer.

At any given moisture content and subgrade modulus combination, the base layer effective
modulus is dependent on thicknesses of the pavement layers. As the thicknesses vary, the
magnitude of wheel load deviatoric stresses transferred from the top to bottom layers also
varies. Since modulus is nonlinear with respect to stress, effective modulus also varies.

Among the three materials evaluated, Miami limerock behaves differently, and its effective
modulus increases at a significantly faster rate as the material dries. At OMC, the effective
modulus of Miami limerock is much lower than that of Newberry limerock and Georgia
granite. But, as the material dries, its modulus increases at a faster rate compared to the
other two materials. Therefore, an increase in design modulus with material drying is
material specific. Since modulus tests are generally conducted at OMC, it is important to
take this behavior into account.

With the MEPDG modulus/moisture model, modulus can increase with a decrease in
moisture content a maximum of two times the modulus at optimum moisture content.
Effective base moduli derived for our materials change at a faster rate. E/Eopt values
increase up to 3.5 times for Newberry limerock, 2.5 times for Georgia granite, and 47
times for Miami limerock. E/Eopt values for our materials are determined only for a
decrease in degree of saturation down to 40%, and can potentially increase further with a
further decrease in degree of saturation. The current MEPDG modulus/moisture model
does not appear to incorporate the moisture/suction effect accurately for these Florida base
materials.

Surface deflection profiles for nonlinear and equivalent linear analyses match well and
serve as an effective means for determining an equivalent elastic modulus.

Horizontal strain at the bottom of AC layer for nonlinear base modulus case is
approximately equal to the equivalent linear case with effective base modulus. This
suggests that an equivalent linear analysis can produce an accurate prediction of pavement
response in the AC surface layer.

For vertical strain at the top of subgrade, base nonlinearity increases with a decrease in
structure thickness or a decrease in base moisture content, and an effective elastic modulus
based upon matching surface deflection should be used with caution.

145
9.1.3 Nonlinear Modeling and Analysis of Base and Subgrade Layers

Nonlinear modeling and analysis of both base and subgrade layers were conducted for a

few pavement structures to evaluate the effect of both sources of nonlinearity on pavement

response. For this nonlinear modeling, the AC surface layer was considered elastic. Since

material properties were measured in the laboratory testing program, Ottawa sand was chosen as

the subgrade material. Considering the surface deflection basin obtained from nonlinear analysis

as the matching criterion, an FWD-type backcalculation method was followed to determine

equivalent elastic moduli for all layers. Equivalent elastic moduli were then used for linear

analysis of the pavement structures, and pavement responses obtained from nonlinear analysis

and equivalent linear analysis were compared. Based upon these results, the following findings

have been derived:

Backcalculated subgrade moduli for nonlinear subgrade structures are in the range of 40 to
44 MPa. By comparing the backcalculated effective base moduli of these nonlinear
subgrade structures with that of the same structures with 50 MPa elastic subgrade, the
effective modulus of base layer with nonlinear subgrade is significantly lower than
effective modulus of base layer with 50 MPa elastic subgrade, indicating the subgrade
nonlinearity has a significant influence on the base behavior as well.

Surface deflection profiles for nonlinear and equivalent linear analyses match well and
serve as an effective means for determining equivalent elastic moduli.

Horizontal strain at the bottom of AC layer for nonlinear base and subgrade case is
approximately equal to the equivalent linear case with effective base moduli. This suggests
that an equivalent linear analysis can produce an accurate prediction of pavement response
in the AC surface layer.

For vertical strain at the top of subgrade, the vertical strains for the nonlinear case are
almost two times greater than the corresponding values for the equivalent linear analysis.
Since these results come from Structure 1, the thickest pavement, it is expected that the
deviations would be even larger for thinner pavement structures. This indicates that the
subgrade behavior cannot be modeled well with an equivalent linear analysis based upon
matching surface deflection when both base and subgrade nonlinearity is taken into
account.

146
 9.2 Conclusions

Based on the findings outlined above, the following conclusions are appropriate:

The fixed-free resonant column methodology can determine the modulus nonlinearity of base
materials over a wide range of strains, from very small strains of less than 10-5% to strains as
large as 10-1%.

Modulus nonlinearity can be characterized on both dry base materials and on wet materials
over a practical range of moisture contents. The modulus increases significantly with a
decrease in moisture content. It appears that a decrease in moisture content due to drying
creates suction, which provides significant additional effective confinement. The suction
effect can increase nonlinear modulus significantly up to strain levels as high as 10-2%.

The free-free resonant column methodology can accurately determine the modulus of base
materials at very small strains and over a wide range of moisture conditions.

The Plaxis HSsmall finite element methodology is an effective means for assessing the
effects of unbound pavement material nonlinearity on the structural response of pavements.

Practical pavement design utilizing the MEPDG will require input of a single modulus value
to represent unbound base and subgrade materials. A representative modulus can be
determined by a backcalculation procedure in which pavement surface deflections from a
nonlinear analysis are matched via an equivalent linear analysis.

The nonlinearity of unbound base materials is significant and the single effective modulus
will vary over a range of conditions, including the moisture content of the base, pavement
layer thicknesses, and the modulus of the subgrade.

There is a significant effect of moisture on the modulus of base materials used in Florida,
particularly those composed of limerock. The modulus/moisture relationship employed in the
MEPDG underpredicts the significant increase in modulus of Florida limerock base materials
when dried below OMC.Use of the MEPDG model will be conservative.

An equivalent linear analysis using effective moduli for both an unbound base and the
subgrade and based upon matching surface deflections can predict the structural response of
an asphalt surface layer in a flexible pavement. It should be possible to utilize these structural
response predictions in the assessment of cracking performance of the surface layer.

However, caution is warranted in predicting the structural response of the unbound base and
subgrade layers using an equivalent linear analysis. Use of an effective modulus for a
nonlinear base layer appears reasonable for very thick pavement structures, but appears to
underpredict vertical strain at the top of subgrade as the nonlinearity increases due to
decreasing thickness, decreasing moisture content, or softening of the subgrade. Use of
effective moduli for both a nonlinear base and subgrade appears to underpredict top of
subgrade vertical strain even for very thick pavements.

147
 9.3 Recommendations

The following recommendations are suggested after reviewing all of the findings and

conclusions previously discussed:

The MEPDG recommends resilient modulus (MR) as the primary input for characterizing
unbound base materials. For Level 1, the parameters that describe the nonlinear results
from an MR test are expected, while for Levels 2 and 3, a single elastic modulus is required
for base characterization. However, the ASSHTO protocol for determination of MR from a
laboratory test does not provide characterization of the material over a complete range of
strains. In addition, the MEPDG does not provide a methodology for determining a single
elastic modulus from MR test results. The resonant column tests conducted in this research
characterized the base materials over a wide range of strains and moisture conditions. A
procedure was developed for determining an effective elastic modulus for a base material
that can be utilized in Levels 2 and 3 of the MEPDG. These results can be used for the
design of pavements in Florida. However, two important issues may require further
consideration.

First, the resonant column tests were conducted on freshly compacted laboratory
specimens. Toros (2008) demonstrated that significant time-dependent increases in
modulus occur in base materials following initial construction, even at constant moisture
content. For example, the very small-strain modulus may increase by more than a factor of
10 for some Florida limerock materials (Figure 2-17). This phenomenon provides a likely
explanation for the observation that the effective moduli reported in Chapters 7 and 8 are
low for moisture contents at or near OMC. Thus, the effective moduli appropriate for
typical field conditions should account for this time-dependent behavior. The required
adjustment is approximately equivalent to utilizing effective moduli reported herein at
moisture conditions significantly drier than OMC. For example, an effective modulus for
Newberry limerock for Structure 4 (a typical Florida pavement) at a moisture content of
5.5% is consistent with the expected conditions in the field at OMC. The effective modulus
reported in Table 7.1 is 240 MPafor these conditions and at a subgrade modulus of 125
MPa (typical Florida subgrade). This effective modulus value approximates the modulus
that would be attained at OMC following time-dependent increases at constant moisture.
Further increases in modulus would be expected if the material dried following initial
construction. While these observations are approximate, they provide an initial
recommendation for input values of effective modulus for use in Levels 2 and 3 MEPDG
design. Certainly further laboratory experiments, field experiments, and model studies are
warranted to refine and corroborate these preliminary recommendations.

Second, it is clear from the work reported herein that the behavior of pavement base
materials is complicated by several significant nonlinear relationships, and the idea that a
base layer can be easily represented by a single modulus value should be used with
caution. On the one hand, the methodology reported herein for determination of a single
effective modulus that can account approximately for these nonlinearities can significantly
simplify pavement design with regard to the base layer. The nonlinear equivalent single

148
 effective base modulus methodology can be implemented in the MEPDG for determining
Level 2 and Level 3 material parameter inputs. However, the methodology is itself
complicated in its current form, requiring at minimum a nonlinear finite element pavement
response model. Yet, it appears likely that this methodology could be itself replaced by a
simpler empirically-based relationship following a more exhaustive parametric study with
the finite element model. At the very least, base course small-strain modulus nonlinearity
and the moisture suction effect on it should be implemented in pavement design
procedures. The AASHTO resilient modulus protocol will not capture this behavior since
the modulus is not measured at the appropriate small strains. Underestimation of the
modulus versus moisture behavior by the MEPDG modulus/moisture model may be due to
the fact that this empirical model is based upon laboratory resilient modulus values
determined by the AASHTO protocol.

The effective modulus procedure documented herein is based upon the Plaxis-HSsmall
nonlinear response model that has been compared with and calibrated against only one
field test result of a shallow foundation on sand. While the one calibration check is quite
positive, a more comprehensive calibration procedure based upon pavement examples
would seem most appropriate. In general, there are very limited examples available in the
literature of comparisons between pavement response models and field test results, and
most of the examples are for linear elastic pavement response models. It is common to
assume the pavement responses are accurate, and then to provide calibration adjustment
coefficients between response and observed performance. However, this approach does
not properly identify the sources of the discrepancies, and makes it near impossible to
know what aspect of the system requires further improvement since much of the error is
lumped together in one or a small number of coefficients.

As noted above, the analysis results presented herein certainly reveal that both base and
subgrade particulate materials exhibit significant nonlinear behavior with respect to both
loading and environmental variables. As shown, these nonlinearities may not have
significant effect on the cracking performance of asphalt concrete flexible pavements.
However, the nonlinearities can have a significant effect on the responses within the base
and subgrade layers, and these responses typically play a significant role in the
determination of permanent deformation, i.e., rutting. However, the effect of these
response differences on performance cannot be clearly identified utilizing performance
models that were developed around linear elastic pavement response models. Rather, a
performance analysis that is properly coupled with a nonlinear pavement response model
should be utilized to more carefully evaluate the potential effect on performance.

Two additional considerations may be warranted regarding the development of an

equivalent linear elastic model utilizing effective moduli. First, the significant effects of
nonlinearity on pavement response in the subgrade were conducted for pavement structures
with a relatively soft (50 MPa) subgrade. Further analyses utilizing stiffer (and possibly
more realistic for Florida conditions) subgrades may reveal that the influence of base and
subgrade nonlinearity is not as large as shown herein. Second, the development of effective
moduli were based upon matching surface deflections. It is possible that an alternative
criterion can be discovered that would provide better agreement between nonlinear and
equivalent linear elastic analysis for the responses in the base layer and subgrade.

149
 It is clear from both the laboratory test results and from the effective modulus values
backcalculated from pavement responses that the moduli values of a base layer are strongly
affected by moisture. Based upon the results presented herein, the current MEPDG utilizes
a modulus/moisture relationship that does not appear well suited for the three Florida base
materials investigated. While the results for Miami are based mostly on data from free-free
resonant column tests, and not more complete fixed-free tests, the MEPDG relationship
significantly underestimates the potential stiffening upon drying of this material. The
previous research project on base stiffening conducted by the UF researchers showed that
this stiffening upon drying of the Miami material can lead to the material having a
consistency of a lean concrete, where a core of the material can be extracted from a
pavement intact. The fundamentals of this material behavior should be more fully
investigated and explained. Does the Miami material develop higher suction pressures than
the other materials? Is the stiffening response due to suction more significant because of
inherent material particle characteristics, such as a rougher texture?

This research work is limited to axisymmetric modeling of a pavement structure subjected

to single-wheel loading. It may be further extended to three-dimensional modeling of a
pavement structure, under multiple wheel and axle loads, and for more appropriate
tire/contact pressure scenarios for more accurate nonlinear modeling of soil element stress
state and further performance analysis.

150
 LIST OF REFERENCES

Atkinson, J.H. (2000), Non-liner Soil Stiffness in Routine Design, Geotechnique, 50(5), 487-
508.

Atkinson, J.H. and Sallfors, J. (1991), Experimental Determination of Stress-Strain-Time

Characteristics in Laboratory and In-situ Tests, Proceedings of Tenth European
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Rotterdam, Netherlands, 915-
958.

Cho, G.C. and Santamarina, J.C. (2001), Unsaturated Particulate Materials Particle Level
Studies, Journal of Geotechincal and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 127(10), 84-96.

Elhakim, A.F. and Mayne, P.W. (2008), Footing Stress-Displacement Response Using Small-
Strain Modulus, Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Deformation
Characteristics of Geomaterials, Atlanta, 937-944.

Hardin, B.O. and Drnevich, V.P. (1972), Shear Modulus and Damping in Soils: Measurement
and Parameter Effects, Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, 98(SM6),
603-624.

Hardin, B.O. and Drnevich, V.P. (1972), Shear Modulus and Damping in Soils: Design
Equations and Curves, Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundations Divison, 98(SM7),
667-692.

Hardin, B.O. and Kalinski, M.E., (2005), Estimating Shear Modulus of Gravelly Soils, Journal
of Geotechincal and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 131(7), 867-873.

Hardin, B.O. and Richart, F.E., Jr. (1963). Elastic Waves in Granular Soils, Journal of Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Division, 89(SM1), 33-65.

Huang, Y.H. (1993), Pavement Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 805 pp.

Huang, W., Yang, S, Kung, J.H.S., and Lin, H. (2006), Effect of Matric Suction on Resilient
Modulus of Compacted Subgrade Soils,, Transportation Research Board 85th Annual
Meeting Compendium of Papers, CD-ROM, 21 pp.

Jardine, R.J., Fourie. A., Maswoswe. J. and Burland, J.B. (1984), Field and Laboratory
Measurement of Soil Stiffness, Proceedings of 11th International Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, San Francisco, 2, 511-514.

Jardine, R.J., Potts, D.M., Fourie A.B., and Burland, J.B., (1986), Studies of the Influence of
Non-linear Stress-Strain Characteristics in Soil-Structure Interaction, Geotechnique,
36(3), 377-396.

Kim, D. S. and Stokoe, K. H., II (1992), Characterization of Resilient Modulus of Compacted

Subgrade Soils Using Resonant Column and Torsional Shear Tests, Transportation
Research Record 1369, TRB, Washington, D. C., 83-91.

151
Kokusho, T. (1987), In-Situ Dynamic Soil Properties and Their Evaluations, Proceedings of
the 8th Asian Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Kyoto,
2, 215-240.

Lehane, B.M., Doherty, J.P., and Schneider, J.A. (2008), Settlement Prediction for Footings on
Sand, Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Deformation
Characteristics of Geomateriasl, Atlanta, 133-150.

Lin, S., Lin, P.S., Luo, H., and Juang, C.H. (2000), Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio
Characteristics of Gravelly Deposits, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 37, 638-651.

Lu, N. and Likos, W. J. (2005), Unsaturated Soil Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons Inc, New York,
556 pp.

Menq, F. Y. (2003), Dynamic Properties of Sandy and Gravelly Soils, Ph.D. Dissertation, The
University of Texas at Austin, May, 363 pp.

MEPDG (2004), Guide for Mechanistic-Empirical Design of New and Rehabilitated Pavement
Structures, NCHRP, March.

Picornell, M. and Nazarian, S. (1998), Effect of Soil Suction on the Low-Strain Shear Modulus
of Soils, Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Unsaturated Soils: UNSAT98,
Beijing, China, 102-107.

Pestana, J.M. and Salvati, L.A. (2006), Small-Strain Behavior of Granular Soils: Model for
Cemented and Uncemented Sands and Gravels, Journal of Geotechincal and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 132 (8), 1071-1081.

Qian, X., Gray, D.H., and Richard, W. (1993), Voids and Granulometry: Efefcts on Shear
Modulus of Unsaturated Sands, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 119 (2), 295-314.

Rollins, K.M., Evans, M.D., Dielhl, N.B., and Daily, W.D. (1998), Shear Modulus and
Damping Relationships for Gravels, Journal of Geotechincal and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 124(5), 396-405.

Roque, R., Romero, P., and Hiltunen, D.R. (1992), The Use of Linear Elastic Analysis to
Predict the Nonlinear Response of Pavements, Proceedings of 7th International
Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Nottingham, U.K., 295-310.

Santos, J.A. and Correia, A.G. (2001), Reference Threshold Shear Strain for Soil: Its
Application to Obtain a Unique Strain-Dependent Shear Modulus Curve for Soil,
Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering, Istanbul, 267-270.

Seed, H.B., Wong, R.T., Idriss, I.M., and Tokimatsu, K. (1986), Moduli and Damping Factors
for Dynamic Analyses of Cohesionless Soils, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering ,
112(12), 1016-1032.

152
Toros, U. (2008), Effects of Moisture and Time on Stiffness of Unbound Aggregate Base
Coarse Materials, Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of Florida, May 2008, 199 pp.

Wu, S., Gray, D.H., and Richart, F.E., Jr. (1984), Capillarity Effects on Dynamic Modulus of
Sands and Silts, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 110 (9), 1188-1203.

Yasuda, N. and Matsumoto, N. (1993), Dynamic Deformation Characteristics of Sands and

Rockfill Materials, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 30, 745-757.

Yasuda, N., Ohat, N., and Nakamura, A. (1996), Dynamic Deformation Characteristics of
Undisturbed Riverbed Gravels, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 33, 237-249.

153
 APPENDIX A
FIXED-FREE RESONANT COLUMN TESTING DATA FOR DIFFERENT BASE SOILS

Figure A-1. Shear Modulus (G) versus % Shear strain () curves for dry Newberry limerock at
e=0.5.

Figure A-2. Shear Modulus (G) versus % Shear strain () curves for dry Newberry limerock at
e=0.55.

154
Figure A-3. G/Gmax versus % shear strain() curves at e=0.5 for Newberry limerock.

Figure A-4. G/Gmax versus % shear strain () curves at e=0.55 for Newberry limerock.

155
Figure A-5. Shear Modulus (G) versus % Shear strain () curves for dry Georgia granite at
e=0.25.

Figure A-6. Shear Modulus (G) versus % Shear strain () curves for dry Georgia granite at
e=0.29.

156
Figure A-7. G/Gmax versus % shear strain() curves at e=0.25 for Georgia granite.

Figure A-8. G/Gmax versus % shear strain() curves at e=0.29 for Georgia granite.

157
 APPENDIX B
NONLINEAR EQUIVALENT LINEAR EFFECTIVE BASE MODULI DATA FOR
DIFFERENT TYPES OF BASE SOILS

Table B-1. For Structure-1, nonlinear equivalent linear effective moduli data for Newberry
limerock base layer.
Structure-1
Base Layer Moisture Content
13% 12% 11% 10% 8% 5.5%
E max (MPa)* 179.82 272.05 548.75 631.12 1249.55 2487.10
Case 1: 50 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 79 102 140 153 196 230
E/Emax 0.44 0.37 0.26 0.24 0.16 0.09
Case 2: 30 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 65 79 112 118 142 171
E/Emax 0.36 0.29 0.20 0.19 0.11 0.07
Case 3: 70 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 90 117 170 175 230 267
E/Emax 0.50 0.43 0.31 0.28 0.18 0.11
Case 4: 125 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 108 157 227 241 310 387
E/Emax 0.60 0.58 0.41 0.38 0.25 0.16

* Emax- Maximum Young's modulus is calculated for in situ overburden stress

at middle height of base layer

158
Table B-2. For Structure-2, nonlinear equivalent linear effective moduli data for Newberry
limerock base layer.
Structure-2
Base Layer Moisture Content
13% 12% 11% 10% 8% 5.5%
E max (MPa)* 170.45 264.114 542.403 625.074 1245.22 2483.69
Case 1: 50 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 74 92 120 125 155 178
E/Emax 0.43 0.35 0.22 0.20 0.12 0.07
Case 2: 30 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 58 70 92 94 118 139
E/Emax 0.34 0.27 0.17 0.15 0.09 0.06
Case 3: 70 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 85 109 143 149 184 207
E/Emax 0.50 0.41 0.26 0.24 0.15 0.08
Case 4: 125 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 107 147 210 220 278 308
E/Emax 0.63 0.56 0.39 0.35 0.22 0.12

Table B-3. For Structure-3, nonlinear equivalent linear effective moduli data for Newberry
limerock base layer.
Structure-3
Base Layer Moisture Content
13% 12% 11% 10% 8% 5.5%
E max (MPa)* 166.819 260.58 539.487 622.215 1242.78 2481.57
Case 1: 50 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 66 89 112 124 148 168
E/Emax 0.40 0.34 0.21 0.20 0.12 0.07
Case 2: 30 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 54 67 90 101 108 130
E/Emax 0.32 0.26 0.17 0.16 0.09 0.05
Case 3: 70 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 73 100 135 142 195 205
E/Emax 0.44 0.38 0.25 0.23 0.16 0.08
Case 4: 125 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 93 141 214 220 281 311
E/Emax 0.56 0.54 0.40 0.35 0.23 0.13

159
Table B-4. For Structure-4, nonlinear equivalent linear effective moduli data for Newberry
limerock base layer.
Structure-4
Base Layer Moisture Content
13% 12% 11% 10% 8% 5.5%
E max (MPa)* 158.3 253.46 533.84 616.7 1238.44 2478.16
Case 1: 50 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 62 80 108 112 123 132
E/Emax 0.39 0.32 0.20 0.18 0.10 0.05
Case 2: 30 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 49 60 69 70 76 78
E/Emax 0.31 0.24 0.13 0.11 0.06 0.03
Case 3: 70 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 71 96 129 135 139 144
E/Emax 0.45 0.38 0.24 0.22 0.11 0.06
Case 4: 125 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 84 127 196 206 228 240
E/Emax 0.53 0.50 0.37 0.33 0.18 0.10

Table B-5. For Structure-5, nonlinear equivalent linear effective moduli data for Newberry
limerock base layer.
Structure-5
Base Layer Moisture Content
13% 11% 5.5%
E max (MPa)* 152.538 530.054 2457.67
Case 1: 50 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 73 100 102
E/Emax 0.48 0.19 0.04
Case 2: 125 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 105 189 209
E/Emax 0.69 0.36 0.09

160
Table B-6. For Structure-6, nonlinear equivalent linear effective moduli data for Newberry
limerock base layer.
Structure-6
Base Layer Moisture Content
13% 11% 5.5%
E max (MPa)* 152.112 529.529 2457.19
Case 1: 50 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 76 90 107
E/Emax 0.50 0.17 0.04
Case 2: 125 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 103 180 187
E/Emax 0.68 0.34 0.08

161
Table B-7. For Structure-1, nonlinear equivalent linear effective moduli data for Georgia granite
base layer.
Structure-1
Base Layer Moisture Content
5.5% 4.5% 3.5%
Emax (MPa) 136.23 444.71 647.68
Case 1: 50 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 76 135 152
E/Emax 0.56 0.30 0.23
Case 2: 30 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 63 104 117
E/Emax 0.46 0.23 0.18
Case 3: 70 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 86 155 178
E/Emax 0.63 0.35 0.27
Case 4: 125 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 112 210 243
E/Emax 0.82 0.47 0.38

Table B-8. For Structure-2, nonlinear equivalent linear effective moduli data for Georgia granite
base layer.
Structure-2
Base Layer Moisture Content
5.5% 4.5% 3.5%
Emax (MPa) 134.45 443.70 646.91
Case 1: 50 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 70 112 124
E/Emax 0.52 0.25 0.19
Case 2: 30 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 56 94 104
E/Emax 0.42 0.21 0.16
Case 3: 70 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 82 135 150
E/Emax 0.61 0.30 0.23
Case 4: 125 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 105 195 220
E/Emax 0.78 0.44 0.34

162
Table B-9. For Structure-3, nonlinear equivalent linear effective moduli data for Georgia granite
base layer.
Structure-3
Base Layer Moisture Content
5.5% 4.5% 3.5%
Emax (MPa) 133.87 443.37 646.63
Case 1: 50 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 66 115 119
E/Emax 0.49 0.26 0.18
Case 2: 30 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 54 88 100
E/Emax 0.40 0.20 0.15
Case 3: 70 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 73 133 162
E/Emax 0.55 0.30 0.25
Case 4: 125 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 90 207 220
E/Emax 0.67 0.47 0.34

Table B-10. For Structure-4, nonlinear equivalent linear effective moduli data for Georgia
granite base layer.
Structure-4
Base Layer Moisture Content
5.5% 4.5% 3.5%
Emax (MPa) 132.08 442.40 645.84
Case 1: 50 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 60 100 106
E/Emax 0.45 0.23 0.16
Case 2: 30 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 46 74 75
E/Emax 0.35 0.17 0.12
Case 3: 70 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 67 123 137
E/Emax 0.51 0.28 0.21
Case 4: 125 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 84 184 220
E/Emax 0.64 0.42 0.34

163
Table B-11. For Structure-1, nonlinear equivalent linear effective moduli data for Maimi
limerock base layer.
Structure-1
Base Layer Moisture Content
8.0% 6.0% 4.0%
Emax (MPa) 32.99 612.77 3474.36
Case 1: 50 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 30 168 337
E/Emax 0.91 0.27 0.10
Case 2: 125 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 31 260 545
E/Emax 0.94 0.42 0.16

Table B-12. For Structure-4, nonlinear equivalent linear effective moduli data for Miami
limerock base layer.
Structure-4
Base Layer Moisture Content
8.0% 6.0% 4.0%
Emax (MPa) 32.99 612.77 3474.36
Case 1: 50 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 6 54 159
E/Emax 0.18 0.09 0.05
Case 2: 125 MPa subgrade
base E (MPa) 7 122 320
E/Emax 0.21 0.20 0.09

164
 APPENDIX C
COMPARISON OF NONLINEAR AND EQUIVALENT LINEAR RESPONSES FROM
NONLINEAR BASE ANALYSIS

C.1 Newberry Limerock

C.1.1 Surface Deflection Profiles
C.1.1.1 Structure-1

Figure C-1. Surface deflection comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1 with
13% w.c. base layer.

165
Figure C-2 Surface deflection comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1 with
10% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-3. Surface deflection comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1 with
8% w.c. base layer.

166
Figure C-4. Surface deflection comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1 with
5.5% w.c. base layer.

C.1.1.2 Structure-4

Figure C-5. Surface deflection comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4 with
13% w.c. base layer.

167
Figure C-6. Surface deflection comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4 with
10% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-7. Surface deflection comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4 with
8% w.c. base layer.

168
Figure C-8. Surface deflection comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4 with
5.5% w.c. base layer.

169
C.1.2 Horizontal Stress (xx, Tensile Stress) at Top of AC Layer
C.1.2.1 Structure-1

Figure C-9. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-10. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 10% w.c. base layer.

170
Figure C-11. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-12. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

171
C.1.2.2 Structure-4

Figure C-13. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-14. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 10% w.c. base layer.

172
Figure C-15. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-16. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

173
C.1.3 Horizontal Strain (xx, Tensile Strain) at Top of AC Layer
C.1.3.1 Structure-1

.
Figure C-17. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-18. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 10% w.c. base layer.

174
Figure C-19. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-20. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

175
C.1.3.2 Structure-4

Figure C-21. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-22. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 10% w.c. base layer.

176
Figure C-23. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-24. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

177
C.1.4 Horizontal Stress (xx, Tensile Stress) at Bottom of AC Layer
C.1.4.1 Structure-1

Figure C-25. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-26. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 10% w.c. base layer.

178
Figure C-27. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-28. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

179
C.1.4.2 Structure-4

Figure C-29. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
4 with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-30. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
4 with 10% w.c. base layer.

180
Figure C-31. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
4 with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-32. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
4 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

181
C.1.5 Horizontal Strain (xx, Tensile Strain) at Bottom of AC layer
C.1.5.1 Structure-1

Figure C-33. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-34. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 10% w.c. base layer.

182
Figure C-35. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-36. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

183
C.1.5.2 Structure-4

Figure C-37. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
4 with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-38. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
4 with 10% w.c. base layer.

184
Figure C-39. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
4 with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-40. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
4 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

185
C.1.6 Vertical stress (yy, compressive stress) at top of base layer
C.1.6.1 Structure-1

Figure C-41. yy vertical stress at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-42. yy vertical stress at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 10% w.c. base layer.

186
Figure C-43. yy vertical stress at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-44. yy vertical stress at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

187
C.1.6.2 Structure-4

Figure C-45. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-46. yy vertical stress at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 10% w.c. base layer.

188
Figure C-47. yy vertical stress at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-48. yy vertical stress at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

189
C.1.7 Vertical Strain (yy, Compressive Strain) at Top of Base Layer
C.1.7.1 Structure-1

Figure C-49. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-50. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 10% w.c. base layer.

190
Figure C-51. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-52. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

191
C.1.7.2 Structure-4

Figure C-53. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-54. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 10% w.c. base layer.

192
Figure C-55. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-56. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

193
C.1.8 Vertical Stress (yy, Compressive Stress) at Bottom of Base Layer
C.1.8.1 Structure-1

Figure C-57. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-58. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 10% w.c. base layer.

194
Figure C-59. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-60. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

195
C.1.8.2 Structure-4

Figure C-61. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-62. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 10% w.c. base layer.

196
Figure C-63. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-64. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

197
C.1.9. Vertical Strain (yy, Compressive Strain) at Bottom of Base Layer
C.1.9.1 Structure-1

Figure C-65. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-66. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 10% w.c. base layer.

198
Figure C-67. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-68. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

199
C.1.9.2 Structure-4

Figure C-69. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
4 with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-70. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
4 with 10% w.c. base layer.

200
Figure C-71. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
4 with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-72. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
4 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

201
C.1.10 Vertical Stress ( yy, Compressive Stress) at Top of Subgrade Layer
C.1.10.1 Structure-1

Figure C-73. yy at top of subgrade comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-74. yy at top of subgrade comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 10% w.c. base layer.

202
Figure C-75. yy at top of subgrade comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-76. yy at top of subgrade comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

203
C.1.10.2 Structure-4

Figure C-77. yy at top of subgrade comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-78. yy at top of subgrade comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 10% w.c. base layer.

204
Figure C-79. yy at top of subgrade comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-80. yy at top of subgrade comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

205
C.1.11 Vertical Strain ( yy, Compressive Strain) at Top of Subgrade Layer
C.1.11.1 Structure-1

Figure C-81. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for Structure-
1 with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-82. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for Structure-
1 with 10% w.c. base layer.

206
Figure C-83. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for Structure-
1 with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-84. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for Structure-
1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

207
C.1.11.2 Structure-4

Figure C-85. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for Structure-
4 with 13% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-86. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for Structure-
4 with 10% w.c. base layer.

208
Figure C-87. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for Structure-
4 with 8% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-88. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for Structure-
4 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

209
 C.2 Georgia Granite
C.2.1 Surface Deflection Profiles
C.2.1.1 Structure-1

Figure C-89. Surface deflection comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1 with
5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-90. Surface deflection comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1 with
3.5% w.c. base layer.

210
C.2.1.2 Structure-4

Figure C-91. Surface deflection comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4 with
5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-92. Surface deflection comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4 with
3.5% w.c. base layer.

211
C.2.2 Horizontal Stress (xx, Tensile Stress) at Top of AC Layer
C.2.2.1 Structure-1

Figure C-93. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-94. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

212
C.2.2.2 Strcutrue-4

Figure C-95. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-96. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

213
C.2.3 Horizontal Strain (xx, Tensile Strain) at Top of AC Layer
C.2.3.1 Structure-1

Figure C-97. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-98. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

214
C.2.3.2 Structure-4

Figure C-99. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-100. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

215
C.2.4 Horizontal Stress (xx, Tensile Stress) at Bottom of AC Layer
C.2.4.1 Structure-1

Figure C-101. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-102. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

216
Figure C-103. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-104. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

217
C.2.5. Horizontal Strain (xx, Tensile Strain) at Bottom of AC Layer
C.2.5.1 Structure-1

Figure C-105. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-106. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

218
C.2.5.2 Structure-4

Figure C-107. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-108. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

219
C.2.6 Vertical Stress (yy, Compressive Stress) at Top of Base Layer
C.2.6.1 Structure-1

Figure C-109. yy vertical stress at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases,
for Structure-1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-110. yy vertical stress at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases,
for Structure-1 with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

220
C.2.6.2 Structure-4

Figure C-111. yy vertical stress at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases,
for Structure-4 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-112. yy vertical stress at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases,
for Structure-4 with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

221
C.2.7 Vertical Strain (yy, Compressive Strain) at Top of Base Layer
C.2.7.1 Structure-1

Figure C-113. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-114. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

222
C.2.7.2 Structure-4

Figure C-115. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-116. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

223
C.2.8 Vertical Stress ( yy, Compressive Stress) at Bottom of Base Layer
C.2.8.1 Structure-1

Figure C-117. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-118. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

224
C.2.8.2 Structure-4

Figure C-119. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-120. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

225
 C.2.9 Vertical Strain (yy, Compressive Strain) at Bottom of Base Layer

C.2.9.1 Structure-1

Figure C-121. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-122. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

226
C.2.9.2 Structure-4

Figure C-123. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-124. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

227
C.2.10 Vertical Stress ( yy, Compressive Stress) at Top of Subgrade Layer
C.2.10.1 Structure-1

Figure C-125. yy at top of subgrade comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-126. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for
Structure-1 with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

228
C.2.10.2 Structure-4

Figure C-127. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-128. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for
Structure-4 with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

229
C.2.11 Vertical Strain ( yy, Compressive Strain) at Top of Subgrade Layer
C.2.11.1 Structure-1

Figure C-129. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for
Structure-1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-130. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for
Structure-1 with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

230
C.2.11.1 Structure-4

Figure C-131. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for
Structure-4 with 5.5% w.c. base layer.

Figure C-132. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for
Structure-4 with 3.5% w.c. base layer.

231
 APPENDIX D
COMPARISON OF NONLINEAR AND EQUIVALENT LINEAR RESPONSES FROM
NONLINEAR BASE AND NONLINEAR SUBGRADE ANALYSIS

D.1 Newberry Limerock

D.1.1 Surface Deflection Profiles

Figure D-1. Surface deflection comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1 with
13% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

232
Figure D-2. Surface deflection comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1 with
10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-3. Surface deflection comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4 with
10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

233
D.1.2 Horizontal Stress (xx, Tensile Stress) at Top of AC Layer

Figure D-4. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 13% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-5. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

234
Figure D-6. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

D.1.3 Horizontal Strain (xx, Tensile Strain) at Top of AC Layer

Figure D-7. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 13% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

235
Figure D-8. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-9. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

236
D.1.4 Horizontal Stress (xx, Tensile Stress) at Bottom of AC Layer

Figure D-10. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 13% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-11. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

237
Figure D-12. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
4 with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

D.1.5 Horizontal Strain (xx, Tensile Strain) at Bottom of AC layer

Figure D-13. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 13% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

238
Figure D-14. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-15. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
4 with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

239
D.1.6 Vertical stress (yy, compressive stress) at top of base layer

Figure D-16. yy vertical stress at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases,
for Structure-1 with 13% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-17. yy vertical stress at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases,
for Structure-1 with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

240
Figure D-18. yy vertical stress at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases,
for Structure-4 with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

D.1.7 Vertical Strain (yy, Compressive Strain) at Top of Base Layer

Figure D-19. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 13% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

241
Figure D-20. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-21. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

242
D.1.8 Vertical Stress ( yy, Compressive Stress) at Bottom of Base Layer

Figure D-22. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 13% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-23. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

243
Figure D-24. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

D.1.9. Vertical Strain (yy, Compressive Strain) at Bottom of Base Layer

Figure D-25. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 13% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

244
Figure D-26. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-27. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-4 with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

245
D.1.10 Vertical Stress ( yy, Compressive Stress) at Top of Subgrade Layer

Figure D-28. yy at top of subgrade comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 13% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-29. yy at top of subgrade comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

246
Figure D-30. yy at top of subgrade comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-4
with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

D.1.11 Vertical Strain ( yy, Compressive Strain) at Top of Subgrade Layer

Figure D-31. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for
Structure-1 with 13% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

247
Figure D-32. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for
Structure-1 with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-33. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for
Structure-4 with 10% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

248
 D.2 Georgia Granite
D.2.1 Surface Deflection Profiles

Figure D-34. Surface deflection comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1 with
5.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-35. Surface deflection comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1 with
3.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

249
D.2.2 Horizontal Stress (xx, Tensile Stress) at Top of AC Layer

Figure D-36. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 5.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-37. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 3.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

250
D.2.3 Horizontal Strain (xx, Tensile Strain) at Top of AC Layer

Figure D-38. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 5.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-39. xx at top of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 3.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

251
D.2.4 Horizontal Stress (xx, Tensile Stress) at Bottom of AC Layer

Figure D-40. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-41. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 3.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

252
D.2.5. Horizontal Strain (xx, Tensile Strain) at Bottom of AC Layer

Figure D-42. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-43. xx at bottom of AC layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-
1 with 3.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

253
D.2.6 Vertical Stress (yy, Compressive Stress) at Top of Base Layer

Figure D-44. yy vertical stress at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases,
for Structure-1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-45. yy vertical stress at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases,
for Structure-1 with 3.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

254
D.2.7 Vertical Strain (yy, Compressive Strain) at Top of Base Layer

Figure D-46. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 5.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-47. yy at top of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 3.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

255
D.2.8 Vertical Stress ( yy, Compressive Stress) at Bottom of Base Layer

Figure D-48. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-49. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 3.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

256
D.2.9 Vertical strain (yy, Compressive Strain) at Bottom of Base Layer

Figure D-50. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-51. yy at bottom of base layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for
Structure-1 with 3.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

257
D.2.10 Vertical Stress ( yy, Compressive Stress) at Top of Subgrade Layer

Figure D-52. yy at top of subgrade comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 5.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-53. yy at top of subgrade comparison for nonlinear and linear cases, for Structure-1
with 3.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

258
D.2.11 Vertical Strain ( yy, Compressive Strain) at Top of Subgrade Layer

Figure D-54. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for
Structure-1 with 5.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

Figure D-55. yy at top of subgrade layer comparison for nonlinear and linear cases for
Structure-1 with 3.5% w.c. base layer and nonlinear Ottawa sand subgrade.

259