STEEL STRUCTURES

DEFINITION
Steel structures are the assembly of the structural steel members joined
together with the help of rivets, bolts or welding.

In concrete structures there is the freedom of sectional shapes to obtain by pouring

concrete into the formwork whereas in structures we are limited to select the
structural shapes available in the market only.

In concrete structures joints between the members are provided easily by concrete
and become monolithic after setting but in steel structures special techniques and
methods are required to join the members by riveting/bolting and welding. Each of
the technique needs the design of connection separately.

Steel construction is costly and needs skilled labor for the erection of members but
its trend is too short in Pakistan due to high initial cost. Steel structures are
employed for high rise buildings, large span sheds, stadium roof, truss, permanent
and temporary bridges etc..

There are basically two main categories of steel structures.

1) Frame system/skeletal system

2) Shell system

FRAME SYSTEM/SKELETAL SYSTEM

The main load carrying components in frame system of steel structures is the
line elements or carry line load. Such as beams columns etc. line load is distributed
over such kind of elements. (N/m)

SHELL SYSTEM
The main load carrying components in shell system of steels structures are
plate and sheet type elements such as liquid carrying tanks and gas carrying
containers. Load is applied on per unit area surface of such elements.

MERITS OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION

Following are the merits of steel construction which make it more referred.

1. Reliability
2. Industrial behavior
3. Less construction/quick fabrication
4. High strength and light weight
5. Uniformity, durability and performance
6. Elasticity
 7. Ductility and warning before failure
8. Addition additions to existence
9. Possible reuse
10.Scrape value
11.Water and air tight
12.Long span construction

DEMERITS OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION

1. Maintenance cost and more corrosion
2. Fireproof resisting cost
3. Susceptibility to buckling
4. High initial cost/Less availability
5. Aesthetics

SPECIFICAITONS OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION

The adequacy of a structural member is in part determined by the

design rules called specifications, which includes formulae that gives
the designer in checking strength, stiffness, proportion and other
criteria that may govern the acceptability of a structural member.

Following are some of the specifications made base on the years of

experience and practical structural usage.

1. AISC American Institute of Steel Construction

2. AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
3. AWS American Welding Society
4. AASHTO American Association of State Highways and
Transportation
Officials.
5. AMERA American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-
Way
Association
6. ASTM American Society of Testing and Materials.
7. ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers.

The seismic Response modification factor R is defined as the factor by

which the earthquake loads, calculated for fully elastic structures, are
reduced for economy based on the ductility of the structures.
When value of R is less than or equal to 3 the design fabrication
should satisfy the AISC Specifications.

When R>3 AISC seismic provisions for steel structural buildings must
also be observed in addition to regular specifications.

TYPES OF LOADS

Following are the types of the loads which come to the Structures and
these are taken into account while designing process.

SELF LOAD

Load due to the self weight of the member to be designed. A

reasonable value of the self load (self weight) is assumed based on the
past experience at start and compared with the actual weight of
member at the end after design. Correction is made if necessary.

IMPOSED LOAD

All external loads, leaving the self weight acting on the member
to be designed are called imposed or superimposed loads, including
live loads, wind loads, seismic loads etc. part of dead load may also act
as imposed load (floor finishing).

SERVICE LOADS

The maximum intensity of the load expected during the service

life of the structure depending upon the certain probability of
occurrence is called service load. No additional factor of safety of
overload factor is included in service loads.

FACTORED LOADS

Service loads are increased by some factor of safety or overload

factor are called factored loads.

LIVE LOAD
 The load due to the persons occupying the building and their
belongings is called live load. It value and magnitude may be change
with the passage of time as according to its nature.

WIND LOAD

The wind pressure is exerted on the structure in different criteria

depending upon the direction, velocity, magnitude and intensity of
pressure. This pressure of wind is called wind load. Pressure is
calculated on the behalf of given conditions and added to service loads
coming on the structure.

BASIC DESIGN EQUATION

In design, the applied forces and moments due to external loads

are equated to the maximum resistive forces and moments that can be
developed within the material which is considered for design. External
loads produce bending moments, shear force, torque and axial forces.
Similarly internal reactive forces and moments are developed within
the material to balance the forces. So the basic design equation is
summarized as follow

Load Effects x Factor of Safety = Internal resistance of

material

FACTOR OF SAFETY

Factor of safety is required to bring the structure from state of

collapse to useable state. It covers the different aspects which are
expected during the service life of structure.

o Uncertainties in applied forces or loads

o Uncertainties in material strength
o To cover poor workmanship
o To cover unexpected behavior of structure
o To cover the natural disaster
o Residual stresses concentration beyond the level expected.
 In case of Allowable stress design method, the factor of Safety is
applied in the form of safety factor (), while in the case of LRFD
Design it is applied in the form of overloaded factor and Resistance
Factor (phi).

NOMINAL STRENGTH (Rn)

The strength of the structure or component to resist load effects,

determined by using the formulae given in the specifications.

LRFD DESIGN METHOD

The method of design in which service loads are increased by

applying major part of the factor of safety to get the increased
load(factored load) and the material strength is divided by the minor
part of that is called LRFD Method of Design, Ultimate Design or Limit
State Design. Analysis of structure for loads is performed considering
the structure to be within elastic range. However inelastic behavior of
materials, ultimate failure modes and redistribution of forces after the
elastic range are considered in this method. So this is more realistic
design method as compare to old Allowable stress Design method.

ULTIMATE OR FACTORED LOAD:

The major part of the factor of safety is applied to the service

loads to get the increased loads called Ultimate of Factored Loads.

OR

The increased load got by applying the major part of factor of safety to
services load is called Ultimate or Factored load.

OVERLOADED FACTOR

The factor of safety by which the service load is increased to get

the factored load is called overloaded factor.

RESISTANCE FACTOR (PHI)

The portion of factor of safety/the reduction factor by which the

material strength is lightly adjusted is called Resistance Factor.
LIMIT STATE

Limit state is defined as the limiting stage in the loading after

which the structure cant fulfill its intended function due to strength of
serviceability consideration.

REQUIRED STRENGTH (Ru)

Any particular load effect increased by the load factors is called

required strength.

NOMINAL STRENGTH (Rn)

The resistive strength which is produced within the material to

resist the effects of external loads is called Nominal strength.

DESIGN STRENGTH (Rn)

The nominal strength reduced by the minor part of the factor of

safety is called Design Strength.

LRFD DESIGN EUATION

The design equation of LRFD method is as follow,

Required Strength </= (Resisting factor x Nominal strength)