Powder compactation and sitering

Powder metallurgy is a metal processing technology in which parts are produced from metal powders.
Relatively new technology that is gaining more prominence, due to the search to use the fair amounts of
material, with a minimum or without waste of the same in chips due to the machining.
It is a process of manufacture that starting from fine powders and after their compaction to give them a
determined form, they are heated in controlled atmosphere to obtain the piece.
Introduction:
The powders are then compressed to give them the desired shape and then heated to cause the particles
to bond into a hard and rigid mass. The compression, called pressing, is performed on a press machine
whose tools are designed specifically for the part to be produced. The tools, consisting of a die and one or
more punches can be expensive, so this process is recommended for the production of large series of
parts, medium or high levels of production. The heat treatment, called sintering, is performed at a
temperature below the melting point of the metal.
Some typical products are bearings, camshafts, cutting tools, piston rings, valve guides, filters, etc.
Process:
1. Obtaining Powders:
It is generally made from pure metals, mainly iron, copper, tin, aluminum, nickel and titanium, alloys such
as brass, bronze, steels and stainless steels or pre-alloyed powders. Typical processes are:

Atomization in liquid state: The molten metal is poured through a refractory funnel into an
atomizing chamber, passing it through water spray jets.
Atomization with expendable electrodes (electrolysis): Bars or sheets are placed as anodes in a
tank containing an electrolyte. Current is applied and after 48 hours a dust deposit of approximately
2mm is obtained at the cathodes. The cathodes are removed and the electrolytic powders are
rubbed.
Reduction of metal oxides: Metal oxides are reduced to metal powders by contacting the reducing
gas at a lower temperature than the melting temperature.
Metal vapor condensation: Applicable in metals that can be boiled by condensing steam in the
form of powder (magnesium, cadmium and zinc).

Fig. 1 Atomization in liquid state, 2 Atomization with expendable electrodes (electrolysis)

2. Combination and mixing:

In order to obtain good results in compaction and sintering, it is necessary to homogenize the metal
powders. For this, the powders must be mixed and combined. Mixing refers to the mixture of powders of
the same chemical composition, but possibly with different particle sizes and the combination refers to the
mixture of powders having different chemical composition.
The purpose of mixing:
 Obtain uniformity, since the powders manufactured by the different processes have different sizes
and shapes. The ideal mixture is one in which all the particles of each material are evenly
distributed.
It allows to introduce powders of different materials, including metals, to impart properties and
special physical and mechanical characteristics to the product.
It allows to mix lubricants with the powders, thanks to this it can improve its flow characteristics.
There is less friction between the metal particles, there is a better flow of the powdered metals
towards the molds, and a longer life of the dies. The lubricants which are frequently used are stearic
acid or zinc stearate in the proportion of 0.25 to 5% by weight.
This stage is performed by mechanical means:

Fig.3 Mixing devices

Most metal powders tend to react with the oxygen in the environment thus generating a flame in most
cases. Like Aluminum, Magnesium, Titanium, Zirconium and Thorium. So, they are handled with caution,
and to contain them are normally used controlled rooms.
3. Compaction:
In this process, high pressure is applied to the powders, to obtain the required shape, by pressing in which
opposing punches tighten the powder contained in a die or die in a mold. Mechanical or hydraulic presses
are used in a matrix, resulting in a form known as a green or compacted raw part. The pressing is usually
done at room temperature, although it can also be done at high temperatures.

The objectives of compaction are to obtain the shape, density and contact between particles
necessary for the compacted to have sufficient strength and can be further processed. Thanks to
the pressing the density of the compacted is greater than the initial volumetric density, tending to
that of the solid metal. The green resistance is suitable for handling, but much lower than that
achieved after sintering.
This applied pressure initially produces a re-packing of the powders in a more efficient arrangement,
eliminates the bridges that occur during filling, reduces pore space and increases the point of contact
between the particles. During this pressure increase, the particles are deformed plastically, causing the
inter-particular area of contact to increase and additional particles to contact. This is accompanied by a
subsequent reduction of pore volume.
a) Uniaxial pressing
It is the most used press, in which the pressure is applied to the powder in only one direction. This presents
limitations on the geometry of the crude compacted because the metallic powders do not flow easily in
direction perpendicular to the application of the pressure.
 Fig.4 Uniaxial pressing
The pressure is applied in all directions against the dusts contained in a flexible mold. Hydraulic pressure is
used to achieve compaction, double piston presses. Isostatic pressing can be done in two ways: cold
isostatic pressing and hot isostatic pressing
Double piston presses are used:

Cold Isostatic Pressing, CIP: A method of compaction that is performed by sealing the powder in
elastic molds typically made of rubber, latex or PVC that are oversized to compensate for shrinkage.
Hydrostatic pressure is applied by a fluid which may be water or oil. The green pieces obtained by
this system have uniform and isotropic properties. It has disadvantages since it is very difficult to
achieve a good dimensional accuracy in the isostatic pressing, due to the flexibility of the mold.
Accordingly, forming and finishing operations are required before or after sintering to obtain the
required dimensions. It is a very used method for the compaction of ceramic pieces.

Hot Isostatic Pressing, HIP: It is carried out under high pressure and temperature, using as gas
compression medium a gas that can be argon or helium, being carried out in a single step the
pressing and sintering. Despite this apparent advantage, it is a relatively expensive process and its
applications appear to be currently concentrated in the aerospace industry. The mold containing the
powders is made of metal foil to withstand high temperatures. The parts made by this process are
characterized by their high density (porosity close to 0), complete inter-particular bonding and good
mechanical resistance.

4. Sintered:
Is the process of heating the raw tablets in a controlled atmosphere furnace to a temperature below the
melting point, but high enough (0.7 to 0.9 of the melting point) to Allowing the adhesion (fusion) of the
individual particles, thus increasing their strength and strength.
The green compact consists of many different particles having their own surface, therefore the total surface
contained in the compacted is very high. Under the influence of heat, the area is reduced by the formation
and growth of the bonds between the particles, implying a reduction of surface energy. The finer the initial
powder, the higher the area of the total area and the larger the force that moves the process. The main
variables of the sintering are the temperature, the time and the atmosphere of the furnace. The sintering
times range from a minimum of 10 min., For iron and copper alloys, up to 8 hours for tungsten and
tantalum.
In general, the ovens are continuous with three chambers:

A burn chamber to volatilize the lubricants of the raw tablet, to improve adhesion resistance and
prevent breakage.
In the high temperature chamber, the solid-state diffusion compacted particles are bonded together.
In the cooling chamber the temperature of the sintered product is lowered.

Throughout the process, maintaining a controlled atmosphere is essential to avoid:

Rapid oxidation of small metal particles as temperatures rise in the presence of oxygen. For this,
reducing atmospheres based on hydrogen, dissociated ammonia and nitrogen are used.
Provide a reducing atmosphere to remove existing oxides.
Aid in the removal of the lubricants and binders used in the pressing

Conventional sintering is a solid-state sintering, in which the metal is sintered at a temperature below its
melting point. In systems involving a mixture of two metal powders, where there is a melting temperature
difference between the two metals, an alternative type of sintering, called liquid phase sintering, is used.
Liquid phase sintering: In this process, the two initial powders are mixed and then heated to a
temperature high enough to melt the lower melting point metal, but not the other. The molten metal
perfectly moistens the solid particles, creating a dense structure with strong bonds between the metals
once solidified. Prolonged heating may generate the metal alloy by a gradual dissolution of the solid
particles into the liquid metal or the diffusion of the liquid metal into the solid, depending on the metals
involved. In any case, the resulting product is completely densified (no pores) and strong. Examples of
systems involving liquid phase sintering are: Fe-Cu, W-Cu and Cu-Co.

Fig.6 Conventional sequence of powder metallurgy process

Secondary and Finishing Operations:

In order to improve the properties of powder metallurgy products or to impart special characteristics,
several operations can be carried out after sintering.

Coining and sizing, are compacting operations under high pressure, in presses. The objectives of
these operations are to impart accuracy in the dimensions of the sintered part and to improve its
strength and surface finish, through greater densification.
Impregnation, in order to penetrate the porous network of the material, either with oil, bearing case,
or with molten metal when the material is not desired to be porous. A characteristic application is to
impregnate the sintered part with oil, usually by immersing it in hot oil.
Infiltration is a process in which a lower melting point mass is supported against the sintered part,
and then the assembly is heated to a temperature sufficient to melt the mass. The molten metal is
infiltrated by the pores by capillary action, and a relatively pore free part is produced, with good
density and strength.
Parts made with powder metallurgy can be subjected to other finishing operations, such as the following:

Thermal treatments to improve strength and hardness

Machining to produce various geometric characteristics by milling, drilling and hammering
(production of threaded holes),
Grinding, to increase dimensional accuracy and surface finish, deposition to improve appearance
and impart resistance to wear and corrosion.

Fig.7. Conventional PM process (Kerns, 2016)

Advantages of Powder Metallurgy Disadvantages of Powder Metallurgy:

 Dimensional accuracy and good finish,
reducing waste, cuttings and saving
energy.
Very little material waste, about 97% of
the initial powders are converted into
product. This compares favorably with the
casting processes in which castings,
feeders and bearings are waste material
in each production cycle.
Parts impossible by other methods,
controlled porosity, mixture of metals and
non-metals. Tungsten is an example; The
tungsten filaments used in incandescent
lamps are manufactured using PM
technology.
Powder metallurgy compares favorably
with most casting processes in terms of
dimensional control of products. Routine
tolerances that can be achieved are
0.005 "( 0.13 mm).
High cost of compacted matrices.
High cost of metallic powders, compared
to raw materials for melting or forging.
Difficulties in the storage and handling of
metal powders (such as metal
degradation over time and fire hazards of
fine powdered metal).
Design limitations: uniform section in the
direction of compacting, limited
slenderness, etc.
The resulting mechanical properties, such
as strength and ductility, are usually lower
than those obtained with the slab.
However, the properties of parts made
from powder metallurgy up to total density
using hot or isostatic pressing techniques
can be as good as those made with other
processes.

Powder Metallurgy Companies:

FILARET S.A: Activities of forging, pressing, stamping and rolling of metals; Powder metallurgy,
production of metal objects directly from metal powders that undergo heat treatment (sintering) or
compression.
Conclusions:

The success of powder metallurgy depends to a large extent on the characteristics of the initial
powders. The products that are usually made with powder metallurgy techniques range from tiny
spheres for pens, gears, cams and bushings; Porous products, such as oil-impregnated filters and
bearings, to a variety of automotive parts (which now make up 70% of the powder metallurgy
market), such as piston rings, valve guides, connecting rods and hydraulic pistons.
A common car today contains, on average, 11 kg of precision metal parts made by powder
metallurgy.
Powder metallurgy has become competitive with processes such as casting, forging and machining,
especially for relatively complex parts made from high strength and hard alloys. Currently the
advance of the technology allows to manufacture structural parts of airplanes, such as landing gear,
engine supports, engine impellers and engine compartments.
Bibliography:

Kalpakjian-Schmid. (n.d.). Manufactura, Ingenieraa y Tecnologa . Prentice Hall.

Kerns, J. (2016, Noviembre 16). MachineDesign Web . Retrieved from
http://machinedesign.com/metals/powder-metallurgy-processes
Palacios, R. (2016, Noviembre 17). Temas Pulverimetalurgia. Retrieved from
http://www.utp.edu.co/~publio17/temas_pdf/pulvimet.pdf