STRUCTURAL STEELWORK
Analysis and Design
S.S. RAY
BE (Cal), CEng, FICE, MBGS1998 by
Blackwell Science Ld
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Library of Congress
Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Ray, SS
‘Structural steelwork: analysis and design
SS. Ray.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-632-03857-8
Building, Iron and Steel. 2, Steel, Structural
1 Tile
TA684,R37_ 1998
624,1'821-de2t 97-36497
ci
For further information on
Blackwell Science, visit our website
www. blackwell-science. comContents
Preface
Notation
Chapter 1 Strength of Materials
Bending stress in beams
1.1.1 Assumptions
Position of neutral axis
3. Bending stress in asymmetrical sections
1.4 Product inertia of a rectangle about
orthogonal axes
1.2. Shear stress in beams
Bt
1
1
1.2.1 Shear centre for thin-walled asymmetrical section
1.3. Torsional shear stress
1.3.1 Torsion of thin rectangular members
1.3.2. Torsion of thin open sections
1.4 Strain energy in axial load, bending, torsion and shear
Chapter 2. Theory of Structures
2.1 Polygon of forces
2.2. Equations of equilibrium
2.3. Internal forces
2.3.1 Compound trusses: the method of section
2.3.2 Maxwell diagram for simple trusses
2.3.3. The method of section by Maxwell diagram
2.3.4 Deflection of pin-jointed structures
2.4 Bending moment and shear force
2.4.1 Simply supported beams
2.4.2 Slope-deflection equations
2.4.3. Area moment theorems
2.4.4 Generalised slope-deflection equations
2.4.5 Fixed-end beams
2.4.6 Theorem of three moments
2.4.7 Method of moment distribution
2.4.8 Arches
2.4.9 Symmetrical two-hinged arches
2.4.10 Hingeless symmetrical arches
2.5 Influence lines
2.5.1 Influence lines of cantilever beams
2.5.2 Influence lines of a simply supported beam
2.5.3 Influence lines of three-hinged arches
2.5.4 Influence lines of simple trusses
xi
xiii
Ree
19
20
21
ae
24
27
28
29
aoe
31
33
35
35
37
39
40
43
46
46
47
48
51vi
Contents
2.6 Matrix method of structural analysis
2.6.1. Truss analysis by the displacement method
2.6.2 Continuous beam analysis by the displacement
method
2.6.3 Continuous frame analysis by the displacement
method
2.7 Structural dynamics
2.7.1 Single degree of freedom (SDOF) systems
2.7.2. Effect of viscous damping on free vibration
2.7.3. Forced vibration of undamped SDOF systems
due to harmonic excitation
2.7.4 Forced vibration of undamped SDOF system
by triangular impulse
2.7.5 Free vibration of a simply supported beam
with distributed mass
2.7.6 Response of an SDOF system to a very short
impulse
2.7.1 Response of an SDOF system to any arbitrary
time-dependent loading
2.7.8 Seismic response of a damped SDOF system
2.79 Response spectra
2.8 Analysis of plates
2.8.1 Elastic analysis of plates
2.8.2 Yield-line analysis of plates
2.9 Methods of plastic analysis
2.9.1 Definition of plastic behaviour
2.9.2 Plastic behaviour of a section of a beam in pure
bending
2.9.3 Plastic behaviour of a section of a beam with
bending and axial load
2.9.4 Plastic behaviour of a section of a beam with
bending and shear
2.9.5 Load combinations in plastic analysis
2.9.6 Plastic analysis of structures
Chapter 3. Analysis of Structures: Worked Examples
3.1. Example 3.1: Roof truss
3.1.1 Type of truss
3.1.2 Loading on the truss
3.1.3 Analysis by method of section
3.1.4 Method of section using Maxwell diagram
3.2. Example 3.2: Continuous beam
3.2.1 Analysis of continuous beam by the three
moment theorem
3.2.2 Analysis of continuous beam by the method of
moment distribution
3.2.3. Analysis of continuous beam by the matrix
method
ey
52
55
mn
61
62
65
65
67
68
an
1
2
B
14
74
76
79
9
9
80
81
82
85
85
85
86
90,
on
95
98
101
103Contents
vii
33
3.4
ao
3.6
3.7
Example 3.3: Frame structure
3.3.1 Analysis of a rigid frame by the method of
moment distribution
3.3.2 Analysis of a rigid frame by the matrix method
Example 3.4: Analysis of a hingeless arch
Example 3.5: Yield-line analysis of a rectangular plate
Example 3.6: Seismic analysis of a tall cantilever
structure
Example 3.7: Plastic analysis of a pitched portal frame
3.7.1 Haunched pitched portal frame
Chapter 4 Design of Structures
4.1
42
43
44
4.5
4.6
Principal issues
Material grade selection and section type selection
Manufacturing process
Connection design
4.4.1 Simple connections
4.4.2. Moment connections
44.3 Trusses and open-web girders
Check list of actions and design considerations
Ultimate limit state design
4.6.1 Step-by-step method of semi-rigid design
4.6.2. Load combinations at the ultimate limit state
as per BS 5950: Part 1
4.6.3 Patterned loading
4.6.4 Structural stability against lateral loads
4.6.5 Stability of multistorey rigid frames
Chapter 5 Design of Struts
5.1
=i)
= i
5.4
7
Axial capacity of a column or a strut
Types of failure of a column or strut
Design basis of columns and struts
5.3.1 Compressive strength (pe)
5.3.2. Boundary conditions
5.3.3 Combined axial compression and bending moment
Step-by-step design procedure of columns/struts
Worked examples
5.5.1 Example 5.la: Design the internal compression
member of a roof truss
5.5.2. Example 5.1b: Same member as in Example 5.la
but use circular hollow section Grade 50
5.5.3. Example 5.2a: Design the rafter of a roof truss
5.5.4 Example 5.2b: Design the same rafter as in
Example 5.2a using a rectangular hollow section
5.5.5 Example 5.3: Design the vertical leg of a portal
frame
5.5.6 Example 5.4: Design the corner column of a
multistorey building
5.5.7 Example 5.5: Design the compound column of
an industrial building with a heavy-duty crane
105
105
110
114
118
120
127
133
137
137
138
138
139
140
140
141
142
144
145
146
147
148
148
155
155
155
156
156
156
157
159
183
183
185
185
189
190
195
200viii
Contents
Chapter 6 Design of Ties
6.1 Principal issues
6.2 Design basis
6.3 Combined axial tension and bending moment
6.3.1 Principal issues
6.3.2. Design basis
6.4 Step-by-step design of members in tension
6.5 Worked examples
6.5.1 Example 6.1: Design the main tie of the roof
truss in Example 3.1
6.5.2 Example 6.2: Design the tie of a 75m span
latticed girder for the roof of an aircraft hangar
Chapter 7 Design of Beams
7.1 Principal issues
7.2. Design basis
7.2.1 Local capacity
7.2.2 Lateral torsional buckling
7.2.3, Buckling of web
7.2.4 Tension-field action in thin webs
7.3 Step-by-step design of beams
7.4 Worked examples
7.4.1. Example 7.1: Beam supporting the floor of a
workshop
7.4.2. Example 7.2: Main beam in a multistorey
building using simple construction
7.4.3 Example 7.3: Main beam with full end fixity to
concrete wall
744
TAS
Design of a stiffened plate girder
: Design of a gantry girder for an
electric overhead travelling crane
7.5 Beams subject to torsion
7.5.1 Torsional resistance
7.5.2. Stresses in closed sections
7.5.3. Stresses in open sections
7.5.4 Checks for capacity
7.6 Example 7.6: Design of a beam with concentrated
applied torque at the centre of span
Chapter 8 Design of Composite Beams and Columns
8.1 Composite beams
8.1.1 Principal issues
8.1.2 Design basis
8.1.3 Effective breadth
8.1.4 Modular ratio
8.1.5. Transformed section: elastic section properties
8.1.6 Second moment of area for elastic analysis
8.1.7 Plastic section properties
8.1.8 Redistribution of support moments
8.1.9 Shear connection
21
2iL
21
2iL
211
212
213
220
220
222
227
227
227
227
229
230
231
232
269
269
273
278
284
300
317
317
318
318
320
322
329
329
329
330
330
331
331
333
335
340
341Contents
ix
8.2
8.3
8.4
Longitudinal shear transfer
8.1.11 Reduction of plastic moment capacity due to
high shear
8.1.12 Defiections
8.1.13 Effect of dead load
8.1. i Effect of shrinkage and creep
8.1.15 Effect of imposed loads
8.1.16 Step-by-step design procedure for composite
beams
Example 8.1: Composite beam
Composite columns
8.3.1 Step-by-step design of an encased composite
column
8.3.2 Step-by-step design of concrete filled hollow
circular section
Example 8.2: Composite column
Chapter 9 Connections in Steelwork
91
9.2
9.3
9.4
a
Bolted connections
9.1.1 Types of bolts
9.1.2 Capacity of bolts
9.1.3 In-plane loading of a group of bolts
9.1.4 Out-of-plane loading of a group of bolts
9.1.5 Out-of-plane bending moment, direct load and
shear on a group of bolts
9.1.6 Local capacity check of connected elements in a
moment connection
9.1.7 Design of stiffeners and haunched ends of beams
9.1.8 Bolted splices
Welds and welding
9.2.1 Types of weld
9.2.2 Defects in welds
9.2.3 Weld inspection methods: non-destructive
testing (NDT)
9.2.4 Design of fillet welds
9.2.5 Design of butt welds
9.2.6 Analysis of weld group
9.2.7 Welded beam-to-column connection
Notched beams
9.3.1 Plain shear check at notched end of beam
9.3.2 Block shear check at notched end of beam
Beam-to-beam connection: shear capacity
Column bases
9.5.1 General rules
9.5.2 Empirical design of base plates for concentric
forces
9.5.3 Analysis of column-to-foundation connection
9.5.4 Analysis of base plate
9.5.5 Base plate with stiffeners
9.5.6 Holding-down bolts
342
342
343
343
344
344
345
365
383
384
389
390
397
397
397
398
400
401
407
411
414
421
427
428
431
431
434
434
435
436
440
441
441
442
443,
443,
443,
447
449
451Contents
9.6
9.5.7 Shear transfer from column to concrete
9.5.8 Rules to determine trial size of base plate
Worked examples
9.6.1 Example 9.1: Rigid bolted connection of column-
to-roof truss
9.6.2 Example 9.2: Welded connections of members
in a roof truss
9.6.3 Example 9.3: Beam-to-beam connection using
fin plates
9.6.4 Example 9.4: Beam-to-beam connection using
double angle web cleats
9.6.5 Example 9.5: Beam-to-beam connection using
end plates
9.6.6 Example 9.6: Portal frame eaves haunch
connection
9.6.7 Example 9.7: Bolted splice of a beam
9.6.8 Example 9.8: Bolted splice of a column
9.6.9 Example 9.9: Design of a column base
Chapter 10 Corrosion Protection
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
Process of corrosion in steel
Protective system
Types of coating
Components of a corrosion protection system
Specification of a protective system
Sample corrosion protection systems
Chapter 11 Material Properties
Table 11.1 Influence coefficients for continuous beams
Table 11.2 Bolt data and capacities
Table 11.3 Capacity of welds
Table 11.4 Dimensions and properties of steel sections
Table 11.5 Dimensions for detailing and surface areas
Table 11.6 Hp/A values
Table 11.7 Back marks in channel flanges and angles
Table 11.8 Back marks in flanges of joists, UBs and UCs
Table 11.9 Bending moments, shear forces and deflections
Table 11.10 Fire protection methods for steelwork
Index
453
454
454
454
457
458
465
469
473
485,
491
496
501
501
501
502
502
502
503
505
506
508
508
510
530
535
544
545
546
554
555Preface
There are a number of excellent books available which deal with the
design of structural steel elements but, in the author’s view, they lack
certain important features. The design of structural steel members
requires many checks in a systematic, structured manner: this book
has been written to provide a step-by-step approach to this task with
a view to achieving completeness of the design process in all respects.
This highly prescriptive approach provides a comprehensive book
which is at the same time user friendly. The task of quality assurance
becomes less arduous and the output of a design office becomes fully
standardised if the approach in this book is strictly followed. For
students, too, the book should prove to be invaluable because the
essential elements of the theory of structures and analysis are dis-
cussed, followed by a structured approach to the design of all elements
in a building, including connections. The numerous worked examples
will be very useful to practitioners, students and lecturers alike.
The design principles are illustrated at each stage by sketeches. The
extensive use of illustrations is a particular feature of the book and is
intended to clarify ambiguities in the codes of practice
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Extracts from BS 5950: Part 1: 1990 are reproduced with the permis-
sion of BSI. Complete editions of the standards can be obtained by
post from BSI Customer Services, 389 Chiswick High Road, London
W44AL
The author wishes to thank the British Standards Institution for their
kind permission to reproduce some of the essential charts from their
Codes of Practice, and Mr Malcolm Smith for helping to produce the
sketches in this book.
SS. Ray
Great Bookham
Surrey
xiNotation
Oe
a
as
Yn
Ime
gop
3
ess
5
@
0
O%
Oy
Orv
Or
ALo.
Aut
Angle of inclination of line AB to horizontal
Coefficient of thermal expansion of materials
Modular ratio
The modular ratio for long-term loading taking into account creep
of concrete
The modular ratio for short-term loading
Material factor
Material factor for concrete
Factor to allow for thread stripping effects
Corrected final defiection of a composite beam allowing for partial
shear connection
Deftection at the centre of the column
The defiection of the span due to loading as a simply supported beam
Deffection of a composite beam with full shear connection
‘The deflection of a continuous composite beam at the middle of one of
the spans due to imposed loading
Axial extension of member i of a truss
Deffection at the point of application of P, in the direction of the force
Deffection of steel beam alone subjected to loading
Static deflection of a single degree of freedom system due to gravity
load Mg
Displacement of joint i
Altitude of site above mean sea level
Axial strain
Strain at a distance y from the neutral axis on a circular arc AB
Effective shrinkage strain in concrete
Perry factor
Perry coefficient
Angle to the horizontal made by the diagonal stiffener
Angle of inclination between X and U axes
Angle of rotation when the length of the member is /
Angle subtended at the centre of the circular arc AB
Angle between the X-X and U-U axes measured anticlockwise from the
XCX axis
Beam span-end rotation
Torsional rotation of a circular shaft about the longitudinal axis
Slope of beam at end A
Slope of beam at end B
Rigid body rotation of beam AB due to settlement of support B
Rotation of joint i
Slenderness ratio
Minor axis slenderness ratio corresponding to L, in bracing system
Limiting equivalent slenderness ratio
Equivalent slenderness ratio for a column or beamxiy Notation
oa
Web slenderness factor
Slenderness ratio of the effective section of bearing stiffener
Slenderness ratio corresponding to the effective length about the
X-X axis
Slenderness ratio corresponding to the effective length about the
Y-Y axis
Snow load shape coefficient
Average load factor for ultimate limit state
The proportion of total loading which is long term
Bending stress on the section compression positive
Direct axial stress
Stress at a distance y from the neutral axis on a circular arc AB
Direct stress in tension
Bending stress due to warping torsion
Stress due to applied moment M,
Stress due to applied moment M,
Maximum shear stress in the circular shaft at a distance of radius r from
the centre
Shear stress at a distance yp from neutral axis i
Shear stress in thin rectangular section along the long edge
Torsional shear stress
Shear stress in a closed section subjected to torque
Warping shear stress in the flanges
Poisson's ratio for the material of the plate
Angle of the centre-line of the arch rib with respect to the X-axis
Angle of inclination of the lacing bars to the axis of the member
Diameter of steel tube
Haunch angle !
Inclination of the tangent at point D of the arch to the horizontal
Rotation of the member about the longitudinal X-axis
Shear strain
Total angle of twist
Shape function
Damped natural frequency
Undamped natural frequency (radians per second)
Frequency of excitation
Diagonal dimension
Distance from the centroid of bolts in tension to the Y-Y axis
Distance from the innermost vertical line of fastener holes to the edge of
the web
Distance of hinge C from support 4 of arch
Distance from the steel beam centre to the concrete centre
Length of greater projection of the plate beyond the column
Length of run of weld in the X-X direction
Robertson constant
Spacing of transverse stiffeners
Torsional bending constant
Distance of unit load from support 4 of the arch
Minimum hook approach
Wheel spacing in end carriage
Amplitude of motion
Area of bending moment diagramNotation xv
Area of cross-section of rib of arch
Area of the section cut off by a plane parallel to neutral axis at a
distance of from the neutral axis
Area of segment bordered by the yield lines (m?)
Area of steel beam or column section
Area of stiffener in contact with flange
Net area of plate allowing for holes
Area of the cross-section of the arch rib at the crown.
Area of the rectilinear element of the section which has the largest
dimension parallel to the direction of the load
Area of free-span bending moment diagram for span 1 (4B)
‘Area of free-span bending moment diagram for span 2 (BC)
Area of concrete in the steel tube
Net area of concrete in the encasement after deducting the area of the
steel section and any steel reinforcement used
Mean area of the concrete shear surface per unit length of beam
Effective area of batten after deduction for holes
Effective area of fiange plates allowing for bolt holes
Effective area in tension
Effective area of stiffener considering 20 times web thickness on either
side of the stiffener
Area of flange
Gross cross-sectional area
Gross cross-sectional area (lacing bar)
Gross area of flange
Gross area of unconnected leg
Gross area of stem
Area enclosed by the mean perimeter of the closed section
Tensile area of web from the innermost vertical line of fastener holes to
the edge of the web along a horizontal line
Effective tensile area of web from the innermost vertical line of fastener
holes to the edge of the web along a horizontal line
Area of section of member i of truss
Net area
Net area of connected leg
Net area of flange
Net area of web
Area of any steel reinforcement in the concrete
‘Area of steel reinforcement in the concrete encasement
Area of tensile reinforcement in the concrete slab in the effective section
Area of shank where threads do not appear in the shear plane
Area of steel in the steel tube cross-section
Area of steel section encased
Effective area of bolt in shear
Equivalent area of web stiffener
Equivalent area of stiffeners including 20 times thickness of web
Area of the stiffener assembly
Gross area of stiffener assuming a pair of plates symmetrically placed
about the web
Cross-sectional area of the total steel reinforcement crossing the
potential shear failure plane
Area of the bolt at the bottom of the threads
Effective area of bolt in tensionxvi_ Notation
Ay Effective shear area
A Shear area of column section
Ay Total shear area of the web with web plates
A Vertical shear area of web from the notch to the bottom-most
fastener hole
Ave Effective shear area at the notch
Ave Effective vertical shear area of web from the notch to the bottom-most
fastener hole
Avg Gross shear area at the notch
Ay Gross vertical shear area of web from the notch to the bottom-most
fastener hole
Av Net shear area at the notch after deduction of holes
Abn Net vertical shear area of web from the notch to the bottom-most
fastener hole
AB Length of the circular arc along the line AB
b Actual breadth of flange on each side of the beam centre-line measured
as half the distance to the adjacent beam
b Distance from the centre of the web to the tip of the flange
b Distance of hinge C from arch support B
6 Length of run of weld in the ¥-Y direction
6 Width of individual panels
b Width of rectangular section
b Width of the section at a distance yo from neutral axis
b Width of smaller flange
a Distance of unit load from support B of the arch
bb Stiff bearing length determined by assuming 45° dispersion of load
be Breadth of concrete encasement
be Width of end post
by Stiff bearing length which cannot deform appreciably in bending
be Breadth of the concrete rib
by Width of bearing stiffener
b, Width of stiffener plates
by Width of web plate
b Width of stiffener in contact with the flange
Deg Gross outstand of the stiffener
beg Width of stiffener on each side of the web
ban Net outstand in contact with the flange of the column allowing for
corner snipe
B Building plan width
B Length of side of square anchor plate
B Overall breadth of box section
B Width of the base plate
8 Width of base plate along the Y-Y axis
B Width of flange (steel beam or column section)
By Width of flange of the beam
Be Width of flange of the column
Be Effective width of the concrete flange
Ber Effective width of the column flange for load transfer
Average cover to the two orthogonal layers of reinforcement at the top
of a foundation
Centroid of the area 4 (loaded by r,) from the line of rotation of
the segment
Damping coefficientRAAARARAARARARRAQAH AAA
Notation xvii
Critical damping coefficient
Compressive internal force in the section
Torsional modulus constant
Total upward contact reaction of a concrete foundation on the
base plate
Size effect factor
Standard pressure coefficient
Dynamic augmentation factor
Clear depth of web of the steel beam
Depth between fillets of column section
Depth of rectangle
Depth of girder
Depth of web
Depth of web between fillets
Diameter of the bolt
Diameter of holes in a row perpendicular to the direction of tensile force
Effective depth of embedment
Length of each constituent thin rectangle of the section
Length of rectangular section
Nominal diameter of the bolt
Nominal shank diameter of the studs
Total depth of web remaining after notches, without deduction of holes
for fasteners
Depth of web from the notch to the bottom-most fastener hole
Depth of the plate stiffener at the point of maximum moment in the
base plate
Depth of web
Elemental area of a section
Elementary length along rib of arch
Depth of the base plate
Diameter of circular shaft
Diameter of the column
Diameter of holes for bolts
Diameter of holes for fasteners
Flexural rigidity of plate
Length of base plate along the X-X axis
Overall depth of box or column section
Total depth of embedment of the holding-down bolt
Overall depth of beam By
Overall depth of beam B,
Overall depth of beam
Overall depth of the column
Distance between the centre of flanges
Length of a side of the square base plate
Overall depth of profile sheet
Distance between the centre of the tensile and compressive
reinforcement
Distance from the top of the steel beam to the centroid of the tensile
reinforcement
Overall depth of the concrete slab
Eccentricity of in-plane loading on a group of bolts
Eccentricity of reaction Ry from the centre of gravity of effective section
along the centre-line of webNotation
e End distance in the direction of load
é Shear centre of a thin-walled section
e Spacing of the end posts
e) Time-dependent vertical displacement
E Modulus of elasticity
E Elastic modulus of member j of a truss
Ep Elastic modulus of the panel material
E, Elastic modulus of steel
EI Flexural rigidity of section
f Mean longitudinal stress in the smaller flange due to moment and axial
load on the beam at the point of interest
f Number of rotationally and translationally fixed supports (fixed)
yt Rise of arch rib
a Stress in compression due to axial load
ui Stress in concrete fibre
You Characteristic 28 day cube strength of concrete
Fes Compressive stress in web at the compression edge of the web
a Longitudinal fibre stress due to bending moment
Son Maximum shear stress in the weld group due to the applied
moment M
Sons Shear in the weld in the XX direction due to moment on the weld group
Tony Shear in the weld in the ¥-Y direction due to moment on the
weld group
So Natural frequency of a single degree of freedom system
to Undamped natural frequency of vibration = 1/T, =w/2m (cycles per
second, Hz)
Se Resultant shear stress in the weld due to combined moment and shear
te Stress in the steel beam
te Punching shear stress at the effective perimeter
te Shear stress due to applied shear force V
fe Shear stress due to direct shear F, in the ¥-Y direction
ty Yield strength of steel reinforcement
h Yield stress
F Applied direct tension
F Axial compression in a column.
F Lateral load at the bearing
F Lateral load on the stiffener applied at the beam compression flange
FE Magnitude of the impulsive force
F Ultimate axial compression load at a section in a member
F Ultimate maximum axial tensile force in a compound member
Fis Flange force in the bottom flange of beam By
Fix Flange force in the top flange of beam 2,
Fre Flange force in the bottom flange of beam By
Fa Flange force in the top flange of Beam By
Fy Compressive force in the concrete flange
Fe Horizontal compressive force for connection equilibrium
Fe Total compressive force acting at the centre of compression
Fe Ultimate compressive load
Fr Flange forces
Fy The longitudinal tensile force in the reinforcement at the negative
moment region
Fe The longitudinal compressive force in the concrete slab due to maximum
positive momentNotation xix
Stiffener force
Tensile force in steel reinforcement
Actual tensile load in the bolt at the ith row
‘Actual load in the bolts in row j
Applied shear force
Applied direct tension
Applied load through flange
‘Applied maximum shear force in the panel under consideration
Applied shear force
Applied shear on the weld group
Column web panel shear
Shear in the stiffeners
Applied maximum shear
Applied shear about the XX axis
Applied shear about the ¥-Y axis
External load on the stiffener
Applied joint moment or algebraic sum of fixed-end moments at joint
Distance between holes at right angles to the direction of the tensile load
Horizontal spacing of bolts at the connection
Modulus of rigidity
Shear modulus
Distance between centroids of flanges
Number of translationally fixed supports (hinged)
Overall height of stud
Thickness of plate
Distance from neutral axis to centroid of bottom flange
Depth of concrete encasement
Distance of the ith bolt hole in the plate from the centre-line parallel to
the axis of the beam or column
‘The distance of the bolt in the ith row from the centre
of compression
Distance from line of action of direct load N to the centre
of compression
Distance between centres of the flanges of the steel beam
Distance from neutral axis to centroid of top flange
Building height
Horizontal component of the support reaction H’
Horizontal reaction at supports
Warping constant
Reaction at arch support in the direction AB
Height of average roof-top level around the building
Horizontal reaction at end A
Effective height
‘Anchorage force parallel to the longitudinal horizontal axis of
a beam
Maximum horizontal base shear
Reference height of building
Summation of all the resolved forces in the horizontal direction
Moment of inertia of the cross-section of a beam about its
neutral axis
Moment of inertia of a section of arch rib
Moment of inertia of a section of beam or column
Second moment of area about the neutral axisxx Notation
Io Moment of inertia of a section of arch rib at the crown
h Moment of inertia of section of beam in span 1
h Moment of inertia of section of beam in span 2
i Second moment of inertia of the compression flange about the
minor axis
Terr Effective moment of inertia
I Second moment of area of an uncracked composite section
ie Second moment of area of a cracked composite section for
negative moments
Second moment of area of a cracked composite section for
positive moments
Ip Polar moment of inertia of the group of bolts
Ip Polar moment of inertia of the weld group
ik Minimum stiffness of transverse web stiffener
i Second moment of area of stiffeners only about web centre-line
Ie Equivalent moment of inertia including 20 times web thickness
he Second moment of inertia of the tension flange about the minor axis
lu Moment of inertia of the section about the principal axis U-U
luv Product inertia of the section about the U and V axes
he Moment of inertia of the section about the principal axis V-V
Ik Moment of inertia about the major axis
i Second moment of area about the major axis through the
neutral axis
Ik Second moment of area of the steel beam about the major axis
Ix Moment of inertia of the section about the X-axis
Tex Moment of inertia of the weld group about X-X axis,
Ixy Product inertia of the section about the X and Y axes
ly Second moment of area about the minor axis through the
neutral axis
wy Moment of inertia of the section about the Y-axis
ley Moment of inertia of the weld group about ¥-Y axis
ST Second moment of area of all the components in a composite column
about the minor axis expressed in steel units
j Number of joints in a truss
i Total number of joints in the structure
J Number of lacing bars cut by a plane perpendicular to the axis of
the member
J Number of shear connectors in a row perpendicular to the axis of
the beam
J Torsion constant
k Stiffness
k Torsional stiffness of a circular shaft
Generalised stiffness of a system
The reduction factor for ribs perpendicular to the beam
The reduction factor for ribs parallel to the beam
Beam stiffness
Column stiffness
Joint restraint coefficient of joint
Generalised geometric stiffness
Stiffness of a single degree of freedom system (N/m)
Horizontal distance between supports A and B of arch
Horizontal span of an arch
Length of member
acetalNotation xxi
nee
br pepper
SERRE
Length of a side of segment or projected length of a side of
a segment
Length of span of beam
Storey height
Length of span 1
Length of span 2
Length of member i of a truss
Actual length of strut
Building plan length
Length along the beam or column between adjacent points
of restraint
Length of rafter between points of intersection with web members
Length of web plate
Effective length about the 4-A axis
Effective length about the B-B axis
Actual overhang of base plate on the compression side
Effective length between points of intersection of lacing with
main members
Length of end plate
Span of crane bridge
Effective length of beam
Effective length of flange or end plate gone beyond yield
Effective length of the stiffener
Effective length of beam or column between restraints
Effective length of strut
Effective length about the X-X axis
Effective length about the Y-Y axis
Distance between the first row of bolts and the last row of bolts in the
direction of loading in a long joint
Length of the stiffener
Length of web plate
Actual overhang of base plate
Effective length of web resisting tension assuming 60° spread of load
Effective length about the V-V axis
Length along the beam or column to a point of interest from a point of
restraint
Effective span L for simply supported beam
Distance from the centre of bolt to 20% of the distance into the root of
rolled section or the fillet weld
Equivalent uniform moment factor
Mass per unit length of beam
Number of members in a frame
Number of members in a truss
Generalised mass of a system
Effective overhang of base plate on the compression side
Effective overhang of base plate from the centre of tension of the
holding-down bolts
Applied bending moment
Applied bending moment about an axis perpendicular to D
Applied in-plane moment on the weld group
‘Applied moment at the connection
Beam span-end moments
Bending moment at any point along the length of a beam along the X-axis,Notation
EEESEESES
M!
Bending moment in an arch due to applied loading
Constant applied moment on column section
Mass of a single degree of freedom system (kg)
Mass of system
Maximum ultimate bending moment
Numerically larger end moment of the beam in the unrestrained length
Resultant moment on a circular section
Bending moment due to external loading
Bending moment in an arch rib when H is zero
Revised plastic moment of resistance with shear
Bending moment at midspan of unrestrained length of beam
Maximum span bending moment in span due to loading as a simply
supported beam
Bending moment in beam By clockwise positive
Bending moment in beam By clockwise positive
Bending moment at support A of continuous beam
Maximum moment in the length of the member
Applied moment at end A of beam AB
Bending moment at support B of continuous beam,
Buckling resistance moment
Applied moment at end B of beam AB
Buckling moment of resistance of a simple column
Bending moment in arch rib at the crown of an arch
Bending moment in the cantilever base plate overhang on the
compression side
Elastic moment of resistance of flange plates about the plate centre-line
parallel to the axis of the beam or column, allowing for bolt holes
Moment capacity of the connection
Plastic moment capacity of a composite section
Plastic moment of resistance of the section
Section moment capacity
Plastic moment capacity of a section about the XX (major) axis
Plastic moment capacity of a section in the absence of axial compressive
load about the X-X (major) axis
Plastic moment capacity of the section about the minor axis
Plastic moment capacity of a section in the absence of axial compressive
load about the ¥-Y (minor) axis
Bending moment at point D of arch
Elastic critical moment
Flange plate bending moment due to minor axis bending
moment Myy
Plastic moment capacity of the section remaining after deduction of
shear area Ay
Local bending moment in a rafter due to concentrated load of purlin
Equivalent bending moment
Maximum moment in a column section due to moment and direct load
Minor axis bending moment due to strut action
Minor axis bending moment due to strut action at any point in the
beam, assuming sinusoidal distribution
Ultimate plastic moment capacity of a plate section per unit length
(Nmjm)
Plastic moment capacity
Plastic moment of resistance of the beam sectionNotation xxiii
n
n
n
n
n
ny
m
ne
ny
Plastic moment of resistance of flange or end plate per unit length
Plastic moment capacity of the smaller flange about its own equal area
axis parallel to the flange
Plastic moment capacity of the web about its own equal area axis
perpendicular to the web
Maximum moment of resistance of base plate
Reduced local section moment capacity about the X-X axis in the
presence of axial load
Reduced local section moment capacity about the ¥-Y axis in the
presence of axial load
Applied moment due to transverse eccentricity of Ry
Moment on a stiffener due to eccentrically applied load
Moment on a stiffener due to eccentricity of transverse load
Plastic moment capacity of the steel beam
Bending moment in the base plate overhang on the tension side
In-plane moment on a group of bolts
Resolved moment on the section about the U-U axis
Resolved moment on the section about the V-V axis
Applied moment about the major axis at the splice
Applied moment about the X-X axis
Applied ultimate moment about the major axis
Bending moment per unit length acting on the edges parallel to the Y-axis
Ultimate nominal bending moment about the X-X axis
Torsional moment per unit length on the edges of a plate
Applied moment about the ¥-Y axis
Applied ultimate moment about the minor axis
Bending moment per unit length acting on the edges parallel to the
X-axis
Ultimate nominal bending moment about the ¥-Y axis
Moment capacity of the stiffener based on its elastic modulus
Minor axis bending moment due to applied minor axis moment and
additional minor axis bending moment due to strut action
Summation of all moments of the forces (or the resolved forces) about
any point in the system
Depth of the plastic neutral axis from the top of the concrete flange
Effective edge distance
Number of bolts in the group
Number of fastener holes in any single vertical line
Number of holding bolts in the tension zone
Number of plate stiffeners resisting the compression side moment M.
and the tension side moment M, in the base plate
Slenderness correction factor
Number of fastener holes along the horizontal line from the innermost
line of fastener to the edge of the web
The length obtained by dispersion at 45° through half the depth of
the section
The length obtained by dispersion through the flange to the flange-to-
web connection at a slope of 1:2.5 to the plane of the flange
Number of bolts in the compression zone
Number of web plates
Number of bolts in the tension zone
Actual number of shear connectors for positive or negative moment
as relevantxxiy Notation
Applied direct axial load, compression positive
Applied direct tension
‘Axial direct load from column
Direct axial compression in the column applied at the intersection of the
X-X and the Y-Y axis
Internal axial load due to applied loading
Number of shear connectors in @ group
Total number of shear connectors in a spacing S
Total number of wheels
Vertical load
‘Axial thrust due to external loading only
Axial compression in the arch rib when H is zero
Direct tension or compression in beam By, positive in the direction of
positive x
Direct tension or compression in beam Bz, positive in the direction of
positive x
Actual number of shear connectors used for positive moment
‘Axial thrust in arch rib at the crown of an arch
Shear in the bolt due to axial load
Direct load shear in each bolt along the X-X axis
Internal force in member i due to external loading
‘Axial tension or compression in lacing bar
Shear in the ith bolt due to moment
Shear in the ith bolt in the X-X direction due to moment Mr
Shear in the ith bolt in the Y-Y direction due to moment My
Number of shear connectors due to negative moment
Number of shear connectors due to positive moment
Number of shear connectors required to give full shear connection and
for positive moment capacity of the section to develop
Shear in bolt due to direct shear
Length of the circular arc along the line NA
Amplitude of force of excitation
Bending strength
Design strength of bolt in bearing
Design strength of connected ply in bearing
Compressive strength
Compressive strength of column acting as strut
Compressive strength of column web
Compressive strength corresponding to slenderness about the X-X axis
Compressive strength corresponding to slenderness about the Y~Y axis
Compressive strength due to edge loading
Generalised effective load
Euler strength
Design strength of bolts in shear
Design strength of bolts in tension
Design strength of fillet weld made using electrodes complying
with BS 639
Design strength of material (flange plates, beam and web)
Design strength of backing plate
Design strength of beam
Design strength of column
Design strength of the flange
Design strength of plate stiffenerNotation xxv
Design strength of base plate
Design strength of end plate
Design strength of profiled steel sheet
Design strength of the stiffener
Design strength of web plate
Design strength of the web
Applied time-dependent force
Applied external force
Applied point load between stiffeners
Generalised form of notation of external loads
In-plane load on a group of bolts
Minimum shank tension as per BS 4604
Bearing capacity of bolts
Bearing capacity of friction-grip bolts
Bearing capacity of connected ply
Capacity of the batten in compression
Capacity of the batten in tension
Bearing resistance of the beam flange by compression
Compressive strength of strut
Force in concrete in compression
Elastic critical load
Elastic critical load corresponding to effective length Ly
Elastic critical load corresponding to effective length Ly
Flexural buckling failure axial load
Force in steel flange in compression
Force in steel flange in tension
Capacity of the lacing bar in compression
Capacity of the lacing bar in tension
Local capacity of web at bearing or under concentrated load
The buckling resistance of the intermediate web stiffener
Force in reinforcement in compression
Maximum allowable tensile load in the bolt at the ith row
Force in reinforcement in tension
Reduced bolt shear capacity
Resistance of horizontal shear of an inclined diagonal stiffener
Shear capacity of bolts
Slip resistance
Slip resistance of waisted shank friction-grip bolts
Tension capacity of the tension stiffener
Local tension capacity of column web
Resistance of web in tension
Tension capacity of flange at the connection
Tensile capacity
Tension capacity of friction-grip bolts
Ultimate maximum tensile load in the encased column
Enhanced bolt tensile capacity without allowance for prying
Composite column section capacity in axial compression
Ultimate maximum compressive load in a ‘stocky’ column
Block shear capacity
Plain shear capacity of notched beam
Resistance of the web in panel shear
Shear capacity
Section shear capacity about the X-X axisxxvi Notation
Poy Section shear capacity about the ¥-Y axis
Pw Buckling resistance of unstiffened web
Proc Force in web in compression
Par Force in web in tension
Py Buckling resistance of a load carrying stiffener
AP, Increment of external applied load
9 Loading per unit area on plate
q Ratio of the tapered length to the total length between effective torsional
restraints
% Basic shear strength
% Buckling shear strength
q% Elastic critical shear stress
Ger Critical shear strength
a Flange-dependent shear strength
4 Dynamic pressure
Q Capacity of shear connectors for positive or negative moment
as relevant
Q First moment of area about the neutral axis
Ox Characteristic strength of headed studs
Qn Capacity of shear connector in the negative moment region
Q, Capacity of shear connector in the positive moment region
Qu First moment of area of bottom flange about neutral axis
On First moment of area of top flange about neutral axis
r Number of translationally fixed support in one orthogonal
direction (roller)
r Radius of circular shaft
r Web stress ratio
Tan Radius of gyration of strut section about the 4A axis
Toe Radius of gyration of strut section about the B-B axis
re Root radius of column section
re Effective radius of gyration
n Distance of the line from origin O to the bolt i
man Maximum distance to a point on the weld from the centroid of the
weld group
re Radius of gyration about the minor axis of the effective section
re Radius of gyration of the equivalent core section of the transverse
web stiffener
in Ultimate resistance (N/m?)
a Radius of gyration of strut section about the V-V axis
i Radius of gyration about the major axis
re Radius of gyration of strut section about the X-X axis
5 Radius of gyration of the section about the minor axis
5 Radius of gyration of strut section about the Y-¥ axis
R Radius of curvature
R Ratio of the greater depth to the lesser depth of effective torsional
restraint
Ry Vertical reaction at support A of three-hinged arch
Ra Vertical reaction at end A
Ry Vertical reaction at support B of three-hinged arch
Ry Vertical reaction at end B
Re Resistance of concrete flange
Rr Resistance of flange of the steel beam
Re End reaction of beam at the bearingNotation xxvii
Maximum ultimate reaction or maximum applied load on the flange
Resistance of slender steel beam
Resistance of slender web of the steel beam
Resistance of shear connection
Resistance of steel tensile reinforcement
Resistance of steel beam
Resistance of clear web depth
Resistance of overall web depth
Leg length of fillet weld
Length along rib of arch
Longitudinal spacing of groups of shear connectors
Number of degrees of freedom of sidesway
Basic snow load
Snow load on roof
Leg length of fillet weld
Minor axis plastic modulus of the smaller section at the splice.
Plastic modulus of section
Altitude factor
Spectral acceleration
Direction factor
Spectral displacement
Plastic modulus of flanges only
Internal force in member i of a truss
Probability factor
Spacing of holes along the direction of load
Seasonal factor
Throat thickness of fillet weld
Plastic modulus of shear area Ay
Plastic modulus of shear area only about the X-¥ axis
Plastic modulus of shear area only about the Y-Y axis
Pseudo-spectral velocity
Warping statical moment
Plastic modulus about the X-axis (major axis)
Plastic modulus about the minor axis
Minimum web thickness required for spacing of stiffeners equal to a
using tension field action
Rise in temperature of an arch rib (°C)
Thickness of base plate
Thickness of connected ply
Thickness of each constituent thin rectangle of the section
‘Thickness of the element in which shear stress is determined
Thickness of flange or end plate
Thickness of each panel
Thickness of the steel tube
Thickness of web of steel beam
Thickness of web of steel section
Thickness of backing plate
Thickness of column web
Duration time of impulsive loading
Thickness of end post
Effective thickness of web
Thickness of base plate
Thickness of flange platesxxviii Notation
tp Thickness of plate stiffener
is Thickness of profiled steel sheet
is Thickness of web plate
8 Thickness of bearing stiffener
4 Thickness of stiffener plate
i Thickness of web plate
io Thickness of web
T Applied tensile force at the connection
T Applied torque
ty Flange tension
T Kinetic energy of a system
T Tensile internal force in section
T Tension in a single bolt or in a group of bolts
T Thickness of flange (steel beam and steel section)
T Thickness of flanges of symmetrical steel section
Tr Thickness of the smaller flange
q Tension in holding-down bolt no.1
qT Thickness of flange of beam By
Ta Tension in holding-down bolt no.2
T thickness of flange of beam By
Ty Thickness of flange of beam
Te Thickness of flange of column
T, The total thickness of all the plies joined together by a bolt
Tt Tension in ith holding-down bolt
To Undamped natural frequency of vibration = 2x/w, (seconds)
Te Resistance by uniform torsion
Ts Applied torque
qT, Total torsional resistance at any point in a beam
Tw Tension on the fusion face
Tw Resistance by warping
BT Sum of all tensile forces in the bolts in the tension zone
u Buckling parameter
“ Co-ordinates along the U-axis
u Time-dependent transverse deflection of beam
u(t) Time dependent displacement
v Effective perimeter for punching shear stress
u Initial strain energy of a system
U Strain energy
t Strain energy stored in the arch
Us Ultimate tensile strength of bolt
uy Specified minimum ultimate tensile strength
Uy Ultimate tensile strength of material of the beam.
urs Ultimate tensile strength
AU Increment of strain energy
. Co-ordinates along the V-axis
. Slenderness factor
% Basic tension field strength of web
ve Design concrete shear stress
vp Contribution of the profiled steel sheeting
r Applied shear force on the section or in a beam
v Maximum shear force adjacent to the stiffener
v Potential energy of a system
i
Transverse shear force acting parallel to the planes of lacing or battenNotation xxix
Ultimate shear at the section under consideration
Basic wind speed
Shear buckling resistance of a stiffened panel of web
Shear buckling resistance of web
Shear force at point D of an arch
Standard effective wind speed
Strain energy due to flexure
Vertical shear per unit length due to wheel load in gantry girder
Potential energy of load N
Maximum ultimate transverse shear in a direction parallel to the planes
of lacing or batten
Shear buckling resistance of the web panel without tension field action
Transverse shear in the member at any section
Site wind speed
Shear on the fusion face
Shear force per unit length of plate due to Mx
Horizontal shear per unit length at the connection between the bottom
flange and the web
Horizontal shear per unit length at the connection between the top
flange and the web
Shear force per unit length of plate due to My
Summation of all of the forces in the vertical direction
Deflection of plate in the out-of-plane direction
Distributed load per unit length over the whole panel a
Intensity of uniformly distributed load on a beam
Pressure on the underside of the plate assuming uniform distribution
Uniformly distributed vertical load intensity
Total distributed load over shorter-than-panel dimension a
Ultimate point load from purlin
Weight of mass=mg
Weight of crane bridge
Crane live load including hook load
Weight of crab
The normalised warping constant
Moment due to unfactored service load
Moment due to factored ultimate load
Wheel load in kN
Co-ordinates along the X-axis,
Length along the longitudinal axis of the member
Torsional index
Location of the neutral axis parallel to the major axis
Centre of gravity of area 4, from left-hand support A
Centre of gravity of area A> from right-hand support C
Co-ordinate of the centroid of the rectangle along the global
X-X axis
Distance of the plastic neutral axis from the edge of web
Upwind spacing of the building from existing obstructions
The larger side of the assumed trapezoidal contact pressure diagram
under the base plate
The smaller side of the @
under the base plate
Distance along the X-X axis of the ith bolt from the centroid of the bolt
group
sumed trapezoidal contact pressure diagramxxx Notation
Generalised expression for all types of displacement at the joints
Distance of the plastic neutral axis from the edge of the compressive
face of the concrete
Summation of all of the forces in the X-X direction
Co-ordinates along the Y-axis
Distance from the neutral axis to the arc AB
Distance of centroid of area A from the neutral axis
Location of the neutral axis parallel to the minor axis
Basic tension field strength
Co-ordinate of the centroid of the rectangle along the global
¥-¥ axis
Depth of web in compression from the compression flange of the
steel section
distance along the Y-Y axis of the ith bolt from the centroid of the
bolt group
Specified minimum yield strength
‘Summation of all of the forces in the Y-Y direction
Elastic modulus of base plate along the axis of moment M.
Elastic modulus of the plate stiffener
Elastic section modulus about relevant axis
Elastic section modulus of compression flange
Elastic modulus of flanges only
Elastic section modulus of flanges only relative to the
compression flange
Elastic section modulus of flanges only relative to the tension flange
Polar modulus of the weld group
Elastic section modulus of tension flange
Elastic section modulus about the X-X (major) axis
Elastic modulus about major axis to bottom fibre
Elastic modulus about major axis to top fibre
Elastic section modulus about the ¥-¥ (minor) axisChapter 1
Strength of Materials
1.1 BENDING STRESS IN BEAMS
Wd
au
(———)
aruzcrep SHAPE
-) u
DEFLECTED SHAPE
oF L Pa
P P
Bear in pure bends
‘over this Length
SK 1/1 Beam in pure bending.
A beam is in pure bending where shear force is zero and hence
bending moment is constant over a length of the beam. A plane
section is assumed to remain plane before and after bending. When
shear force is present, the plane section is warped. But for all
practical purposes this warping due to shear force may be ignored
and the theory of pure bending may be extended to cover the cases of
bending where the bending moment is not constant.
Assumptions
(1) Plane section remains plane
(2) Material is homogeneous and isotropic.
(3) Lateral strains (anticlastic curvature) are neglected.