Different techniques of reactive power
compensation
Shubham Singhal
Reg no-11105782
Roll No-A48
B.Tech-EEE
Section-E3E15
AbstractThis term paper presents an overview of
the state of the art in reactive power compensation
technologies. The principles of operation, design
characteristics and application examples of VAR
compensators implemented with thyristors and
selfcommutated converters are presented. Static VAR
Generators are used to improve voltage regulation,
stability, and power factor in ac transmission and
distribution systems. Examples obtained from
relevant applications describing the use of reactive
power compensators implemented with new static
VAR technologies are also described.
INTRODUCTION
VAR compensation is defined as the management of
reactive power to improve the performance of ac
power systems. The concept of VAR compensation
embraces a wide and diverse field of both system and
customer problems, especially related with power
quality issues, since most of power quality problems
can be attenuated or solved with an adequate control
of reactive power. In general, the problem of reactive
power compensation is viewed from two aspects:
load compensation and voltage support. In load
compensation the objectives are to increase the value
of the system power factor, to balance the real power
drawn from the ac supply, compensate voltage
regulation and to eliminate current harmonic
components produced by large and fluctuating
nonlinear industrial loads. Voltage support is
generally required to reduce voltage fluctuation at a
given terminal of a transmission line. Reactive power
compensation in transmission systems also improves
the stability of the ac system by increasing the
maximum active power that can be transmitted. It
also helps to maintain a substantially flat voltage
profile at all levels of power transmission, it
improves HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current)
conversion terminal performance, increases
transmission efficiency, controls steady-state and
temporary overvoltages, and can avoid disastrous
blackouts.
Series and shunt VAR compensation are
used to modify the natural electrical characteristics of
ac power systems. Series compensation modifies the
transmission or distribution system parameter, while
shunt compensation changes the equivalent
impedance of the load. In both cases, the reactive
power that flows through the system can be
effectively controlled improving the performance of
the overall ac power system. Traditionally, rotating
synchronous condensers and fixed or mechanically
switched capacitors or inductors have been used for
reactive power compensation. However, in recent
years, static VAR compensators employing thyristor
switched capacitors and thyristor controlled reactors
to provide or absorb the required reactive power have
been developed. Also, the use of self-commutated
PWM converters with an appropriate control scheme
permits the implementation of static compensators
capable of generating or absorbing reactive current
components with a time response faster than the
fundamental power network cycle. Based on the use
of reliable high-speed power electronics, powerful
analytical tools, advanced control and microcomputer
technologies, Flexible AC Transmission Systems,
also known as FACTS, have been developed and
represent a new concept for the operation of power
transmission systems. In these systems, the use of
static VAR compensators with fast response times
play an important role, allowing to increase the
amount of apparent power transfer through an
existing line, close to its thermal capacity, without
compromising its stability limits. These opportunities
arise through the ability of special static VAR
compensators to adjust the interrelated parameters
that govern the operation of transmission systems,
including shunt impedance, current, voltage, phase
angle and the damping of oscillations.
PRINCIPAL OF REACTIVE POWER
COMPENSATION IN TRASMISSION
SYSTEM
Fig.1 shows the simplified model of a power
transmission system. Two power grids are connected
by a transmission line which is assumed lossless and
represented by the reactance . 11V and 22V
represent the voltage phasors of the two power grid
buses with angle = - between the two. The
corresponding phasor diagram is shown in Fig.2.
Fig.1 (simplified model of transmission line)
Shunt-connected reactors are used to reduce the line
over-voltages by consuming the reactive power,
while shunt-connected capacitors are used to
maintain the voltage levels by compensating the
reactive power to transmission line.
Figure below shows the principles and
theoretical effects of shunt reactive power
compensation in a basic ac system, which comprises
a source 1 , a power line and a typical inductive load.
Figure 3 shows the system without compensation,
and its associated phasor diagram. In the phasor
diagram, the phase angle of the current has been
related to the load side, which means that the active
current is in phase with the load voltage 2 . Since
the load is assumed inductive, it requires reactive
power for proper operation and hence, the source
must supply it, increasing the current from the
generator and through power lines. If reactive power
is supplied near the load, the line current can be
reduced or minimized, reducing power losses and
improving voltage regulation at the load terminals.
This can be done in three ways:
a) with a capacitor,
b) with a voltage source, or
c) with a current source.
In Figure 3, a current source device is being used to
compensate the reactive component of the load
current ( ). As a result, the system voltage regulation
is improved and the reactive current component from
the source is reduced or almost eliminated. If the load
needs leading compensation, then an inductor would
be required. Also a current source or a voltage source
can be used for inductive shunt compensation. The
main advantages of using voltage or current source
VAR generators (instead of inductors or capacitors)
is that the reactive power generated is independent of
the voltage at the point of connection.

Fig.2 (phasor diagram)

Generally, the compensation of transmission systems

can be divided into two main groups: shunt and series
compensation.
1) Shunt Compensation
2) Series Compensation

SHUNT COMPENSATION
Fig. 3 (Without reactive compensation)
Shunt compensation, especially shunt reactive
compensation has been widely used in transmission
system to regulate the voltage magnitude, improve
the voltage quality, and enhance the system stability.
 Fig. 4 (Shunt compensation with a current source)
SERIES COMPENSATION
VAR compensation can also be of the series type.
Typical series compensation systems use capacitors
to decrease the equivalent reactance of a power line
at rated frequency. The connection of a series
capacitor generates reactive power that, in a self-
regulated manner, balances a fraction of the line's
transfer reactance. The result is improved
functionality of the power transmission system
through:
i) increased angular stability of the power corridor,
ii) improved voltage stability of the corridor,
iii) optimized power sharing between parallel
circuits.
Like shunt compensation, series
compensation may also be implemented with current
or voltage source devices, as shown in Fig. below.
Figure 5 shows the same power system of figure 3,
also with the reference angle in V2, and Fig. 6 the
results obtained with the series compensation through
a voltage source, which has been adjusted again to
have unity power factor operation at V2. However,
the compensation strategy is different when
compared with shunt compensation. In this case,
voltage VCOMP has been added between the line and
the load to change the angle of V2, which is now the
voltage at the load side. With the appropriate
magnitude adjustment of VCOMP, unity power factor
can again be reached at V2. As can be seen from the
phasor diagram of Fig. 2-b), VCOMP generates a
voltage with opposite direction to the voltage drop in
the line inductance because it lags the current IP.
Fig 5 (without compensation)
Fig 6 (Series compensation with a voltage source)
SERIES COMPENSATION WITH
CAPACITORS
Series compensation with capacitors is the most
common strategy. Series Capacitor are installed in
series with a transmission line as shown in Fig.7,
which means that all the equipment must be installed
on a platform that is fully insulated for the system
voltage (both the terminals are at the line voltage).
On this platform, the main capacitor is located
together with overvoltage protection circuits. The
overvoltage protection is a key design factor as the
capacitor bank has to withstand the throughput fault
current, even at a severe nearby fault. The primary
overvoltage protection typically involves non-linear
metal-oxide varistors, a spark gap and a fast bypass
switch. Secondary protection is achieved with ground
mounted electronics acting on signals from optical
current transducers in the high voltage circuit.
Fig 7 (Series Capacitor Compensator and associated
protection system.)
.Independent of the source type or system
configuration, different requirements have to be taken
into consideration for a successful operation of VAR
generators. Some of these requirements are
simplicity, controllability, dynamics, cost, reliability 1) Flexible AC Transmission System
and harmonic distortion. The following sections (FACTS): Alternating current transmission
describe different solutions used for VAR generation systems incorporating power electronic-
with their associated principles of operation and based and other static controllers to enhance
compensation characteristics. controllability and increase power transfer
capability.
2) FACTS Controller: A power electronic-
SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSERS based system and other static equipment that
provide control of one or more AC
transmission system parameters.
Synchronous condensers have played a major role in
As new technology for power transmission system,
voltage and reactive power control for more than 50
FACTS and FACTS controllers not only provide the
years. Functionally, a synchronous condenser is
same benefits as conventional compensators with
simply a synchronous machine connected to the
mechanically-controlled switches in steady state but
power system. After the unit is synchronized, the
also improve the dynamic and transient performance
field current is adjusted to either generate or absorb
of the power system. The power electronics-based
reactive power as required by the ac system. The
switches in the functional blocks of FACTS can
machine can provide continuous reactive power
usually be operated repeatedly and the switching time
control when used with the proper automatic exciter
is a portion of a periodic cycle, which is much shorter
circuit. Synchronous condensers have been used at
than the conventional mechanical switches. The
both distribution and transmission voltage levels to
advance of semiconductors increases the switching
improve stability and to maintain voltages within
frequency and voltage-ampere ratings of the solid
desired limits under varying load conditions and
switches and facilitates the applications. For
contingency situations. However, synchronous
example, the switching frequencies of Insulated Gate
condensers are rarely used today because they require
Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) are from 3 kHz to 10
substantial foundations and a significant amount of
kHz which is several hundred times the utility
starting and protective equipment. They also
frequency of power system (50~60Hz). Gate turn-off
contribute to the short circuit current and they cannot
thyristors (GTOs) have a switching frequency lower
be controlled fast enough to compensate for rapid
than 1 kHz, but the voltage and current rating can
load changes. Moreover, their losses are much higher
reach 5-8 kV and 6 kA respectively.
than those associated with static compensators, and
the cost is much higher compared with static
compensators. Their advantage lies in their high STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR
temporary overload capability.
Static Var Compensator is a shunt-connected static
Var generator or absorber whose output is adjusted to
FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to
SYSTEM (FACTS) maintain or control specific parameters of the
electrical power system (typically bus voltage). SVC
is based on thyristors without gate turn-off capability.
The history of FACTS controllers can be traced back The operating principal and characteristics of
to 1970s when Hingorani presented the idea of power thyristors realize SVC variable reactive impedance.
electronic applications in power system SVC includes two main components and their
compensation. From then on, various researches were combination:
conducted on the application of high power 1) Thyristor-controlled and Thyristor-switched
semiconductors in transmission systems. The shunt- Reactor (TCR and TSR)
connected Static VAR compensator (SVC) using 2) Thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC).
solid-state switches and the series-connected
controllers were proposed in AC transmission system
application. In 1988, Hingorani defined the FACTS
concept and described the wide prospects of the
application in. Nowadays, FACTS technology has
shown strong potential. Many examples of FACTS
devices and controllers are in operation
As presented in, FACTS and FACTS controllers are
defined in IEEE Terms and Definitions as:

Fig.8 (Static Var Compensator)
TCR and TSR are both composed of a shunt-
connected reactor controlled by two parallel, reverse-
connected thyristors. TCR is controlled with proper
firing angle input to operate in a continuous manner,
while TSR is controlled without firing angle control
which results in a step change in reactance. TSC
shares similar composition and same operational
mode as TSR, but the reactor is replaced by a
capacitor. The reactance can only be either fully
connected or fully disconnected zero due to the
characteristic of capacitor. With different
combinations of TCR/TSR, TSC and fixed
capacitors, a SVC can meet various requirements to
absorb/supply reactive power from/to the
transmission line.
Fig.9 (characteristics of SVC)
NEW VAR COMPENSATORS
TECHNOLOGY
Based on power electronics converters and digital
control schemes, reactive power compensators
implemented with self-commutated converters have
been developed to compensate not only reactive
power, but also voltage regulation, flicker,
harmonics, real and reactive power, transmission line
impedance and phase-shift angle. It is important to
note, that even though the final effect is to improve
power system performance, the control variable in all
cases is basically the reactive power. Using
selfcommutated converters the following high
performance power system controllers have been
implemented:
1) Static Synchronous Compensator
(STATCOM):
The static synchronous compensator is based on a
solid-state voltage source, implemented with an
inverter and connected in parallel to the power
system through a coupling reactor, in analogy with a
synchronous machine, generating balanced set of
three sinusoidal voltages at the fundamental
frequency, with controllable amplitude and phase-
shift angle. This equipment, however, has no inertia
and no overload capability. STATCOM could have
many topologies, but in most practical applications it
employs the DC to AC converter, which can also be
called a Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) in 3-phase
configuration as the primary block. The basic theory
of VSI is to produce a set of controllable 3-phase
output voltages/currents at the fundamental frequency
of the AC bus voltage from a DC input voltage
source such as a charged capacitor or a DC energy
supply device. By varying the magnitude and phase
angle of the output voltage and current, the system
can exchange active/reactive power between the DC
and AC buses, and regulate the AC bus voltage.
Fig.10 (characteristics of STATCOM)
2) Static Synchronous Series
Compensator (SSSC):
A voltage source converter can also be used as a
series compensator as shown in Fig.11. The SSSC
injects a voltage in series to the line, 90 phase-
shifted with the load current, operating as a
controllable series capacitor. The basic difference, as
compared with series capacitor, is that the voltage
injected by an SSSC is not related to the line current
and can be independently controlled.

Fig.11 (SSSC)
3) Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR):
A DVR, shown in Fig.12, is a device connected in
series with the power system and is used to keep the
load voltage constant, independently of the source
voltage fluctuations. When voltage sags or swells are
present at the load terminals, the DVR responds by
injecting three ac voltages in series with the incoming
three-phase network voltages, compensating for the
difference between faulted and prefault voltages.
Each phase of the injected voltages can be controlled
separately (ie, their magnitude and angle).
Fig.12 (Dynamic Voltage Restorer)
CONCLUSION
An overview of the technological development of
VAR generators and compensators has been
presented. Starting from the principles of VAR
compensation, classical solutions using phase
controlled semiconductors have been reviewed. The
introduction of self-commutated topologies based on
IGBTs and IGCTs semiconductors produced a
dramatic improvement in the performance of VAR
compensators: they have a faster dynamic behavior
and they can control more variables. The introduction
of new self-commutated topologies at even higher
voltage levels will increase the impact of VAR
compensation in future applications. Having better
grid controllability will allow utilities to reduce
investment in the transmission lines themselves. The
combination of modern control with real-time
information and information technologies will move
them very close to their physical limits. Besides, the
development of faster and more powerful
semiconductor valves will increase the applicability
of VAR generators to higher limits.
REFERENCES
1) T. J. Miller, Reactive power Control in
Electric Systems, John Willey & Sons,
1982.
2) L. Gyugyi, Application characteristics of
converter-based FACTS controllers, IEEE
Conference on Power System Technology,
Vol. 1, pp. 391 - 396, Dec. 2000.
3) J. J. Grainger, W. D. Stevenson, Power
System Analysis, McGraw-Hill,
International Edition, 1994
4) Thesis on Reactive Power Compensation of
Transmission Lines
(By: Yongan Deng, MASc student at
Concordia University)
5) Compensation techniques based on reactive
power conservation (Electrical Power
Quality and Utilisation, Journal Vol. XIII,
No.1, 2007)