Ways and Means (Xenophon)

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Ways and Means (Greek: Πόροι ἢ περὶ Προσόδων, Poroi e peri Prosodon, "Revenues") was written
in 355 BC and is believed to be the last work written by Xenophon.[1] This was shortly after Athens'
defeat in the Social War and the collapse of the Second Athenian League, and the city was facing
financial ruin.[2] Ways and Means is made up of 6 chapters, addressed to the Council of Five
Hundred in response to political statements that expressed that Athens' unfair behavior against other
cities is due to its poverty.[3] The essay consists of suggestions to alleviate the economic situation in
Athens at this time.[4] Xenophon proposes through Ways and Means that Athens would be able to
support itself without relying on the profits of war and empire.[5] There are different receptions of this
work, but mainly agreed upon is that this was an attempt to create a new type of imperialism that
was supported more by peace and Athens itself instead of oppressive behavior on other cities.[3]

Contents

 1Chapter 1
 2Chapter 2
 3Chapter 3
 4Chapter 4
 5Chapter 5
 6Chapter 6
 7References
 8External links

Chapter 1[edit]
In chapter 1, Xenophon lists the natural qualities of Athens that should allow it to have a sufficient
income. Xenophon lists reasons such as the abundance of natural resources like stone and silver
in Attica as sources of revenue. Another point was that tamer seasons in the region allowed for
higher agricultural capabilities. Xenophon also references that Athens is in a central location in
Greece, good for trade by land and sea and isolated from barbarians.[6]

Chapter 2[edit]
In chapter 2, Xenophon suggests that Athens should increase the population of metics as a means
of increasing revenue. Xenophon identifies metics as a prime source of revenue due to their
obligation to pay taxes to the city of Athens. He suggests incentivizing the foreigners by decreasing
their duties required of them to stay in Athens and building loyalty to the city. Specifically, he brings
up alleviating the metics of their duties as infantry for the city to decrease the payment that Athens
has to make to them for their service, while keeping their payments and also making the Athenian
infantry completely consisting of citizens. Other incentives that Xenophon suggests are privileges
such as granting the metics the ability to serve in the cavalry and own land within the walls of
Athens.[7]
Chapter 3[edit]
In chapter 3, Xenophon brings up the reasons why Athens would be a great commercial center and
therefore increase revenue through exports, sales, rents and customs. He states that trading through
Athens would be the best and most secure for the traders especially, because Athens' currency is
already distributed among different regions in Greece. Similar to the ideas brought up in the previous
chapter, Xenophon suggests incentivizing trading with Athens by making markets more fair in
managing disputes and to reserve front row seats in theaters for merchants. He states that changes
are also relatively low cost to the financial gain that the city will see. Other ideas to increase trade
were such as creating a fleet of public trading ships owned by the state to loan out to merchants.[7]

Chapter 4[edit]
In chapter 4, Xenophon touches on the silver mines and the slaves that worked there. He believed
that with proper operation, the revenue that silver will bring to Athens will increase immensely.
Xenophon reasons that an increase in the workforce in the silver mining industry will bring large
amounts of wealth, where increasing work power in agriculture will simply result in a plateau of work
efficiency. Therefore, he states that Athens should open up their mining industry to foreigners as well
as citizens. He also reasons that as there is an endless demand for silver, as consumers would buy
more silver as long as they can afford to, increasing revenue. He also suggests the public ownership
of slaves, and to gain revenue by loaning them out.[7]

Chapter 5[edit]
In chapter 5, Xenophon insinuates the importance of peace to obtain the full economic advantages
of the state. He suggests instating a board of peace, which would increase the state's attractiveness
to guests from other states. Xenophon argues that Athens in a peace is the most attractive location
to all types of visitors and therefore should not attempt to control other states by force. Xenophon
supposes that Athens would gain the support of Greece if they wanted to act as an enforcer of
peace. He also states that he does not know clearly whether peace is more profitable than war, but
that from past experiences, peace has seen more money sent to the treasury where war saw more
money leave the treasury.[7]

Chapter 6[edit]
In chapter 6, Xenophon concludes his essay by reminding the council about the wonders that the
changes he proposed would bring to Athens. He entices the council about the magnificent festivals
that would be held with increased revenue and increased security and quality of life for the citizens.
He also warns the council, however, that they should send for Delphi to ask the gods whether this is
the correct path for Athens to continue on. He ends the essay, saying that with the blessings of the
gods, Athens action would impact positively, making it wealthy once again.[7]

References