AU-AG-TE VEIN DEPOSITS

(MODEL 22b; Cox and Bagby, 1986)

by Karen D. Kelley, Theodore J. Armbrustmacher, and
Douglas P. Klein

SUMMARYOF RELEVANT GEOLOGIC, GEOENVIRONMENTAL, AND

GEOPHYSICAL INFORMATION
Deposit geology
Deposits consist of native gold and (or) gold-silver telluride minerals in high-grade
quartz veins and (or) low-grade, near surface disseminated native gold and pyrite
(with or without telluride minerals) in permeable host rocks.
Porphyritic alkaline igneous rocks, many of which display explosive-magmatic
features (diatremes, breccia pipes, or stockworks), are spatially and perhaps
genetically associated with the deposits. Veins are localized along fracture zones;
some veins are concentrated at intersections of crosscutting structural features.
Disseminated deposits are commonly adjacent to major structures. Although wall-
rock alteration associated with veins is restricted (fig. 1), alteration associated with
disseminated deposits may be widespread within or near igneous centers.

Examples
Vein-type deposits: Cripple Creek, La Plata, Boulder County, and Rosita, Colo.;
Horn Silver, Silver Queen, Sulphurets Camp, British Columbia, Canada; Judith
Mountains (Warm Springs, Spotted Horse), Little Rocky Mountains (Zortman-
Landusky), Golden Sunlight, Mont.; northern Black Hills (Annie Creek, Foley
Ridge, and Richmond Hill), S. Dak.; White Oaks and Ortiz, N. Mex.; Emperor,
Fiji; Musariu, Sacaramb, Romania.
Disseminated deposits: Cripple Creek, Colo.; Zortman-Landusky, Golden Sunlight,
Mont.; Ortiz, N. Mex.; northern Black Hills, S. Dak.; Ladolam, Lahir Island;
Porgera, Papua New Guinea.

Spatiallyand (or) geneticall yrelated deposit types

Associated deposit types (Cox and Singer, 1986) include alkaline porphyry copper
(Model 17), porphyry gold-copper (Model 20c), polymetallic veins (Model 22c),
polymetallic replacement (Model 19a), placer gold (Model 39a), distal
disseminated silver-gold (Model 19c; Cox, 1992).

Potentialenvironmental considerations
1. Vein deposits are mined dominantly by underground operations; vein clusters
are mined in open-pits. Low-grade disseminated deposits are mined by open-
pit operations. Most of these mining activities involve rocks with relatively
low sulfur (in sulfide minerals) and high tellurium contents. Abundant
carbonate minerals in alteration and gangue assemblages (and high CO2
contents currently venting in some underground mines, for example Cripple
Creek, Colo.) associated with these deposits create high acid-buffering
 capacity.
2. Water draining these deposits has low metal contents because pH is neutral to
near-neutral. In areas underlain by rocks with low acid-buffering capacity,
water draining open-pit mines may have elevated concentrations of iron,
arsenic, copper, manganese, and zinc.
3. Soluble secondary minerals, including sulfate minerals, could cause short-
term pulses of acidic, metal-bearing water from mine sites.

Exploration geophysics
Aeromagnetic and gravity studies (Kleinkopf and others, 1970) at Cripple Creek,
Colo., show that geophysical anomalies are correlated with alteration intensity.
Distribution of pyrite and clay in altered rock can be studied using induced
polarization/resistivity. Brecciation, fracturing, and faulting associated with
volcanic centers create pathways for pore water, oxidation of magnetite, and
alteration of primary minerals to clay. Rock in these areas has low density,
magnetization, and resistivity that can be identified by gravity, magnetic, and
electromagnetic or direct current resistivity surveys. Potassic alteration and uranium
and thorium in alkalic igneous rocks can be mapped by gamma-ray spectrometry.
Aerial gamma-ray surveys (Pitkin and Long, 1977) identify anomalous potassium
radiation associated with deposits at Cripple Creek, Colo. Alteration assemblages
may be identified with multispectral remote sensing. Taranik (1990) successfully
mapped the distribution of supergene iron oxide minerals using this technique. In
addition, Livo (1994) characterized the distribution and nature of hydrothermal
alteration using remote sensing techniques.
Figure 1. A, Conceptual model for a Au-Te system (based on Cripple Creek, Colo.;
Pontius, 1992). Native gold and pyrite-rich disseminated deposits may be lateral or
upper level equivalents to vein deposits. B, Vein-related wall-rock alteration
(Thompson and others, 1985).
References
Kelly and Goddard (1969), Witkind (1973), Giles (1983), Mutschler and others
(1985), Porter and Ripley (1985),
Thompson and others (1985), Kay (1986), Saunders (1986), Ahmad and others
(1987), Birmingham (1987), Afifi
and others (1988), Saunders (1991), Pontius (1992), and Mutschler and Mooney
(1995).

GEOLOGIC FACTOR S THAT INFLUENC EPOTENTIA LENVIRONMENTA

LEFFECTS
Deposit size
Typically 1-2 Mt (0.3-0.6 oz per ton) for vein deposits. Cripple Creek, Colo., one
of the World's largest gold- telluride vein systems, has produced 41 Mt (average,
0.5 oz per ton); disseminated bulk minable deposits range from 32 Mt (0.037 oz
per ton) at Cripple Creek to 66 mt (0.03 oz per ton) at Zortman-Landusky, Mont.

Host rocks
Most gold-silver-tellurium deposits are hosted in alkalic, silica-undersaturated
rocks such as syenite, monzonite, diorite, phonolite, monchiquite, or vogesite; less
common host rocks include silica-undersaturated low-titanium basalt (shoshonite).
Except for calcic plagioclase, these rocks contain minerals with minimal acid
buffering capacity.

Surroundin ggeologic terrane

Most gold-silver-tellurium deposits are associated with the late phases of
orogenesis or failed rifting events; most deposits in the United States are along the
eastern edge of the area affected by Laramide deformation and are in terranes
composed of a variety of rock types, including metasedimentary, metavolcanic,
carbonate, and volcanic rocks of diverse ages.

Wall-rock alteration
Alteration results from pre-ore igneous activity, vein-type mineralization, or
disseminated gold and pyrite mineralization.
Igneous-related alteration: Argillization and dolomitization are characterized by
weak to moderate clay alteration, sericitization, and minor recementing by
dolomite; this type of alteration creates broad zones of increased permeability
along major structures.
Vein-type deposits (fig. 1): Alteration is most extensively developed along vein
junctions. Inner zone primarily consists of dolomite, adularia, sericite,
roscoelite, and pyrite. Outer zone primarily consists of montmorillonite,
sericite, adularia, magnetite, pyrite, and carbonate; this zone is typically 1 to 5
times (Cripple Creek, Colo.) vein width but locally extends as much as 20 times
vein width (Boulder County).
Disseminated deposits: Potassium feldspar-pyrite alteration is characterized by
pervasive flooding of fine-grained sanidine, orthoclase, and adularia along with
moderate to strong sericitization and fine- to medium-grained pyrite. This
alteration is most prominent in the broad vuggy permeable zones within 300 m of
the surface. Strong potassium feldspar alteration creates a hardened porcelainous
rock that resembles jasperoid.

Nature of ore
Vein deposits are usually high-grade but may be small and erratically distributed.
Nearly all gold production from these deposits is from gold- and gold-silver
telluride minerals. Base metals are infrequently present and are volumetrically
minor. Most veins are structurally-controlled. Some structural zones display
extensive vertical continuity; mineralized rock, with little evidence of mineralogic
zoning or grade variation, can extend to depths of 1,000 m or more (Cripple Creek,
Colo.). Lower-grade disseminated deposits containing native gold and auriferous
pyrite may also be confined to structural intersections or major shear zones.
Lower-grade deposits are best developed in permeable wall rocks, mostly igneous
rocks or vent breccias, within 300 m of the surface.

Deposit trace element geochemistry

Trace element geochemical signatures depend on telluride mineralogy, but primary
enrichments include Ag, As, Au, Ba, Bi, Cu, F, Fe, Hg, Mo, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Te, V,
and Zn. Both types of deposits appear to have had abundant CO 2 distributed
throughout their vertical extent; deeper workings (Cripple Creek, Colo.) currently
vent extensive amounts of CO 2 along major veins. These deposits are characterized
by relatively low sulfur (in sulfide minerals) abundances, and usually by Au>Ag.

Ore and gangue mineralogy and zonation

Vein-type deposits: Ore minerals include gold-silver telluride minerals (calaverite,
sylvanite), native gold and (or) native tellurium, and other telluride minerals (most
commonly krennerite, petzite, hessite, coloradoite, melonite, altaite, tetradymite).
Deposits also contain variable amounts of common base metal sulfide and
sulfosalt minerals (pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, and tetrahedrite); some
deposits contain cinnabar. Gangue minerals include adularia, chlorite, fluorite,
sericite, roscoelite, magnetite, hematite, barite, celestite, and carbonate minerals.
The generalized paragenesis includes early base-metal sulfide minerals, followed
by telluride minerals (with or without native tellurium), hypogene native gold, and
late-stage cinnabar. Quartz, fluorite, and pyrite are present throughout the
sequence.
Disseminated deposits: Ore minerals are native gold, auriferous pyrite (as much as
2-3 percent), and occasionally telluride minerals (sylvanite, Zortman-Landusky,
Mont.), although telluride minerals are often absent (Cripple Creek, Colo.).
Gangue minerals include quartz, adularia, and fluorite.

Mineral characteristics
Carbonate minerals and quartz are dominant in banded, symmetrical veins. Ore
minerals form groups of blades or small masses and locally, open-space fillings in
vugs. In veins, complex intergrowths of several telluride minerals are common. In
some case, minerals are so complexly intergrown that they cannot be easily
identified. Breccia- filling textures are common in some deposits. Vein ore ranges
from fine grained (0.01 to 1.5 mm) to coarse-grained, bladed crystals (0.5 to 2
cm). Low-grade disseminated deposits consist of microcrystalline native gold and
pyrite disseminated in permeable host rocks.

Secondar ymineralogy
Telluride minerals are easily destroyed by weathering. Some tellurium is
redeposited as green oxide minerals (emmonsite). Native gold is deposited during
supergene enrichment of some deposits. Late hydrothermal activity and oxidation
of some deposits extends to depths of 30 to 180 m (Cripple Creek, Colo.;
Zortman-Landusky, Mont.) and in others to depths of only 1.5 to 15 m (Boulder,
Colo.). The depth of oxidation generally depends on the openness and
permeability of vein structures. Late hydrothermal activity deposits a variety of
sulfate minerals along with jarosite, anhydrite, opal, and chalcedony. A variety of
iron (limonite) and manganese oxide minerals results from oxidation. Dolomite
formed during early igneous-related activity and present within the oxidized zone
may be leached during oxidation. Gott and others (1969) found that secondary
geochemical dispersion results in anomalies of gold, silver, and tellurium,
accompanied by enrichments of iron, lead, mercury, antimony, arsenic, and
vanadium. A manganese-enriched outer halo is present commonly.

Topography, physiography
Alkaline intrusive and associated volcanic rocks commonly form topographic
highs. However, if igneous-activity- related alteration, including argillization and
dolomitization, is prevalent, broad high permeability zones, which are highly
susceptible to increased erosion, may result. Alteration related to vein type
mineralization is restricted in spatial extent and probably does not contribute to
enhanced erosion.

Hydrology
Since these deposits are commonly structurally controlled, ground water flow is
focused along high permeability structures. Numerous historic underground
workings, typical of some districts, also control water recharge and discharge. Pre-
mining ground water oxidizes rock to significant depths, for instance, 180 m at
Cripple Creek.
Contacts between igneous rocks and surrounding wall rock constitute significant
ground water conduits. Since deposits are typically located at topographic highs
associated with volcanic rocks, surface water flows radially away in all directions.

Mining and milling methods

Historic: Most historic operations involved underground workings along veins. Ore
was processed by stamp mills, followed by mercury amalgamation or cyanide vat
leaching. The second largest cyanide mill in the world was at one time located in
Ruby Gulch (near the current Zortman-Landusky, Mont., mine).
Modern: Most modern operations are open-pit mines that exploit vein clusters or
disseminated gold along major structures. Ore is processed primarily by cyanide
heap leaching.

ENVIRONMENTA LSIGNATURES
Drainage signatures
Natural drainage water: The only data concerning the geochemistry of natural
water draining gold-silver-telluride veins are those for the Zortman-Landusky,
Mont., deposit; data are part of environmental impact studies (Scott Haight, U.S.
Bureau of Land Management office, Lewistown, Mont., oral commun., 1995;
Zortman-Landusky area Environmental Impact Statement, 1995). Pre-mining
(pre-1979) data from the Zortman-Landusky area indicate the
following:
1. Surface water was slightly acidic to slightly alkaline (pH 6.9 to 8.4) and
contained low dissolved constituent concentrations, including 8 to 134 mg/l
sulfate, 0.002 to 0.01 mg/l arsenic, 0.011 to 0.17 mg/l iron, and 0.01 mg/l
zinc.
2. Groundwater was slightly acidic to slightly alkaline (pH 6.5 to 8.0) and
contained low to moderate dissolved constituent concentrations, including 2
to 186 mg/l sulfate, 0.005 to 0.31 mg/l arsenic, 0.021 to 11 mg/l iron, and
0.005 to 0.88 mg/l zinc. Relatively higher concentrations of sulfate and
metals in some water samples are due to the presence of shale, which has
naturally high concentrations of sulfate and metals, in some drainage areas.
3. Elevated concentrations of a rsenic in some groundwater indicates that
alluvial groundwater had been affected by historic, those conducted prior to
open pit mining, mining activities.
Mine drainage water: Most mine water is neutral (pH 7 to 8), but slightly
acidic water (pH 6.0 to 6.9) has been reported near the Zortman-Landusky,
Mont., mine (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1990). Most water
draining fro m mines has low concentrations of total dissolved metals
(Zn+Cu+Cd+Co+Ni+Pb <100 g/l) (Plumlee and others, 1993) but may have
elevated concentrations of zinc (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1990;
Keffelew, 1995). Other metals, including iron, arsenic, copper, and manganese
rarely are present in high concentrations but may be present at abundances that
exceed Federal Secondary Drinking Water Standards (U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1990). At Cripple Creek, Colo., extensive areas of
dolomitized rock, mostly at deep levels, and CO2 , that is currently outgassing ,
 buffer acidic solutions (Jeff Pontius, Pikes Peak Mining Company, oral and
written commun., 1995). At Zortman-Landusky, surrounding carbonate rocks
quickly buffer slightly acidic water (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
1990).
Potentially economically recoverable elements: Scandium abundances in
Cripple Creek, Colo., mine drainage are relatively high and may represent an
economically recoverable commodity (Geoff Plumlee, oral commun., 1995).
Metal mobility from solid mine wastes
Metal mobility away from gold-tellurium deposits may be l imited if abundant
carbonate rock, alteration assemblages, and (or) gangue minerals are associated
with deposits. Water quality data from wells and springs in the Zortman-
Landusky, Mont., area show that ground water in the area is hard to very hard,
alkaline (pH 7 to 7.5), and of the calcium carbonate type. Surface water from a
stream draining the waste and heap leach area is slightly acidic (pH 6 to 6.9) and
contains as much as 297g/l arsenic and 36 g/l cyanide (U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1990). Flow and water quality vary slightly with seasonal
precipitation rates. During spring runoff, one stream contained elevated manganese
abundances (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1990).

Soil, sediment signatures prior to mining

Because most gold-tellurium deposits in the United States have been mined by
underground and (or) placer mining methods since the late 1800s, including for
instance, Boulder County and Cripple Creek, Colo., and Zortman- Landusky,
Mont., pre-mining geochemical data for soil and sediment associated with these
deposits are rare.
However, data obtained in 1978, before initiation of open-pit mining and heap
leaching operations, as part of the National Uranium Resource Evaluation program,
are available for the Zortman-Landusky, Mont., area. Stream sediment samples
collected from streams wit hin 5 km of and draining mineralized areas contain <5 to
12 ppm silver,
0.04 to 0.4 ppm gold, <5ppm cadmium, 18 to 81 ppm copper, 1.4 to 4.2 weight
percent iron, 200 to 2,020 ppm manganese, 7 to 197 ppm lead, and 70 to 1,131
ppm zinc (Shannon, 1980).

Potential environmental concerns associated with mineral processing

Mercury amalgamation of ore during historic operations may represent a source of
mercury contamination not directly associated with these mineral deposits.
Historic cyanide milling operations at Zortman-Landusky, Mont., discharged waste
water to watercourses (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1990). Most modern
heap leach operations rinse heap-leach residues, barren ore, remaining after the leac
hing cycle with fresh water to remove residual cyanide. Residues are left on heap
leach pads. Heap leach and other cyanide processing solutions are most likely to
include gold and silver cyanide complexes with lesser arsenic, antimony, nickel,
vanadium, and iron present as weak cyanide complexes.
Smelter signatures
No data currently available.

Climate effects on environmental signatures

The effects of various climate regimes on the geoenvironmental signature specific
to gold-silver-tellurium deposits are not known. However, in most cases the
intensity of environmental impact associated with sulfide-mineral-bearing mineral
deposits is greater in wet climates than in dry climates. Acidity and total metal
concentrations in mine drainage in arid environments are several orders of
magnitude greater than in more temperate climates because of the concentrating
effects of mine effluent evaporation and the resulting "storage" of metals and
acidity in highly soluble metal-sulfate-salt minerals. However, minimal surface
water flow in these areas inhibits generation of significant volumes of highly
acidic, metal-enriched drainage. Concentrated release of these stored contaminants
to local watersheds may be initiated by precipitation following a dry spell.

Geoenvironmental geophysics
Acid- or metal-bearing water resulting from pyrite oxidation has low resistivity and
consequently can be identified with electromagnetic or direct current induced
polarization/resistivity surveys and ground penetrating radar.
Structural and stratigraphic features such as faults, bedrock topography, buried
channels, and aquitards that affect water flow away from mine areas may be studied
using electromagnetic or direct current resistivity, seismic refraction or reflection,
magnetic, gravity, and ground penetrating radar surveys; water flow may be
monitored using self potential methods. The distribution of supergene iron oxide
and sulfate minerals, especially jarosite, as well as primary hematite may be
identified using remote sensing techniques.

REFERENCE SCITED
Afifi, A.M., Kelly, W.C., and Essene, E.J., 1988, Phase relations among tellurides,
sulfides, and oxides: II. Applications to telluride-bearing ore deposits:
Economic Geology, v. 83, p. 395-404.
Ahmad, M., Solomon, M., and Walshe, J.L., 1987, Mineralogical and geochemical
studies of the Emperor gold telluride deposit, Fiji: Economic Geology, v.
82, p. 345-370.
Birmingham, S.D., 1987, The Cripple Creek volcanic field, central Colorado:
Austin, University of Texas, M.S. thesis, 295 p.
Cox, D.P., 1992, Descriptive model of distal disseminated Ag-Au deposits, in
Bliss, J.D., ed., Developments in mineral deposit modeling: U.S.
Geological Survey Bulletin 2004, p. 20-22.
Cox, D.P., and Bagby, W.C., 1986, Descriptive model of Au-Ag-Te veins, in Cox,
D.P., and Singer, D.A., eds., Mineral deposit models: U.S. Geological
Survey Bulletin 1693, p. 124.
Cox, D.P., and Singer, D.A., 1986, Mineral deposit models: U.S. Geological
Survey Bulletin 1693, 379 p. Environmental Impact Statement (draft version),
1995, Zortman and Landusky mines, v. 2.
Giles, D.L., 1983, Gold mineralization in the laccolithic complexes of central
Montana, in Proceedings Denver Region Exploration Geologists Society
Symposium--The genesis of Rocky Mountain ore deposits: Changes with
time and tectonics: Denver Region Exploration Geology Society, Denver,
Colorado, p. 157-162.
Gott, G.B., McCarthy, J.H., Van Sickle, G.H., and McHugh, J.B., 1969,
Distribution of gold and other metals in the Cripple Creek district,
Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 625-A, p. A1-A17.
Kay, B.D., 1986, Vein and breccia gold mineralization and associated igneous
rocks at the Ortiz Mine, N. Mex., USA: Golden, Colorado School of
Mines, M.Sc. thesis, 170 p.
Keffelew, Berhan, 1995, Third party review of document entitled "Amendment
No. 6 to Office of Mined Land Reclamation, Permit M-80-244, response to
OMLR technical review, acid-base potential of Cresson mine overburden,
September 1994, 22 p.
Kelly, W.C., and Goddard, E.N., 1969, Telluride ores of Boulder County,
Colorado: Geological Society of America Memoir 109, 237 p.
Kleinkopf, M.D., Peterson, D.L., and Gott, G., 1970, Geophysical studies of the
Cripple Creek mining district, Colorado: Geophysics, v. 35, no. 3, p. 490-
500.
Livo, K.E., 1994, Use of remote sensing to characterize hydrothermal alteration of
the Cripple Creek area, Colorado: Golden, Colorado School of Mines, M.S.
thesis, 135 p.
Mutschler, F.E., Griffin, M.E., Stevens, D.S., and Shannon, S.S., Jr., 1985,
Precious metal deposits related to alkaline rocks in the North America
Cordillera--An interpretive review: Transactions of the Geological
Society of Africa, v. 88, p. 355-377.
Mutschler, F.E., and Mooney, T.C., 1995, Precious metal deposits related to
alkaline igneous rocks--provisional classification, grade-tonnage data,
and exploration frontiers: Geological Association of Canada Special
Paper--IAGOD 1990 Symposium on ore deposit models, 22 p.
Pitkin, J.A., and Long, C.L., 1977, Interpretation of data from an aerial gamma-
ray survey in the Cripple Creek district, Teller County, Colorado: U.S.
Geological Survey Open-File Report 77-534, 12 p.
Plumlee, G.S., Smith, K.S., Ficklin, W.H., Briggs, P.H., and McHugh, J.B., 1993,
Empirical studies of diverse mine drainages in Colorado: Implications for
the prediction of mine-drainage chemistry: Proceedings, Mined Land
Reclamation Symposium, Billings, Montana, p. 176-186.
Pontius, J.A., 1992, Gold mineralization within the Cripple Creek
diatreme/volcanic complex, Cripple Creek Mining district, Colorado, USA:
International Minexpo 92, Las Vegas, Nevada, October 18-22, 12 p.
Porter, E.W., and Ripley, E., 1985, Petrologic and stable isotope study of gold-
bearing breccia pipe at the Golden Sunlight deposit, Montana: Economic
 Geology, v. 80, p. 1689-1706.
Saunders, J.A., 1986, Petrology, mineralogy, and geochemistry of representative
gold telluride ores from Colorado: Golden, Colorado School of Mines,
Ph.D. thesis, 171 p.
_________1991, Gold deposits of the Boulder County Gold District, in Shawe,
D.R., and Ashley, R.P., eds., Epithermal gold deposits--part II: U.S.
Geological Survey Bulletin 1857-I, p. I137-I148.
Shannon, S.S., Jr., 1980, Uranium hydrogeochemical and stream sediment
reconnaissance data release for the Lewistown NTMS quadrangle,
Montana, including concentrations of forty-two additional elements: U.S.
Department of Energy Report GJBX-206 (80), 128 p.
Taranik, D.L., 1990, Remote detection and mapping of supergene iron oxides in
the Cripple Creek district: Boulder, University of Colorado, M.S. thesis,
103 p.
Thompson, T.B., Trippel, A.D., and Dwelley, P.C., 1985, Mineralized veins and
breccias of the Cripple Creek district, Colorado: Economic Geology, v. 80,
no. 6, p. 1669-1688.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1990, Preliminary assessment of the
Landusky mine (Zortman mine), Landusky, Montana: Environmental
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Artinya :
AU-AG-TE VEIN DEPOSITS
(MODEL 22b; Cox and Bagby, 1986)
Oleh Karen D. Kelley, Theodore J. Armbrustmacher, and
Douglas P. Klein

RINGKASAN INFORMASI GEOLOGI, GEOENVIRONMENTAL, DAN

GEOFISIKA YANG RELEVAN
Geologi deposit
Deposito terdiri dari emas asli dan (atau) mineral telluride emas-perak di urat kuarsa
kelas tinggi dan (atau) emas asli dan permukaan rendah yang diseminasi dengan emas
asli dan pirit (dengan atau tanpa mineral telluride) di batuan induk permeabel.
Batuan beku alkali porfiritik, banyak di antaranya menampilkan fitur magis eksplosif
(diatrem, pipa breksi, atau stockwork), bersifat spasial dan mungkin terkait secara
genetik dengan endapan. Vena dilokalisasi di sepanjang zona rekahan; Beberapa vena
terkonsentrasi di persimpangan fitur struktural crosscutting. Deposito disebarluaskan
biasanya bersebelahan dengan struktur utama. Meskipun perubahan dinding-batu yang
terkait dengan vena dibatasi (gambar 1), perubahan yang terkait dengan deposit yang
disebarluaskan dapat menyebar luas di dalam atau di dekat pusat beku.

Contoh
Deposito tipe nadi: Cripple Creek, La Plata, Boulder County, dan Rosita, Colo; Perak
Silver, Silver Queen, Sulphurets Camp, British Columbia, Kanada; Pegunungan Judith
(Warm Springs, Spotted Horse), Pegunungan Rocky Kecil (Zortman-Landusky), Golden
Sunlight, Mont; Utara Black Hills (Annie Creek, Foley Ridge, dan Richmond Hill), S.
Dak; White Oaks dan Ortiz, N. Mex; Kaisar, Fiji; Musariu, Sacaramb, Rumania.
Deposit yang disebarluaskan: Cripple Creek, Colo; Zortman-Landusky, Golden
Sunlight, Mont; Ortiz, N. Mex; Utara Black Hills, S. Dak; Ladolam, Pulau Lahir;
Porgera, Papua Nugini.

Secara spasial dan (atau) tipe deposit genetik terkait

Jenis deposit asosiasi (Cox and Singer, 1986) meliputi tembaga porfiri alkali (Model
17), tembaga emas porfiri (Model 20c), vein polimalik (Model 22c), penggantian
polimalikalik (Model 19a), emas placer (Model 39a), distal Emas perak disebarluaskan
(Model 19c; Cox, 1992).

Potensi pertimbangan lingkungan

1. Endapan vena ditambang secara dominan oleh operasi bawah tanah; Kelompok
vena ditambang di lubang terbuka. Deposito diseminata kelas rendah ditambang
oleh operasi lubang terbuka. Sebagian besar kegiatan penambangan ini
melibatkan batuan dengan sulfur yang relatif rendah (mineral sulfida) dan
kandungan telurium yang tinggi. Mineral karbonat yang melimpah dalam
kumpulan alterasi dan gangue (dan kandungan CO2 tinggi saat ini
melampiaskan beberapa tambang bawah tanah, misalnya Cripple Creek, Colo.)
Yang terkait dengan endapan ini menciptakan kapasitas penyangga asam tinggi.
2. Menguras air endapan ini memiliki kadar logam rendah karena pH netral
mendekati netral. Di daerah yang diliputi oleh batuan dengan kapasitas
 penyangga asam rendah, pengeringan air tambang terbuka dapat meningkatkan
konsentrasi besi, arsenik, tembaga, mangan, dan seng.
3. Mineral sekunder terlarut, termasuk mineral sulfat, dapat menyebabkan pulsa
jangka pendek dari air asam dan bantalan logam dari tempat tambang.

Eksplorasi geofisika
Studi aerobagnetik dan gravitasi (Kleinkopf dan lain-lain, 1970) di Cripple Creek, Colo,
menunjukkan bahwa anomali geofisika berkorelasi dengan intensitas alterasi. Distribusi
pirit dan tanah liat di batuan yang diubah dapat dipelajari dengan menggunakan
polarisasi / resistivitas induksi. Brecciation, fracturing, dan faulting yang terkait dengan
pusat vulkanik menciptakan jalur untuk air pori, oksidasi magnetit, dan alterasi mineral
primer ke tanah liat. Batu di daerah ini memiliki kerapatan, magnetisasi, dan resistivitas
rendah yang dapat diidentifikasi dengan survei resistivitas gravitasi, magnetik, dan
elektromagnetik atau arus langsung. Perubahan potasis dan uranium dan torium di
batuan beku alkali dapat dipetakan dengan spektrometri sinar gamma. Survei sinar
gamma udara (Pitkin and Long, 1977) mengidentifikasi radiasi potasium anomali yang
terkait dengan endapan di Cripple Creek, Colo. Kumpulan perubahan dapat
diidentifikasi dengan penginderaan jarak jauh multispektral. Taranik (1990) berhasil
memetakan distribusi mineral besi oksida supergen dengan menggunakan teknik ini.
Selain itu, Livo (1994) mencirikan distribusi dan sifat alterasi hidrotermal dengan
teknik penginderaan jarak jauh.
Gambar 1. A, Model konseptual untuk sistem Au-Te (berdasarkan Cripple Creek, Colo,
Pontius, 1992). Potongan emas asli yang kaya pirit dan pirit dapat setara lateral atau
tingkat atas dengan endapan vena. B, perubahan dinding-batu terkait Vein (Thompson
dan lain-lain, 1985).
Referensi
Kelly dan Goddard (1969), Witkind (1973), Giles (1983), Mutschler dan lain-lain
(1985), Porter dan Ripley (1985),
Thompson dan lain-lain (1985), Kay (1986), Saunders (1986), Ahmad dan lainnya
(1987), Birmingham (1987), Afifi
Dan lain-lain (1988), Saunders (1991), Pontius (1992), dan Mutschler dan Mooney
(1995).

FAKTOR GEOLOGI YANG MEMPENGARUHI DAMPAK LINGKUNGAN

LENVIRONMENTAL
Ukuran deposit
Biasanya 1-2 Mt (0,3-0,6 oz per ton) untuk endapan vena. Cripple Creek, Colorado,
salah satu sistem vena emas telluride terbesar di dunia, menghasilkan 41 Mt (rata-rata
0,5 oz per ton); Deposito curah hujan massal yang disebarluaskan berkisar dari 32 Mt
(0,037 oz per ton) di Cripple Creek sampai 66 mt (0,03 oz per ton) di Zortman-
Landusky, Mont.

Batuan Induk
Sebagian besar deposit emas-perak-telurium di-host di batuan alkali, silika-
undersaturated seperti syenite, monzonite, diorite, phonolite, monchiquite, atau
vogesite; Batuan inang yang kurang umum termasuk basalt titanium rendah tak berlapis
silika (shoshonite). Kecuali plagioklas calcic, batuan ini mengandung mineral dengan
kapasitas buffering asam minimal.

Terekstrusi geologi di sekitarnya

Sebagian besar deposit emas-perak-telurium dikaitkan dengan fase akhir orogenesis
atau gagal dalam peristiwa perpecahan; Sebagian besar simpanan di Amerika Serikat
berada di sepanjang tepi timur daerah yang terkena deformasi Laramide dan berada di
terran yang terdiri dari berbagai jenis batuan, termasuk batuan metasedimentary,
metavolcanic, carbonate, dan vulkanik beraneka ragam.

Perubahan dinding-batu
Hasil perubahan dari aktivitas beku pra-bijih, mineralisasi tipe vena, atau mineralisasi
emas dan pirit yang disebarluaskan. Perubahan terkait Igne: Argilikasi dan dolomitisasi
ditandai dengan perubahan tanah liat lemah, pelekatan, dan reduksi kecil oleh dolomit;
Perubahan jenis ini menciptakan zona luas permeabilitas yang meningkat di sepanjang
struktur utama. Deposito tipe Vein (gambar 1): Perubahan dikembangkan secara
ekstensif sepanjang sambungan vena. Zona dalam terutama terdiri dari dolomit,
adularia, serisit, roscoelite, dan pirit. Zona luar terutama terdiri dari montmorilonit,
serisit, adularia, magnetit, pirit, dan karbonat; Zona ini biasanya berukuran 1 sampai 5
kali (Cripple Creek, Colo.) Lebar pembuluh darah tapi secara lokal meluas sebanyak 20
kali lebar pembuluh darah (Boulder County). Endapan diseminata: Perubahan kalium
feldspar-pirit ditandai dengan banjir yang meluas dari sanidine, orthoclase, dan adularia
halus bersamaan dengan serisitisasi moderat hingga kuat dan pirit pahit halus sampai
sedang. Perubahan ini paling menonjol di zona permeabel vuggy yang luas dalam 300
m permukaan. Perubahan feldspar potasium yang kuat menciptakan batuan porselen
yang mengeras yang menyerupai jasperoid.
Sifat bijih
Depositin nadi biasanya bermutu tinggi tapi mungkin kecil dan tidak menentu. Hampir
semua produksi emas dari simpanan ini berasal dari mineral telluride emas dan emas.
Logam dasar jarang hadir dan secara volumetrik minor. Sebagian besar vena terkontrol
secara struktural. Beberapa zona struktural menampilkan kontinuitas vertikal yang luas;
Batu mineral, dengan sedikit bukti tentang zonasi mineralogika atau variasi kelas, dapat
berlanjut sampai kedalaman 1.000 m atau lebih (Cripple Creek, Colo.). Sampah
disebarluaskan kelas bawah yang mengandung emas asli dan pirit auriferous juga dapat
dibatasi pada persimpangan struktural atau zona geser utama. Deposito tingkat rendah
paling baik dikembangkan di dinding permeabel, sebagian besar batuan beku atau breksi
ventilasi, dalam jarak 300 m dari permukaan.

Jejak elemen deposit geokimia

Tanda tangan geokimia elemen jejak bergantung pada mineralogi telluride, namun
pengayaan primer meliputi Ag, As, Au, Ba, Bi, Cu, F, Fe, Hg, Mo, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Te,
V, dan Zn. Kedua jenis endapan tersebut tampaknya memiliki CO2 melimpah yang
tersebar sepanjang tingkat vertikalnya; Cara kerja yang lebih dalam (Cripple Creek,
Colo.) Saat ini melampiaskan sejumlah besar CO2 di sepanjang pembuluh darah besar.
Deposito ini ditandai dengan kelimpahan sulfur (dalam mineral sulfida) yang relatif
rendah, dan biasanya oleh Au> Ag.

Bijih dan mineral pengganggu dan zonasi

Deposito tipe vena: Mineral bijih meliputi mineral telluride emas-perak (calaverite,
sylvanite), emas asli dan (atau) telur asli, dan mineral telluride lainnya (paling umum
adalah krennerite, petzite, hessite, coloradoite, melonite, altaite, tetradymite). Simpanan
juga mengandung sejumlah variabel mineral sulfida logam dasar dan mineral sulfosal
(pirit, kalkopirit, sfalerit, galena, dan tetrahedrit); Beberapa deposit mengandung
cinnabar. Mineral gangue meliputi adularia, klorit, fluorit, serisit, roscoelite, magnetit,
hematit, barit, selestit, dan mineral karbonat. Paragenesis umum mencakup mineral
sulfida dasar-logam awal, diikuti oleh mineral telluride (dengan atau tanpa telurium
asli), emas asli hipogen, dan stadium akhir cinnabar. Kuarsa, fluorit, dan pirit hadir
sepanjang urutan.
Endapan diseminata: Mineral bijih adalah emas asli, pirit auriferous (sebanyak 2-3
persen), dan terkadang mineral telluride (sylvanite, Zortman-Landusky, Mont.),
Meskipun mineral telluride sering tidak ada (Cripple Creek, Colo.). Mineral gangue
meliputi kuarsa, adularia, dan fluorit.

Karakteristik mineral
Mineral karbonat dan kuarsa dominan di banded, vena simetris. Mineral bijih
membentuk kelompok pisau atau massa kecil dan lokal, tambalan terbuka di vugs.
Dalam pembuluh darah, keterkaitan kompleks beberapa mineral telluride sering terjadi.
Dalam beberapa kasus, mineral sangat rumit sehingga tidak mudah dikenali. Tekstur
mengisi kisi-kisi biasa terjadi pada beberapa simpanan. Bijih vena berkisar dari butir
halus (0,01 sampai 1,5 mm) sampai kristal berbutir kasar, berdiameter 0,5 sampai 2 cm.
Deposito diseminitas tingkat rendah terdiri dari emas asli mikrokristalin dan pirit yang
disebarluaskan di batuan inang permeabel.
Mineral Sekunder
Mineral Telluride mudah dihancurkan oleh pelapukan. Beberapa telurium dipreparasi
sebagai mineral oksida hijau (emmonsite). Emas asli diendapkan selama pengayaan
supergen beberapa deposit. Aktivitas hidrotermal yang terlambat dan oksidasi beberapa
deposit meluas sampai kedalaman 30 sampai 180 m (Cripple Creek, Colo; Zortman-
Landusky, Mont.) Dan di tempat lain sampai kedalaman 1,5 sampai 15 m (Boulder,
Colo.). Kedalaman oksidasi umumnya bergantung pada keterbukaan dan permeabilitas
struktur vena. Aktivitas hidrotermal akhir menyimpan berbagai mineral sulfat bersama
dengan jarosit, anhidrit, opal, dan kalsedon. Berbagai mineral besi (limonit) dan mineral
mangan oksida dihasilkan dari oksidasi. Dolomit terbentuk pada aktivitas awal yang
berhubungan dengan batuan dan berada di dalam zona teroksidasi dapat tercuci selama
oksidasi. Gott dan lain-lain (1969) menemukan bahwa penyebaran geokimia sekunder
menghasilkan anomali emas, perak, dan telurium, disertai dengan pengayaan besi,
timbal, merkuri, antimon, arsenik, dan vanadium. Sebuah mao yang diperkaya dengan
mangan hadir umumnya.

Topografi, fisiografi
Bahaya batuan vulkanik yang mengganggu dan basa-basi biasanya membentuk
topografi. Namun, jika perubahan aktivitas terkait pembebasan, termasuk argilasi dan
dolomitisasi, adalah lazim, zona permeabilitas luas yang tinggi, yang sangat rentan
terhadap erosi yang meningkat, dapat terjadi. Perubahan yang terkait dengan
mineralisasi jenis vena dibatasi dalam luas ruang dan mungkin tidak berkontribusi
terhadap erosi yang meningkat.

Hidrologi
Karena endapan ini umumnya terkontrol secara struktural, aliran air tanah difokuskan di
sepanjang struktur permeabilitas tinggi. Banyak pekerjaan bawah tanah bersejarah, khas
beberapa distrik, juga mengendalikan pengisian dan pembuangan air. Air tanah pra-
tambang mengoksidasi batuan sampai kedalaman yang signifikan, misalnya 180 m di
Cripple Creek.
Kontak antara batuan beku dan batuan dinding sekitarnya merupakan saluran air tanah
yang signifikan. Karena deposit biasanya terletak pada puncak topografi yang terkait
dengan batuan vulkanik, air permukaan mengalir secara radial ke segala arah.

Metode pertambangan dan penggilingan

Bersejarah: Sebagian besar operasi bersejarah melibatkan pekerjaan bawah tanah di
sepanjang pembuluh darah. Bijih diproses oleh pabrik perangko, diikuti penggabungan
merkuri atau pelepasan vili sianida. Pabrik sianida terbesar kedua di dunia pada satu
waktu terletak di Ruby Gulch (dekat Zortman-Landusky, Mont, tambang saat ini).
Modern: Sebagian besar operasi modern adalah tambang terbuka yang mengeksploitasi
kelompok vena atau emas disebarluaskan di sepanjang struktur utama. Bijih diproses
terutama dengan pencucian heksan sianida.
DAMPAK LINGKUNGAN
Dampak Drainase
Air drainase alami: Satu-satunya data mengenai geokimia air alami yang menguras
pembuluh darah emas-perak-telluride adalah deposit Zortman-Landusky, Mont. Data
adalah bagian dari studi dampak lingkungan (Scott Haight, Biro Pengelolaan Lahan
A.S., Lewistown, Mont, commun commun, 1995; Zortman-Landusky Environmental
Impact Statement, 1995). Data pra-penambangan (pra-1979) dari daerah Zortman-
Landusky menunjukkan bahwa berikut:
1. Permukaan air sedikit asam sampai sedikit basa (pH 6,9 sampai 8,4) dan
mengandung konsentrasi penyusun terlarut rendah, termasuk 8 sampai 134 mg /
l sulfat, 0,001 sampai 0,01 mg / l arsenik, 0,011 sampai 0,17 mg / l besi, dan
0,01 Mg / l seng
2. Air tanah sedikit asam sampai sedikit basa (pH 6,5 sampai 8,0) dan mengandung
konsentrat penyedot terlarut rendah sampai sedang, termasuk 2 sampai 186 mg /
l sulfat, 0,001 sampai 0,31 mg / l arsenik, 0,021 sampai 11 mg / l besi, dan 0,005
sampai 0,88 mg / l seng. Konsentrasi sulfat dan logam yang relatif lebih tinggi
dalam beberapa sampel air disebabkan oleh adanya serpih, yang memiliki
konsentrasi sulfat dan logam alami yang tinggi, di beberapa area drainase.
3. Peningkatan konsentrasi rsenik di beberapa air tanah mengindikasikan bahwa
airtanah aluvial telah terpengaruh oleh sejarah, yang dilakukan sebelum
melakukan penambangan terbuka, kegiatan penambangan. Air drainase
tambang: Kebanyakan air tambang netral (pH 7 sampai 8), namun sedikit air
asam (pH 6.0 sampai 6.9) telah dilaporkan di dekat Zortman-Landusky, Mont.,
Tambang (Badan Perlindungan Lingkungan A.S., 1990). Sebagian besar
pengairan air di tambang mint memiliki konsentrasi logam terlarut rendah (Zn +
Cu + Cd + Co + Ni + Pb <100 g / l) (Plumlee dan lain-lain, 1993) namun
mungkin memiliki konsentrasi seng yang meningkat (US Environmental
Protection Agency , 1990; Keffelew, 1995). Logam lainnya, termasuk besi,
arsenik, tembaga, dan mangan jarang hadir dalam konsentrasi tinggi namun
mungkin ada pada kelimpahan yang melebihi Standar Air Minum Sekunder
Federal (Badan Perlindungan Lingkungan A.S., 1990). Di Cripple Creek, Colo,
area batuan dolomitisasi yang luas, kebanyakan berada pada tingkat yang dalam,
dan CO2, yang saat ini sedang keluar, solusi asam buffer (Jeff Pontius, tombak
Peak Mining Company, komune lisan dan tulisan. 1995). Di Zortman-Landusky,
batuan karbonat di sekitarnya dengan cepat menyuap sedikit air asam (A.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1990). Potensi unsur yang dapat dipulihkan
secara ekonomi: Kelimpahan skandium di Cripple Creek, Colorado, drainase
tambang relatif tinggi dan mungkin merupakan komoditas yang dapat dipulihkan
secara ekonomi (Geoff Plumlee, communal oral, 1995).

Mobilitas logam dari limbah tambang padat

Mobilitas logam yang jauh dari endapan emas-telurium bisa di imited jika batuan
karbonat, kumpulan alterasi, dan (atau) mineral gangue terkait dengan deposit. Data
kualitas air dari sumur dan mata air di daerah Zortman-Landusky, Mont., Menunjukkan
bahwa air tanah di daerah sulit untuk sangat keras, basa (pH 7 sampai 7,5), dan jenis
kalsium karbonat. Air permukaan dari aliran yang mengalirkan area limbah dan
hembusan limbah sedikit asam (pH 6 sampai 6,9) dan mengandung arsen sebanyak
297g / l arsen dan 36 g / l sianida (Badan Perlindungan Lingkungan A.S., 1990). Arus
dan kualitas air sedikit berbeda dengan tingkat presipitasi musiman. Selama limpasan
musim semi, satu aliran mengandung kelimpahan mangan yang meningkat (Badan
Perlindungan Lingkungan A.S., 1990).

Tanah, endapan sedimen sebelum penambangan

Karena sebagian besar deposit emas-telurium di Amerika Serikat telah ditambang
dengan metode penambangan bawah tanah dan (atau) placer sejak akhir 1800-an,
termasuk Boulder County dan Cripple Creek, Colo, dan Zortman-Landusky, Mont., Pra-
Data geokimia pertambangan untuk tanah dan sedimen yang terkait dengan deposit ini
jarang terjadi.
Namun, data yang diperoleh pada tahun 1978, sebelum memulai operasi penambangan
terbuka dan operasi pelindian terbuka, sebagai bagian dari program Evaluasi Sumber
Daya Uranium Nasional, tersedia untuk wilayah Zortman-Landusky, Mont.,. Sampel
sedimen sungai yang dikumpulkan dari sungai dengan jarak 5 km dan daerah mineral
yang dikeringkan mengandung <5 sampai 12 ppm perak,
0,04-0,84 ppm emas, <5 ppm kadmium, tembaga 18 sampai 81 ppm, 1,4 sampai 4,2
persen berat besi, 200 sampai 2,020 ppm mangan, 7 sampai 197 ppm, dan 70 sampai
1.131 ppm seng (Shannon, 1980).

Potensi masalah lingkungan terkait dengan pengolahan mineral

Penggabungan bijih merkuri selama operasi bersejarah mungkin merupakan sumber
kontaminasi merkuri yang tidak terkait langsung dengan deposit mineral ini. Operasi
penggilingan sianida historis di Zortman-Landusky, Mont, membuang air limbah ke
saluran air (Badan Perlindungan Lingkungan A.S., 1990). Sebagian besar operasi
penyiraman heap modern membilas residu heap-leach, bijih tandus, tersisa setelah siklus
hibrida leac dengan air bersih untuk menghilangkan residu sianida. Residu dibiarkan di
bantalan leach tumpukan. Larutan heap dan larutan pengolahan sianida lainnya
kemungkinan besar mencakup kompleks sianida emas dan perak dengan arsen, antimon,
nikel, vanadium, dan besi yang lebih rendah sebagai kompleks sianida lemah.

Dampak peleburan
Tidak ada data yang tersedia saat ini.

Efek iklim terhadap dampak lingkungan

Efek dari berbagai rezim iklim pada tanda geoenvironmental yang spesifik untuk
deposit emas-perak-telurium tidak diketahui. Namun, dalam kebanyakan kasus,
intensitas dampak lingkungan yang terkait dengan deposit mineral mineral sulfida lebih
besar pada iklim basah daripada di daerah beriklim kering. Keasaman dan konsentrasi
logam total dalam drainase tambang di lingkungan gersang beberapa kali lipat lebih
besar daripada di daerah beriklim sedang karena efek pengonsepan penguapan limbah
cair dan "penyimpanan" logam dan keasaman yang dihasilkan pada mineral logam
sulfat-garam yang sangat larut . Namun, aliran air permukaan minimal di daerah ini
menghambat pembangkitan volume drainase logam yang sangat asam dan sangat kaya.
Pelepasan terkonsentrasi kontaminan yang tersimpan ini ke daerah aliran sungai
setempat dapat dimulai dengan presipitasi mengikuti mantra kering.
Geofisika geoenvironmental
Air asam atau logam yang dihasilkan dari oksidasi pirit memiliki resistivitas rendah dan
akibatnya dapat diidentifikasi dengan survei polarisasi / resistivitas induksi
elektromagnetik atau arus masuk langsung dan radar penetrasi darat.
Fitur struktural dan stratigrafi seperti kesalahan, topografi batuan dasar, saluran yang
terkubur, dan aquitards yang mempengaruhi aliran air dari daerah tambang dapat
dipelajari dengan menggunakan resistivitas elektromagnetik atau arus searah, refraksi
seismik atau refleksi, magnet, gravitasi, dan survei radar penetrasi darat; Aliran air dapat
dipantau dengan menggunakan metode potensial sendiri. Distribusi mineral oksida besi
supergen dan mineral sulfat, terutama jarosit, serta hematit utama dapat diidentifikasi
dengan menggunakan teknik penginderaan jarak jauh.

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