09-09-10 Senior Welding Inspection Preparatory for CSWIP 3.2 The Weldability of Steel Course Lecturers Notes Tony Whitaker Inc? Eng. M Weld I. EWE. IWE. EWI IWL LCG Principal Lecturer/Examiner TWI 1yiddle GastThe Weldability of Steel In general, the term weldability of materials can be defined as: “The ability of a material to be welded by the common welding processes, and retain the properties for which it has been designed” ‘Thus evaluating weldability can involve many factors depending on material type, process and the mechanical properties desired. Welding engineers engaged mainly in the welding of C/Mn steels often define weldability purely in terms of carbon equivalent (Cov), however this is a very narrow application of this tem. Poor weldability is generally due to an occurrence of a type of cracking problem, although when considering all types of welding processes i.e. Fusion and Solid State all steels have a degree of weldability. When considering any type of weldment cracking mechanism there are three essential elements to be present in sufficient magnitude prior to an occurrence: LD) AStress 2) Restraint 3) A Susceptible (Weakened) Microstructure J) Residual stress is always present in weldments, through local expansion & contraction. 2) Restraint may be a local restriction, or when welding a partly welded structure. 3) The microstructure is often made susceptible to cracking by the process of welding, ‘The types of cracking mechanism and welding problems prevalent in steels in which the Senior Welding Inspector should have some knowledge are: a. Hydrogen induced HAZ cracking (C/Mn and Low alloy steels) b. Hydrogen induced weld metal cracking (HSLA steels) c. Hydrogen induced weld and HAZ cracking (Q/T steels) d. _ Solidification cracking (All steels) e. Liquation cracking (All steels) f Lamellar tearing (All steels) g. __ Inter-crystalline corrosion (Austenitic Stainless steels) h. — Re-heat Cracking (Creep resistant and Q/T steels) i. Transition Joints (Ferritic Plain Carbon/Low Alloy to Stainless) Senior Welding Inspection Rev 09-09-10 Weldability of Steels ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TWIMpiddle Enst 1Essential Definitions: Steel: An alloy of the metal iron with the non-metal carbon. 0.01 — 1.4% C is considered as the general range for steels Plain Carbon Steels: Steels that contain only iron & carbon as main alloying elements. ‘Low Carbon Steel: ‘Traces of Mn, i, Al, P & S may be also present from refining. Plain carbon steels containing between 0.01 - 0.39 c ‘Medium Carbon Steel: Plain carbon steels containing between 0.3 — 0.6% C High Carbon Steel: Low Alloy Steel: Iron Carbide: ot Ferrite: Pearlite: 6 Ferrite: ‘y Austenite: Martensite: Diffusion: Hardenal Hydrogen E/E: Aka: Plain carbon steels containing between 0.6 ~ 1.4% C Steel containing iron and carbon, and other alloying elements i.e. Mn, Cr, Ni, Mo ete. <7% Total Steel containing iron and carbon, and other alloying elements i.. Mn, Cr, Ni, Mo ete, >7% Total ‘The ability to dissolve a substance within another. (As sugar in tea) : The maximum % of substance that can be dissolved within another. ‘The Latin term for Iron from which comes the chemical symbol Fe A hard & brittle inter-metallic Fe/C compound. Aka Fe3C or Cementite A low temperature BCC structure of iron & dissolved carbon. ‘Maximum solubility of carbon in o Ferrite = 0.02 % @ 723 °C A laminated mechanical mixture of Ferrite and Fe3C which gives steel increased strength. 100% Peartite is formed at 0.83% Carbon (Eutectoid) A high temperature BCC structure of iron & dissolved carbon ‘Maximum solubility of carbon in 6 Ferrite = 0.09 % @ 1493 °C A high temperature FCC structure of iron & dissolved carbon. ‘Maximum solubility of carbon in y Austenite = 2.06 % @ 1147 °C ‘A supersaturated interstitial solid solution of earbon in body centred tetragonal iron. It generally occurs <300 °C and shows both high hardness and brittleness but has high strength. ‘The movement of solute atoms, or molecules through a crystalline structure. This effect is accelerated by increase levels of heat energy. The ability of a stcel to harden through its section (depth). It may be expressed as Cev, Ruling Section andlor Critical Cooling Rate. Hor Atomic Hydrogen. Aka as monatomic B. Hor Molecular ‘Hydrogen. Aka diatomic Hz. H is more easily diffused through iron. Also known as (Aka) ‘Senior Welding Taspection Rev 09-09-10 of Steels, ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TWI 4yiddte Ense 2Effects of alloying elements: Elements may be added to steels to produce the characteristics required to make it useful for an application. Most elements can have many effects on the properties of steels. Alumi im: Al Carbon: C Manganese: Mn Molybdenum: Mo Nickel: Ni Niobium: Nb Silicon: Si Titanium: Ti ‘Tungsten: Vanadium: V- ‘Added as a de-oxidant in steel where ALOs solidify >2,800 °C increasing the number seed crystals thus inducing grain refinement ‘A prime and essential element in steel alloys. An increase in Carbon or C% will increase hardness and strength, reducing ductility (Viz Increasing Pearlite up to 100% @ 0.83% C or Eutectoid) Alloyed in additions > 12% to produce stainless steels, but is often used in low alloy steels < 5% to increase hardness, strength and greatly increase the resistance to oxidation at higher temperatures. Chromium stabilises carbide formation, but promotes grain growth if added in isolation. It is thus often alloyed together with Ni or Mo Alloyed to structural steels < 1.6% to increase the toughness and strength. It is also used to control solidification cracking in ferritic steels and alloyed > 14% in wear/impact resistant Hadfield steels Fine carbide former alloyed to low alloy steels to control the effects of creep. It is also used as a stabilising element in stainless steels, and will limit the effects of grain growth. Alloyed within Cr/Ni/Mo low alloy steel in order to control temper embrittlement Known as “The devils metal” nickel is alloyed > 8% in stainless stecls where it promotes the retention of austenite at temperatures below the LCT creating austenitic stainless steels. It may also be added < 9% in low temperature cryogenic steels that may be used for applications <-195°C. Nickel promotes graphitisation, is a good grain refiner, and is used to offset the grain growth effect of chromium (See above). Nickel is expensive, but improves strength, toughness, ductility & the corrosion resistance of steels Carbide former alloyed to stabilise stainless, also in HSLA < 0.05% Is alloyed in small amounts < 0.8% as a de-oxidant in fertitic steels. It is alloyed to valve and spring steels, and also to increase fluidity Carbide former alloyed mainly to stabilise wrought stainless, (not weld metal as Ti is lost in the arc) and < 0.05% in HSLA steel Carbide former mainly alloyed to high alloy High Speed tool steels. (HSS) This maintains high temperature hardness required of such steels lost due to frictional tempering of other steels during cutting Used as a de-oxidant, or a binary alloy as in HSLA steel < 0.05% Tt should be remembered that most alloying elements increase the ability of the steel to harden even when using slower cooling rates. This property is termed “Hardenability” ‘Senior Welding Inspection Rev 09-09-10 ‘Weldability of Steels ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TWI WYjiddle East 3Crack type: Hydrogen cracking (H; cold eracking) Location: a, HAZ, Longitudinal b. Weld metal. Transverse or Chevron Steel types: c. All hardenable steels i.e. Low alloy steels. QT Steels. Med — High C steels. d, HSLA steels (Weld Metal Cracking) Susceptible microstructure: Martensite. Caus: Hp cracking is a cold cracking mechanism generally occurring below 300 °C and may be found in the HAZ or weld metal depending on the type of steel being welded. Hz may be absorbed into the welding are from many sources including; moisture on plates or in the air, paint or oil on the plates, or a long or unstable arc ete. An E6010 cellulosic electrode produces mainly H; as its shielding gas. H or monatomic hydrogen will casily dissolve into solution in molten weld metal and remain in solution upon solidification into either delta ferrite or austenite. As the weld cools below the LCT the weld metal transforms into alpha ferrite/pearlite that has far less solubility for H and at this point will tend to be drawn into the HAZ where austenitic is still retained. ‘The process is termed diffusion, which occurs more rapidly at elevated temperature. If the HAZ is of low hardenability it will itself transform into ferrite/pearlite and Hi will remain in solution, eventually diffusing out of the weldment. If the HAZ has higher hardenability then transformation of the HAZ will be from austenite to martensite, which as a supersaturated solution of iron and carbon offers no solubility for H, This will result in expulsion of Hy from solution causing a high level of internal stress to occur in this brittle microstructure from the gathering Hp molecules. Cracks may occur from areas of high stress concentration, such as from the toes of welds move through the hard brittle HAZ structure though in some cases as when welding HSAL Micro-alloyed steel cracks occur in the weld metal. The four critical factors and values, where hydrogen cracks are likely to occur, are considered to be: a, Hydrogen level: > 15 ml/100 gm of deposited weld metal b. Hardness level: > 350 AV Stress level: > 0.5 of the yield stress d, Temperature: <300°C ‘Senior Welding Inspection Rev 09-09-10 Weldabitity of Steels ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TW1 Diddle East 4Hydrogen may be absorbed into the arc zone and liquid weld metal from: Rust, oil, grease, or paint etc. on the plate E 6010 electrodes produce Hy asa shielding gas. A long, or an unstable are Y Austenite in HAZ ‘Weld metal changes phase to Ot ferrite and Hi diffuses into HAZ. H diffusion toHAZ — Austenite in HAZ changes to martensite at 300 °C trapping H & Martensitic HAZ Hy and forcing it out of solution Stress concentrations H,HAZ Cracking “ a. Butt joints Stress concentrations Hy HAZ Cracking Martensitic HAZ b. T joints Senior Welding Inspection Rev 09-09-10 Weldability of Stects Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TWI Atjiddle East 5Prevention of hydrogen HAZ cracking: To control hydrogen cracking in the HAZ it may be necessary to pre-heat the weldment. Pre-heating retards the rate of cooling and suppresses the formation of martensite and other hard structures formed upon rapid cooling. It will also promote diffusion of trapped Hh back to the atmosphere. Considerations during calculation of pre-heat requirements are: a. Hardenability (Cev) b. Thickness/joint type (Thermal Severity) c. Arc energy kJ/mm (Heat Input) d. Hydrogen scale (Ackievable limit) Hydrogen Induced Weld Metal Cracking: Hp weld metal cracks may occur when welding HSLA (High strength low alloy) steels. These steels are micro-alloyed with titanium, vanadium and/or niobium. (< 0.05%) and as such have low hardenability. In order to match weld strength to plate strength the choice weld metal with increased alloying elements and carbon content is selected as this action increases tensile strength. A graph showing the effect of carbon on the properties of plain carbon steels is given below. This action will also result in a more hardenable steel weld deposit where austenite in the weld may transform directly into martensite causing the same conditions as found in the HAZ previously, and where cracking may now occur within the weld metal. Both HAZ and weld metal Hy cracks are considered as cold cracks (< 300°C) and on occasions are referred to as “Hy induced or delayed cracking” If Hz cracks are suspected final inspection may be delayed up to 72 hours, depending upon application code/standard requirements as cracks may appear within this, time, although PWHT (Stress Relieving) may eliminate any need for delayed inspection. Tensile Strength Hardness Ductility 0 0.1 0.20.3 0.405 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.91.0 1.2 14 1.6% Carbon Additions of carbon (< 0.83%) and other alloying elements ie. Cr. Mn. Mo. V Ni ete will increase and match the tensile strength of the weld metal to the base metal, but in so doing will also greatly increase the hardenability of the weld metal. ‘enlor Welding Inspection Rev 09-09-10 Weldability of Steels ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TWI 9Diddle Gast 6“These conditions may now result in Hy cracking occurring in the weld metal, as the weld will now transform directly from austenite — martensite trapping the H in weld metal, inhibiting diffusion to the HAZ. It can also be seen from the graph that higher carbon steels have much reduced levels of ductility. Cracks tend to be transverse as the main residual stresses are generally in the longitudinal direction, though they may occasionally be longitudinal, or even at 45° to the weld metal. (Chevron Cracking) High strength low ductility weld metal Hydrogen induced weld metal cracks Contraction stress Prevention of cracking for these steels is as per Hz HAZ cracking where preheating of the ‘weld area permits a degree of trapped H time at temperature to diffuse from the weld and HAZ area back to the atmosphere, and as importantly retards the formation of the hard martensitic structures in the hardenable over-alloyed weld metal Summary of prevention methods for Hz cracking in Low Alloy and Micro Alloy Steels: Use a low hydrogen process and/or hydrogen controlled consumables. Maximise arc energy (taking HAZ and weld toughness into consideration). Use correctly treated Hz controlled consumables Minimise restraint. Ensure plate is dry and free from rust, oil, paint or other coatings. Use a constant and correct arc length. Ensure pre-heat is applied and maintained before any arc is struck. Ensure welding is carried out under controlled environmental conditions Reduce o concentrations ie. Sharp Weld Toes and no Hard Stamps in the HAZ. ree he pe TP In the absence of pre-heat austenitic stainless steel weld metal will also control the effects of Hz cracking but may also form an unacceptable corrosive condition to exist. It should also be noted that it is possible for monatomic hydrogen atoms (EI) to be trapped within the martensitic structure that has reached temperatures where diatomic hydrogen (Gi) re-associates and thus will result in atomic forces acting additionally in the structure, therefore this and the opposing contraction stresses of weld and HAZ within the weldment should be considered as contributory factors in this cracking mechanism, in weld or HAZ. Senior Welding Inspection Rev 09-09-10 ‘Weldability of Steels ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TWI OMidile Gast 7Q'T Steels O/T of Quench & Tempered steels are alloys that obtain a high level of strength/toughness from the heat treatments of hardening and tempering. During quenching carbon is trapped in solution causing the structure martensite to form generally at temperatures < 300 °C Martensite would normally be an undesirable structure in most welding applications as itis extremely hard and brittle with little if any ductility, however the martensitic structure is strong, extremely fine grained and essential to the final properties of any Q/T steel. During the heat treatment of fempering atoms attract heat energy enabling trapped carbon atoms to progressively move out of solution as the temperature is increased. This is the function of tempering, as the properties of hardness v softness and brittleness v toughness are rebalanced with ever increasing temperature, until just below the LCT (Lower Critical Temperature) all the extra hardness and brittleness has been lost and the toughness regained. As the LCT has not been crossed then little re-crystallisation (Other than any deformed Ferrite) will have taken place resulting in a retained fine grain structure termed tempered martensite, This fine needle like structure will further enbance the tensile strength and toughness of the steel. To enable Q/T steels to obtain optimum final properties as described above it is essential that these steels are able to form martensite and then be fully tempered at the correct temperature. This creates a number of problems to be considered; firstly the hardenability of the steel needs to be carefully considered as any increase in section or thickness of the plate may slow the cooling rate beyond the Critical Cooling Rate of the steel in its central arca. The critical cooling rate of any steel is defined as the slowest cooling rate of any particular hardenable steel that is able to form 90% martensite (10 % austenite may be retained within the structure) The eritical cooling rate is explained when observing the CCT (Continuous Cooling Transformation) curve C on the TTT (Time Temperature Transformation) diagram given below: |The Critical \Cooling Rate hl Martensite Start Grap! Martensite >90% 0 01 1 10 100 Cooling rate in Log Seconds Curve A represents full transformation to pearlite and ferrite Curve B represents partial transformation to pearlite and ferrite with some martensite Curve C represents >90% transformation to martensite with some retained austenite Senior Welding Inspection Rev 09-09-10 ‘Weldability of Steels ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TWI Obiddle East 8If the cooling rate of curve C becomes any slower it would then cut the transformation nose of Austenite to Pearlite and Ferrite transformation begin curve, therefore curve C is the slowest rate that this steel may be cooled and form the maximum degree of martensite. Thus curve C is the critical-cooling rate of the steel in Graph 1 shown above. It is the effect of most additions of alloying elements to move the critical cooling rate to the right of the graph, in other words to permit the formation of martensite at slower cooling rates. The severity of each clement in moving this transformation curve to the right is given in the denominator in the Carbon Equivalent formula or Ceq as: Ceq = %C + %Mn + %Cr %Mo%V + %Ni%Cu 6 5 15 ‘Thus the above formula is a mathematical representation of the term hardenability and is, used as such in calculating the requirement for pre-heat to suppress the cooling rate of steels. It can be seen from Graph 2 below that as transformation lines are moved to the Tight of the graph by the addition of alloying elements, the eritieal cooling rate is also reduced. This in reality means that the alloy may cool more slowly and still produce a high % of martensite, as shown now in curve B where the new CCR (Critical cooling rate) for the alloy is represented in graph 2. This effect is termed "Hardenabilty” and is of extreme importance in many areas of the steel industry, and particularly during the production of QIT steels. ‘The Critical Cooling Rate 0 0.1 1 10 100 Cooling rate in Log Seconds As a section size, or plate thickness increases, so cooling rate at the centre becomes slower (Mass effect) and thus there will be a maximum section size that is able to be hardened for any given chemical composition. This important value is referred to as the Ruling Section of the steel. A typical chemical composition of a quench and tempered steels is: C0.2-0.4% Mni.0% Cr0.8% Mo0.3% Ceq = 0.58 - 0.78 Importantly, as martensite must be formed in Q/T steels it is common to find changes in the chemical composition as the plate or section thickness increases, this is to increase the Coq, Hardenability, or Ruling Section of the steel by delaying the Critical Cooling Rate. ‘Senior Welding Inspection Rev 09-09-10 of Steels ker Principal Lecturer TWIOtiddle ast 9The resultant weldability of Q/T steels can be low as ideally it is required to transform as much austenite to martensite as possible in order to maximise or regain full mechanical properties of the base metal which had been fully hardened and tempered on supply. This usually means that the use of pre-heat on QIT steels to avoid hydrogen cracking would not be recommended, as any suppression of rate of cooling will greatly reduce the amount of martensite being formed. It is thus highly recommended and good practice that in order to minimise the risks of Hp cracking in either the weld or HAZ that H content should be kept to a minimum by careful selection of process and consumable and secondly by taking every precaution in reducing stress concentrations such as poor toe blends, arc strikes, hard stamps etc. in the weld and HAZ. Once welding has been completed it then becomes a requirement to temper the steel back close to its original tempering temperature in order to re-gain the original mechanical properties and condition of the QYT steel. Thus if suppression of the cooling rate has been used during welding, such as the use of applied pre-heat then the full mechanical properties in the HAZ and weld metal cannot now be regained without a full harden and temper of the entire materials section. It should also be noted that all tempering temperatures should remain below the steels LCT (Lower Critical Temperature) as any passage through the critical lines will induce re-crystallisation of the pearlitic grains to austenite at 723 °C (For plain carbon steels) and re-crystallisation of any remaining ferritic grains between lower/upper critical temperatures. (The UCT value being dependent upon carbon content) Therefore any passage above the LCT will require a complete harden re-temper to regain the fall mechanical properties of the steel. Typically the tempering temperature of Q/T steels during manufacture and PWHT would be in the region of 600 — 675 °C although when approaching the lower critical temperature a grain coarsening effect would occur and as such the manufacturing tempering temperature should never be exceeded during PWHT tempering. This temperature should be clearly identified on the supplied Mill-sheets. If the steel is required to undergo stress relief after welding then obviously the mechanism of tempering of martnesite would occur during the same thermal cycle as the stress relief. ‘The maximum stress relief temperature is again a critical factor for the same reasons given above and also for the same reasons should never be exceeded. It is a common industrial practice to pre-heat Q/T steels, but the temperature is generally restricted to a maximum of 100 °C. This practice will then lead to a reduction in the value of between 80-90% of the original mechanical properties being recoverable in the steel after tempering at the correct temperature. If the full mechanical properties are required in the steel then pre-heating is not an option and reduction in the risk of Ha cracking should only be made by reducing the H content and minimising stress concentration. Due to the relatively high molybdenum content of Q/T steels they may also prove prone to re-heat cracking during PWHT stress relieving for the same reasons as are creep resistant steels thus similar control methods should be used in order to reduce the risk of occurrence. (Refer to “Re-heat Cracking in Creep Resistant Steels” Page 18) ‘Senior Welding Inspection Rey 69-09-10 Weldability of Steels ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TWI Middle East 10Crack type: Solidification cracking (Hot cracking) Location: Weld centre. (Longitudinal) Steel types: All Susceptible microstructure: Columnar grains. (In the direction of solidification) Causes: Solidification cracking is a hot cracking mechanism that occurs during solidification of welds in steels having high sulphur content or contaminated with sulphur. A further potential cause is the weld depth/width ratio, which in normal welding situations refers to deep narrow welds (cladding applications may produce shallow wide welds, as these are also prone to this problem). Therefore a combination of deep narrow welds with a high incidence of sulphur or Fe/S greatly increases the likelihood of hot cracking. ‘As with all cracking mechanisms stress levels play a major role in susceptibility. During the welding cycle sulphur present within or upon the plate may be re-melted and may chemically join with the iron to form Fe/S iron sulphides. Iron sulphides are low melting, point (985 °C) impurities and naturally seck the last point of solidification in the weld, thus occurring mainly at the weld centreline. It is here that still being above their melting point and hence liquid that they form liquid films around the hot solidifying grains that are themselves under great stress due to the actions of weld/HAZ. contraction. The bond or cohesion between the grains may now be insufficient to accommodate the opposing contraction stresses within weld and HAZ, and a crack will result along the length of the weld on its centreline. If limited material availability requires the welding high sulphur steels then consumables with relatively high manganese content are specified. An example of steel with very high sulphur levels would be Free Cutting/Machining steel. Some of these steels could be considered as un- weldable under normal circumstances as sulphur levels are very high. Steels containing levels of sulphur > 0.05% are said to be susceptible to this condition also termed as Hot Shortness. Scrutiny of mill sheets is thus essential to assess the materials sulphur content as even this seemingly low figure may be excessive for certain high stress/higher carbon applications, or if the depth/width ratio is excessive. A further potential source of Sulphur is paint, oil and/or grease and is why temperature crayons always cary the statement “Sulphur Free” and is a prime reason for thorough cleaning, an action that becomes of critical importance when welding austenitic staintess steels. Senior Welding Inspection Rev 09-09-10 Weldability of SteelsPrevention of solidification cracking in ferritic steels: To prevent the occurrence of solidification cracking in ferritic steel manganese is added to the weld via the consumable as manganese forms preferential manganese sulphides with the sulphur and elements basic fluxes chemically combine with S to form caleium sulphate in the slag Mn/S form as spheroids and solidify at 1,680 °C i.e. above the melting point of pure iron at 1,535 °C and are therefore much more widely dispersed throughout the weld metal and between the grain structure. Cohesion between the grains is thus maintained and the possibility of a solidification cracks occurring is now much reduced. Careful consideration must be given to the Mn:S ratio, which at 0.12% C should be in the region of about 40:1 ‘An increase in carbon content > 0.12% will increase the required ratio exponentially due to a decrease in delta ferrite % and increase in austenite % forming in the solidifying weld metal thus carbon % must be reduced as low as possible through minimum dilution and the use of low carbon high manganese filler wire with basic fluxes (as process applicable) to reduce the effect of Fe/S (Iron Sulphide) formation and any low melting point films forming at the weld centreline during solidification. ‘A summary of prevention methods: a, Use low dilution processes b. Use high manganese basic consumables c. Maintain a low carbon content 4. Minimise restraint/stress €. Specify low sulphur content of plate _f. Seal in laminations or change the preparation g. Thorough cleaning of preparation _—_h. Minimise dilution Solidification/Liquation cracking (Sulphur related) Direction of grain solidification Weld centre line with liquid iron sulphide ~~, Fe/S films formed around the solidified grains HAZ Liquation cracking Explained on page 13 Weld Metal Solidification cracks Opposing ‘ontraction Stresses Weldability of Stecls ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TWIAiddle East 12Effect of Manganese Sulphides formation Direction of grain solidification —, LL Spheroidal M/S formed between the solidifying grains, maintaining inter-granular strength. Opposing contraction Stresses Depth/Width ratio related The shape of the weld will also contribute to the possibility of cracking, This may be totally independent from the sulphur aspect but is usually in combination. Processes such as FCAW SAW and MAG (using spray/pulsed transfer) may readily provide these deep/narrow susceptible welds. However it is not the weld volume that is the prime factor but the weld shape as referred to previously. Therefore root runs and tack welds may readily provide the susceptible profile. As root runs are also areas of high dilution (therefore greater sulphur pick up) and more likely to be highly stressed these must always be inspected with solidification cracking in mind. Solidification cracking in Austenitic Stainless steels Austenitic stainless steels are particularly prone to solidification cracking, primarily caused through a comparatively large grain size, giving rise to a reduction of grain boundary area. The high coefficient of thermal expansion results in high resultant stresses. The large austenite grain structure is very intolerant of such contaminants as sulphur, phosphorous and elements such as boron. Though causes may be regarded as. similar to that found in plain carbon steels avoidance would require extra emphasis on thorough cleaning prior to welding with the welding procedure written to control the balance of austenite y and ferrite 6 in the weld metal. This balance will directly affect the structures tolerance of contaminants and resultant grain boundary area, and is why the filler material specified does not match the parent material. Careful monitoring of parameters is required to control dilution and cooling rate to maintain this balance. Liquation Cracking in Steels Liquation cracks are caused by Fe/$ within the HAZ. area >985°C liquating causing low cohesion between grain boundaries in the HAZ. As the HAZ and weld are under high opposing contraction stresses cracks may occur parallel to the weld in the HAZ. (Shown diagrammatically on page 12) Liquation cracking may be reduced by using cleaner steels, (low sulphur content) and reducing contraction strain/restraint. Other low melting point impurities/metals ie. Pb Cd may cause a similar condition termed tentper embrittlement. ‘Senior Welding Inspection Rey 09-09-10 Weldability of St ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TW1 9Hiddle ast 13Crack type: Lamellar tearing. Location: Parent material Steel types: Alll steels Susceptible microstructure: Low through thickness ductility Causes: During welding high levels of contraction stress may be passed in the through thickness direction of one or both plates within the joint. This short transverse direction generally Jacks in ductility particularly in cold rolled plates. As ductility is the property Tequired to accommodate this plastic strain caused by contraction stresses a stepped like crack may initiate in the affected plate just below the HAZ, in a horizontal plane. Micro inclusions of impurities such as sulphides and silicates that may occur during steel manufacture are also a contributory cause, which when subjected to short transverse stresses may lead to lamellar tearing a. Comer joints. Senior Welding Inspection Rev 09-09-10 Weldability of Steels ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TWI Apjiddle Ease 14To assess the risk of a materials susceptibility to lamellar tearing through thickness tensile tests are normally carried out. ‘Testing a steel for susceptibility to lamellar tearing U/T survey using a 0° compression probe Testing for lamination Plate to be tested. Penetrant testing for lamination indications at the end of the plate Machined transverse tensile specimen with Friction welded ends. Testing for a minimum value of % Short Transverse Reduction in Area (% ‘STRA) ‘A test can be made on the level of through thickness ductility, which to avoid lamellar fearing should be of a minimum level. The results are given as % Reduction in Cross Sectional Area (STRA %) and the critical value is generally considered as 20%. The iower the value below this threshold, then the higher is considered the risk of lamellar tearing occurring in joints with high through thickness contraction stresses. Steel plates having an STRA value > 20% STRA are classified as Z plates Prevention of lamellar tearing: To reduce the risk of lamellar tearing the following steps may be taken: Check the chemical analysis (< 0.05% S or P) Check for laminations with UT (PT on plate edges) Check the short transverse (Z) ductility value (> 20% STRA) Use buttering layer of high ductility weld metal deposited beneath the member to be welded, enabling contraction stresses to be absorbed as plastic strain. ‘A contraction gap between members enabling movement. Re-design of the weld. Re-design of the joint. Pre formed TT pieces or Dérnier Plates. (Mainly for critical applications) Be oe PRES g Inspection Rey 09-09-10 of Steels ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TWI MWyiddle ost 15Methods used to control the occurrence of lamellar tearing: This may not be structurally permissible 1) Change of joint and or weld design (Where possible, practical and permissible) High ductility weld metal 4) Use a wrought T piece (Darnier Plate) for critical joints Senior Welding Inspection Rev 09-09-10 Weldability of Steels ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TWI Bjidite Gast 16Crack type: Inter-crystalline corrosion Location: ‘Weld HAZ. (Longitudinal) Steel types: Stainless steels. Susceptible microstructure: Sensitised grain boundaries. Causes: During the welding of stainless steels temperature gradients arc met in the HAZ where chromium carbides Cras C; are formed in the carbon rich grain boundary area. This carbide formation depletes the affected grains of chromium which will in tum severely reduce corrosion resistance. Immediately after such an effect has occurred it can be said that the stainless steel has been sensitised, that is to say it has now become sensitive to corrosion. If no further treatment is given then corrosion will appear parallel to the weld toes within the HAZ. This corrosion will become more evident when the weld is subsequently put in service. This problem is colloquially known as weld decay, although its occurrence is mainly in the HAZ. Once initiated, localised pitting may lead to a relatively rapid failure. Prevention of Sensitisation and Inter-granular corrosion in stainless stec! a. To prevent the occurrence of sensitisation steels with carbon contents < 0.04% C are often used. This reduces the free carbon available to form chromium carbides. For example E316 stainless steel of carbon content < 0.04 is designated E 316L b. Elements such as niobium, molybdenum, tantalum, and/or titanium may be added to the base material and electrodes to stabilise the steel. These are termed stabilising elements, and tic up any free carbon by forming preferential carbides, thus leaving chromium within the grain, where it will perform its main function in producing chromium oxide, and thus resisting the effects of further corrosion. c. The association of chromium and carbon Crzy Ce carbide js time/temp dependant associating mainly between 550 — 750 °C. optimising at 650 °C and as such welding procedures are written to reduce the time that the HAZ remains within this critical temperature range through the control of maximum inter-pass temperature. d. A sensitised stainless stec! may be solution annealed after welding by heating to >1100 °C and cooling rapidly. This dissolves (disassociates) the chromium carbide back into solution where rapid cooling will inhibit re-association. Lines of sensitisation ‘Senior Welding Inspection Rev 09-09-10 Weldability of Steels ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TWI “Ppiddte East 17Crack type: Re-Heat Cracking Location: Weld HAZ. (Longitudinal) Steel types: Creep Resistant Steels ‘Susceptible microstructure: Temperature range of 450 ~ 550°C. Causes: Re-heat cracks occur within Creep Resistant Steels mainly during the PWHT process of weld stress relieving. Creep can be defined as the plastic movement of material at stress levels below the yield point, and is accelerated at elevated temepratures. The various stages of creep failure are given as primary, secondary and tertiary creep whereupon final failure occurs. A creep resistant low alloy steels contains molybdenum which has the combined effect of both solid solution strengthening and carbide pinning of the dislocation slip planes thus reducing the effects of creep by opposing plastic slip, even. when exposed to clavated temperatures. The process of stress relieving utilises the increasing effect of plastic slip at elevated temperatures in relieving of residual stresses. ‘As these alloys have been strengthened against this movement the residual stresses are generally relieved in areas within the alloys where either; the strengthening mechanism is lower, or the concentration of stress is higher, or a combination of the two. As a result of this preferential plastic deformation cracks may form during the susceptible temperature range of 450 — 550 °C where these conditions usually occur within the HAZ of the weld, primarily at stress concentrations such as fillet welds toes. The presence and liquation of low melting point elements/impurities around the grain boundaries (i.e. Tin, bismuth and/or antimony) if prevalent can also be a major contributory factor in the development of a re-heat crack, although if failure is caused purely by this effect it is more generally known as temper embrittlement. Reheat Cracking Prevention: 1) Heat quickly through the susceptible temperature range. 2) Using a higher pre-heat and the use of PWHT during stages manufacture. 3) Dressing of fillet weld toes and removal of stress concentrations. 4) Use high ductility weld metal, or alternative method of stress relieve. (Vibratory) 5) Control of heat input will minimise levels of expansion & contraction. ‘Senior Welding Inspection Rev 09-09-10 ‘Weldability of Steels, ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TWO Piddte Gast 18Welded Transition Joints The term sransition joint can generally be related to one of 3 conditions: D) Achange of material type (Described for Ferritic Plain C /Low Alloy — Stainless Steels) 2) Achange of material thickness (Described below for T and Butt Joints) 3) A change of material form (i.e. square to round section) Not covered below. 1) Inthe case of differing material types should the materials differ radically i.e. in either group type, melting point or atomic structure then a solid phase welding processes i.e. Friction welding may have to be used to effect a sound welded joint. When fusion welding similar groups of materials together i.e. Ferritic to Stainless Steels then certain metallurgical factors may need to be controlled i.e. selection of electrode to produce weld metal of the required composition i. 309 or E312 electrode which may be used to produce a desirable structure containing 85 - 95% ‘Austenite and 5 -15% Delta Ferrite reducing the possibilities of solidification cracks caused by the likely ingress of § and P from the Ferritic steel and the very high co-efficient of expansion of the stainless steel (Differing co-efficient of expansion and conduction and strong galvanic couples promoting rapid rates of corrosion will also need to be taken into account during design) A further consideration would be the diffusion of Carbon from the ferritic steel to the weld or base stainless steel which being in Austenite would retain a far higher solubility for Carbon during the cooling cycle. Any major increase in Carbon content within the stainless weld or base metal could have an effect on the possibility of inter-granular corrosion (Weld Decay). A further concer is the effect of any Chromium diffusion beyond the weld junction (fusion line) on the side of the ferritic steel as this would greatly increase the level of local hardening. Both of these problems would be more prevalent in the root runs of such joints where the dilution of both the base metals form within the weld metal with the filler metal, however careful selection of filler material and control of dilution and thermal cycle will minimise any such occurrences. 2) In changing material thickness design implications being dependent upon joint type ie. a) T Joints: From: To A “rule of thumb” in design is that the throat = the thickness of the thinnest member. b) Butt Joints: From To: To: (Slope = 1:4) Possibility of lamellar tears Preferred design with lower stress (6) concentration with most G being axial Os ? TOS 7 ‘Senior Welding Inspection Rev 09-09-10 Weldability of Steels ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TWIWiddte East 19Summary of Weldability of Steels: ‘Hydrogen induced HAZ or weld metal cracks Key words: Cause: ‘H HAZ eracks Process Consumables Paint, Rust, Grease Super saturation Solubility Concentrations _| Low ductility Diffusion Transformation | Martensite Critical factors = Hardness > 350HV | Hydrogen >15ml_| o> 0.5 yield stress | Temp <300°C Cause: Key words: HSLA weld cracks | High strength metal | Weld Hardenabilty | Low ductility ‘Weld contraction Transverse crack | Micro alloy Nb T V| Longitudinal 6 Prevention Low Alloy and HSLA steels Key words: Pre-heat Short stable arcs [Prompt PWHT | Use low Ha process Minimise restraint Remove coatings | Stable are length | y S/S weld metal Reduce 6 concentration | Use lower CEV _| Use hot pass ASAP | Bake basic fluxes Prevention Q/T Steels Key words: Reduce « concentration | Control Hz content | Rapid PWHT (temp) | Minimise restraint Solidification cracking in C/Mn steels Keywords: Cause: High d: Fe/S Weldcentreline | Contraction Low melting point film| Laminations Low cohesion Hot shortness Prevention: Key words: 25 (> 40:1) Low C% | Use low restraint | Basic Fluxes (Ca/8) | Reduce dilution Control heat input | Sulphur <0.05% _ | Change Preparation | Cleanliness (S/S) Lamellar tearing in C/Mn steels Key words: Cause: Low ductility ‘High plastic strain ¢ | Sulphur> 0.05% | Micro inclusions High contraction o _| Short transverse @_| Stepped like crack | Segregation Prevention: NDT for laminations [Use ofZPlates | Butieringlayers | Contraction gap Re-design ofjoint___| ForgedT piece | Full chem analysis_| Control heat input Inter - crystalline corrosion in stainless steels Key words: Cause: Crdepletion in grain | Slow thermal cycle | Cra; Cs Association | Sensitisation HAZ parallel to weld _| 550-750 °C. Carbon > 0.04 Time/Temperature Inter - crystalline corrosion in stainless steels Key words: Prevention: C% <0.04% Max inter-pass temp | Stabilisation Rapid cooling Low heat input TiNDV Solution annealing | Follow the WPS ‘Senior Welding Inspection Rev 09-09-10 ‘Weldability of Steels ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TWI ampidate Enst 20Re-heat cracks in creep resistant steels Key words: Cause: Impurities Low M/P __| Stress concentration | PWHIT Stress Relief] Weld Toes ‘Area of lower strength | 450 ~550°C High Residual Stress] Time/Temperature Prevention: Key words: Rapid climb through 450 — 550 °C Higher Pre-Heat _| Stage PWAT Minimise all stress concentrations Dress weld toes | High Weld A% Weldability Exercises: 1) Write a brief account of: a) Ha cracking in the HAZ of Low alloys steels, indicating sources of Hl and briefly documenting its path to the HAZ and final expulsion from solution? b) How the martensitic structure may be formed in steels by rapid cooling from austenite, then describe influence of carbon and alloying elements upon formation? 2) Describe why HSLA steels may suffer from Hz cracking in the deposited weld metal? 3) Describe the merits and problems of methods that may be used to reduce Hz cracking via: Pre-heat. Low hydrogen Processes. Consumable Control. Increasing Arc Energy? 4) Desoribe the procedure used to enable Q/T steels to gain maximum mechanical properties, (tensile strength & toughness) then indicate why pre-heating these steels should be limited? 5) Describe the term hardenabitity, then indicate how the ruling section is maintained as the section size increases in Q/T steels? 6) Write a brief account of the mechanisms and control methods employed when avoi a) Solidification cracking in Ferritic and Austenitic Stainless Steels? b) Lamellar tearing in all steels? ©) Inter-crystalline corrosion in Austenitic Stainless Steels? d) Re-heat cracking in Creep Resistant Steels? 7) Write a brief account of the effects of stress concentrations on fatigue failure of fillet welded T joints and identify any methods used to reduce this effect? 8) Write an account of the problems associated with the welding of steel transition joints? ‘Senior Welding Inspection Rev 09-09-10, ‘Weldability of Steels ‘Tony Whitaker Principal Lecturer TWLangiddte Ease 21