18.05.2017.

DimensionWikipedia

Dimension
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Inphysicsandmathematics,thedimensionofamathematicalspace(or
object)isinformallydefinedastheminimumnumberofcoordinates
neededtospecifyanypointwithinit.[1][2]Thusalinehasadimensionof
onebecauseonlyonecoordinateisneededtospecifyapointonitfor
example,thepointat5onanumberline.Asurfacesuchasaplaneorthe
surfaceofacylinderorspherehasadimensionoftwobecausetwo Fromlefttoright:thesquare,thecube
coordinatesareneededtospecifyapointonitforexample,botha andthetesseract.Thetwodimensional
latitudeandlongitudearerequiredtolocateapointonthesurfaceofa (2d)squareisboundedbyone
sphere.Theinsideofacube,acylinderorasphereisthreedimensional dimensional(1d)linesthethree
becausethreecoordinatesareneededtolocateapointwithinthesespaces. dimensional(3d)cubebytwo
dimensionalareasandthefour
Inclassicalmechanics,spaceandtimearedifferentcategoriesandreferto dimensional(4d)tesseractbythree
absolutespaceandtime.Thatconceptionoftheworldisafour dimensionalvolumes.Fordisplayona
dimensionalspacebutnottheonethatwasfoundnecessarytodescribe twodimensionalsurfacesuchasa
electromagnetism.Thefourdimensionsofspacetimeconsistofeventsthat screen,the3dcubeand4dtesseract
arenotabsolutelydefinedspatiallyandtemporally,butratherareknown requireprojection.
relativetothemotionofanobserver.Minkowskispacefirstapproximates
theuniversewithoutgravitythepseudoRiemannianmanifoldsofgeneral
relativitydescribespacetimewithmatterandgravity.Tendimensionsare
usedtodescribestringtheory,andthestatespaceofquantummechanics
isaninfinitedimensionalfunctionspace.

Theconceptofdimensionisnotrestrictedtophysicalobjects.High Thefirstfourspatialdimensions,
dimensionalspacesfrequentlyoccurinmathematicsandthesciences. representedinatwodimensional
Theymaybeparameterspacesorconfigurationspacessuchasin picture.
LagrangianorHamiltonianmechanicstheseareabstractspaces, 1 Twopointscanbeconnectedto
independentofthephysicalspacewelivein. createalinesegment.
2 Twoparallellinesegmentscanbe
connectedtoformasquare.
3 Twoparallelsquarescanbe
Contents connectedtoformacube.
4 Twoparallelcubescanbeconnected
1 Inmathematics toformatesseract.
1.1 Complexdimension
1.2 Vectorspaces
1.3 Manifolds
1.4 Varieties
1.5 Krulldimension
1.6 Lebesguecoveringdimension
1.7 Hausdorffdimension
1.8 Hilbertspaces
2 Inphysics
2.1 Spatialdimensions
2.2 Time
2.3 Additionaldimensions
3 Networksanddimension
4 Inliterature
5 Inphilosophy
6 Moredimensions
7 Seealso
7.1 Topicsbydimension
8 References
9 Furtherreading
10 Externallinks

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Inmathematics
Inmathematics,thedimensionofanobjectisanintrinsicpropertyindependentofthespaceinwhichtheobjectis
embedded.Forexample,apointontheunitcircleintheplanecanbespecifiedbytwoCartesiancoordinates,buta
singlepolarcoordinate(theangle)wouldbesufficient,sothecircleis1dimensionaleventhoughitexistsinthe2
dimensionalplane.Thisintrinsicnotionofdimensionisoneofthechiefwaysthemathematicalnotionofdimension
differsfromitscommonusages.

ThedimensionofEuclideannspaceEnisn.Whentryingtogeneralizetoothertypesofspaces,oneisfacedwith
thequestion"whatmakesEnndimensional?"OneansweristhattocoverafixedballinEnbysmallballsof
radius,oneneedsontheorderofnsuchsmallballs.ThisobservationleadstothedefinitionoftheMinkowski
dimensionanditsmoresophisticatedvariant,theHausdorffdimension,buttherearealsootheranswerstothat
question.Forexample,theboundaryofaballinEnlookslocallylikeEn1andthisleadstothenotionofthe
inductivedimension.WhilethesenotionsagreeonEn,theyturnouttobedifferentwhenonelooksatmoregeneral
spaces.

Atesseractisanexampleofafourdimensionalobject.Whereasoutsidemathematicstheuseoftheterm
"dimension"isasin:"Atesseracthasfourdimensions",mathematiciansusuallyexpressthisas:"Thetesseracthas
dimension4",or:"Thedimensionofthetesseractis4".

AlthoughthenotionofhigherdimensionsgoesbacktoRenDescartes,substantialdevelopmentofahigher
dimensionalgeometryonlybeganinthe19thcentury,viatheworkofArthurCayley,WilliamRowanHamilton,
LudwigSchlfliandBernhardRiemann.Riemann's1854Habilitationsschrift,Schlfli's1852Theoriedervielfachen
Kontinuitt,Hamilton's1843discoveryofthequaternionsandtheconstructionoftheCayleyalgebramarkedthe
beginningofhigherdimensionalgeometry.

Therestofthissectionexaminessomeofthemoreimportantmathematicaldefinitionsofthedimensions.

Complexdimension

Complexdimensionsappearinthestudyofcomplexmanifoldsandalgebraicvarieties.Acomplexnumber(x+iy)
hasarealpartxandanimaginaryparty,wherexandyarerealnumbers.Asinglecomplexcoordinatesystemmay
beappliedtoanobjecthavingtworealdimensions.Forexample,anordinarytwodimensionalsphericalsurface,
whengivenacomplexmetric,becomesaRiemannsphereofonecomplexdimension.[3]

Vectorspaces

Thedimensionofavectorspaceisthenumberofvectorsinanybasisforthespace,i.e.thenumberofcoordinates
necessarytospecifyanyvector.Thisnotionofdimension(thecardinalityofabasis)isoftenreferredtoasthe
Hameldimensionoralgebraicdimensiontodistinguishitfromothernotionsofdimension.

Manifolds

Theuniquelydefineddimensionofeveryconnectedtopologicalmanifoldcanbecalculated.Aconnected
topologicalmanifoldislocallyhomeomorphictoEuclideannspace,inwhichthenumbernisthemanifold's
dimension.

Forconnecteddifferentiablemanifolds,thedimensionisalsothedimensionofthetangentvectorspaceatanypoint.

Ingeometrictopology,thetheoryofmanifoldsischaracterizedbythewaydimensions1and2arerelatively
elementary,thehighdimensionalcasesn>4aresimplifiedbyhavingextraspaceinwhichto"work"andthe
casesn=3and4areinsomesensesthemostdifficult.Thisstateofaffairswashighlymarkedinthevariouscases
ofthePoincarconjecture,wherefourdifferentproofmethodsareapplied.

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Varieties

Thedimensionofanalgebraicvarietymaybedefinedinvariousequivalentways.Themostintuitivewayis
probablythedimensionofthetangentspaceatanyRegularpointofanalgebraicvariety.Anotherintuitivewayisto
definethedimensionasthenumberofhyperplanesthatareneededinordertohaveanintersectionwiththevariety
thatisreducedtoafinitenumberofpoints(dimensionzero).Thisdefinitionisbasedonthefactthattheintersection
ofavarietywithahyperplanereducesthedimensionbyoneunlessifthehyperplanecontainsthealgebraicvariety.

Analgebraicsetbeingafiniteunionofalgebraicvarieties,itsdimensionisthemaximumofthedimensionsofits
components.Itisequaltothemaximallengthofthechains ofsubvarietiesofthegiven
algebraicset(thelengthofsuchachainisthenumberof" ").

Eachvarietycanbeconsideredasanalgebraicstack,anditsdimensionasvarietyagreeswithitsdimensionasstack.
Therearehowevermanystackswhichdonotcorrespondtovarieties,andsomeofthesehavenegativedimension.
Specifically,ifVisavarietyofdimensionmandGisanalgebraicgroupofdimensionnactingonV,thenthe
quotientstack[V/G]hasdimensionmn.[4]

Krulldimension

TheKrulldimensionofacommutativeringisthemaximallengthofchainsofprimeidealsinit,achainoflengthn
beingasequence ofprimeidealsrelatedbyinclusion.Itisstronglyrelatedtothedimension
ofanalgebraicvariety,becauseofthenaturalcorrespondencebetweensubvarietiesandprimeidealsoftheringof
thepolynomialsonthevariety.

Foranalgebraoverafield,thedimensionasvectorspaceisfiniteifandonlyifitsKrulldimensionis0.

Lebesguecoveringdimension

ForanynormaltopologicalspaceX,theLebesguecoveringdimensionofXisdefinedtobenifnisthesmallest
integerforwhichthefollowingholds:anyopencoverhasanopenrefinement(asecondopencoverwhereeach
elementisasubsetofanelementinthefirstcover)suchthatnopointisincludedinmorethann+1elements.In
thiscasedimX=n.ForXamanifold,thiscoincideswiththedimensionmentionedabove.Ifnosuchintegern
exists,thenthedimensionofXissaidtobeinfinite,andonewritesdimX=.Moreover,Xhasdimension1,i.e.
dimX=1ifandonlyifXisempty.Thisdefinitionofcoveringdimensioncanbeextendedfromtheclassof
normalspacestoallTychonoffspacesmerelybyreplacingtheterm"open"inthedefinitionbytheterm
"functionallyopen".

Aninductivedefinitionofdimensioncanbecreatedasfollows.Consideradiscretesetofpoints(suchasafinite
collectionofpoints)tobe0dimensional.Bydragginga0dimensionalobjectinsomedirection,oneobtainsa1
dimensionalobject.Bydragginga1dimensionalobjectinanewdirection,oneobtainsa2dimensionalobject.In
generaloneobtainsan(n+1)dimensionalobjectbydragginganndimensionalobjectinanewdirection.

Theinductivedimensionofatopologicalspacemayrefertothesmallinductivedimensionorthelargeinductive
dimension,andisbasedontheanalogythat(n+1)dimensionalballshavendimensionalboundaries,permitting
aninductivedefinitionbasedonthedimensionoftheboundariesofopensets.

Hausdorffdimension

TheHausdorffdimensionisusefulforstudyingstructurallycomplicatedsets,especiallyfractals,.TheHausdorff
dimensionisdefinedforallmetricspacesand,unlikethedimensionsconsideredabove,canalsohavenoninteger
realvalues.[5]TheboxdimensionorMinkowskidimensionisavariantofthesameidea.Ingeneral,thereexistmore
definitionsoffractaldimensionsthatworkforhighlyirregularsetsandattainnonintegerpositiverealvalues.
Fractalshavebeenfoundusefultodescribemanynaturalobjectsandphenomena.[6][7]

Hilbertspaces
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EveryHilbertspaceadmitsanorthonormalbasis,andanytwosuchbasesforaparticularspacehavethesame
cardinality.ThiscardinalityiscalledthedimensionoftheHilbertspace.Thisdimensionisfiniteifandonlyifthe
space'sHameldimensionisfinite,andinthiscasethetwodimensionscoincide.

Inphysics
Spatialdimensions

Classicalphysicstheoriesdescribethreephysicaldimensions:fromaparticularpointinspace,thebasicdirections
inwhichwecanmoveareup/down,left/right,andforward/backward.Movementinanyotherdirectioncanbe
expressedintermsofjustthesethree.Movingdownisthesameasmovingupanegativedistance.Moving
diagonallyupwardandforwardisjustasthenameofthedirectionimpliesi.e.,movinginalinearcombinationof
upandforward.Initssimplestform:alinedescribesonedimension,aplanedescribestwodimensions,andacube
describesthreedimensions.(SeeSpaceandCartesiancoordinatesystem.)

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Numberof
Examplecoordinatesystems
dimensions

Numberline Angle

Cartesian(twodimensional) Polar Latitudeandlongitude

Cartesian(threedimensional) Cylindrical Spherical

Time

Atemporaldimensionisadimensionoftime.Timeisoftenreferredtoasthe"fourthdimension"forthisreason,
butthatisnottoimplythatitisaspatialdimension.Atemporaldimensionisonewaytomeasurephysicalchange.
Itisperceiveddifferentlyfromthethreespatialdimensionsinthatthereisonlyoneofit,andthatwecannotmove
freelyintimebutsubjectivelymoveinonedirection.

Theequationsusedinphysicstomodelrealitydonottreattimeinthesamewaythathumanscommonlyperceiveit.
Theequationsofclassicalmechanicsaresymmetricwithrespecttotime,andequationsofquantummechanicsare
typicallysymmetricifbothtimeandotherquantities(suchaschargeandparity)arereversed.Inthesemodels,the
perceptionoftimeflowinginonedirectionisanartifactofthelawsofthermodynamics(weperceivetimeas
flowinginthedirectionofincreasingentropy).
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ThebestknowntreatmentoftimeasadimensionisPoincarandEinstein'sspecialrelativity(andextendedto
generalrelativity),whichtreatsperceivedspaceandtimeascomponentsofafourdimensionalmanifold,knownas
spacetime,andinthespecial,flatcaseasMinkowskispace.

Additionaldimensions

Inphysics,threedimensionsofspaceandoneoftimeistheacceptednorm.However,therearetheoriesthatattempt
tounifythefourfundamentalforcesbyintroducingextradimensions.Mostnotably,superstringtheoryrequires10
spacetimedimensions,andoriginatesfromamorefundamental11dimensionaltheorytentativelycalledMtheory
whichsubsumesfivepreviouslydistinctsuperstringtheories.Todate,noexperimentalorobservationalevidenceis
availabletoconfirmtheexistenceoftheseextradimensions.Ifextradimensionsexist,theymustbehiddenfromus
bysomephysicalmechanism.Onewellstudiedpossibilityisthattheextradimensionsmaybe"curledup"atsuch
tinyscalesastobeeffectivelyinvisibletocurrentexperiments.Limitsonthesizeandotherpropertiesofextra
dimensionsaresetbyparticleexperimentssuchasthoseattheLargeHadronCollider.[8]

Atthelevelofquantumfieldtheory,KaluzaKleintheoryunifiesgravitywithgaugeinteractions,basedonthe
realizationthatgravitypropagatinginsmall,compactextradimensionsisequivalenttogaugeinteractionsatlong
distances.Inparticularwhenthegeometryoftheextradimensionsistrivial,itreproduceselectromagnetism.
Howeveratsufficientlyhighenergiesorshortdistances,thissetupstillsuffersfromthesamepathologiesthat
famouslyobstructdirectattemptstodescribequantumgravity.Therefore,thesemodelsstillrequireaUV
completion,ofthekindthatstringtheoryisintendedtoprovide.Inparticular,superstringtheoryrequiressix
compactdimensionsformingaCalabiYaumanifold.ThusKaluzaKleintheorymaybeconsideredeitherasan
incompletedescriptiononitsown,orasasubsetofstringtheorymodelbuilding.

Inadditiontosmallandcurledupextradimensions,theremaybeextradimensionsthatinsteadaren'tapparent
becausethematterassociatedwithourvisibleuniverseislocalizedona(3+1)dimensionalsubspace.Thusthe
extradimensionsneednotbesmallandcompactbutmaybelargeextradimensions.Dbranesaredynamical
extendedobjectsofvariousdimensionalitiespredictedbystringtheorythatcouldplaythisrole.Theyhavethe
propertythatopenstringexcitations,whichareassociatedwithgaugeinteractions,areconfinedtothebranebytheir
endpoints,whereastheclosedstringsthatmediatethegravitationalinteractionarefreetopropagateintothewhole
spacetime,or"thebulk".Thiscouldberelatedtowhygravityisexponentiallyweakerthantheotherforces,asit
effectivelydilutesitselfasitpropagatesintoahigherdimensionalvolume.

Someaspectsofbranephysicshavebeenappliedtocosmology.Forexample,branegascosmology[9][10]attemptsto
explainwhytherearethreedimensionsofspaceusingtopologicalandthermodynamicconsiderations.Accordingto
thisideaitwouldbebecausethreeisthelargestnumberofspatialdimensionswherestringscangenerically
intersect.Ifinitiallytherearelotsofwindingsofstringsaroundcompactdimensions,spacecouldonlyexpandto
macroscopicsizesoncethesewindingsareeliminated,whichrequiresoppositelywoundstringstofindeachother
andannihilate.Butstringscanonlyfindeachothertoannihilateatameaningfulrateinthreedimensions,soit
followsthatonlythreedimensionsofspaceareallowedtogrowlargegiventhiskindofinitialconfiguration.

Extradimensionsaresaidtobeuniversalifallfieldsareequallyfreetopropagatewithinthem.

Networksanddimension
Somecomplexnetworksarecharacterizedbyfractaldimensions.[11]Theconceptofdimensioncanbegeneralizedto
includenetworksembeddedinspace.[12]Thedimensioncharacterizetheirspatialconstraints.

Inliterature
Sciencefictiontextsoftenmentiontheconceptof"dimension"whenreferringtoparalleloralternateuniversesor
otherimaginedplanesofexistence.Thisusageisderivedfromtheideathattotraveltoparallel/alternate
universes/planesofexistenceonemusttravelinadirection/dimensionbesidesthestandardones.Ineffect,theother
universes/planesarejustasmalldistanceawayfromourown,butthedistanceisinafourth(orhigher)spatial(or
nonspatial)dimension,notthestandardones.

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Oneofthemostheraldedsciencefictionstoriesregardingtruegeometricdimensionality,andoftenrecommendedas
astartingpointforthosejuststartingtoinvestigatesuchmatters,isthe1884novellaFlatlandbyEdwinA.Abbott.
IsaacAsimov,inhisforewordtotheSignetClassics1984edition,describedFlatlandas"Thebestintroductionone
canfindintothemannerofperceivingdimensions."

Theideaofotherdimensionswasincorporatedintomanyearlysciencefictionstories,appearingprominently,for
example,inMilesJ.Breuer'sTheAppendixandtheSpectacles(1928)andMurrayLeinster'sTheFifthDimension
Catapult(1931)andappearedirregularlyinsciencefictionbythe1940s.Classicstoriesinvolvingotherdimensions
includeRobertA.Heinlein'sAndHeBuiltaCrookedHouse(1941),inwhichaCaliforniaarchitectdesignsa
housebasedonathreedimensionalprojectionofatesseractandAlanE.Nourse'sTigerbytheTailandThe
UniverseBetween(both1951).AnotherreferenceisMadeleineL'Engle'snovelAWrinkleInTime(1962),which
usesthefifthdimensionasawayfor"tesseractingtheuniverse"or"folding"spaceinordertomoveacrossit
quickly.ThefourthandfifthdimensionswerealsoakeycomponentofthebookTheBoyWhoReversedHimselfby
WilliamSleator.

Inphilosophy
ImmanuelKant,in1783,wrote:"Thateverywherespace(whichisnotitselftheboundaryofanotherspace)has
threedimensionsandthatspaceingeneralcannothavemoredimensionsisbasedonthepropositionthatnotmore
thanthreelinescanintersectatrightanglesinonepoint.Thispropositioncannotatallbeshownfromconcepts,but
restsimmediatelyonintuitionandindeedonpureintuitionaprioribecauseitisapodictically(demonstrably)
certain."[13]

"SpacehasFourDimensions"isashortstorypublishedin1846byGermanphilosopherandexperimental
psychologistGustavFechnerunderthepseudonym"Dr.Mises".Theprotagonistinthetaleisashadowwhois
awareofandabletocommunicatewithothershadows,butwhoistrappedonatwodimensionalsurface.According
toFechner,this"shadowman"wouldconceiveofthethirddimensionasbeingoneoftime.[14]Thestorybearsa
strongsimilaritytothe"AllegoryoftheCave"presentedinPlato'sTheRepublic(c.380BC).

SimonNewcombwroteanarticlefortheBulletinoftheAmericanMathematicalSocietyin1898entitled"The
PhilosophyofHyperspace".[15]LindaDalrympleHendersoncoinedtheterm"hyperspacephilosophy",usedto
describewritingthatuseshigherdimensionstoexploremetaphysicalthemes,inher1983thesisaboutthefourth
dimensioninearlytwentiethcenturyart.[16]Examplesof"hyperspacephilosophers"includeCharlesHoward
Hinton,thefirstwriter,in1888,tousetheword"tesseract"[17]andtheRussianesotericistP.D.Ouspensky.

Moredimensions
Degreesoffreedominmechanics/physicsandchemistry/statistics

Exteriordimension Orderdimension
Hurstexponent qdimensions
Isoperimetricdimension Fractal(q=1)
Metricdimension Correlation(q=2)

Seealso

Dimension(datawarehouse) Intrinsicdimension
Dimensiontables Multidimensionalanalysis
Dimensionalanalysis Spacefillingcurve
Hyperspace(disambiguation) Meandimension

Topicsbydimension
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Zero Three

Point Platonicsolid
Zerodimensionalspace Stereoscopy(3Dimaging)
Integer 3manifold
Knots

One
Four
Line
Curve Spacetime
Graph(combinatorics) Fourthspatialdimension
Realnumber Convexregular4polytope
Quaternion
4manifold
Two Fourthdimensioninart
Fourthdimensioninliterature
Complexnumber
Cartesiancoordinatesystem
Listofuniformtilings Higherdimensions
Surface inmathematics

Octonion
Vectorspace
Curseofdimensionality

inphysics

KaluzaKleintheory
Stringtheory
Mtheory

Infinite

Hilbertspace
Functionspace

References
1."CuriousAboutAstronomy"(https://web.archive.org/web/20140111191053/http://curious.astro.cornell.edu:80/question.ph
p?number=4).Curious.astro.cornell.edu.Archivedfromtheoriginal(http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=
4)on20140111.Retrieved20140303.
2."MathWorld:Dimension"(http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Dimension.html).Mathworld.wolfram.com.20140227.
Retrieved20140303.
3.Yau,STandNadis,S.TheShapeofInnerSpace,BasicBooks,2010,Chapter4.
4.Fantechi,Barbara(2001),"Stacksforeverybody"(http://www.mathematik.unibielefeld.de/~rehmann/ECM/cdrom/3ecm/p
dfs/pant3/fantechi.pdf)(PDF),EuropeanCongressofMathematicsVolumeI,Progr.Math.,201,Birkhuser,pp.349359
5.FractalDimension(http://math.bu.edu/DYSYS/chaosgame/node6.html),BostonUniversityDepartmentofMathematics
andStatistics
6.Bunde,ArminHavlin,Shlomo,eds.(1991).FractalsandDisorderedSystems.Springer.
7.Bunde,ArminHavlin,Shlomo,eds.(1994).FractalsinScience.Springer.
8.CMSCollaboration,"SearchforMicroscopicBlackHoleSignaturesattheLargeHadronCollider"(http://arxiv.org/abs/10
12.3375)(arxiv.org)
9.Brandenberger,R.,Vafa,C.,Superstringsintheearlyuniverse(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989NuPhB.316..391B)
10.ScottWatson,BraneGasCosmology(http://wwwastrotheory.fnal.gov/Conferences/cosmo02/poster/watson.pdf)(pdf).
11.Song,ChaomingHavlin,ShlomoMakse,HernnA.(2005)."Selfsimilarityofcomplexnetworks".Nature.433(7024).
arXiv:condmat/0503078v1(https://arxiv.org/abs/condmat/0503078v1) .Bibcode:2005Natur.433..392S(http://adsabs.har
vard.edu/abs/2005Natur.433..392S).doi:10.1038/nature03248(https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature03248).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension 8/9
18.05.2017. DimensionWikipedia

12.Daqing,LiKosmidis,KosmasBunde,ArminHavlin,Shlomo(2011)."Dimensionofspatiallyembeddednetworks".
NaturePhysics.7(6).Bibcode:2011NatPh...7..481D(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011NatPh...7..481D).
doi:10.1038/nphys1932(https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnphys1932).
13.Prolegomena,12
14.Banchoff,ThomasF.(1990)."FromFlatlandtoHypergraphics:InteractingwithHigherDimensions"(http://www.geom.ui
uc.edu/~banchoff/ISR/ISR.html).InterdisciplinaryScienceReviews.15(4):364.doi:10.1179/030801890789797239(http
s://doi.org/10.1179%2F030801890789797239).
15.Newcomb,Simon(1898)."ThePhilosophyofHyperspace"(https://archive.org/details/cihm_42903).Bulletinofthe
AmericanMathematicalSociety.4(5):187.doi:10.1090/S000299041898004780(https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS000299
041898004780).
16.Kruger,Runette(2007)."ArtintheFourthDimension:GivingFormtoFormTheAbstractPaintingsofPietMondrian"
(http://ler.letras.up.pt/uploads/ficheiros/4351.pdf)(PDF).SpacesofUtopia:anElectronicJournal(5):11.
17.Pickover,CliffordA.(2009),"Tesseract",TheMathBook:FromPythagorastothe57thDimension,250Milestonesinthe
HistoryofMathematics(https://books.google.com/books?id=JrslMKTgSZwC&pg=PA282),SterlingPublishingCompany,
Inc.,p.282,ISBN9781402757969.

Furtherreading
KattaGMurty,"SystemsofSimultaneousLinearEquations"(http://www.worldscientific.com/doi/suppl/10.11
42/8261/suppl_file/8261_chap01.pdf)(Chapter1ofComputationalandAlgorithmicLinearAlgebraandn
DimensionalGeometry(http://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/8261),WorldScientific
Publishing:2014(ISBN9789814366625).
EdwinA.Abbott,Flatland:ARomanceofManyDimensions(1884)(Publicdomain:Onlineversionwith
ASCIIapproximationofillustrations(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/201)atProjectGutenberg).
ThomasBanchoff,BeyondtheThirdDimension:Geometry,ComputerGraphics,andHigherDimensions,
SecondEdition,W.H.FreemanandCompany:1996.
CliffordA.Pickover,SurfingthroughHyperspace:UnderstandingHigherUniversesinSixEasyLessons,
OxfordUniversityPress:1999.
RudyRucker,TheFourthDimension,HoughtonMifflin:1984.
Kaku,Michio(1994).Hyperspace,aScientificOdysseyThroughthe10thDimension.OxfordUniversity
Press.ISBN0192861891.
Krauss,LawrenceM.(2005).HidingintheMirror.VikingPress.ISBN0670033952.

Externallinks
Copeland,Ed(2009)."ExtraDimensions"(http://www.sixtysymbols.c
om/videos/dimensions.htm).SixtySymbols.BradyHaranforthe Wikiquotehasquotations
relatedto:Dimension
UniversityofNottingham.
WikimediaCommonshas
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? mediarelatedto
title=Dimension&oldid=780986868" Dimensions.

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