Methods of repairing concrete structures

J Sudhakumar*, Regional Engineering College, India

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 26 th Conference on Our World in Concrete & Structures: 27 - 28 August 2001, Singapore

Methods of repairing concrete structures

J Sudhakumar*, Regional Engineering College, India

Abstract

There are three basiG symptoms of distress in a concrete structure: cracking,

spalling and disintegration. Each of these basic symptoms in itself is fairly obvious
and may be readily detected and differentiated from the others. Cracking is one of the
most misunderstood problems of concrete. It is generally regarded as indicative of
defective design or materials. Methods of repairing cracks include bonding with
epoxies, routing and sealing, stitching, external stressing, grouting, blanketing, use of
overlays, etc. Repairing cracks does not usually involve strengthening. In a structure
showing spalling and disintegration, it is usual to find that there have been substantial
losses of section and/or pronounced corrosion of reinforcement. Hence, the repair
involves some requirement for restoration of lost strength. The principal methods
used for repair of spalling and disintegration are jacketing, guniting, prepacked
concrete, drypack, replacement of the concrete, and the application of overlays of
several types. This paper gives a detailed description on all the above methods used
for repairing cracks, spalling and disintegration in concrete structures.

Keywords: concrete, cracking, spalling, diSintegration, repair, stitching, grouting, jacketing

1. Introduction
Concrete structures will show the degree of deterioration in the form of cracking, spalling and
diSintegration. Each one of these is clearly distinguishable. The reasons for their development may be
poor materials, poor design poor construction practice, poor supervision or a combination. Crack
formation in concrete is most interesting because sometimes the same causes produce a different
cracking pattern, and sometimes the same cracking pattern is produced by different causes.
Sometimes concrete cracks in a location where no cause can be found out, and in other places it does
not crack where there is every reason for cracks to occur. However, fifty percent of the cases are
straight forward.
Cracks in themselves are seldom indicative of structural danger; accordingly, repair usually does
not involve strengthening. So their repairs are basically intended to seal the cracks against an
objectionable flow of water or to improve the appearance of the construction. In the repair of a
structure showing spalling and diSintegration,
disintegration, it is usual to find that there have been substantial losses
of section and/or pronounced corrosion of the reinforcement. Both are matters of concern from a
structural viewpoint, and repair generally involves some urgency and some requirement for restoration
of lost strength [1].

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2. Repairing cracks
In order to determine whether the cracks are active or dormant, periodic observations are done
utilizing various types of telltales [Fig.1]. Crack movement can be detected by placing a mark at the
end of the crack. Subsequent extension of the crack beyond the mark indicates probable continuance
of the activity that produced the defect originally. The deficiency of this technique is that it will not show
any tendency for the crack to close or provide any quantitative data on the movement [2].
In another method, a pin or a toothpick is lightly wedged into the crack and it falls out if there is
any extension of the defect. The deficiencies of this method, as before, are that there is no indication
of closing movement or any quantitative measure of the changes, which occur [2].
A strip of notched tape works similarly. Movement is indicated by tearing of the tape. An
advantage in this case is that some indication of closure can be realized by observing any wrinkling of
the tape. However, this device is not reliable. The tape is not dimensionally stable under changing
conditions of humidity, so that one can never be sure whether the movements are real or are due to
shrinkage or swelling of the marker [2].
The device using a typical vernier caliper is the most satisfactory of all. Both extension and
compression are indicated and movements of about one-hundredth of an inch can be measured using
a vernier caliper of special type. If more accurate readings are desired, extensometers can be used.
The reference points must be rigidly constructed and carefully glued to the surface of concrete, using a
carborandum stone to prepare the bonding surface before attaching the reference marks.
Where extreme accuracy is required resistance strain gauges can be glued across the crack.
They are, however, expensive, sensitive to changes in humidity, and easily damaged.

" ..g. 1 Tell lule$

2.1 Types of cracks

Cracks can be divided into active cracks and dormant cracks. It should be considered that, in a
sense, every crack is an active one. For example, if there is any change in the load supported by a
member, whether an increase or a decrease, the member must deform to accommodate the change.
In this case, deformation is bound to occur and be concentrated at the pOints of weakness, ie. at the
cracks. Thus, the proper differentiation between active and dormant cracks is one of magnitude of
movement, and the telltales are a measure of the difference. If the magnitude of the movement,
measured over a reasonable period of time (say 6 months or 1 year), is sufficient to displace or show
significantly on the telltales, we can treat the crack as an active one. If the movements are smaller, the
crack may be considered as dormant.
Cracks can also be divided into solitary or isolated cracks and pattern cracks. Generally, a solitary
crack is due to a positive overstressing of the concrete either due to load or shrinkage. The cause for
this will become apparent when the line of the crack is compared with the layout of the portion of the
concrete, its reinforcement and the known stresses in it. Overload cracks are fairly easily identified
because they follow the lines demonstrated in laboratory load tests. A crack due to setting and
hardening shrinkage is formed in the first week of the life of the concrete. If the length of concrete
under inspection is more than about 9 m, it is not likely that there is a solitary crack; usually there will
be another of a similar type. The analYSis of this second crack confirms the findings from the first. In a
long retaining wall or long channel, the regular formation of cracks indicates faults in the design rather
than the construction, but an irregular distribution of SOlitary cracks may indicate poor construction as
well as poor design [1,2].

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 Regular patterns of cracks may occur in the surfacing of concrete and in thin slabs. These are
called pattern cracks. The term pattern cracking is used to indicate that all the cracks visible have
occurred more or less at the same time.

2.2 Methods of repairing cracks

Methods of repairing cracks include bonding with epoxies, routing and sealing, stitching, external
stressing, grouting, blanketing, use of overlays, etc. Various factors are to be considered in deciding
the type of repair to be carried out. The details of these methods are described in the next sections.

2.3 Bonding with epoxies

Cracks in concrete may be bonded by the injection of epoxy bonding compounds under pressure.
Usual practice is to drill into the crack from the face of the concrete at several locations; inject water or
a solvent to flush out the defect; allow the surface to dry (using a hot air jet, if needed); surface-seal
the cracks between the injection points; and inject the epoxy until it flows out of the adjacent sections
of the crack or begins to bulge out the surface seals, just as in pressure grouting. Usually the epoxy is
injected through holes of about % inch in diameter and % inch deep at 6 to 12 inches centers. Smaller
spacing is used for finer cracks. The limitation of this method is that unless the crack is dormant or the
cause of cracking is removed and thereby the crack is made dormant, it will probably recur, possibly
somewhere else in the structure. Also, this technique is not applicable if the defects are actively
leaking to the extent that they cannot be dried out, or where the cracks are numerous [2].

2.4 Routing and sealing

This method involves enlarging the crack along its exposed face and filling and sealing it with a
suitable material [Fig.2]. This is the most simple and common technique for sealing cracks and is
applicable for sealing both fine pattern cracks and larger isolated cracks. The cracks should be
dormant. This technique is not applicable for sealing cracks subject to a pronounced hydrostatic
pressure. The routing operation consists of following along the crack with a concrete saw or with hand
or pneumatic tools, opening the crack sufficiently to receive the sealant. A minimum surface width of %
inch is desirable. Smaller openings are difficult to work with. The surfaces of the routed joint should be
rinsed clean and permitted to dry before placing the sealant. The method used for placing the sealant
depends on the material to be used and follows standard techniques. Routing and sealing of leaking
cracks should preferably done on the pressure face so that the water or other aggressive agents
cannot penetrate the interior of the concrete and cause side effects such as swelling, chemical attack,
or corrosion of the reinforcement. The sealant may be any of the several materials, depending on how
tight or permanent seal is desired. This is a method where thorough water tightness of the jOint is not
required and where appearance is not important [1,2].

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2.5 Stitching
The tensile strength of a cracked concrete section can be restored by stitching in a manner
analogous to sewing cloth. Concrete can be stitched by iron or steel dogs in the same way as timber.
A series of stitches of different lengths should be used so that they do not all exert their load in one
line at the side of the crack. The best method of stitching is to bend bars into the shape of a broad flat
bottomed letter U between 1 foot and 3 feet long and with ends about 6 inches long, and to insert them
in holes drilled to match in the concrete on either side of the crack. The bars are then grouted up,
some grout being placed in the holes in advance of the bars. Fig.1 shows the details of stitching
[1,2,3].

Usually cracks start at one end and run away from the starting place quicker on one side of the
concrete than on the other. The stitching should be on the side, which is opening up first. The following
points should be observed in general. Any desired degree of strengthening can be accomplished, but it

607
must be considered that the strengthening also tends to stiffen the structure locally. This may give
more force to the restraints causing the cracking and reactivate the condition.
Stitching the crack will tend to cause the problem to migrate elsewhere in the structure. If it is
decided to stitch, investigate and, if necessary, strengthen adjacent areas of the construction to take
the additional stress. In particular, the stitching dogs should be of variable length and/or orientation
and so located that the tension transmitted across the crack does not devolve on a single plane of the
section, but is spread out over an area.
Where there is a water problem, the crack should be sealed as well as stitched so that the stitches
are not corroded, and because the stitching itself will not seal the crack. Sealing should be completed
before stitching is commenced, to avoid the corrosion and also because the presence of dogs tends to
make it difficult to apply the sealant.
Where possible, stitch both sides of the concrete section so that further movements of the
structure will not exert any bending action on the dogs. In bending members, it is possible to stitch one
side of the crack only, but this should be the tension side of the section, where movement is
originating. If the member is in the state of axial tension, then a symmetrical placement of the dogs is a
must, even if excavation or demolition is required to gain access to opposing sides of the section.
In order to resist shear along the crack, it is necessary to use diagonal stitching. One set of dogs
can be placed on each side of the concrete, if necessary. The lengths of dogs are random so that the
anchor points do not form a plane of weakness. The dogs must be grouted with a non-shrink or
expanding mortar, so that they have a tight fit, and movement of the crack will cause simultaneous
stressing of both old and new sections. If this is not possible, proportion the stitching to take the entire
load without participation by the existing materials [Fig.3].
The dogs are relatively thin and long and so cannot take much in the way of compressive force.
Accordingly, if there is a tendency for the crack to close as well as to open, the dogs must be stiffened
and strengthened by encasement in an overlay or by some similar means.

2.6 External stressing

Development of cracking in concrete is due to tensile stress and can be arrested by removing
these stresses. Further, the cracks can be closed by inducing a compressive force, sufficient to
overcome the tension and to provide a residual compression. This compressive force is applied by use
of the usual prestressing wires or rods. The principle is very similar to stitching, except that the stitches
are tensioned; rather than plain bar dogs which apply no closing force to the crack and which may in
fact have to permit the crack to open up a bit before they begin to take the load. All the points noted
regarding stitching must be considered [2]. An additional problem is that of providing an anchorage for
the prestressing wires or rods. Some form of abutment is needed for this purpose. The effect of the
tensioning force on the stress conditions in the structure should be analyzed [FigA].

608
2.7 Grouting
Grouting of cracks can be performed in the same manner as the injection of an epoxy, and this
technique has the same areas of applications and limitations. However, the use of an epoxy is the
better solution except where the considerations of fire resistance or cold weather prevent such use, in
which case grouting is the comparable alternative. The procedure is similar to other grouting methods
and consists of cleaning the concrete along the crack; installing built-up seats at intervals along the
crack, sealing the crack between the seats with a cement paint or grout, flushing the crack to clean it
and test the seal; and then grouting the whole. The grout itself is high early strength Portland cement.
An alternative and better method, where it can be performed, is to drill down the length of the
crack and grout it so as to form a key. The grout key functions to prevent relative transverse
movements of the sections of concrete adjacent to the crack. However, this technique is applicable
only where the cracks run in a reasonably straight line and are accessible at one end. The drilled hole
should preferably be 2 or 3 inches in diameter and flushed to clean out the crack and permit better
penetration of the grout [1,2,3,4].

2.8 Blanketing
Blanketing is similar to routing and sealing, but is used on a larger scale and is applicable for
sealing active as well as dormant cracks. Preparing the chase is the first step in blanketing. The chase
usually is cut square [Fig.5]. The bottom should be chipped as smooth, as level, and as clean as
possible to facilitate breaking the bond between sealant and concrete. The sides of the chase should
be prepared to provide a good bond with the sealant material. To this end, they should be dry. All
loose, disintegrated, or otherwise unsatisfactory concrete adjacent to the crack should be removed,
even if the resulting shape is irregular and the volume to be removed is large. If the concrete adjacent
to the chase is porous, a bond coat of waterproof mortar, laid on the sides and bottom of the chase is
required. The bond coat must be properly dried and cured before proceeding to place the sealant.
The first consideration in the selection of sealant materials is the amount of movement anticipated
and the extremes of temperature at which such movements will occur. It must be capable of deforming
the required amount under the applicable conditions of temperature. The material should be able to
take traffic, be resistant to chemical spillage, and be capable of being pigmented, if desired.
The first type of blanket joints use sealant materials, which are known as elastic sealants. They
return to their original shape, when not under an externally induced stress, ie. acts elastically. A bond
breaker should be used at the bottom of the chase, so that the sealant is free to deform. Otherwise,
the stress in the top fibres would be almost doubled, when compared with what it would be with the
bond breaker, and the bottom fibres will tend to tear. Good bond breakers include polyethylene, waxed
paper and foil [Fig.6].
The second type of blanket joints use sealant materials that are known as mastic sealants. Their
details are similar to that of an elastic sealant, except that the bond breaker is omitted and the sealant
is bonded to the bottom as well as to the sides of the chase. The sealant is a mastic rather than a
compound having elastic properties. This type of joint is for use where the anticipated movements are
small and where trafficability or appearance are not considerations. The advantage is that the mastic is
less costly than the elastic type of sealant material.
The third type of blanket jOints are called mortar-plugged jOints. They are used in cases where the
joint must resist a pressure head acting on the face of the plug. The mortar plug provides the strength
of the joint, and resists the pressure on the jOint by arching the load to the sides of the chase.
Theoretically, the edges of the chase should be undercut so that the mortar plug, which dries more
quicker and more thoroughly at the surface, does not shrink differentially and so pull away from the
sides and bottom of the chase.
Whatever be the type of detail used, when cutting the chase, it is probable that the reinforcement
will be exposed. If this is the case, cut deep enough so that the sealant will be behind the reinforcing,
clean the bars, and paint them with bitumen as a protection against moisture penetration and
corrosion. If the crack is an active one with substantial movements, cut the bars so that they do not
impede the movement of the joint. In any event, the reinforcement should not be left in a position
where it is partly embedded in two different matrices. For example, it should not be partly in the mortar
plug and partly in the sealant, or partly in the joint and partly in the original concrete.

609
2.9 Use of overlays
Overlays may be used to seal the cracks and they are very useful and desirable where there are
large numbers of cracks and treatment of each individual defect would be too expensive. Sealing of an
active crack by use of an overlay requires that the overlay be extensible and not flexible alone. The
occurrence of prolongation of a crack automatically means that there has been an elongation of the
surface fibers of the concrete. Accordingly, an overlay which is flexible but not extensible, ie. can be
bent but cannot be stretched, will not seal a crack that is active.
A two- or three- ply membrane of roofing felt laid in a mop coat of tar, with tar between the plies;
the whole covered with a protective course of gravel, concrete or brick, functions very well for this
purpose. The type of protective course depends on the use to which it will be subjected. Gravel is
typically used for roofs, concrete or brick are used where fill is to be placed against the overlay. An
asphalt block pavement also works well where the area is subjected to heavy traffic.

3. Repairing spalling and disintegration

Cracks in themselves are seldom indicative of structural danger; accordingly, repair usually does
not involve strengthening. So their repairs are basically intended to seal the cracks against an
objectionable flow of water or to improve the appearance of the construction. In the repair of a
structure showing spalling and disintegration, it is usual to find that there have been substantial losses
of section and/or pronounced corrosion of the reinforcement. Both are matters of concern from a
structural viewpoint, and repair generally involves some urgency and some requirement for restoration
of lost strength [5]. The principal methods used for repair of spalling and disintegration are jacketing,
guniting, prepacked concrete, drypack, replacement of concrete, use of various types of overlays etc.

3.1 Jacketing
The use of jacketing is primarily applicable to the repair of deteriorated columns, piers and piles. It
is especially useful where all or a portion of the section to be repaired is under water. Jacketing
consists of restoring or increasing the section of an existing member, principally a compression
member, by encasement in new concrete. This method is applicable for protecting a section against
further deterioration as well as strengthening. The form for the jacket should be provided with spacers
to assure clearance between it and the existing concrete surface. The form may be temporary or
permanent and may consist of timber, wrought iron, precast concrete or gauge metal, depending on
the purpose and exposure. For marine environments or elsewhere where it is desired to protect
concrete from chemical reaction with its environment or from weathering, the use of permanent timber
forms is recommended; provided the appearance of the form is not objectionable and does not
constitute a fire hazard. Wrought iron makes a very satisfactory, permanent form, but is expensive and
so is limited to installations where the additional cost is justified by the increased life of the repair or
where it is desired to protect the concrete from severe abrasion, such as due to heavy masses of
moving ice. Gauge metal and other temporary forms can also be used under certain conditions.

610
 Filling up the forms can be done by pumping the grout, by using pre packed concrete, by using a
tremie, or, for subaqueous works, by dewatering the form and placing the concrete in the dry. Filling
the form by pumping the grout, offers an advantage compared to others, because reliable results can
be obtained with less dependence upon the skill of workmen. The use of a grout having a cement-
sand ratio by volume, between 1:2 and 1:3 , is recommended. The richer grout is preferred for thinner
sections and the leaner mixture for heavier sections. The grout should be placed as soon as possible
after the rinsing operation and under an air pressure, sufficient to assure a smooth and continuous
flow. The forms should be filled to overflowing, the grout allowed to settle for about 20 minutes, and
the forms refilled to overflowing. The outside of the forms should be vibrated during placing of the
grout. The top of the jacket should be finished with a collar of concrete in such a manner that a smooth
transition between repaired and existing work will result.

3.2 Guniting
Gunite is also known as shotcrete or pneumatically applied mortar. Gunite is used for the
restoration of concrete surfaces where the deterioration is relatively shallow. It can be used on vertical
and overhead, as well as on horizontal surfaces and is particularly useful for restoring surfaces spa lied
due to corrosion of reinforcement. Gunite is a mixture of Portland cement, sand and water, shot into
the place by compressed air. In structural applications, the sand and cement are mixed dry in a mixing
chamber, and the dry mixture is then transferred by air pressure along a pipe or hose to a nozzle,
where it is forcibly projected on to the surface to be coated. Water is added to the mixture by passing it
through a spray injected at the nozzle. The flow of water at the nozzle can be controlled to give a mix
of desired stiffness, which will adhere to the surface against which it is projected.
The existing surface must be made rough to afford a good keying effect. Anchor bolts tying the
new work to the old concrete are essential. A layer of galvanized welded wire mesh can also be
provided. The mesh is connected to the hook bolts and the existing reinforcing bars, with galvanized
tie wire. Incompatibility of gunite with the old concrete is a major problem, and the keying effects of the
rough surface and the doweling effects of the anchor bolts are necessary to assure interaction
between the two materials.
Sand for gunite should be uniformly graded, as for conventional concrete. Hard particles are
desirable, since there is a tendency to grind and crumble the grains as they pass through the
discharge hose. The sand should contain 3 to 5 percent moisture for efficient operation of the
equipment. Because of impact, a certain amount of the material being projected against the surface to
be coated will bounce off. This material is known as rebound. It consists primarily of the coarse sand
particles and has a much smaller cement content than the mix, as projected from the nozzle. The
occurrence of some rebound is unavoidable, and it amounts to 20 to 30 pecent. Because of the
rebound, the cement content of the mortar, in place, will be substantially greater than that of the
materials as fed to the mixer. Thus, if a 1:3 mix is desired in place, a 1:4 mix fed into the mixer might
be adequately rich [1,2,3].
It is difficult to mention mix proportions for gunite because of uncertainties and variations in the
amount of rebound, because of difficulties in making test cylinders, and because there is little control
over the water-cement ratio of the material in place. In practice, it is usual to use as much water as
possible without causing fallouts, as this minimizes the rebound. Roughly, this might mean a water-
cement ratio of 0.5 to 0.6. Starting with this assumption and assuming a 20 to 30 percent rebound, the
proportions required for the mix, as fed to the mixer, can be approximated for any desired strength. In
practice, a 1:3 or 1:3.5 mix, by volume, is fed into the mixer.
The sand and cement shall be thoroughly mixed in dry state. The time of mixing shall not be less
than 1.5 minutes. The nozzle shall be held between 2 ft and 4 ft from the surface to be coated, and
held in such a position that the flow of material will strike it as near to a right angle as possible. In
shooting vertical or sloped surfaces, the placing shall be started at the bottom and carried up. In such
cases, the mortar shall be placed in layers of such thickness that the weight of the plastic mass does
not cause it to sag. When more than one layer is to be used to complete the final thickness of the
work, the delay between application of successive layers shall be ample to prevent sagging or fallout
of the mass, but not so long that the underlying layer has completely set and developed a glaze
coating. It is observed that 30 minutes to 1 hour is usually a proper interval.
Before any gunite is applied, care shall be taken to remove any sand or rebound clinging to the
surfaces. No gunite shall be applied to a surface on which there is running or free water. When
shooting around reinforcing bars or anchor bolts, the nozzle shall be moved from side to side and
angled to place the gunite back of the rod. At the end of the day's work, or at similar stopping periods,
the gunite shall be tapered to a thin edge. Before shooting the adjacent section, this tapered portion
shall be thoroughly cleaned and wetted. Operations shall be suspended when wind velocity is such

611
that it blows away the spray from the nozzle and prevents proper control of the consistency. As soon
as dry patches begin to appear on the surface of the newly placed mortar, curing by use of a water
spray or application of two coats of an approved sealing compound shall be commenced. Minimum
curing period shall be 7 days.

3.3 Prepacked concrete

This method is particularly useful for carrying out the repair under water and elsewhere where
accessibility is a problem. Prepacked concrete is made by filling forms with coarse aggregate and then
filling the voids of the aggregate by pumping in a sand-cement grout. As the grout is pumped into the
forms, it will fill the voids, displacing any water in them, and form a concrete mass.
Prepacked concrete is used for refacing of structures, jacketing, filling of cavities in and under
structures, and underpinning and enlarging piers, abutments, retaining walls and footings. The coarse
aggregate used should be carefully selected and must be clean. The void content of the aggregate
mass should be minimized to reduce the required volume of the more costly grout. In normal practice,
the voids ratio ranges from 35 to 45 percent. The intruded mortar contains fine sand, Portland cement,
a pozzolanic material of low mixing-water requirement, an agent designed to increase fluidity and to
inhibit early stiffening of the grout, and mixing water.
The forms must constitute a closed, watertight system, vented at the top only. If not watertight, the
travel of grout cannot be controlled. If not effectively vented, a back-pressure will be created, with the
result that the concrete fill may contain voids. Pumping of mortar should commence at the lowest point
and proceed upward. The grout pipes should not be more than 5 ft on centers, and the grout level in
the mass should be brought up uniformly, as determined by observations of grout levels in the grout
pipes. Placing of grout should be a smooth, uninterrupted operation.

3.4 Drypack
Drypacking is the hand placement of a very dry mortar and the subsequent tamping of the mortar
into place, producing an intimate contact between the new and existing works. Because of the low
water-cement ratio of the material, there is little shrinkage, and the patch remains tight. So it will be of
good quality with respect to durability, strength and water tightness. Drypacking is used for filling small,
relatively deep holes, such as those resulting from the removal of form ties, and narrow slots cut for
repair of cracks. The usual mortar mix is 1:2.5 to 1:3.

3.5 Replacement of concrete

This method consists of replacing the defective concrete with new concrete of conventional
proportions, placed in a conventional manner. This method is a satisfactory and economical solution
where the repair occurs in depth (at least beyond the reinforcement), and where the area to be
repaired is accessible. This method is particularly indicated where a water-tight construction is
required and where the deterioration extends completely through the original concrete section.

3.6 Overlays
In addition to seal cracks, an overlay may also be used to restore a spalled or diSintegrated
surface. Overlays used include mortar, bituminous compounds, and epoxies. They should be bonded
to the existing concrete surface.

4. Conclusions
When repairing cracks, do not fill the crack with new concrete or mortar. A brittle overlay should
not be used to seal an active crack. The restraints causing the cracks should be relieved, or otherwise
the repair must be capable of accommodating future movements. Cracks should not be surface-sealed
over corroded reinforcement, without encaSing the bars. The methods adopted for repairing spalling
and disintegration must be capable of restoring the lost strength.

References :
[1] Champion, S. Failure and Repair of Concrete Structures. John Wiley & Sons Inc. New York, 1961.
[2] Sidney M. Johnson. Deterioration, Maintenance and Repair of Structures. Mc Graw-Hill Book
Company. New York, 1965.
[3] Lee How Son and George C.S. Yuen. Building Maintenance Technology. Macmillan Distribution
Ltd. England. 1993.
[4] Thomas H. McKaig. Building Failures. Mc Graw-Hill Book Company. New York, 1962.
[5] Jagadish, R. Structural Failures - Case Histories. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New
Delhi.1995.

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