Student Book Jim ClarkPublished by Pearton Education Lirited, a compary incorporated in England and Wales, having ts sagistered oflice at Gale, Harlow, Essex, CMZ0 2). Registered company number- BY2828 ‘wneheinemann.coutle Fdencel a registered trace mark of excel Limited Teat Jim Clark, 2005 This edition frst published 2009 1211 op toss7654azt British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data 2x catalogue retard for tis book is available From the Brsush brary. ISBN 978.0 435586 59 8 Copyright notice Allright reserved. 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Any omissions wall Be rectified in ‘subsequent privungsif notice is gen to the publishers. : The websites use in this book weve correct and up to date atthe time of publication, It's essential For tutors to preview each webste before using iin class so as to ensure that the URL is sill acrurate, relevant and appropriate. We suggest that toters bookmark useful ebsites and contider enabling students to acces thern through the school/tallege intranet, Disctaimer This Edexcel publication offers high-quality support forthe delivery of Ereol quulifieabons, Edexcel endorsement does not mean that this material esserial 10 acheve any Edexcel qualification, nar does mean thats is the only suitable material avaiable to suport any Edexcel qualification. No endorsed material will be used verbatim in setting any Edencel ‘eaamination/assessmentand any resource lists produced by Edercst shall include this and-ether appropriate ters, Copies af offal speofeations forall Edoxen qualfeations may be found on the deme! weknite, weurdexeelcomParticles Pur s-U1Cr LE Tal tec) Ce iitig ag Large-scale Pitted Chemistry About this book Chapter 1: Kinetic Theory and Diffusion Chapter 2: Atomic Structure 6 Chapter 3: Bonding 3 Chapter 4: Structure 23 Chapter 5: Formulae and Equations 33 Chapter 6: Rates of Reaction 4 Chapter 7: Oxygen and Oxides 54 Chapter 8: The Reactivity Series o & Chapter 9: Acids 70 3 Chapter 10: Making Salts 81 Chapter 11; Separating and Analysing 89 Chapter 12: The Periodic Table 29 Chapter 13; Electrolysis 2 Chapter 14: Introducing Energy Changes in Reactions 120 Chapter 15; Introducing Reversible Reactions 125 Chapter 16; Manufacturing Chemicals 133 Chapter 17; Metals 139Organic Chemistry Chemistry Calculations PVs tue lta od Chapter 18: Introducing Organic Chemistry Chapter 19; Alkanes, Alkenes and Alcohols Chapter 20; Useful Products from Crude Oil Chapter 21; Polymers Chapter 22: RAMs and Males Chapter 23: Calculations from Equations Chapter 24; Electrolysis Calculations Chapter 25; Energy Calculations Chapter 26: Titration Calculations Appendix A: A Guide to Practical Questions Appendix 8: The Periodic Table Index 187 196 202 209 218 226 227About this book This Book has several 1ures to help you with ICSE Chernisr, Introduetion ch chapter has a shortintdction ve {youstatunkng about the tp and ey owt inca brporinforation They migatespn talked tpi nce prs af he bak nd af chapter checks These ste urea he mail inthe hsp Thy eo es ap you to ke rear nate bees they om nto mgs that you need to evo edo check your petition tind out rath ‘whse yu nee ko ‘Questions | “here test quewonsat the end of wach chapter: These hyo ot your uncirsareng of the natal fom the chap Sarre cf heya be retains ya wl peda Ue the Intemet and ote books osname these There ae dhe question atthe end ofeai section, The ef scton questions aetna erat tf ar cover op fol the hoger nthe econSection A: Particles Everything around you ts made of porticles sa small that you cant see them, This chapter looks at the arrangentent of particles in solids, liquids and gases, and the ways lm which the particles can mave round. The nature of the different sarts of particles will be explored i Chapters 24 Figure 1.1 Fything yeaa ar a sli argas Solids, liquids and gases Figure 1.2 metal cance wey, a cou Sentra! ‘The arrangement of the particles Think abou theae facts: © You can’t wall through abrlik w through water. Maving through but you eam move twit some resistance} irs eax sts ery ural in that od wees (ce icles dense ‘Ran thelicuid, are 0 en Moats © When you melt most solids their wolume increases slightly: Most liguids areless Sp yatee fav almart evrything cee he dense than the solid they ear from. oli wal snk he ligud © Ifyou boil about 5 cm* of watet, the steam wil il an sverage bucket The arrangement of the particles in solids, Iiquids and gases explains these facts The particles are dean ae spheres bat they might be any hope: The packing nthe solid mg beeomplety-dilferere- what feimporane echat the pattie are clase ° together andi most cases, put Packed When yaudiawea gas hosp the ticles wel separated A.typeal gael have prices erent aes of rae, about 1Omekecular diameters amay fam ach ether Figure 1.2 The atange Inna solid, the particles are closely, and often regulary, packed, The only movemert tthe particles ave is vibration. You can't wall through a brick wall becstage the particles have strong forces of attraction between them, amd they’ can't more out of your wt Ina liguid, the partides are still mainly touching. but some gaps have appear Liquids are uswally less dense than the solid because of this. The forves betwoen the particles areless effective, and the particles can move. You can swim thraugh water hevause you can push the parties aside. Inna gas the partictes are much further apart and there are almost no forces of aaliruction between them. Itiseusy to move thrauzit a gas because of all the spaces betwoci the parties aeraea) Figure 1.6 fxgporation Changes of state Solids, liquids and gases are known as the three states of matter. Changing state between sold am quid 1 you hat a solid, the energy makes the parties yt late faster and aster Eventually, they vibeate fast enough thatthe torres of attratlon between te Poirtiles are mo longer strong enough to hold them togetler. The soll meltsto a liquid. The temperature nec to melt the sold is obviously its melting point. Figure 14 sng ts become. Agu — and razing to bear aid I the liquid is cooled ayain. the liquid particles will move wrauitd more and more slowly, Eventually they acc moving stowly enough that the forces.af attraction bactwsct them will hkl them inte a solid, The liquid trocees. The temperate rnocded for this is obviously the freezing point. Alliough thoy are called differont Chings depending on which way you 2 melting point and freesing, point are exerly the same temperature, Changing staie between liquid and gas 2 going. “There are two cifferent ways this can happen evaporation sind bailing, Bolling happens when the liquid is heated so strongly that the particles are mowing last enough to brew all the forces of attraction in the liquid. The lagu bs, Bubbles of gaseous puriicles are formed throughaul the whole liquid snd rlse to the surface forming a gas. If the gas scaoled, the particles eventually maveslonly ‘enongh that attracdions between them hold them as a liquid. The gas condenses Figure 1.5 ving become a gas ard cerdemang fo became a att Evaporation i different. In any liquid or gs, the average spead ofthe particles varies with the temperature. But at cach terapersture, some particks wall be moving faster. others more slowly, than the average. Some vory fast partioes on the surface of ts liguid will Rave wnausth energy to boreal away to forma gas — that's evaporations, Vou-dot't soe any bubbling: lquiel fst slowly disappears if the iguid Is oper to the ait, IF 1s in a chased wontaint, particles in the gas wil also be sticking back to the iqukd surlave again. The articles breaking away and those rejgining the suriawe end up in balance. There vill be a oughly consdant number of purticles of gas aver the top of aliquid in a losed container.Changing state between solid and gaes~ sublinsatton A small number of substances have the ubilty tochangp directly feom solid to gas, ot vice versa, without involving any guid on the way. This s known as sublimation. ‘Heating ammonium chloride crystalsin atest tube is a simple example ithe Lab. ‘The white crystals gradually disappear from the bottom of the test tube an reappear further up, where the tube is cooler. There isa chemical reason for thi which you will ind described om purge 125. Another examples carbon diaside, At ondinary pressures, hete is no such thing:as liguid carbo diowide, It turnsstrakght fom w sll to ais at ~78°C. Sali carbon diaide ks known as dry te In the photograph, notice the white lid carbon dienide in the beaker. The white cloud appears because the varbor: dioxide gas produced ts 9 cold that it causes water vapour in the air to condense. Carbom diaide gas itself is invisible. Figure 1 Heating armani chine Diffusion Diffusion in gases “Suppose someone accidentally releases some smelly gas in thelab — ammorta, ‘perhaps. Within a ramute oF, everybody tn the lab wil Be able to smal i, That tert surprising - particles inthe gas ure foe to move around. What does need explaining, though, is wiry it takes so long. At room temperature. ammonia particles travel at spcas of abot (mts te time fat 8 takes for the small wo reach all curmers.of the Lab cach ammonia particle may have travelled 30 oF more kilometres! Eac particle ts bouncingoft cease air particles om is way arr cae Figure 1.8 Ory ce lenin Figure 1.9 arn partie bouncing of a partic The spreading out of particles ina yas oF liquid is known as diffusion. You san say ‘hat ammonia partiskes diffuse through the ar. ‘You can show diffusion in gases very easily using tle apparatus in Figure 1.10.The = aie lower gas jar contains bromine gas: the top ane contains af. the lds are ms ‘removed, the brown colour of ie bromine diffuses upwards until both gas jars are uniformly brown. The bromine particles and air particles bounce around at brome random to give an evn mixture. ‘You can de the same thing with hydrogen and att, except that you have to put a lighted! splint imal the end to find out where the gases have gone. People often ‘expect that the very light hydrogen will all cad up in the top gaa. In fact you ‘ill ol idettical explosions from bot jars. Figure 1.10 domarsraong afision in gossea) pasion tunster sera of rang ropured soliton Figure 1.12 Osmoncrating sift niu Why the inverted coma around patel? Potzssitey mangenam(\I ean ane ‘compound and coreins more than one oH of pore. Noy il find out mate bout fom compaurcc in Chaps: 3 and Showing that particles in diferent gaeses travel at difflerent speeds: This experiment relies on the reaction between: ammonia and Hydrogen chore ‘Bases to give white solid ammonium chloride: NH,G) + Hite) — NHK) Bits of cotton woo are soaked In concentrated ammonia solution (as @ source of ammonia gas) and concentrated hydrockloric ack] (asa source of kydragen: cnloride gas). These are placodin the ends of along sass tubo with rubber buns tostop the poisonous gases escaping. ‘corey wool soaked in caron woalsoshed n ‘coneeneraed aromant sluson cencentrated hyerochlrte 2d vce ring forms closer 1 (he lycra done al eed Figure 1.11 Qomorcrsing that pares ommend hysogen cho ewe a afent pv. “The white fing of ammonium chloride takes a little time to form ideperalin or: the length and diameter of the tube), and appears closer to te hydrochloric aid end. In the time takes for the ringto form, the ammonia particles hawe travelled further:"That's bocause their sree igher. ‘Ammonia particles ure lighter than lyydrogen chloride partisles. Light particles une aster thaee heavier ses. Diffusion in liquids Diffusion through a liquid is very slow if the liquid is totally still. For example. tf a small jar of strongly coloured solution (suck as potassium mangsatel VE) solution) islefttostand in a gas jar of waster. can take days for the colour ta 4) Which ofthese sructures represent rable gs? 4) Nome eles a How many protons does elrmant have? Name the lement. Bement G has one more electron than element, Dawa slagram to show how the electrons are arranged in an atom a6AT tac wr tay Chapter 3: Bonding Figure 1 Theale eum ad ene Figure 3.2 use comply fen -Sangeous th compen ad care l) proper fo ab element dagen oc xen a ‘Sodium i adangerously reactive metal. 1 stored under oll to prevent i reavting ‘with alr or water. Chlorine very poisonous, reactive gus. ‘But salt, sodium chloride. s safe to cat in small quantities. Combining the elements to make salt obviously changes ther significantly. |Ammisture of iytrogen ana oxygen gus would explo violently f you Tel Uighted matele 0 1, Dropping light mates ico water (a compound of Uydregen a oxygen dosn't cause a litrallyParth-sat tering capleston, Reacting te elomonts to makes compound has again made a huge difrenseto ‘hem. Covalent bonding What is a covalent bond? In any bond, particles are held togather by electrical attractions betwwun someting “postive charg arn someting negatively cuarge. nat cowaent bond, patra -loctrons is shard tween wy atoms. Fac of tke positively large nucle is tracted to the sume negatively chargal pal of elevtrons. ‘Aca Bin Figure 3.3 are held together by this share attraction, non wee, oe Boe Ae ei io {ene tee ech ator) Figure 33 A tn bod This chapter looks at what happens when atoms cambine together ~ whether into small groupe or fnto very lage ones. Int heurgecner ysl ‘upples enectecon io he shared pi fecsitans That dara vet be the ‘ue Boh deeb may core for he EarnerChapter 3: om Figure 4 4 dot t-te gra fe yan Figure 35 Cowie banding in yep tend 4 ALGCSE pepe eueeyak vs arin to ernie ‘arutres This nner Avo snag about thy Covalent bonding in a hydrogen molecule Covalent bonds are often shown using ‘Jots-mnd-crosses diagrams. Although the: electrons ane drawn as dats or as crosses there s absolutely no dliference between tem in realty. The dot and the eras simply show tht the elevtrons have vome From twoedirent atoms. You coule equally wel use awo different coloared dis. or toro llferent coloured roses Bott Iyeoyen nucle in Eigure 3.4 une strongly attracted tothe shared par of clectrons The covalent bond betmeen feo hydrogen atoms is very strong. Hydrogen atoms ‘therefore go around in pais haydzogen molecube, with the symbol H, Molecules comtair a vertain fie number of atoms. which are joined tagether by cervalet bondls. Hyrogen molecules are said tobe datomaie because they contain foroaloms, her sorts of moleale may have ws many as thoosanels of atone ioined topetne: Why dows hydengen fori molecules? Whenever a bond is formed (of whatever kind) energy is released. and that makes the things imolved more stable than they wore before. The more bands am atom nfo, the more energy ts rlessal and the more stable the system bocomes. In the cade of brydrogen, each hydrogen stam has only one electron to shar smonly form ome covalent bod, The ‘vo separate hydrogen atoms, sit than molecule ail muck monestabl Covalent bonding in a hydrogen chloride molecule ‘The chlorine ator as one unparod electron in ts ote eve, which it can share withthe henge atom to prkace a covet bere Noten Figure 3.5 that only the ectransin the outer energy Tet ofthe cblorine se use in fomuing Inte examples yon will meet at GEE he nner electrons never get ual Infact. the inner eloctons are often left out of boruling dagrams But be careful! In an exam, only lave out the inner electrons if the question tll The signiicance of ble yas structures in covalent bonding, |W yu look atthe arrangement of clettons around the «rine aim in the covalently bond molecule of HCl (Figure 3.5) yuu will eo tha te strscture now 2.8.8. Tha isthe sate san argon atom, Siar te hydrogen now Bus 2 electrons ins outer level ~ the same as Belin Does that mean that the hyeragen has tuned into helium, and the chlorine has turnad into argon? No —the number of protons in each nucleus hast charge ‘dit isthe number of protons tha defines whit an atom At GCSE, formation of covalent bones producing noble gas structures i quite ‘common. When atoms bond covalently, they often preluce ovter electric structureste same as noble gases = in other words with four pairs of electrons (or tonsa inthe caseot hyerogen), There re, homer lt of examples where different numbers of pars are formed. producing structures that are quite unlike rable gases,Covalent bonding in a chlorine molecule Each clorine has one unpaired elecirom in ks outer energy level These are shared between the 190 ‘aorine molecule, Covalent bonding in methane, ammonia and water Gao Figure 17 The elation seis ofeate,mtgor fe arbor torn has four unpaired ekeviros, Each of ese forms bon by sharing with the elociom from # hydrogen som. Methane his he formula CHL, in ae nitrogen ony has three unpeited eletrons an so cat oy Form Tons with three byrogon atoms 0 give NEL Jn water there are tap unpaired electrons on the exyaon atom sce can bond ‘with hyerogen atoms to give 10. ar Ww) Creed ewe 39 Aeron Fig 310 Covalent bonding in a slightly more complicated molecule - ethane Ethane bas the formula CH, -The bonding ts similar to mettane (Figure 3) escent that there tu carbon-carbor vocal hand as wel the carbo=-Idrogca hones, BeChapter 3: tthureand ether are oars compounds and yu wl find eae abt he Secon D ots took You et ok atthe nares very cartly- eve one ‘ron eter in tenamecan mace Here. for espe ethane and ethene ae comely cree compounds Multiple covalent bonding Covalent bonding in an oxygen molecule - double bonding When atoms bond covalent they tnd t do 9 i away that forms the maximen number of bonds. That makes the tha molecule mone stable Figure 3.12a shouts that forming a single covalent toned between the two oxygen. ‘toms sl leaves unptred elactrons. these are sis as well as in gute 3.12), a more stable molecule formes. xh acom sl aran unpre leon String lectran rs mss Néhere were shared eswelleenriore. the bondngard rakes he ae svergy woul be reese sae pe Figue 32 2x00 atm th | snl cone bed an (8) mo shad aon part Covalent double bonding in carbon dioxide, CO, Two double bonds ate formed between the carban and the two oxygens (Figure: 3.13). This uses up all the unpaired electrons Ge pre 3:13 Coe dae bmg CO, The double bond in ethene, CH, there ts rdwr Uke ethane om page 15, eset tat any has two hydrogen ators attached to each carbon atom, sy _ ey H)— iF Me) 4 Flewe 214 shone The triple bond in a nitrogen molecule Tuetriplebond ftom theshaeingof thece pats of davtrons Between thetwonitogen toms s vor strong and meds aot of eneray to break. Nitrogen gis vonsicts of ltrogen molecule ord! Mk thls. That s why its ratty unrestWays of representing covalent bonds Apart from fall dots and-crosses diagrams, covalent molecules cam ako be shown In other ways, n models, each ink between hie atoms repeesets a covalent bond — ‘pair of sured eletrons a » ° eo cHCOH cH, °, Figure 36 Mac of) tana een and) agen ‘On paper, we often simplify dotsandt-rosses diagrams by lewing out the inner jdectrons. You might lane out the ctcles se wall ad shane only the oloctrons ‘he outer enery loves, (Or you mnght draw each covalent bond as straight bine joining tke atoms. Bac line rmeans a pair of shared electrons. In diagrams of this sor, somtims you draw the non-boneling pate of elestroms inthe outer leva (cule ome pats) sometimes you leave them out Allthe diagrams igure 2.17 show the voile bonding in ammonia, NUL, shoving the ne pt ane tone Sy e HENZH H—N—H H—N—H ox | H gu 317 Carlo boning in mens Ionic (electrovalent) bonding in acovolent bond, th dastront ar shared bation to aloms oth mc are attacad tothe samectatron pa Bat sometimes it happens that one of the toms strated othe lxton par tmush mere tong han the other one. eecron pai shen ple ery lose to that stom, an any rom tether a ‘Ate loitconal fie elecron It Bhistnedan exes elec Uecares pose charge comes etal charged 1 mB Figure 389 Pek amd gee changes In Figure 3.19, ato A hus. in effect, iver its eleceom to atom If you ind the ab consing don wary about e199 uc or pam The para tegat he moment tha you ean re dovwand eros agri torhe role we have been ooking. ®ko remeber that. na gram any ine you can teem ana sto eprestas par shared eecoars = coment tond au may ‘ome arostheotneriribon nom and then ding your course, bat they el las bb expsned 3 ime A3B iret elecrone eve om ech oor) ge 298 A cota bon In figare 219.0 ha tecoene postely a pont changed protons but one Bs reat charged became tha ied anes neptive econ Chapter 3:Chapter 3: Thsisa smgiston reality you dort sac sou oxi ato wh Chlorine mle, foe the eion arse can hapen, ergy bso be ‘upped bes the chine make tne dtm You do et, ae to heat sodium melon to geet art Tae elt ally cuarged particles are cll ores. An jon isan atom for group of toms) which carties an elostrical charge ether posit ut negative © A posite ion iscalled a cation. #4 nopativoion is cle anion, Tonte bonding is bonding in wich there has been a transfer of electrons ‘tom ta atither to pod fons. The substi. is eld together by stomg etic os betwee postive anal negative ons. onic bonding in sodium chloride Figure 3.20 fr beng ar Tine single wletron inthe outer enengy level ofthe sodium has been transfered 10 thw chlorine. The sodium chloride is vk! together by the strong attraction between the sodium ion and the chloride ion. (Notice that it called a eblortde lon, not ‘Silene fon.) Overall. lt of ener is giver out whet tit process happern~ mainly due fo the ‘energy released when the strong banding between the ions st up, You cam dra dots-smel-vrosces diagrams to Shue tone boring, but rele quicker, and takes up ane less spa 28.1 oF 2.8.7 o write elactromiestructures the foe Na 2,8)» ‘Nat [2a] dd 237" ct Baal Fee 321 Ach ay of rey i dg anu ce onic bonding in magnesium oxide Mg 283 Mgt 28 0 26 «oF REF Figure 22 lnc ring magrenun cide In this eae Wo elactrons are transferred from The mayraesuim 0 the eye ‘Thetwodlactrons in the outer energy owl af the magnesium are relatively easy 60 remone, andthe oxygen ha enough spave in its outer level to receive therm. More ‘energy given out this tme, mainly due tothe very. very srongotactions betas the 2+ une! 2—lons-—thehigher the numberof cars. he stronger the attractions.“The significance of noble gas structures in ionic bonding If you look atthe structures ofthe los formed in Figures 3.21 snd 7.22, each of them has. noble gus structure: 2.8 (themeon structure. oF 2.8.8 (ke angom structure) You might therefore say tha somslase or gain elevtroms so that they chive w noble ga structure. Ths struc of the elements in Groups: Tand 2 of the Periodic Table (orming 1+ nd 2+ tons) andl for those tn Group fae 7 wen they form 2-andd 1—ons, sin all shese examples e's But there ire lot of comme for Ht dot ae neble s ructures, Fe (Cu Zee. Ag? and Ph areal ions that you will ome sacross dings GUSE ‘course although you won't have to write their elevirocstrvctres, Not oneof ‘hom haa noble gas strusture, Other examples of fonic bonding, lorie bonds are sway fore my small numbers of elextroms need 1 be transferee —typically 1 or 2. but occasionally 3. In casws where la fons produced would ave, saa + change the situation rarely’ as simple as tight appear at test sigh Urhiurn tuoride ue &Ds ur opr Far pee Figure 24 oberg i am use “Thelen stom tas one atom ns outer erry toe tha as at, ad the Buorine bas space fo rune, Lilo Duorkde sd tpethor by th rong attraions between Miu an Soerde ns Caktum chore cd 2am oF Base Ca 28824——Ce* [28,8)" C287 co 283r gure 3.25 00 bog ao ne The calcium has two elestrons in its outer enengy level that are eativey easy to sveaway: but each chlorine atom any has room in its ater level to take onc of thom, You nea ten ctlorines for every one vakum. The formula for calcium chlorides therefore Ca], There willbe wey stron. atiractons holding the ons logethct because of the 24 chanson te cali oes Potassium oxide kK 2gep, Kk Beer © 26 Leo pay « 28ei «Beer Figur 3:26 on ond nora ne This time: the oye has room or te ectrons in is outer Leva, but eas potassium van only supply ome, Potassium exide's Formal i therclore KO, Figure 23 Ao Fe aod oe 2 able pene! CreedChapter 3: Figure 27 Nat ae a nd ae gh ting pote Warring! When ty cure tow ‘hesjmto foram sich assem Inequitons sadens whakow about reac toning rxretines worry whet they shld wate Nor Rat Youve (earatome =a Na Thinking about the ‘truce crank, thenumber of lectene ‘er talanes the nue of posive Charge: The matalara whole ei mo charge Metallic bonding 1 hae high melting points, This stggests thatthe fnces hang tke particles in the metal together are very strong Most met anda Figure 3.28 shows what happens when sodiney atoms bord together to fee le solid metal. The outer elevtron-on each sodiven soar becomes free to move throughout the whole srucwre, Tae electronsare sak to be delocalived. These jdovtrons ame no Tongor attached to particular sos ste of storms Tasted, ou ‘sinthink of them slowing around throughout the whole etal, 1 sodium om loses is outer electron, that leaves bend a adm ion. The ‘ltration of eal postive lon to the deloalled elestrons hokds the structure together Metallic bonding sometimes described wt am array of pastiseons ina ‘mea of lectroms ia satu ators Sawing, bein cto Se outer sesran on each Figure 3.28 Sum acon odin tage ofthe In the ease of sodiurn only one electron per atom ts delocalised leaving tons witht ‘only one postive charge on them, The ions dan't pack very eile ester. The effect of al hiss that the bonding in solar isquite weal, as metals, whi is ‘why sohum ffir sof with afow melting point fora meta. By contrast, magnesium has tivo outer elocions bal of w ey a charge of 2+. 1 also packs more efficiently Theres much stromger wirastior betwen the more negative sea and ‘hue doubly churged tors, md so the toneling is stramger an he mcting pit reste. he ‘sea, ewig Behind fons hat “Metals suc as iron have-even more outer elvirons to delacalise,sothe bonding is stronger sil You can find out mare about metallic structures in Chapter 4Intermolecular forces ‘You will remember that water 0, i «mole with strong voalent bonds between the hydrogen ane oxygen. tn iui water or i ce. there must also be strations between one molecule and is neighbours = alhcrwise they wouldn't sti together to make a guid or a solid ‘These forees of artraction between separate molecules aee called fmtermolecuar olecular attractions. Thuy see alot weaker Nua evant oF nary in sonst frome substa tome booes, an ‘eto substance For example, te intermolecular forces between byogen molecules, H,. are vey, sexy weak. You hawe fo cool hyrouen fo-252°C before the molecules sre traveling slowly enough forthe intermolecolar attractions tobe able tohold them togtie as igi By contrast, sugar talboa covalert compound) i slid that doesn't melt until 185°C The fntermolecular forse between spr molevtiles must be strong, Intermolecular forces arise from slight cleteival distortions in molecules In Figure 3.20, Sts res at delta’ So 8+ ised as delta plus. Bis used to mean s98+ means slightly postive soe tha the slightly positive end of one molecule attracts the sight ihbuuring mokevule. Heating will supply enowgh eneray to negative end of am cular attractions and cavse the substance to either melt Tres ese te or bo, nore rote & Figure 330 aera foxes In melting, some but not all of the tntermolavular foros are broken, In boing. th _taetions are totally dirupted and the molecules become ee to move around as lets very iemporturt that you realise that melting or bollng a substance maxcof molecules breaks intermolecular forves~—natcavalent bands, Whee you bol Wate Jou get stearn not a mixtures hylrogen and axygen atoms. The weak attractions between one molevtle and its neighbours are broken. bat not the covalent bonds within the molecule. Figure 3.27 Beaty he misma hetors in ater pode sea A hintarhow these distorts arsein water molec ven chap $n pe 26 Creed Ir you bla espoontl cf water about Ser’) nthe ttm oan average buck, rough tam we proce the bouche That shows now spread aut he ‘water maces became ance you he broken he nemo sacarEnd of Chapter Checklist You should now be able to: explain what is meant by a covalent bond and a molecule / draw dots-and-crosses diagrams for simple covalent malecules explain what is meant by an ionic bond explain the formation of simple tonic compounds describe how atoms are bound together in a metal explain what is meant by intermolecular forces, Questions You will need to use the Periodic Table on page 226. 5 Thetabic below gives details of the boiling temperatures of 4. ‘some substances made up of covalent molecules. Arrange: A a) What is meant by a covalent bond? Haw daes this band inate : Seanteres nae of seme ae b) Draw dots-and-crosses diagrams to show the covalent ‘banding in: () methane, CH, (i Iydragen sulphide, H 5: {i phosphine, PH.(y| silicon tetrachfonde. SiC). 2 Diawedotiand-erosies dings to show the eavalent tondingit'a) ethane, C,H, 6) ebiene 4 €) ethanol CHreHON You valid ous of een end ctnolon poke Vio which might help you 2a) Whats meant by () anion (fan onic Bonet? ) In each of the following caces, mite down the electronic re i structures of the original atoms and then explain fin {Bont panic Fyou dant recognise some ofthe names The Words or dkagrams) what happens whem cient owt hao ed 6 0) sodium bonds with chlorine to make sodium ehlarida; (i) teria bonds ith oxygen to make lthvur oxide; © ‘Boron and aluminium are both in Group 3 ofthe Periodic Table, Bath form compounds with Fluorine (BF, and AIF) (ii) mgnesiam tors with fuorne to make magnesium Unusually for elements found in tessime group ofthe Mucride Periodic Table, their compounds are bonded diferent. BF, is 40 a) A sold metal soften described as having ‘an aca of “Sen, nro lr 8 segoriennt Sans cme oeee pastiveians ina sea af electrone. Watedown the 2) Draur a gram to sheue the eowsent boring BF, electronic stucture ofa magnesium stam and use it to ‘explain what this phrase means, b) Metallic bands are mat fully broken until the metal has first melted and then boiled, The boiling points of sodium, ‘magnesium and aluminiurn are 890°C, 1110°C and 2470°C, respectively. What does this suggest about the Strengths ofthe metalic bonds in these three elernerts? } Find these three metals in the Perlodic Table, and suggest lubyy the Bolling points show thls atten, ) Assuming that an electric current is simply a flow of ‘electrons, suggest why all these elements are good ‘conductors of teciricity, 1b) Explin, using dlagram or othanse, the arigin ofthe omic banding in AIF. 1). BF, is described asan electron-deficent compounds What o'you thinkeshat might mean?The photographs show some substances with quite different physical properties ~ including hardness, melting point and solubility This chapter explores same of the reasons for these differences, based an the banding in the substances I assumes that you are already familiar with the topic of bonding in Chapter 3. Figure 4.2 tory abc fxr bn that stv ety ie tar Figure 4.3 Diamond (a farm of arto abate crying, and the hardest natty sccningslsaree Giant structures ‘ou can die substances ito ro gute decent aype= plant itunes BD and molecular structures, jond together iy covalent! bonds, Tha ricmber of atoms per miu % vat Prunny the aot sas oe rina ing in sore rogutar way. but the number of particles for fled, Figured Some ample makesees Wyaucorpare Figure 6 with a semtar cae of metalle boning x Capes 3 age 20}. you wil find thatthe iar are ttange diferemy Sigare 4 chon the ‘saggried rons typical of efficierty packed rons Figure 4 Stet deg oi a rp Giant metallic structures Remember that metals consist of a regular urray of positive ions ina ‘sea of clectroms’. The metal is held togcthier by the attractions between the positive ians land the deloculised electrons, The simple physical properties of metals Metals tend ta be strong, with gl eng und baling pal attravtions involved 3s. because of the powerful Metals conduct electricity. This isbevause the deloculised electrons are free to mone throughout thestructure. Imagine what happens if a pleceot metal is attached to an electrical power source posite bans elocalied electrons electron pulled this rome electron How slong ‘en by Gre postive ‘he wire ror the gave termina of de power errinal of the pomer source anc then tow source to replce Grose syslog the re veg ey In the tal Figite 6 Hon ett conic elec, Metals are good conductors of heut. This is again due to the mobile, deloralised electrons. If you heat one end of a plece of metal, the energy fs picked uphy the electrons. As the electrons moxe around in the metal, the hes! energy is transferred haroughout the structure. The workability of metals 1M 3 metal is subjected 10 just small force, it will stretchy and then return 0 its ‘original shape when the force is released, The metal is described as being ekssthe But if large Force is applied, the particles slide aver each other and stay in their ‘ear positfons. pir eles red / tore poser EDS. ~ SES Figures frge fe app wo a metal Metals are usually easy to shape because their regular packing. makes it simple for Bieatoms to side over ect other, Metals are said to be malleable an! diteiile, Mallets means that iti easily beaten inte shape. Ductile meatns thai it fs-easity pled ott into wees,Alls Motals can be made harder by allaying them with other metals. An alloy isa mixture of metals — for example, brass is a mixture of copper and zi Ivan alloy, the diferent metals have slightly differcnty sired atoms. This breaks up heregular arrangement and makes it more dificult for the layers to side Figure 4.9 Adore no oy The diagram shows how axing atoms af only stghtly diferont ses disrupts the regular packing, and makes it much moro difi for partiles to slide aver each other when a force is applied. This tends to make alloys harder than the individual metals that make thee up In some cases. lloys haw unexpected properties. For example, solder an alloy of tin and lead — melts at a loner temperature than cither ofthe metals individually: lis low melting poi, sind the fact that it fsa good conductor of electricity. make it useful for joining components tnrelectrical cireutts, Other common ullays incyde Wronse (a mixture of copper and tin), stainless steel fan alloy of tron with chromium and nickel}, and the mistune of copper and mise eupronickel) which is used to make silver’ coins. You cam read more about alloys in Chapter 17. Giant ionic structures An ion is um atom or group of atoms that carries an electrical charge ether powitive ar negative: f you aren't sure about ioc bomding, you shoul read pags 17-19 im Chapter 3 before you goon. All onic compounds consist of Luge hitless of ponstive anal negative toms parce topetherin a regular wa: A Tatibee fea regular array of particles The lattice is bell together by the song attractions betwen the positively and negatively charged ions The structure of sodiusm chloride lira diagram, the ions ate Ustally drain it at “exploded' view: Figure-4.1 slows, how they actually occupy the space. Figure 4.12 An ‘xplade ew of rtm clones Figure 410.4 brn proper Porc Figure 411 A model of srl part of adr Monde etal, (Warning! The lines inthis diagram are noe ‘covalent beni There are jut hete to help shou the amangementf the ions. Those jr janed by ine: ars touchsng each othe Compare he diagram we the medi Figre11ees Figure 412 The shape of the sd chloride cal reflects the avorgerent of Forthe we ofthe anbol 8 seepage 27 Chapeer ‘ually ouching. Each sodium fom is ad by (6 sodiurn fons. Only tons jotned by ine touched by 6 chloride is Bigure 4.12 are i. In turn. each chloride ton fs rou You have to remember that this structure repeats itself over vast numbers of fons, The structure of msngnesium oxide Magnesium oxide, MgO, contains magmesiura fons, Mg", and oxide ions, aa escactly the game steueture ats sodium chloride, ‘The only dilference is that the magnesium onide lattice i eld together by stronger forces of attraction, Thisis because in magnesium oxide, 2+ ions are aftracting 2— fons. In sodiura chlaril, the attractions are weaker because they arconly between L+ und 1 ions, The simple physical propertics of jomic substances Tonle camyrauncs lave high melting points and ballin pots because of the strom, forees holding the latices topetler. Magnestum oxide has much higher melting and boiling points than sodium chloride because the attractive foroes are much stronger. lanie camrounls tend to be crystaline, This reflects the regular arramgement of tors inthe lattice. Sometimes the crystals are too small tobe seen except under powerful microscopes. Magnesium oxide, for example, is ways seen asa white powder bovause the individual erystails are too small fa bescen with the mabe eve. Ionic crystals ten to be Brite, This is becsmise any small distortion of crystal will boring fom with the same charge alongside exacts oder, Like charges repel and so the crystal spins itself apart. separ bec “with dhe same cares +B Figured. 14 dni opal tnd be brine Tole substences tend to be soluble br atte. Although waver fs a cavalent molecule, te electrons im éhe bonds are attracted towards the oxygen end of thee Bond. This ‘makes the axywen slighty negative. It leases the hydrogen slightly short of electrons, and therefore slighaly-pastitve secret” Oe see rie cesonie Ol om one coygencears Bue dren are Figure 4.15 etna! Sein er malecvle eecamse of thicelectrical distortion, water is described ast polar molecule. ‘There are quite strong attractions between the polar water molecules and the ons inthe latte‘The slightly positive Hyetrogenes in the water molecules cluster around thes mewaive toms, and the slightly negative exymens srw attracted tothe postive toms, 2 Figure 26 witey molwces, hich are polar, pul so erpsta apart “The water molecules em literally pull he sodium chloride crystal par, Magnestum oxide isn’t soluble in water because the attractions between the water molecules and the fons aren't strong enough to break the very powerful ianke bonds bormwen magnesium snd oxide tons. Tonic compat tend to by ivoliblet-orsnic sade, Cuan solvents contain imolecites Which have mich less electrical distortion than there isin Water thei molecules arc less polar. There fsa't enough aléraction between these molecules and the ions in the crystal tobreak the strong forces holding the lattice together. The electrical behariour of lone sulsstanees Tonic compoundsdan't conduct elevricty when they are solid. because Uncy Gom't contain any mobile electrons. They do, however. conduct electricity when they melt, ar if they are dissolved in water. This happens because the ians then become free ta move arora. How this enables the compound tocomduct clectricity is -explained in Chapter 13 Giant covalent structures Diamond Diamond is. form pate eb, Each carbon atom has four unpaired electrons in its onter energy level (shell, and it uses these to form four covalent bones. In diamond. each carbon bonds strongly forfour other carbor atoms ina tetrahedral arrangement. Figure 4.17 shows ‘enough of the structure to sev what itis happening. Figure 4.17 The structre af amor ‘Organic solvents include alcoho! fethanal) ars hyaocarbons. yeh 3s thace found in petro. F youre imeveted these, you ‘could plore the ganic chemistry secton “efths book (secvon 0}. Atetrahedion ea angus pati Ia tevahedkalamangeree one ater at thesentre ef the ietiahedion, and dhe ores rcartached tae a he out comes Look ‘carellly atthe top te atorsin Figure 417 tosee what thes looks Pe. You willfind athe silo oranges nts dgsam, In Figure 417, sure carbon ators seer to bbe fermingonty so bends jor eves one bond) bus th not relly the cae We are only shove ga svi his of the wale eucture The crvcasre continyes in ape ‘dimernions andeach ofthe ators drawn hero wl be stached to Four onhers,Faeb ofthe lines in chs agra represents exelent bond Porcees “This is averyensystracure ro diawaslang, _Bsyu pacts, You should be ableto produce 3 restonahie ceschin 30 econ. fei dificult find way of dirs roe thu ane aye af apt va way hut can tbe dare quickly ah aceite i an wa ets much ear tnawoid the problern by ing top en of eye aed athe staking of dhe layers separa Label arg Bagi carey a explain what you are flog ahd shaw the gape between the lens ‘atabout 25 tenes the disance between the _tamsin your yer Figure 19 Rubbong layer: of graphite af 2° ope hiss @ plant covalent structure ~ it continues on anon in three dimensions. Iris nots molecule, because the number of atoms jained wp im rei diamond is completely variuble~ depending. on the sie of the crystal. Molecules always contin fixed monbers of atoms joined by covalent bonds. Draw this structure in stages, as shown in Figure 4.18. hh Figure 4.18 How to daw the sect of damn Diora ts very hurd, with o very high meting ond boli pint. Tess bevause of the very strong carbon-carbon ccrvalert bonds, whick extend throughout the whole crystal in three dimensions, Sau blades canbe tipped with diamonds in ighspeed eutting.tools used om tome andl comer. Diowand does conduct electricity. All the electrons in the outer levels of the carbon atoms ure tightly held in covalent bands betwven the atoms. None une free ta moe around, Dimmad does diwohve in wuter or inom other solvent. This is again because of the powerful covalent bonds between the carbon toms. if the diamond dissolved, these bonds would hme to be broken, Graphite Graphite is also a form of carbon, but the atoms are arranged differeetly— although stil as a plant structure. Graphite has a layer structure. rather like a pack of cards, ma pack of cares, each cand is strong but the individual cards are exsity separated. The sameis true in graphite. arora ayer of graphite ' 2 z i z q i ‘The gaps becween the layers are reuch biger chan che vances besween the ators inthe pers Figure 4.70 How to daw the situ of grapine Graphite iso soft onaterict wich a slony fol. Although the forces bokding the arora together in each Layer are very strong, the attractions between the layers are much weaker. Layers van easly be flaked! off,‘Graphite (mined with ¢ ake tt harderyis used in pencils. Wher you write vith a pencil. you ae leaving. trail of graphite layers behind on the paper. Pure graphite is oo slippery sed asa dry lubricant foe exacmple. powdered {graphite is used fo lubicste locks, Graphite has @ hig melting and baling pote ond ts insoluble rary solvents. To matt or dissolve graplulte, you don't just have to breaks the layers apart — you hse tr bres up the whole structure, including thecovalent bonds. That needs wry large amounts of energy because the bonds are so strong. Graphite is Ire dorcw thr eitmond becstuse the Layers in: graphite are relatively far apart, The distance between the graphite layers is mee than twice te dicta betweem atoms in each layer, lina sense, a graphite crystal contains alot of waste space, whict isn't there ina diamond crystal Graphite conducts electricity, you look back al Rigure 4.20, you willsee that each carbon atom ks joined only three otters. Each carbon atom uses three of iis electrons to form these sitple covalent bonds, The fourth electron in the outer layer of ech stom is free to more around throughout the whole of the layer. The movement of these electrons allows the graphite to conduct electricity, Simple molecular structures Remember that molecules corvtain tlxod numbers of of atte ns joined by strong olocule adits neighbours rat bonds, ane 1 bermeen ome! a = — Strong exvalent bands in Seago Mameianain 98 BO snemntemende tar ener Figure 422 simple molecular compound. In doesn’t take wory much ri 80 mp olecalar cana Toweanedting ott at energy fo bees he ns fe atively weak intermolecular a Be ses, Fg o sli with a attractions, Molecular substances tome to be insoluble i woter anaes they nae with it For their sie, water molecules bare stronger intermolecular atttuetions betwee them than yau might expect, i order for a substance to dissokve, these aftructions botweetr Water malgcitles hate to be broker so that the dissolving molecules car it between them, Any new attractions between water molec and the covalent molecules are not usually big enol to make up for this, (0m the other hand, moteur substances ave ofen soluble i organi solvents. Tn thts ‘attractions herween the twe diflzwer! types oF molacale are ‘same as in the pure substances. ape, the inter mole Molecular substarces dor’ condact electricity, becausc the molecules don't have any daverall clevirical charge and there are no electrons mobile enowgh to mone from molecule to molecule Figures.21 Thre: grrr cece glow ed hot fer ter erm ore fomace ed fe pode stat for oy Figure 423 Myr gas rent oteees Elements, compounds and mixtures Elements Blemnemis te split mtoramytlaing more sie means. All the afoms in ab clement have the same atomic number, You can recognise them in models o¢ diagrams because they consist of atomsof a shige colour or sive ‘east quite rue ta say that ements const stonly one type at stom. Most derrens: consist af mbcunesoftomnpes - withthe sameatomc numba, bu diferent mmbers cofrmustons Wh ue dra dlgsams oF fake model, we arent usualy erste therlferences between the eotope, atomic molecule gontseucare lke oxygen Indtarond Figure 4.28 Same lemons, The substances in Figure 4.24 are all elements because they consist of only one sort of atom. Compounds All compaunes ure inade from combinations of two or more elements in xed proportians. joined by strong bonds. It doesn’t matter whether the campound is molecular, giant covalent ar giant onl Ag ho with Be go 3 water ~amaleaudr ‘orapoune Figtre 425 Some compounds Mixtures Ina mixture rather than a compound because of the totally variabl jure, the various components san be ia any proportions: An alloy is proportions, Figure 4.264 compound wats owing tough a ial cere rte rl ope mee? = ‘tines ate analog and hee 8 riroge ane rgen rmre of clement, Figure 27 Some ints erie afer mixture of compoures ~ ‘CO, ant 0"Simple differences between mixtures and compounds Proporibons In water (a compound), every single water molecule has two hydrogen atoms combined with onemxyyen atom. It never varies. Ina mixture of hycnogen and sonyger pases, the two could be mixed it may proportions. If you had some silvery zinv metal and some yellow sulfur, you coukd mas: them in ny proportions you wanted to. In zinc sulllde (ZnS, a white pander), the ‘pruporilons of alne to sulfur are always exactly the sume. Froperties lia mistureof clements, each okment still has its own properties, but the “properties of the compound are quite different, For example, ima mixture af fron ‘and sulfur, the irom is grey and the sulfur is yellow, Tine iron reaets with dilute acids such as hydrochlotie acid to produce leydrogen; the sulfur doesn't react with the acid. Homever. the compound iron sulfide (Fe) reacts quite differently witle acids to ‘praduce poionous lydnagen sullide gas, smelling of trad exes. A mixtureof hyeirogen snd oxygen is a volourtess gas whet explodes when you! ‘put a lame to it The compound. water, isa colourless liquid which just pats out aflame. ine of separation Mixtures ci be separates! by physical means, ‘Physio! means" are ngs like “changing the temperature, or dissolving part of the misturein a solvent Miko water -=Hhigs thst on nvatoe sy Na,SO, + CO; + H,0 #} GH, +0, +60, +H.0 fl feo H+ Fetl, +H, 9) Zn#H,50, -» Zn80, 64, 2) F9,0,4H, 9 Fe“, 1) Ng+ 0, MgO Po * AgNO, =» PLANO.) Ag A) AGN, MgCl, higiNO J, + Agcl 0 GH,+0,3€0,+H,0 im) Fe,0,+C— Fe + CO. 4) Reunite the following equations as balanced symbol ‘equations: 18) seaium carbonate + bydrachlorie acid (HCI) + sodium chloride + carbon dicxide + water 1) sexiura hydecide + sllric acid (H,50,) > sodium sulfate + water ¢) tecdum + vntar + caciumn hydrovide « hyeengen (,) 4) seium + cilrine (C1) -+ sodium ehloride @) ironiil) oxide + mitre arid (HMO, + rn() nitrate = aster D cine + oxygen 0) + sinc ovide 19) copperttl)exide-+ hyciochloricacid -+ coppertl} chloride water 1h) barium chloride + solu sulfate —> baru sulfate + sodium ehloside WF inc + lead) ritvate > lead + zine nitrate 4D copper) sullate + potassium hydroxide > copper ydromide + potassium sulfate 4) magpesium + copper) axe + magnasige ate-+ copperes sodium + anygen (0,) —> sodium oxide 1m) iran + chlorine (C1) — iron chloride \Write balanced symbol equations from the following descriptions, Everything must have astatesymbct attached, 4) Soli ealeium carbonate resets with a lute colytion of Inydrochloric acid {HCT 10 give a solution of call ethloide and carbon deowide gas, Water is also formed b) Zine matal reacts with eapper(l sulfate calution to Bie Solid copper and asoluton of inc sulfate 6) Magnesium resets with dilute sulfur acid to give ‘magnesium sulfate solution and hydrogen. 4 ran sulfate solution and sadivm hydride solution react to give solid iron) hydrenid and a solution of sodium sulfate ©) Solid aluminium rencts with a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid {HCD to give. solution of aluminium chloride and hydrogen (H,) 1. Solid iron) oxide reacts with a clue solution of sulfuric eld to give rofl) slate salution and water, 49) Sold tesa) earbonate react with a dilute lution of nitric acid (HNO,) © givea solution of lead) nitrate, ‘carbon dicside and water. HY Magnesium reacts if hoated in steam to prodice white solid magnesium oxide and hydrogen (H,) 1) Armixture of carbon and copper} avide heated together produces capper and carton dickide,Chapter 6: Rates of Reaction Reactions can vary in speed between those that happen within fractions of asecand - explosions, for example = land these that never happen at all. Gold can be expaced ta the air for thousands of years and nat react int any way. This chapter looks at the factors controlling the speeds of chemical reactions. Figure 61 Sere rector te fat Figure 62 Some restr: Aappen over aera Figure 63 fasting takes days or ook An investigation of the reaction between marble chips and dilute hydrochloric acid Marble produce ca pirocilarie acid ta je solution is alsa forene, ACOs) + 2HCHaq) —+ Cacl(aq)+H,0(0) +CO,(@)eds 1) before vecsion 1) daring reason Figure 6 Inviting te reaction bese alum carbonate and hyiteeNone aad "You can use. apt co find actual vlbes for ‘the rate of reaction a ary particle ie: by ‘Orantnga tangent 1 te ne the te ys are setested in and finding its dope che ‘maths of ths kes you unensy. dont Hoey shout Your eunkleyco be asked to-do Ft Figure 6.$ shows some apparatus that can be used to measure how the mass of carbon dioxide produced ctran pes wath time, Part 1) e¢rsnen as the apparatus vould look before the neaction starts “The task ts stoppered with eottem wool and comtains marble chips. The eotton woot Is toallaw the carbon divide to escape, but to stop any ack spraying out. The measuring cylinder sentains dilute hydrochloric avid, The marble isin large exvess mos of itwillbe lf over when the acid fs all used up. Everything is placed an a top pan balance, which is reset lo zero. Part «b) shows what happens durinythe resction. The act hats beer poured into fhe flask and everything has beer replaced on the balance, Noticy that onee the readion starts, Hae balance shows a megathas mass. Ths ‘measures the earbom dioxide escaping through the vsiton wool ‘The mars of carbon diovide lost is measured at intervale, and a graph is plotted, hy ia] 3 | S.praph becomes horizontal showing dos SA Srtnamor canon howd Wong Eu aca he rston bn steed 505) apis geea es ep hou 8 os ‘hat the reactan I alwing dawn 3 03 — graphs very seep shown ats Bory Sfearbon diced produced per " it minuce ~ dhe renetion i fast pltsatevaenua ‘ime trina) Figure 66 The mas: of carbon de la when cau avbanale saci wih hecho ai ‘The steeper the slope of the line, the faster the reaction. You can see from Figure 6.6 that about 245 g of carbon dismite is produced im the first minute in this ‘example, Less that (0.2 gf extra varbor dioxide is produced in the second minute ~ the reaction is slowing down, ‘The reaction is fastest at the beginning, It then slows down, until it eventually stops cstuse all he Iysrocllorie avid las bec used upe There will stillbe wnerencted marble chips in the flask. You can measure how fast the reaction is going at any potnt by Finding the dope of the ine at that poin. This is called the rate of the reaction at that pot. You might. for example, find that at a particular time, the carbon dioxide was being, lost at the rate of. say. 0.12 g per mimi Explaining what's happening Wea explain the shape of the curve by thinking about the particles preset! and how they interac. This is walled the eelliston theory, Reactions can bappen only when particles collide. In thiscase, particles in the acid have to collide with thesurlace of the marble chips, As the acid particles get used up, the collision rate decreases, snd so the reaction slows dow'. The marble Es in such largeexcess that its shape doesm't change much during, fhe resction,scary in the Co) acer inthe mses ecetete, beh ° ® edad @ g 'o foe nd pores anc marie chp |G puracleste | artiectsp foe ofesiiaon: ee ° 0% %5S,00 oe Figure 6.7 A he action proceeds the clon fate of acd parr dere, A different form of graph ANGCSE. you narmolly plot graphs shenving the mass or volume of preduct formed «during a reaction, Ets posable, however, that you may come ueoss graphs showing the fall n the concentration of ane of the reactamis In thiswase, the concentration of the litate troxtorie at _——toncentratinn of ac lie del showing fat setion = tpl gst Ses ates ‘Shomerg uc che Feacuan Ie slowing aun a he et ieuedup ‘concentration of cH face ene Figure 68 The fal in concentration of yichtnic acid Where the graph Is falling most quickly, it shows that the reaction ts Fastest Eventually; the graph becomes horizontal because the rection has topped. Changing the conditions in the experiment Using smaller marble chips ‘You cam eastly repeat the experiment using exactly the same quantities of ‘everything, but using much smaller marble chips. The reaction with the small «hips Ikappemns aster. ‘Both sets of results are plotted om the same graph. Notice that the same mas of carbon dloside is produced, because you are using the same quantities of ‘everything in both experiments, However, the reaction with the smaller chips starts ‘off mush more quickly and finishes soencr, sleaui reaction i (aster the same srnount af carbon ide is protuced 3 z| Cm eee slope graph becomes | {oath ahowing itl mare 8 foster reaction scp sowie S rt reation 3) [aerate | tone —taler race sips - ore (ines) Figure 6 The effect of asing sro able hips PoE cd you are going to investigate the effet of ‘changng the steeof the mse chips. fsimpovtant that everthing ese stays the eacty the sameene Figure 6.11 A ren honeys’ prod by bees — iva catalytic erent lar struc fade of a cram codad wth cal, a give a very hg nace ames forte oon go flow rough “Thy estan youget falfthe ress oferban side is hecause you only have half he ‘amount of ac prevent: (You have the ‘ame volume faci ut i onty half 36 ‘concertated) {you go on wo do.chemty ata higher level you will come across a few reactions Invaeh isrexsing the eancaneatian of ane fhe resctams has no effact on bw fst ‘thereaction happens You can ignove that problem for now Reactions between solids and liquids (or solids and gases) are faster if the solids are. present as a bot of small bits rather than afew big ones, The more finely divided the che atthe ran, becaice Cn aac thse contact wate gar gui sh greater ctailgkng is gpa aise is eo 6 =e = OF ew * el a > Sars a gs or prec pear rer hn re paracles hidden nh mide of ce re Figure 610 The mare che the ot, hefty the action High surface areas are frequent fy used to speed] up reactions outside the ab, For cxarmple, a entalytic converter for acair uses expensive metals such as platinum. palladium and rhodium, coated onto a honeycomb structarre in a-very thin layer order to heep costs-lawn. Inthe presenceof these metus, harmful substemcessuch as carbon monoxideand hifrogen oxides are converted into relativety harmless carbo diowiee id nitrogen, ‘The high surface are means the reaction fs very Tai. This is important because tte gasey in theexhaust system are in contact with the catalytic converter for ory awry shart time Changing the coneentration of the acid You could repeat the experiment using the originall marble ctrips, bul using hydrochloric acid only all as vonecittabed as before, Everything else would be the same the mass of marble and the volume of theacid, 14 only Beal as much gas woul You would find that tho reaction woul be slowor, 2 ho given ol Traction actu ‘apped yet tazl crentualy produce fae CO, Passes evn tire (mites) Figure 612 The effet of changing tae cancer of the ad In general terms, if sou increase the concentratiom of the reacts. the reaetion becomes faster Increasing. the concentration increases the rmiber of times te particles hit each other por seconda © *, yw, eee too ae —— evenacmet eee “Changing the temperature of the reaction, ‘You could do the original experiment again. but this time al a higher temperature ‘Everything else would be exactly the sune as belore. Reactions get faster as the temperature is increased. In this case, the same muss of gas would be given off, bevause you still have the same quantities of everyttiing in the mixture. 3 £ | ey = Sgr erperscire g —hiher tenpecanare a ‘me (mints) Figure 6.14 The efoto changing He emporanr ef he acon Porc Axa rough apprasimation, 1 10°C inctease i temperature doubles the rate of reaction, There ute tive factors at work bere, Increasing the temperature means that the particles are moving fster. and.sp ht ‘each othor more often. That will mak the reaction yy faster. but it only 2ecounts for a small part of the increase in rate Not all collisions end up in reaction, Many particles just Bowne off caclvotlicr, In carder for anything interesting te happen, the particles hie to collide with a ‘minimum amount af energy: called wetivation energy, A rolatively small nerease in temperature pruduces a very kare inorese it the number of collisints that have enough energy fora reaction to necur, lower wrmperature higher temperature Figure 615 4 smal incmase io temperate produce: age incense the rue fells wt actuation negee Figure 6.17 Bombardier bros ae hydrogen pemde a pat of th defence mechani zing tee pressure on the reaction Changing the pressure on a reaction wchere the reactants are only solids or liguidls makes virtually no diference to the rate of reaction — so n this ease, the graphs would be unchanged, But increasing the pressure on a reaction where the reactants are guises dows speed the reaction up, If you havea Hed amount of gas, you increase the pressure by squcceing it into a smaller volume. This forces the parties closer togettier, so they hit each other mone frequen tly, This Is exactly the same ag dnereasing the concentration of the ga. same number of 2 partes squeezed : eawnte vole s° pe ° * o 86 Gg°o loner pesare Nigh presere Figure 616 dessa prezue mace gos parler cole mare esr Catalysts What are catalysts? Caralysts are substances that speed up chemical reactions, but aren't used upin the process, They arestill here, chemically unchanged, at the end of the reaction. Bovauise they don't got used up. small amount of eatalyst can be used to process lots and lots of reactant particles — whether sioms or molecules or fons. Different reactions mowd different catalysis Think of a catalyst as being rather lik machine tool in a factory: Because ise took doesn't pet used up. ane tool cam pracess huge amounts of stainless steel into feaspoons, for example. Adilferent nol could tues virtually endless quantities of plastic into yoghurt pots The catalytic decomposition of hydrogen perox Bombardier beetles defend themeclves by spraying a hot, unpleasant liquid at theic attackers, Bart of the resiction involuee spliting hydrogen peroxide into water ame xyger, using the erwyme catalase, This resctiony kappens.slmesst explosively aed produces slot of heat. Emayimes are biological catalysts, ‘There are alot of other things that also catalyse thls reaction. One of these ts ‘mangunese(1V ence ~ alsa valled manganese dioxide, Mn), Thiss what is normally used in the lat to spead up the decomposition af Iydrogen peroxide. The reaction happening with the hydrogen peromidle st hydrogen peroxide — water + oxygen 24,0 faq) 24,0(9 + 0,(@)Notice that yoru don't write catalysts into the equation. because they are cheraically luncfrangedat the end of tke reaction. It you like, you can write their name over thetop of the arrow, Mossuring the volume of oxygen eval sig welgung ton ie te one in Fgure 6 l8tsasmple way of mungthe chemicals together without loeng any oergen before jou crete bagi Ie impombetopet he bangin icky sthoutorong bt ann the gs ‘inge:Thatgives amin radio thesyonge ‘manganece() onde Figur 618 Appvesto mest te volume of gen owed Wher yot are realy to start the reactioty, shar the flask so that the weighing ‘bottle Fall over and the mangsinese(lY| oxide comes into contact with the hye ircrosie, You ica to het shaking so Hhat ant even mixtite f formed ‘You could use this apparatus tofind out what happens to therate of reaction if you: © change the mass of the catalyst -e chamge how lumpy’ the catalyst is -@ use diferent catalyst ©- change the concentration of the hyclmgen perm soltion © cttange the temperature ofthe solution, Ineach ease, you vould measure the volume of axygen produced at regular intervals, and produce graphs just like the ones earlier in this chapter. However if ‘you manted folook ia more detailed war’ how a change in concentration or temperature, for example, affects the rate of the reaction, there ts amuch easier way of doing it Exploring the very beginning of the resetion: An easy way of comparing rales under different conditions Is tthe how long It takes to produce small bul constant. volume of gas —ssn: Sem?— as youvary the ‘conditions, You tale measurements of the rate a the beginning of the reaction — the so-called inital rate. ‘This experiment uses an uptumed measuring cylinder to measure the wlume of the gas, The cylinder is initially fall of water, Figure 6.19 Apparatus w pine te itil ate of the en Corsaene Concenvationsare measured in ellen? moles per cute decimetre - alka writin asiol dm 1 you dow now what that means it dees matter for now 05 o a2 a te enh °F os 10. na 7D ncentration (molt) Figure 6.20 Rate of eaco wes concentration You would shake the flask exactly as before to mix the hydrogen petoride and imangamese( TV ene, ‘This time you recwrd how long if takes for $ em? of orcygen to be measuring evtinder, lected in the ‘Then you set up the experiment again, changing one af the conditions (for ‘example, the concentration of the hyxiragem peroride) and find out how long it takesto proxiucethe same Sem? thistime. You will see from Table 6.1 that every time you halve the concertration, i takes fovice at long to produce the 5 em of gas. That means the rate af reaction has al boon halved. You cum see this more easily if you work out the initial rate for each reaction, “The rate ot the reaction would be worked out in terms of the volume of axyzen eoduced per second. If it fakes 1195 to produce Sem? at the begitming, of the reaction, then. Initial rate = 5/10 « 0.5em’/s If you do this forall the experimers, and ihen redraw Table 1, you get te ‘numbers in Table 6.2 “Tabie 62: How the inti ate changes it craton, Figure 6.20 chows that the ratwof the resctlon is proportional tathe concentration = whatever you do to the concentration also happens to the rate. I-youdauble the ‘oncentration. the rate doubles = amd s0 on. ‘ionutng the temperature — a sermple grep ‘You could repeat the experiment, starting with the hyirogen peroxide solution at a range of dilferent temperatures rar room temperature upto about 540°C, 10. on: Fos ‘gos an. ° Figure 621 aecctin ae w eprae “This time (Figure 6.21), the graph isn'ta straight line,As roush apmrasimation, the rae of a reaction doubles or every 10°C The approximation tht escion aes temperature rise double for every 10°Crise mterperatine ‘work for gute lotof actors, tong Showing that a substance is a catalyst est dll cate Ie fot dificult to show tat manganese(IVyemide speeds up the decomposition of hnydrogin poraside 0 produce axygon, Figure 6.22 shows two llasks, tots of whic contain Lyeirogen peroxide solution. Without the catalyst, there is only a trace of Uubbles inthe solution. With ft axygon is gleen off quik: “How can you shew thatthe manganese(IV) enide is chemically unchanged by’ the reaction? It still looks the same, but has amy been used up? You eam only find out by weighing it before you add it to the hydrogen peroxide solution, and then ‘rewcighingit at the end. ‘You can separate it from the liquid by ittering tt through @ weighed filer paper, allowing the paper ahs residue to-dry, and then rewighing it to Work out the mass cof the remaining manganese(LV) oxide, You sbould find that thie mass batsn't change How does a catalyst work? You will remember that not all. cllistons result a reaction happesing. Collstons awe fo hwolwe at east a extiain minimunramaunt of energy. eile activation venery (ame 45). ‘You can show this on an energy diagram. In order for anything interesting to happen, the reactants have to gain enough energy to avercome the ativuthon ‘energy barrier Figur 62 Tho flats 4a coeanWyaagen proud salon the ng hard ne asa ie et, added 0 seed upeaygen prion ‘Progress of che reaction Figure 623 Actwotion emegy If a reuction feslow: it cans that very fow collisions have this arnowat of energy This means that when mest collisions kappen, the particles will simply bouree off ‘each other, Adding. catalyst gives the reaction an alternative and easier way for ito happen — involving «lower activation energy. Caraene Figure 6.25 Te pase ealy though a road tunel under 2 mountain P i cruised rove regen af the reaction Figure 6.24 actwotion enagy th catalyse If the activation energy is lower. many more collisions are likely to be successfal The reaction happens faster because the alternative route is casi. Catalysts work by providing an alternative route for the reaction. i activation emer You can illustrate this with u simple every example: Suppose you awe a moun‘ berwven 1wo valleys. Only'a few very energethe people will climb oxee the mouniain kom one valley tothe next Now imagine building a road tunnel through the mountain, Lots of people will be able to travel easily from one valley to thie next Warning! He careful how you phrase the staterment explaining ow: works. You should say “Catalysts provid activation energy’ talyst alternative route with lower They do not ‘lower the wetivation energy’ — any more than buikling a tunnel lowers the mountain. The original route is still here, and if particles colli: with chough energy they will still use it, just as very energetic people will sill elkoose ta limb over the top of tie mountain, Catalysts in industry ysts are especially important in industrial reactions because they help substances to react quickly at lower temperutures and pressures thant would otherise be needed. This suves moncy. ‘You will meet coveral examples of industrial use of catalysts later in the course.You should now be able to: suggest examples of reactions that happen at different rates, from very fast to very slow know and explain {in terms of collision theory) what happens to the reaction rate when you change surface area, concentration, presse or temperature define what a catalysts, and explain how it speeds up a reaction now why catalysts are important in industry NA88 product varies with time, Questions 1. Asstudent carried outan experiment to investigate the rate of reaction between an excess of dalomite {magnesium carbonate) and 50cm’ af dilute hydrochloric aid, The dolomite ves in small pieces. The reaction is: MeCO,6) + 2HClaq) -» MgCl faq) + H.Otl] + £0 fe) He measured the volume of carbon dlaxide given off at regular intervals, with the results shown in the table below 4) Drain adiageam ofthe apparatus you would use far this experiment, and explain befly what you would do. 6) Plot these results on graph papes with ine an the es and volume of gas on the yas, @} At what time is the gas being given ff mast quickly? Esplain wiv the eoction is fastest at that time. <) Use your graph to find cut howrlang it took ta produce Sem of gs ) In eseh of the fllowing questions deel what wuld happen tothe intl rate ofthe reaction and to the total solu of gas given aff various changes were made the experiment Ai) The mass of dolomite and the volume and ‘concentration of acid were kept constant, butthe dolomite urs inane big lump instead of smal its. (i) The mace of dolomite was unchanged and it was stil inssmall pieces. 50cm? of hydrochloric acid was used, Which had half the original concentration. (Gl) The Yotornite ras unchanged again. This uma 25 ern! of the original acid was used instead of SOc End of Chapter Checklist describe simple experiments to investigate rates of reaction ‘be able to draw and interpret simple graphs showing how the amount of either reactant or (is) The acid vas heated to 40°C before the dolomite was added to it ‘The effect of concentration and temperature an the rate ofa reaction can be explored using the reaction beter ragnesium ron and dive sulle anid: (Magis + H.$0 (aq) + MgSO,(20)+ H fa} ‘Astudent dropped a 2m length of magnesium ribbon into 2S.’ of ue sulfuric acid na boating tube a large excess ‘of acid). She stimed the contents of the tube continuously and ‘Smed how tong it tock fr the magnesium ta dsappetr 42) What would you expect to happen ta the ue tale for the reactan if she repeated the experiment using the Same length of magnesiven witha mitre of 20cm! of seidand Sem’ of water’ Explain yaur answer interes of the allisian theory 1) What would you expect to happen to the tie taken for the reactan f she repeated the experiment using the original quantities of magnesium ad acid, but fst heated theacid to 50°C? Explain your answer in terms of thecolision theary ¢)_ Why is it important to keep the reaction mixture sired continuously? ‘Catalysts speed up restions, but can be recovered chemically ‘unchanged at the end af the reaction 19) Explain briefly houra catalyst has this effect om a reaction. 1) Describe how you would find out whether copper) ‘ovlde ies a catalyst forthe decompesition of hydrogen peroxide solution. You need ta show not anly that it speeds the reaction isp but that its chemically Uunehanged atthe end.‘You may need 0 refer to the Periodic Table on page 225, 1 The dlagramis shew an atom and an lon @ Ste A B 4g) ‘Which of the two structures reprasants an atorn? Explain yyaurchoice. (2 maths} ) Use the Periodic Table to help you to write the symbol {including the charge} for the structure representing an fon. (2 mats} 6} Complete the follaning table showing the relative masses and charges of the various particles, oo ene pa ik 8 masts} di} Find the elements strontium, Se ard brarine, Be in the Periodic Table, How many electrons are thera in the-auter level of each of these atoms? (2 marks} <6) Strontiurn combines with brornine to form strontium bromide. What happansta the alsewon in the outer llavels vrhan strontium atoms and bromine atoms ‘combine ta make strontium bromides? 2 mais} A What is the formula for strontium bromide? (1 mark @} Would you expect strontium bromide to have a high ora low melting point? Explain your anver. (3 maths) Toral 15 marks Eu 2. a) Dravr dots-and-crosses diagrams to show the arrangement of the electrons in (i) achiine atom, (i) a corde ton, i) a chosine molec. (4 marks} b) Dichloromethane, CHCl, 5 liquid with 8 low boiling ppaint used in paintstrippers. Draer a dots-and-crosses Siagram to show the bonding in dichioramethane. You need anly show the elecransin the outer levels ofthe storms, 8 masks} €)Dichloromethane contains stone carbon-hydrogen and ‘arbon-chlorine bonds. Despite the presenc ofthese strang bonds, dichloromethane isa liquid. Explain wr {2 masks} Total 9 marks End of Section A Questions 2) Which af the dagrams represents the arrangement of the particles in magnesium metal (i solid sodium chloride (i) aman? (2 mats) 1) Explain vy (0) magnesium ean be strethed to form ragnesiura ribbon (1 mark) (i) rragnesium conducts oct. (2s) (il) sodium chloride erystas are brite (1 mack} (4) diamond is extremely hard (2 mats) ) (State ary one physical property of graphite which is Geren trom desmond (7 merk) (0) Explain how the Sterence aries from the arangementaf the atoms ia the two substances (3 mats) Total 12 marks in the nineteenth century, John Dalton put fonward an atornic ‘theory in-which he suggested that atoms of a given element ‘were all aie, but differed fram the atoms of ether element ‘He thought that elements combined in small whole-nurnber ation lke 1-2 0° 23, and that chemical reactions involved ea ranging ewating atoms ints different earpoun ds 12) Choose compauind uth atoms arranged in the ratio 2, and weit formula (1 mark) 1) The law of conservation of mass says that in a chemical reaction, matter is neither ezeated nor destrayed. Explain ‘row that staternent is cansistent with Dalton’ theory, (2 mati) €) nthe peentiot: century a flaw was diceavered in Dalton theory when it was found that there were twa different dkinds af neon atoms (Ma}, one with a mass number af 20 land the otter a mass number of 22 (0) what name given tathese two diffrent kinds of rreon atom? (0 mark) {f) We down the numbers of protons neurons and flectons in eth of theve stone (2 marks) (i) Woutd you expaet there to be any differences between the chemical properties of the two sorts f neon ‘tarn? Explain yaur answer. (2 marta) Total marks5. [nan experiment to investigate the rate of decomposition of hhydrngen perovide solution in the presence of manganese\(¥) ‘oxide, Wem’ oF hydrogen peroxide solution was mined with 30cm? of water. and 0.2 of manganese(IV) oxide was added. ‘The volume of cxygen evaived was measured at 60's intervals ‘The result-af this experiment are recorded in the tbe batow, Times) 0 6 120 1 20 300 Meo Tow 4). Balance the equation fo the decornposition of hydrogen event, ineluding all the appropriate state symbols H,0,+H,0+0, {2 marks} 6) Copy and complete the diagram ta shaur how the volume ‘of cxygen might have been measured. oto fink brcroaen pres solutions tinO, 4} Plot a graph ofthe results on a piece of graph paper with ‘ime on the horizontal axis and volume of angen an the serteal av {4 marks} 4) Usiyour graph to find Gut how tong it took ta produce Stem of onygen. i) 4¢) Expl why the graph becortes oral after 2405 (2 marks} 1) Suppose the experiment had been repented using the same quantities of everything, but with the reaction flask immersed in ie. Sketch the graph you would expect ta get. Use the same gr asin part (¢). Label the new raph F (2 maths} g) On the same grid as in («) and (f), sketch the graph you ‘would expect to getif you repeated the experiment a the ‘original temperature Using Scin* of hydrogen permnide solution, 35m’ of water and 0.2g of manganesa('V) ‘ude, Label this graph G. (2 marks} Total 15:marls 6 During the manufacture af nitric wid from ammonia, the ‘ammonia is okie to nitrogen monawide, NO, by oxygen in the ar ie) + 5008) -» 4NOG) + 6H OB) ‘Theammonia is mised with alc and passed thraugh a stack af large cirelar gauzes made of pltinurn-hadium alloy at ed haat (about 500°C). The pltinum-rhodium gaures act as a ‘catalyst for the reaction. 1) Gas particles have to collide before they can react. Use the collsian theory to help you to ansiver the Following, questions (i) Because te gases ae in contact with the catalyst for cola very shart Hime, {important tat the reaction Fhappens as quickly a posible. Explain why increasing 0 temperature to 900°C makes the reaction very fast. (S monks) (G) Explain why the reaction rate Can alsa be increased by increasing the pressure (2 marks) (Gi) Explain wy the platinum-shodlum allay i used as gauzes rather than ae pelos. (2 mats) 1) Platinum and hodlum are earemaly expensive metal Explain why the manufacturer can justify their inital cost (2 marks) Total 9 mars Besareg Ted (elmMtCeuirL CER ee a This chapter fooks at oxygen in the and in the lab, anu! introduces sorme simple Flgure7.} Best the cara gas ded br Figure 7.2. the campastin of the ais muck naan (he cme os woe 20 rllon yong The approximate percentages thy volume) of the dry are shown in Table 7-1 pres preset in wmolluted, {eis important to realise thar these Figures apply onli dry unpallted ar, Her can have _nithere beoween and 4% wacet vapour “he percenage of carbon Gta the ly although vary emi Irisngseadly because cafhuman acne There aro also wory smaall amounts of the other noble gases in tho alt. Showing that air contains about onciflh oxygen stag capper ‘he apparatus shown in Figure 7.3 canbe used to fd the parcentag: of oxygen in the alr, Asics ube looks ike as bie wort rae really 100.0! of we alia wb packed however etonghy you Fest with Buran. he _[ sssoppee cern | is —————— — ll =i 1 Figure 7.3 Using copper to masa the angen in a The apparatus originally contains LO0cm* of wir, This is pushed backwards and forwards ower the heated copper, which turns black ws eappertll) oxide is formed, The volume of iors the syringes Falls as the oxygen is used up 2Culs)+ 0,(g) — 2Cu0(s) As the copper reacts, the Bunsen fs raved alongs the tube so that itis ahways heating fresh copper. = \Eventually all the oxygen in the air is used up. The volume stops contracting. anel the copper stone turning hlack. On cooling. someuchere around 79 cm? of gas belt im the syringes ~ 21% has beers used up, Therefore the air contained 21% of oxygen. Using the rusting of fran Irom rusts in lamp ait. isin ap ose as it docs so, Eigure 7.4 shows some cham iron wool in a test tube containing. air, Aslong as the inside of thetubeis wel. you could sprinkle fran flings info thre tube instead of the: irom wool. Thee irom flings will tick tothe sides, The tube is inverted in a beaker of water, and the level of the water tn the tube is marked by a small rubber band. The tube is now left for a week or so for the tron. to uuse up all the oxygen. ‘The watcr level isesin the trbe as the oxygen is uscd up. and the-new Kevel eam be marked using a second rubber band. You cam fine the actual volumes af the gues a the end of thcexperiment ty filling the tube with water to cack of the rubber hands tx turm, and pouring it into asmall measuring cylinder, I the original volume wis, say, 15. volume ws L casygets use up measured Zea’, The percentage of oxygen in the air was 3/15. 100 = 20", Making oxygen in the lab Oxygen is most easily mode in the lab from hydrogen peroxide solution using manganeso(IV oxide as a caaly. The reactions known as the eatalytie decomposition (spliting up using a catalyst) of hydrogen peroxide, 2H,0 faq) + 2H,009 + 0,@) hehe sidearm boing tube) | Figure 7.5 Making ogc inthe a Testing the oxygen Oxygen relights a glowing splint Burt 1g elements in oxygen Hlememts burn in oxygen much like they burn in afr, only much more brightly Burning magnesium Magnesum burns in alr with a bright white Dame to give a white, powder magnesium oxide, The dlamo is extremely briglat in pure oxygen, Mes) + O.f6) + 2Me0(5) dampen rer band ware level arene [arc ‘value aftr Figure 74 Lung tr te macau te angen in air A soa experiment ca be doe with & mull piece of wihte phesphoeus altace toa length af wire andheld in the top of therube: Phosphorus smaulders in ait predoce two different phosphorous rides The lon reetionis ear to de bec phospho loquite dangeraus to hare Figure S shows ths esperiert using small le apporas Fahey eollacng the oxygen tngas ars if you warned zo, pau could lly le up tin pracoce,# you Wane EE Jars of oxygen. you would almascahusys get It from an oaygen evinces Figur 7.6 Wtagocsum ribbon bung wa oesoath ‘You wll find aut maresbout metals and tron: metals i Chapter 12, page 100. “You might pethape hve butt sare magnesium ini, ved the rads ws \ynter nd tented he pM to id tha ev ‘moreallaline than sugges bese. Thats bberauneshetetesamestn chemrny ‘gong here Magnesium also react with fitopen in the alr crake maghesiarn reid The tects vith tet proce ‘ammaria. whch isquiteallane Many bbooks dan tell you shout ti, an! esve ot todiaw a completely faulty cancusion fen theespetiment! Ll quite receriy twes though a carbonic acid didntactulbyenseasa fmolecule,H.CO, Ithasnow been moleted ac | parecabeance Que i ae been found tae completly unstable inthe presence ssluater Ajouf ever uung.the tm eaibare ‘ac? saliinn af eabon dice in-wster fecuentiallyust hata sautionofexrbon cde in weer ‘burning sulfur Sulfur burns in alr with a ting, almost anvicible, ble ame, Ln oxygen st burns much more strongly, giving a bright blue flame. Folsonaus, colourless sulfur diowide ats produced. 5(3)+ 0,8) = S08) burning. carbon Carbon burns if it is heated wery strongly in air or oxygen to pive colours carbon sdhovide gas. The carbon may produce a small yellow-orangy flume and perhaps some sparks. It Gepensis on the purity of the carbon le) + Og) = cog) Oxides Metal and non-metal oxides OF the three elements we have looked at abore, magnesium is a metal, whereas sulfur and sarbon are non-metal, There isu pattern in the eflevt of water on megal land rion-metal eid, Most metal ices arent soluble in sali ster and don't react with i. If you sh esium oxide with water, it doesn’t seem to dissolve. However, if you fest ET of the mixture. you tind that i mildly lktline. A very, very small amount pot we the i. some magnesium hydrate. A wery seal amount of tat dissolves in water, giving slighty ali solu try, MgO(s)-+ H,0(l) + Mg(OH) (6 and aq) On the otber hand, many son-metalloxides react with water to solutions, For exarmple. sulfur dioxide reacts with water tative sa HSM, Sulfurous acid is fairly aciic, ive acidic uraus ai H,0(0) + 80,{¢) + H,0,(aq) Carbon digwide dissolves to some extent in water, to give solutton which ts sometimes called ‘carbone sictd’ and given the formula 11,C0,. In fact. the resetion, between carbon dioxide und water isa bit more complicated than this ~ but it dows sive very slighily acidle solution Don't assume that all non-metal oxides are acidic. A few are neutral, Water (Gyydrogen oxide} is a good example. and sos carbon moni, CAL Ina (© most metal oxides don't either react with, or dissolve In, water ~ those that do tend to form alkaline solutions © non-metal oxides often react with water to lorm acidic solutions caveptions ate Water THO} and carbors monoxide, ‘sommonNon-metal oxides and the environment Acid rain — sulfur diavide and omides of nitrogen ‘Rain is naturally slightly acidic because of dissolved carbon dioxide, Acid rain is even more acidic becamse of the presence of varkous pollutants ‘Acid rain is etused when water and oxygen fn te atmosphere react with sulior Several ovis of roger ate imeobed, dioxide to proxhice sullarle cl, of with various usides of nitrogen, NO.A0 give Including NO and NO, Theyre often gen nitric aid. SO, and INO, come mainty fram power stations und factorles burning the general forrula NO, fossil fuels, or from mator welabsles. In petrol engines. sparks ane use! to ignite the petral-air mixtureto power the car ‘These sparks also cause nitrogen and oxygen in the airto combine. to produce asides of nitrogen. Figure 7.5 ts of ony on-air fl ous the preducoan of slr chance, bu the spk a ‘Ptr! angie en ongen an rte [rome the air tacombine a make aides of ager, NO, Figure 2.8 Tex ching frum thefts of ct ain Acid rales ts worrying, malnly besiioge of its devastating efect of trees. sind on lie tn Lakes, It some areas a high proportion of trees are affected, and ar either glekc or ‘dying. In some lakes the water so ackdle that t won't support life. Limestone lealcum carbonate) and some metals such as fron are also face! by ackdl ral. Coa ‘The solution to acid rain involves removing sulfur from fuels, ‘arrubbing: the gouses from poner stations and factories to remove: S11,and NO. and using. catalytic converters in cars."The catalyst helps to convert oxides of nitrogen into harmless nitrogen gas, burt has no effet on sulfer diowide. Nnfortunately. catalytic converters «don't work properly until the catalyst becomes really hot, so they aren't elfective-on short ourneys, Carbon diosiele nd global warming ~ the ‘greenhouse elect” Figure 7.10 Fos fs often contains cerpaunds- during er pedis ifr chose Figure 7.11 The greenhoune ffect,Bes c ‘Some seemirts belive that increases ‘earbon snide wl ene devastating ob warring. But others reject shes. and choirs thatthe incteses in average wall terpenes during the twentieth enury were part af maura heating and coating sles diver bry the Sun and henge 2 ‘ecean currents They believeth effect of ‘avson dia wll besa compuved with these “The bolunce coven these vo views fsa o change suing the iota of this book Fin! oue the eurent state of scleie thought by folowing the ime like suggested fr th chap a the ‘accormparng webs ‘cubon dance le abo promced when Imag meta ceborates (wich as alee ‘carbonate) ate heated. Youu fnd were ‘about his in Chapter 4 (page 122) | precipitate a fina sli fone by 3 ‘chemici eacion invalving kquids ar gases. Figure 7.13 Wang 2 carton siecle ro eingueher opi ul am acta re There is novargument about tke fact that carbon dioxide absorbs inffareel radiation Inthe way Figure 7,1 shows. The absorption af infrared radiation in thi way is nothing new ~ it fas alwys happened. sind is one of the processes that help #0 maintaite the Barr sit a temperature suitable fr tie ‘And thore is no argument about the increasing amounts of carbon dicate Inthe ‘atmosphere. The level increases as more Fossil fuels (coal, gus. and oll products sun ‘as petzoll are burnt, and as forests are cut or burnt dawn fo make way for agriculture. ‘The argument ig about how much realest this wll hawe om global temperatures, At the time of writing, this argument wees stll oing on, More about carbon dioxide Making carbon dioxide in the lab Carbon dioxide is most easily made by the reaction between dilute hydrochloric acid and valviumn varbonute in the form af marble chine, CaCO,(s) + 2HCHaq) = CaCl, (aq) + CO.(g) + H,0(1) Z diate fare sidearm boli abe dies hydrochloric 2 marble dies Figure 7.1.2 Maing curb aide the lb, ‘Testing the carbon diawide Carbore dioxide turns lime water (e sive white precipitate of calcium alOH) faq) * CO,(g) = Caco Ys) + H,011) With am exvess of carbon dioxide, the precipitnte dissolves again to give a colourless solution of calcime lydrogen carbone, 200 (8) + CO, + H,0(9 = Ca(H1CO}) (aq) cium lyxfroxide solution) milky: It reacts to arbre, Simple properties and uses of carbon dioxide Carborr dioxide is a colourless, odourless igs. denser than ait, and slightly soluble it, water. Ih used i carbonated (iy) drinks because it dissolves in water under pressure. When you oper the bottle the pressure falls and the gas bubbles out of solution. {i fs also used in fre extinguishers to put oui electrical res, or thuse caused by hurning liquids, where using water could cause problems. The dense sus sinks onto the flames and prevents any more axygen from zeaching them.You should now be able to: End of Chapter Checklist know the main gases present in the ar, and their approximate percentage by volume: describe an experiment tetfind the percentage of oxygen the air describe howto make oxygen and cartson dioxide in the lab describe the reactions of magnesium, sulfur and carbon with oxygen know the patterns of acidity or alkalinity when metal and non-metal oxides dissolve in, ar react with, water «know the simple properties of carbon dioxide - limited to testing for it, its density, and its solubility in water «know uses for carbon dioxide and be able to relate thetn to its properties / know that sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, and carbon dioxide may be the causes of environmental problems. Questions 1. a) Bravia labelled diagram ofthe apparatus yau would use tw elleeta fou tast tubes of oxygen frame the ‘decomposition of hyragen percaide using. smanganasa(v) ovide as catalyst. b) write a balanced symbol equation For the reaction, including state symbols. cf} Describe the test for gen, 2 inmeacty of the following questions, decide whether the clement deseribad is ametal ar a non-metal. you recognise the elamant from its deseriptian, say veut you think i 4g) A yellow, crystalline solid that burns ith a bright blue Hamme in oxygen. giving gxs which dscolves in water to give an acide solution 6) A soft slvery solid that burns in exygen with an erange Flame to give a white oride: When water fsadded ta the side, the solution is strongly allie. 2) A.broun, flewble solid that forms a blaek onide when Ireated in oxygen. The oxide is insoluble in water. A shiny, grey solid that burns if heated very strangly in ‘sygen. The gas produced turns ime water rriky and producesa slightly aricie solution 44 Read the follawing passage and then ansiwer the questions Jn 1885 an English physicist, Lord Rayleigh, noticed a tiny ‘iflerence between the density ofmitragen made from ammonia (1.2505 p/de') and nitrogen abtained fran the air (1.2572 g/d). The nitrogen i obtained from the air ‘by removing oxygen and carbon dioside from it Sir William Ramsay passed nitrogen, wich had been obtained fram the air, vr hot magesiuen, Magn esiuen combines with nitiagen to make solid magnesium nitride, Mig.N,, At the end af this, he was laftwith a small amount Cf gas that wouldn't cornbine with the magnesium. This g55 proved to be argon, cantarinated wath very small, Quantitias af other noble gasax. '8) Suggest one reaction you could use to remove cxygen from the airwithout replacing iebyy another gas. te the equation for the reaction you give. 1) Horn might you remove carbon dled from the air? 2) Wte. balanesd equation for the reaction batween hot ‘magnesiurn and nitragen, Bon't farget the state symbols. 4) By considering the density Figures given is argon denser co ess dense than nitrogen? Explain your rewsonin, 2) Name any two other noble gases wel might be found: ‘mined with the argon, Explain why. 12) carbon dioxide is used in sore fie extinguishers 1) albottle of fiz drink doesnt fiz until you take the top off ¢)buming a fuel containing sulfur as an impurity causes acid cain ) petrol engines produce oxides of nitragen 2) ear with aeatalptieeanuerter ean stil praduee pollution Under some circumstancesee a The reactivity series lists efernents {mainly metals) in order of decreasing reactivity. It is likely that you wall have ‘came across some of this chemistry already in earlier years. This chapter reminds you about same simple reactions involving these elements and their compounds, and then uses these reactions ta introduce some new and more eampliated ideas. 2 Figure 1A laments in der ef rea ‘ecreasing reactivity Figures. Rok arcu’ tng ung maton Figure 2 Golde unreactive thot twill remain tron priced by reas sie Yat homily unchanged i cntact wath the ai oF btu alirnkun and ort ae ter fr ever Displacement reactions involving metal oxides The reaction between magnesium and copper(II) oxide ald gry etre of copper oie ae ‘magresiura power ceramic pap ze Figure 8 How magni rere wnt copper) anise At the ond. raves of brown cope are lll on the: corsnnle paper, magnesium + copper(it} oxide —> magnesium oxide + copper Me(s) + Cus) —+ Mgo(s) + Cuts) This is an example of displacement rewetion, The less restive metel, copper, has boen pushed aut of its compound by the more reactive magnesium. Any metal higher in the series willdisplace ane lower dawn from compound 1f you heated copper with magnesium onide. nothing would happen because copper is less reactive tham magnesium. Copper isn't capable of displacing magnesium from magnesium «ide:‘The reaction between magnesium and zinc oxide Heating magnesium with zing oxide produses vine metal, This time, though, because the nine is very hat, it immediately burs in-air la form zinc oxide again! This second reaction hasn't been inctuded in the equatiems below magnesium + zinc oxide > magnesium oxide + zine Mpls) = 2n0(5) + Mg0\s) *Zn(3) The reaction between carbon and copper(it) oxide arbors included in the reactivity series became it bs Important in extracting, several metals including tron} frora thetr ores. Ores are ofien metal axides. If the carbon in the reaviivity series. then carbon can bea cheap muy of removing oxygen from the axide to leave the metal. Copper tent in fact, extracted lke thes. This reaction is just a simple Lab illustration that carbon is aboue copper in the series mca Is belo A black mixture of arbor und coppertil) oxide is heated! in a test the to avoid the tognesum reacting wih nc onde. air getting al the hot capper provuved and turning it back to copper} axide, The rom dicnide that isso formed escapes from the tube asa gis. The mixture lows rad hot because of the heat given out during.the rection, and you are lel with brown copper in the- tube E Figure {s) + 2Cu0{s) > CO(g) + 2Cus) Oxidation and reduction Oxidation and reduction - oxygen transfer © Acsubstance has been oxidised if it guins oxygen. Oxidation is gain of oxygen. © Asubstans as been reduced if if loses oxygen. Reduetion fs loss of oxygen Figure §.7 dows magresiurn necting witk copper(I) oxide. pi of caygen = GXIDATION, magnesium + e=pperl) aide: —e eragresiam cx + capper ea al the ram copper fered a he Figure 7 Adages reacting with spp) ee Figures a " m betas corbon and cape fm of ne ra A redax reaction ts one in whlch both reduction and oxidation ure ooeurring, Oxidation and reduction always go hand-in-hand. © Avredurcing agent is a substomes which reduces somethiby cbse, In this case, esium isthe reducing crt ubstance which oxidises something else, The coppertI) oxide (s the oxidisitg agent in this revetion,‘There are sme quite chy dese on this ge Tne every slowly ane make str you ‘understand each paint before you gn a= thenertone, you gst tothe bot af the age and have understood wht jou fae fend (even if you daritneceshy remember {al fet plese nth youretl. Ham do youknow whether a substance contains tons ort” As arough guile for GCSE purposes ondy ft metal {orammaniuen) compound: or an acid in solution Irv be orc -othense Is nat If youaren't sure about wrinngsymbal for fans read pages 33-24 n Chapeer 8, “These equities ae called half equations. orelectron half equations Thy show jst part ofa macton Foe the point of view of ‘ane ofthe wibetances preent "You now havetwa detintione of ovation {and it reverse, eduction) Which are you supped lo une? Use vechever impr inthe case youareasked about! Bath feinivone ve HL Dot wont roth out hie at ve moment. ath a Bitok fepeience, you nlfind it eobvious which you row uve In wero ces Oxidation and reduction - electron transfer Weure going to look very vlnsely at what happens in the reaction between magnesium and copper} axide in terms of tse various particles olved. Here is tne equation again: ‘Mg(s) + CuG(s) > MgO{s) + Cufs) ‘The magnesium and the copper are metals. and are made of metal atoms, but the ccoppertll} code andl the magnesium oxide ar: both ionic compounds The coppertilv oxide comtsins Cu and 0 fons, tnd the magnesium oxide contains Mg: smd 0 fons. Writing thoge trie the equation (not forgetting the state simbok) gives (Magis) + Cu(s) + Os) + Mg"(s) + O"ts) + Culs) Look very carefully at this equation to six what is being changes, Notice that sametluing add is going on the aside iors (0) iscumpletely unaffected by the reaction, Etends wp wills difenett| partner, but is totally unchanged itself Am tore like das is described asa spectinerr fon, ‘You don’t weitethespoctator Sans into the equation hevause they aren't changed in the reaction. The equation showing just these things being changed loaks lik this ‘Mg(s) + Cur (s) —» Mgh(s) + Cu(s) ‘Make sure you can see how this equation comes from the previous one. Thisis, mown as an fonic equation. and shows thee revetion in a quite different light. I shows that the reaction: las nothing to do with the oxygen. ‘What is actually happening is that maynesiam atoms are turining into mages fons. The magnesium atoms lose electrons to form magnesium ions Mgls) + Mg"6) + 26 ‘Those electrons have been gained by the copper(II) ions to mike the wloms present im metalic copper Cur'(s} + 2e = Culs) Remember that we are talking ubout thereaciion between copper} cxide and magnesium, We've already described this ws a redox reaction. but te equations no longer have any oxygen in the! Wenow need a wider detinition of oxidation ond reduction. (Oxidation Is Loss of electrons; Reduction Is Gain of electrons O1LRIG In this case: Mg(s) + Mg) + 2° Mgis oxidised. Cu") + Ze’ Culs) Curis reduced.Displacement reactions involving solutions of salts ‘Salis ure compounds ike copper) sulle silver nitrate or sodium chloride, You will ind a definition of what a salt ison page 74. This section explores some reactions hetween metals cmd solutions of sals ie water The reaction between zinc and copper(tI) sulfate solution “The copper isdiephived by the more reactive rin, Ths blue colour of the copper(I sulfate gutionfages sts coloueless xine sulfate solution fs formed. Znfs) + CuSO faq) —+ ZnSO,(aq) + Cufs) “The rine and the copper are metals consisting simply of atoms but the copperllls ‘sulfate and the rine sulfate are metal compounds and so are onic. Af you rewrite the equation showing tke ions, you will find that the sulfare fons are swetator ions. Zn(s) + Cu{aq) + $0,"(aq) — Znaq) + $0," (aq) + Cuts) Removing the spectutor ions thecause they aren't changed during the reaction} leaves you with: Figure 8 re cps capper ram capper) sift lien nfs) + Cuaq) = Zn*(aq) + Cus) ‘This is another redex reaction, Aeweouldrit mrater which copperfil) salt Tosollecrors “OXIDATION youseredvah alongs vee scuble Iver Copp cond orcoprert ns) * Coq) em Za Ca) ‘Nose ractie acy ene ey ‘wttatne, beceue the chloride ons. the - ‘ras iar would once again be gectator sp of elecmars = REDUCTION fons aking no part an dhe reacicn, Figure 89 Zinc revcting with copper lesan ‘The reaction between copper and silver nitrate solution ‘Sver sbolow copper in the reactivity series, 60a coll of copper wire in sliver nitrate solution will produce metalic silver. Figure 8. 0+shows the sve being, jproduicod as a mixture of grey “ur” and delleawe erystals, Notice the solution bovoming blue as copperill| nitrate is produeed. Gufs) + 2RgNO faq) + CUINO } (aa) + 2Agts) ‘This time the nitrate ions are spectator ions, and the final versioa of the iorte exquation looks like this: Cus) + 24g (aq) — Cur(aq) + 2Ag(5) This is yet another ralox reaction piel pects = REDUCTION Figure B10 Duplaong aver from wver mere religion Figure 11 Capper eacng wih ber tate zisFigure 812 Caloun rearing wth cal water Reactions of metals with water A general summary “Meta bore hyropen i the reactivity series Metals ubowe hydrogen in the reactivity series react with water (arsteam) to produce hydrogen, 1 the metal reacts with sold weer: He mot Aadnaride ard hydrogen ae formed ‘metal + cold water — metal hydroxide + hydrogen 1 the metal reacts with sew, the metal ede and Hyxtrogem are formes. ‘metal + steam —+ metal oxide + hydrogen ‘As you go down the reactivity series, the reactions become less and less vigorous. Metals below Irydrogen in Uke rewetivity series Metals below hydrogen in the reactivity ries (such as copper) don't react with, ‘water orssicam, That is why’ copper can be use farbotlt hot and cold water pipes Potassium, sodium ar lithium and cold water These reactions aredescribed in detail on pages IMP2-104. They are very vigorous reactions, but become less violent in the order potassium > soxium —» iithiura. The sequatfons all look ie tis -2X{s) + 2H,0(1) + 2xOH(aq) +H, (aq) Replhwe X by Na or U, depending om which you want. Calcium and cold water Calcium reacts gently with cold water. The grey granules sink, but are carried back fothe surface again asbabbles of hyvtrogen are formed around them. The mixture becomes warm as heat ix produced. Calcium Iytronid is formed. This ist very soluble in water. Some of it dissolves to sive a colourless solution, but most of iis left as a White, insoluble solid, Cafs) + 2H,0(1) + Ca(OH),(aq ands) + H,(aq) Magnesium and cold water ‘There is almost no reaction. I the magnesium is very clean, afew bubbles of hydrogen form on i, but the reaction soon stops again. This is because the Imagnestum bevomes couted with insotuble magnestum hyvroxkde, winlh prevents vwaler coming inte sontact with the magnesium,Magnesium and steam -Magnesium ribbon can be heated in steam using simple apparatus (Figure 8.13), sninera wool ‘osked water Figure 8.13 Magrsnse reacting wth sar The mineral wool isn’t heated directly: Enough heat spreads bate: long thi Tube to turn the water a0 steam, The magnesium burns with u bright white flame in the steam, producing hydrogen which eam be ignited at the end of the delivery tube. White magnesium oxide is formed. Mgfs) + H,O{g)— Mgots) + Hig) Zinc or iron and steam st Fir 6.14 Zinc cr hom acting wit stor With toth sine and iron, the bydlrugen comes off slowly enough to be collevtd. Neither metal burns. “Care hats to be tale during this esperiment to avid ‘svk-buack's AF you stopp hestting while the delivery tube is stil under the surface of the water, water is siteked back into the hot tubs, which usually results in it ereking With wine ‘Zine wide ts formed ~ this is yellow when it is bot, but white on aoling. Zn(s) + H,0(g) + ZnO) +H) With iran “The iron becomes slighily darkoe rey. A complicated acide formed, called riron twironide, Pe,0, Fes) + AH Ole) 1 Fe.) + 4H) (Rornember tat metals below hyeiragen in the reactivity series, such as copper, lon't react with water or stesim,) Infact yowaleo get alot of lick peoduet i these This i whate the magessum ha reacted with the yess nore thisforexira pena, ‘ot ih th tor i ‘éercpin nar sharouin ad tear. ‘reactivity ie supposed ta be between that fslimagnesum and thot of ne. Meee, alumirsum hus cna very slow reaction ih ‘ean becalis it necered a ety thi, butvery strong layer ef aturinium oxide rowel showe tue reget thst layer cab peneated some way ater ‘orsteam dorit do thar very well We wll alk ‘shout his gin what we oak at eaetiona betwee meta and uci Nance thacan these equations, wor now ths a sate symbol (g) because we are aking ‘about tas steam, Cod:ed c The general tendon this page apply to simple acids suchas sulfuric acid oe salute hydrochloric 300 Manic acid behaves completely ciffeverly wathenost mess a5 oes cancontraed elf aid, These ste problems beyand GCSE Figure au “There are two rargesaf on salts containing tithes Fe ot Fe iim, Thee ration? produce rari sak contri Fe" ore fon rating with dilate hyerecle Reactions of metals with dilute acids A general summary ‘Tew pattern is the game as for ahe roxction butween The mettls and water, But im each case the teavtion ich more vigorous, Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series Metals above hydrogen rect wath aickds to form at salt [matgnesiuen chloride, for example) and bydragen. The higher the metal in the ser violent the reaction. fake ee vine the mare ‘Metal + dilute sulfuric acid + metal sulfate + hydragen ‘Metal + dilute hydrochloric ackd —+ metal chloride » hydrogen Metals below hydrogetrit the reactivity series These don't react with simple dilute acids suet as sulfurke or hydrochloric acid Potassium, sodium, lithium and calcium with dilute acids Those re 100 Teactiye ta aki safely to acids Calum van be used iF the ast is wory dul. Metals from magnesium to iron in the reactivity series ‘Maguestura reacts visnrousty with cold dilute ‘A colourless solution of magnesium these reactions explored in detall in C ids, and the misture gets very tat ate or chloride ts formed. You will ind wpser 9 page 72), Wil dilute sulfuric ake ‘Mg{s) + H,S0,aq) > MgsO (aq) + H{e) ‘Abwoninfuma is slaw-to start reacting. but afer warming it reacts wiry wignrousty There sa very thin, but very stromg, layer of aluminium onide om the surface the aluminium, which stops the acid from getting to it. heating. the avid remavesthislayet, and the aluminium can show is true reactivity. With dlute hydrochloric acid 2Al(s) + 6HCKaq) = 2AICI faq) + 3H fg) Zine and irom react slowly in the cold. but more rapidly om heating, The vigour of the reactions islessthan that of aluminium. The:ine forms zine sullate or zine clare and hychogen. The iron forms troll) sulfate or ion ehloride ued hydrogen. For example: 2n(s) + H,50,(aq) > ZnSO, (aq) + He) Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) > FeCl,(aq) + H,(g) Metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series Metals such as copper. silver and goid don't react with these dilutFinding the approximate position of a metal in the reactivity series using water and dilute acids Add a wory small piece of mctal to some cold water 1 there i any rapid reaction then the metal must be above magnesium in the reactivity series, If tere n'y reaton, add smal amount of met o some dlte bpd aor: acl (or dilute sulfurfe acSdh 1 there isn’t any reaction inthe cold. warm tt fully LF there is ill no reaction, the metal is probably below Lyxlrogen in the reactivity series. IF there isa reaction, then it is somewhere between magnestum ana hydrogen, Making predictions using the reactivity series You ccm maike predictions about the reactions of unfamiliar metas if you know ‘Heir position nthe resctivity sere A problem involving manganese Suppose you have a question as follows, ‘Manganese (Mn) lies between aluminium and zinc in the reactivity series, and formsa.2+ ion. Solutions of manganese(|))salts are very pale pink (almost colourtess) 2) Use the reactivity series to predict whether manganese will react with ‘copper(t) sulfate solution. if it wil react. describe what you woukd see, name the products and write an equation for the reaction. Bb) Explain why you would expect manganese to react with steam, Name the products of the reaction and write the equation. a) The feaction between manganese and copper(I) sulfite solution Manganese is abowe copper in the reactivity series ind so will displave it from the coppentI sul A brown deposit ef copper will be formed. The colour of the solution will fade from blue and leave a very pale pink (virtually colourless) solution of manganeselll | sulfate. Mins) + €u80 aq) > Mn80 (aq) + Culs) by The reaction between manganese and steam, Munganescis above hydronien in the reactivity series and 30 reacts wil sive Fotlragen and the metal one ~ in Ukisease, manganese | oxide, steam to You couldn't predict thie colour of the mangsmese( Il oxide. anal the question lowstt ask: you te dp thas, Mn(s) + H,0(g) = Mno{s) + H 4g) owould be imposible to place ames exactly i the rear sete using hi sequence: How vigotarly emmetal reacts tha lute aod depends on ts postion i thesenes, bucalso depends an is sutace area. and whether the swe ste form sir or anonide casting “Yew need te nae thechargean thelanse that you car work aut te formule the ‘manganese compounds. I you arent se about working cur the formula cane compound, look again at Chapt 5. Figure 16 Where i mangarre nthe roty Cod:End of Chapter Checklist You should now be able to: / know that the reactivity seres lists elements (mainly metals) in order of decreasing reactivity, and know the positions of the elements in the lst at the beginning of this chapter understand the term ‘displacement reaction’ Ydescribe some simple reactions involving metals with metal oxides, salt solutions, water/steam and dilute acids understand the terms axidation, reduction and redox in terms of both oxygen transfer and electron transfer / understand how to work out simple ionic equations, omitting spectator ions make simple predictions about the reactions of a metal from its position in the reactivity series, Questions 1a) Us the fallandng metas inorder of decreasing react aluminium, capper, iran, sadium. b} Some magnesium powder vas mined wath some copper) oxide and heated strong. There was vigorous reoction, producing a lot of sparks and a bright as of fight, 1) Nome the products of the rsction, Ai) Weito a balanced symbol equation forthe raaetion, Ai) Which substance inthe reaction has been reduced? Aiv) Which cubstance isthe siding agent? fa miaure of zine powder and cobalt} oxide is heated, ‘the Following reacban occurs Zn) + Cols} —+ ZNOG) + Cols) 0) Whit rectal is higher the reactivity sees? Ail) The zine can be deseribed asa reducing agent. Using ‘thisexample, expain what is meant by the term ‘educing agent. Al) Which substance inthis reaction has been exidised? Aluminium, chromium and manganese are all moderately ‘oetve metals (Care! Weare tang about manganese, ‘pat magnesium) Use the follawing information 1 arrange thom in the earaet reactivity senes ardor, starting ‘with the most reactive ane. "© Chromium fs manufactured byy heating chromniurn(ti) ‘side with aluminium, 1 if manganese is heated with alurminium oxide there is no reaction. ++ If manganese is hested vith chromiuem(f) oxide, charnium is produced. ‘Study the following equations and, in each cave, decide Juhether the substance in bold type has been onidised or rexiveed, Explain your choice in terms of either oxygen ‘ransler or electron transfer as apprapriate, 1) Enfsh + CuO{s) + ZnoIs) + Cols) 1) Fe,O,6s) + 3C\s) — 2Fels) + 30g) €). Mls) + Zn} > Ma™(5) + Zn) od) Znfs) + CuPag) > Zia) + Cols ‘The equation for the reaction when solid magnesium and sotd lec) ote ate heated together is Mpls) POs) —+ MlgOrs) + PAS) ‘2) What doss this tell you abaut the position of lead in the reactivity series? Explain your answer 1b) Rewrite the equation as an ionic equation Same ira filings were shaken with some cope) ulate solution. The lenie equation for the revetion 6) + Cur(aq)— Fea) + Cus) 19) Write down any one change that you would abserve during this reaction 1) Which substance has been cided ih this reaction? ¢) Winte down the Full (rat ianie) equation fortis reaction.5 Some experiments were carried out ta place the metals ‘copper nickel and stver in reaetvity series arder. Experiment 1:2 piece of copper vas placed in some green nickel} sulfvt Solution, There was no charge to ether the copper or the zolution, Sipenment 2:4 col of copper wire was suspended in some silver nitrate solution. A Tuc grey growth appeared on the copper wite.out of which grew spiky sivery cystals. The solution gradually tuenex from colourless ta blue 4) Use thc information to place copper, nickel and silver in reectivty series order, starting with the most reactive one. 8) In another experiment a piece of nickel was placed in some copper(t) sulfate solution, 10) Wite dawm any ane ehange that you would absorwe uring this reaction. Ai) Write the ful balanced equation for this reaction. (Assume that nickel!) sulfate solution i formed) (i) Wite the ionic equation for this reaction and use It9 ‘explain vihich substance has been oxidised during the eatin, 6 a) Loakearefully atthe fallowing equations and then decide ‘what you ean say about the position ofthe metal Xin the reactivity series. Explain your reasoning, A+ ZHClaq) —» KCL ag) + He) fs} + CuSO {aq) + XSO,faq) + Cus). Xs) + FeSO{aq): no reaction 8) Disige whether X wal comet wth the following substances. {fit utl react, unite down the names ofthe products. i) slver nitrate solution. (i) zine cxide. (ii) cold water (fv) coppes(i) chlaride salution, (y) élutesulure acid Ifyouadd some pondered aluminium to a small amount of ‘old ditvte hydrachloréc acid in a boling tube, very lite happens. you warm this gently it starts to fizewery rapid 12) Name the gas given off to produce the firing. 1) if you used an excess of hydrochloric acid, you would end ip wits & colourless solution, Name the solution. ¢). Write the full balanced equation forthe reaetian.. 4) Gqplin vl the slurniniue hardly resets a al withthe Gilate acid in the cold. but reacts vigarously after even ere eating ‘Given some small bits of the metal ttaniuan, and any simple apparatus that you might n2ed, describe how yau would find ‘out the approximate position a titanium in the reactivity serias using only water and dilute hydrachlane aed You need ‘only find out thatthe reactviyis Similar to iron or ‘similar to ‘magnesium’ or whatever. Your experiments should be done in 1M onder that guarantees maximum safety. Far example, its reactivity tumed out to be similar to potassium. dropping it into dilute hycroehtoric acid wouldnt be a good ideat ied:[eae Section B: Some Essential Backgrou This chapter explares what acids are, and some simple patterns in their chermbiry inthe fab Figure 94 Using univers iota elution to rari the pf anus rau. Chapter 9: Acids figure 9.1 tds ange fram the wxerty Figure 9.2. roa mata pt of aur det = ign, ren oeaetating can up tags ara veils PH and indicators The pH scale TThe pH scale ranges fram about (Ho about 14, and tells you how acidic or how alkaline a solution is, Cae Re] Trerenangi 200 Increasing aiaine eur Figure 9.3: The pt cae Measuring pH Using universal indicator ‘Thisis made from a mixture of dyes, which change colour in a gradual way ower a range of pil it can be used as a solution or as paper. The commoraest form is known as wide range universal indicator. ft changes through a variety of eolours from pi 1 right up to pH 14, burt isn't very ‘The colout of the gxpet oF solution is abway's checked agains actsart to find the correct Hl Using a pH meter You can measure pH much more avcunutely using a pH meter, Relore yeu can use a pH meter. you hare to adjust it to make sute itis reading accurately To do this. you put it into a solution With akinoin pH. aid adjust the reading sath it gives exactly that Waluc,Simple indicators Any substance that has more than one volour form depending on the pll van be used asan indicator: One of the commonest ons is btm, Figure 8 The claus ef rms wack diferent candtione ‘Litmus is red in acidic sohations ated blue: in alkaline ones, The neutral purple colour isan equall mixture of the redt and blue forms. ‘Twoether indicators you will vome across wre methyl oramge andl phenelphihalein. Methyl orang: ts yellow in alkaline solutions and red im acide ones. Plenolphithalcin is bright pink in alkaline solutions, and colourless in acidic salutions, Reacting acids with metals ‘Simple dilute ucids react with metals depending om their position: series. 4@ Metals below hyetrogen in the series don’t react with dilute acide. the reactivity (© Metals above hydrogem in the series react to proxiuce lncroen pas, © The higher te metal fs im the reactivity series, the more vigorous the reaction. ‘You mould never mix metals suck as sodium or potassium with acids because their teactions are 100 violent A summary equation for metals abave hydrogen in the reactivity series metal + acid + salt + hydrogen Salts All simple acids contain hygrogen, When that hydrogen is replaced by a rmetal, the compound formed is called « salt, Magnestum sulfate is salt, and so is tine chloride. and so is potassium nitrate. Sulfuric seid can be thought of as the parent xed of sill the sulfates Tate 99; Aegean i, ti docan't matter if the replacement can't be done directly For example, you can't rmake-coppertt} sulfate from copper and dilute sulfuric acid, because they don’t react, There are, however, other way'sof making it from sulferic acid Coppel -sublate is till salt, Lrus has abigadvartage because ‘changescolour around pH 7. That means that you can look ata pace of itmus per ‘and sy with some confidence wbesher substance acid, neutral cr atahine ‘Met orange and phenol phen ‘change calor ata cfferens pH, Meshy! ‘range changes calowr around pt 4, and pphenalpichsiein scour pH 9, This docs ‘mater long 3s yOu ae testing strongly Bide or alaline substances, bust either will pick outa true reutral, Thirst a problem "you need to wom about at hi out “Of he common acids in hela, wutcacid thas miveh more complex reactions wh metals You wort be aske abouts at SSE (Comman salt sodium chlor peice ihe dia gen im yeti aids replaced by sodiumee Figure 9.6 Mages reacting wath lute ste aud "You nocd to have read abour onic equasians Chapter ones 62-63) m undersiand this secon Reactions involving magnesium and acids With dilute sulfuric aciel “There is rapid tsi and a colourless as is evolve. which pons with a lighted splint (ihe test for hydrogen’, The reaction mixture pets very warm as heat is produced. The magnesium gradually distppears to ese a colourless solution of magnesium sulle Mags) + H,50 (an) ~ MgSO fan) + hiss w-eisplacememt reaction, The mare reactive magnesium has displaced the legs reactive hystroger, With dilute hydrochloric actd ‘The reaction looks exactly the same, The only diferente is that thi time solution ff magnesium chloride is formed. ‘Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) + Mgcl(ag) + H.(6) Why are the reactions so sirnilar? ‘Acids in solution are tonie. Dilute sullurie aeid contains hydrogen fons and sulfate fons. Dilute lyvlroctlorie acid contains hydrogen tons snd shlorlde ions, ‘You cam rewrite the equations as tonic cquations. In the case of sulfarie acid: gl) + 24(aq) + 50,"(aq) = Mg*{aq) +50," (aq) + #6) ‘You cam see that the sulfate ion hasn’t beer: changed by the reaction. It ic.a spectator ion, and 0 weleav it out of the onic equation Mage) 24'(aq) + Meee) + He) Repeating this with hydrochloric acid, you fimd that the chloride ioms aire also fst ia Ml) + 2H'(aq) + 20(aq) = Mean) + 21 (aa) + H,@) Leaving the spectator fons otit produces the ionic equation; Mg) + 2H'laq) = Me*(aa) + 4,68) ‘The reactions look the sume because they are the same, Allackls in solution contain hydrogen ions, That means that magnesium will react with any’ simpke sdilute acid i the same war Reactions involving zinc.and acids Again, the reactions between inc and the two acid look exactly the same. The reactionsate slower becatise sine is lower down the reactivity series than ‘magnesium, The reaction «an bespeeded up i 1 Shewed or f the gine i ienpwre. A lirtle copperiil) sulfate solution fs often aided to these rections 10 make the ene Impure.The full equations are: Zn(s) + H,50 (aq) = ZnSO, (aq) + H,(e) Zn(s)+ 2HCKaq) + ZnCl (aa) + Hale) The ionic equations are both ths sme: 2n(s) + 2H*(aq) — Zn“faq) + H.{e) Making hydrogen in the lab Hetogen is ustally mack from gine wind dilte sulfuric acid, with a very small amount of copperill) sulfate solution adked to speed the reaction up, ‘ene trv —') mi: se arm baring mabe clue strc acd the Figure 8.7 Aprons fr maling gen hela Testing the hydrogen Hydlrogen reacts with oxygen it the presence of a fame or a spark to give water, A lighted splint placed at the mouth af a test tube of hryzogen will give squeaky op as the hydrogen roacts with oxygen in the ait 24g)» 0,(g) + 24,000 Reacting acids with metal oxides The metal magnestum reacts with dilute sulfuric aid: the metal capper doesn’t Hmover, both magnesium oxide and copperilt) oxide react stailarly with acids, Reacting dilute sulfuric acid with copper(ll) oxide The blacks powder reacts with hat diate sulfurte cid to produce a blue satution of soppertIl| sulfate, Cud{s) + H,S0,(aq) — CuSO, (aq) + H,0(1) All the metal oxide and acid cormbirutions that yuu will meet at GCSE behave in ceonuetly the samme way as te reaction between copper(I) aide and dilute sulfurie facil ~ producing a salt and water. Mast need to be-heuted to get the reaction staried Asummary equation for acids and metal oxides ‘neta oxide + acid -+ salt + water portant! Dott be wempted ta describe ‘coppefl sulfate solute as. cast in this resesion Catster used Up in teaction, but the copper! stafate 6. treact witha small amount af the zinc ta produce ‘copper tithe copper produced which serves as the cata Figure. Gorautsehykagen 50H, os ‘sn ape = 1987 the Hndonbing sgh [reared 25 pope viewed, mt af ther by Jimping ram the ashi Figure 9.9 Cappel aude resting th at cate aloe acid PET iyRemember that for GCSE purposes, acs solution and retalfand amwrenium) ‘compounds ae ionic “Te bases you wal eet at GCSE chee ‘metal ouldes (because they contain side for), metal ries (containing tryed tare), resale bones {containing cartonate ton) and armor, All hene hao the ably ta comntane th Frydrogen tons Figure 9.10 dium chloride w comma salt You {207 normaly molt = ara nary The ionic equation for an acid/metal oxide reaction In the reaction between copperdl| omide ond dilute sulfarie acid, everything inthe ‘squation is ionic apart from thee water, (Cur) + O46) + 2H'faq) + $0,"Yaq) — CuPfaq) + $0 *(aq)+ HO) Look carefully to find the spectator ions. The sulfite os isn't changed a all, ane the Cu!* ton has changed only tothe extent that it started as solid und ends up ix solution. In this particular reaction, we count that as unchanged, Lesring the spovtatarlons out gives: 0°46) + 2H (aq) + H010 “This would be equally rueof uny stmmple metal oxide reacting with any avid. Oxide ions combine with tidrogen ions to make water. This ts a good example of a neutralisation reaction, The presence the hydrogen ions iewhat makes the sulfuris acid acidic If something combines with these md removes them fram solution, then obviously the wd tas been neutralised. Bases Bases are delined a substances thet combine with hydrogen ions In the ionic equation above, at okide ini is acting as a base became it combines with: yrogcit fonsto make water, The simple motal usides you will meut at GCSE sre doscrilual as baste aides Reacting acids with metal hydroxides All metal hydroxides react with acids. but the ones most commonly-used in the are the soluble Inuruxides ~ usually sodium, potassium arcaksium hydnovile solutions. A summary equation for acids and metal hydroxides metal hydroxide + acid > salt + water Reacting dilute hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide solution Mixing sodium hydroside solution and dilute hycochlorte acid prexduces colourless solution ~nod much seems to kane happened. But if you repeat the reaction with a thermometer inthe tube, the temperature rises several degrees, showing that there has teem a chemiesd change. Sodium chloride solution hasbeen formed, [NaOH (aq) > Hclac) + NaCaq) = H,0() ‘The ionke equation fur ahs shows that Cho unweriying reaction is between lydeaside ‘ems ad Iydrogent lames ty solutions to peoxtice water OF (aq) + Haq) + #,0()Thisis another good example of a neutralisation resetion."The hydroxide ion ist Thage because if combines with hyeragen fons. Sodium hydroxide isa soluble bese boris canis Solutions of soluble bases are alkaline, having a pli prester than 7. This is because sie iydroctionc Huey cantaln hyvroide ions. There are soluble buses apart from hyvlraxies ~ such = asammonia und a few soluble axides and carbonates. Those are also alaline, and ihey also coniain hydroxide ions bx ase of reastions with the walt. Following the course of a neutralisation reaction seine If cxeeything Involved ina neutralisation reaction i a colourless solution, hry cam ‘onrang ‘you tell when exactly enough acid hus been added tan alka to produce a neuteal sod fdr ‘solution? pened Using an indicator Figure 9.1 oct shite pace eX wth ‘Some indicaiors will Change colour when you have addeal ever: onedrapioa macy "Si" Prftosa lansn saci. You normally :nold limus because iis colour change isn’t wry sharpor distinct, A. common alternative ls methyl orange. Methyl orange lsyellow i alll solutions umd feline. You rum ail im from you are ely wade a, you mighe the burette, swirling the flask oll the time. The alll is neutralised when the remember hat rel orange chang ‘solution shows the frst trace of orange. IC it turns red, you have wdded too much Seu steurd pH 4” nor de neal pos aud. You will ind more about carrying out this experiment.valld titration, in [yay keemncahorthereeal ‘Chapter 1 Ipages8-85+and Chapter 2ftpage 211). Baran vipie kites keane bry no mote than about dopo ere ess Reacting acids with carbonates “Carboratesresnt with cold dilute acids to produce varbon dioxide gas Coes A summary equation for acids and carbonates carbonate + atid — salt carbon dioxide + water ‘The reaction between copper(Il) carbonate and dilute acids “The green copper) carbonate retets with the common dilute acids give a bine arbiue-green solution of copper(I) sulfate, coppertIL| nitrate or copperiilp chloride. Carbon dioxide gas is given off. You can recognise this because it turns lime water milly The three full equations look different: €uCO (5) H,50 fac) + CuSO (an) + €0,{e)+ #,00) CuCOJs) + 2HNO,(aq) + CUINO,),(aq) + COa) + H,0() CuCO Js) + 2HCaa) ~ CuCl,faq) + C08) + H,000) ‘But the toni equation shows that exactly the €0,"(s) + 2H'fan) 4 CO,(g) + H,000) Recanse carbonate ions are combining with Iyydrogen ions, carbonate tons are ‘ages Figure 9.12 The earvon bw copper sarona and die ane ci “Geessionally you might-omme across an seit ne reaction: appens ect time, acting win a.carbarate calucien tnshat ‘eae, place) ba.ee Theories of acids and bases The Arthentus theory Asa part of his work on the theory of tons, the Swedish chemist Arrhenius suggested In. 1887 that acids produced Iydroger-fons wen they were dissolved in water. That is much the line that we hawe taker so far in this chapter. He also thought that bases were solutions containing hydroxide ions. We have taker a wider view than this, detiniing bars ts something thant combines with Frydrogen ions. That includes lyetronide fons, but there are ater bins as we Dk sass The problem us theory s that of this nvvalves hsteochlo very restricted, A acid and ammonia, NH,, Amma J gives an allallne solution: with a pl of about LT Hydrachlorie acid a solution of tlie gas ipcrogere chloride ln water, Concentrated bytroctloni acid gives off Insrogen chlomide ges, and concentrated ‘ammonia solution releases ammonia gs. IF these gases are allowed to mix, solid white ammoniain chloride is produced Nig) + Hele) > NHC) You would get exactly the same product if you neutralised dilute hydrochloric acid with ammomia saluting. This time, the ammonium cilorige weule he in solution. Despite the similarly, the Arrhenius theory wouldn't acvept tke reaciton betwee, the gases as belng acid-base, because doesn’t Involve hydrogen fons and hydroxide fons in solution in water. There are other similar examples. A resolution of the problem ln to walt until 1923.‘The Bronsted-Lowry theory ‘Hronsted was a Dunish chemist: Lowry an English one. They detined avs and bases as follows. {@ An aed isa proton thyvirogen iomt donor, © Allie Isa proton (ydrogen lam baaseptor, In this theory. when hydrogen chloride disolves in water to give hydrochloric acid aaproton (a hydrogen iont is transferred from the HICLio the water. apa mage) Figure 9.14 rydogen chine dsalies in mute’ t ge hioclone ad ‘The Lydrogen nucleus breaks away from the chlorine keawing its electron behind, In symbols: H,0(0) + HOg) + H,0"(aq) + Crag The H(7 (aq) fon is called a hydroxonfum fon. This is thie ion that we normally write simply as Hag), You van think of it asa lyitragen ton rising on a water molecule, Invthis example, acconding t0 the ronsted-Lowry theory: the HCtisam acid because iis giving proton (alylrogen ton) to tbe water The water Es acting as a ‘hase because it is accepting the proton (va similar way. lydrogen chloride gus reacts with ammonta gas to produce ammonium chloride. Oa Figure 9.15 Hyglogen chbnde act wath arurenia a prod ammnanium chide “The ammonia sets asa tase by accepting the proton: the HCT acts as an acid oy donating i This timezin ammonium ion, NH,*.46 formed, Node the eo«rdiate Tol that i firmed botwoore tw nitrogee md The new hyeengen Nig) + HCI) + NH (6) + Cre) |Aycrogen ion jue protan =the Inyrogen cleus iris ection. “Only the outer electrons areshouwm inthese sagiamsto eid confusion Nave the new bond formed between the Inydrogen and the water molecule. Both ‘lect nthe bond come from the suygen. ‘hic is descibed 2= co-ordinate covalent bond or a dative covalent band. Once the bond hes haere. thee « abeolsaty na diiflerence beaneen thisbor and the other two normal covalent bonds between the “coygen and the hydrogens. Coesrad cenpercire rep of water: drogen ——_e horde gas Figure 3.17 Hydgen chibode rencs wath mater 1b ge fyrarcmum ens ard cicnde ions ‘Acids in solution: Acids in solution are acidic because of the presenee of the hytdroxoniam fon. Wo woukl normally write aneutralisation reaction between an acid amd a hydroxide, for example, as: ‘He(ag) + OHfaq) > H,0(1) What actually happens is that the hyroxoninm jon donates « proton to the base, OH HOG) = OFF a9) = 24,000 For GCSE purposes, we almost always use the simplified version: He(aa)+ OF (aq) + H,00 Hydrogen chloride snd hyelrochlorie acid Both hydrogen chloride-and hydrochloric acid have the formula HCL Hydrogen -chlaride tsa gas, and tyovilarie ded is ts solution in water, As we hare soon bow. when hytirogen chloride dissolves in Water it reacts to give hytrasoniuim fonsand chlorine fons. 1,00) + Hg) + Hor(aa) + Head Ris casy toshory that a reaction is happening by suspending a droprof water ona thermometer bulb-and lowering this into a gas ar of hydrogen chloride gs. There is alarge increase in temperature. showing that «reaction must have occurred {ts tte presence of the bydraxonium ions whicit gives hyerochloric cid its sirmple ‘acidic propertics —with Imus, metals and carbonates, for example, If you dissolve hydrogen chloride gas in methylbenmene (an organic solver also Inown as toluene, the solution doesn't shaw hydruchlorie acld's sirmple acidic properties - provided there isn't even a trace of water present. “@ Thwon’t turn bluc litmus paper red (provided the paper is also pertetly dry). © Ie-won’t react with magnesium ribbon to produce hyirogen. © Ie-won't react with marble chips (ealetum carbonate} 10 produce carbon dioxide I there is any trace of water present, the Iydrogen clloride reacts with it, and its simple acidic properties are restored. The HIT reacts to form ions again ~especially Hreall-important hydroxonium ion.%, End of Chapter Checklist (EE You should now be able to: understand the pH scale.and the use of universal indicator and simple indicators like litmus know’ haw the reactions of metals with acids are related to the position of the metal in the reactivity sesies describe and write equations (full and ionic) for the reactions between common metals and dilute sulfuric or hydrochloricacid understand that simple metal oxides are bases, and know that they react with acids to form a salt and water describe and write equations {full and ionic} for the reaction of copper!) oxide with dilute sulfuric acid know that soluble metal hydroxides are alkaline, that they contain OH’ fons in solution, and that they react with acids to form a salt and water rite equations (full and ionic) for the reactions between cammon metal hydroxides and acids ~/ kenow that carbonates react with acids to give a salt, carbon dioxide and water, and be able to describe and write equations (full and ianic) for common examples understand hatis meant by.an acid and a base according to the Arrhenius theory and the Bronsted-Lowry theory explain why hydrogen chloride gas dissolved in methylbenzene doesnt chow simple acidic properties, whereas a solution in water does. Questions 1. a) Which of the following vil renee with dilute sulturie atid? ‘Copper, coppert) xsd, copper(t hydrexide, copper(t) satbonate b) in the ease of each of the substances which does react, ‘rite the ll equation including stat symls forthe rexction, Al of these substances ae insoluble solids, 2 a) Dravra labelled diagram of the apparatus you would use to collect a few test tubes of hydrogen gas fram the reaction between magnesium and dilute hydrochloric aid. Write the full equation forthe reaction. 6) Describe how you would test for the hydreen, ¢) Name.2 metal that wont react with lute hdrochlorc acid 4) Narpe a meta which it would be dangerous to ade to silute brydrochlori ace €¢) nthe Hindenburg airship disaster (ee page 73), most of the people who died did go beeause they jumped ext of the aiship. Those who digit jump tended to survive the fire, Ths fs because hen the hydrogen aught fre, the flame rose very quieldy instead of engulfing the passenger section ofthe airship, (0) Whats Formed when drogen burns? Write the equation fr the reaction (i) Why do you think that, when kydeagen burns, the flame rises quickly? ‘Read this description af the chemistry of metal A and some ‘of itscompounds, and then answer the questions. Metal A has no reaction wath cite hydrochloric acd or slit sulfur ae It forms. Black ode, B which reacts ‘uith hot cute alr acd ta give blue splution, C. Metal A alta forms ageeen compound, , wih reacts th dilute hire acd fo given colauriens gy E, anil another blue solutian, F The colours ga. E, tured ime water ily 1a) Name A, 8, €.0. Band F 1) White the full equations forthe reactions between (Band dilute sulfuric acid D and dilute nitric acid.4. a) Nickel, Nisa sivery metal just abave hydrogen in the reoctvity series. Nickel} compound in solution are green Describe what yau vould see if you warmed some ‘ickel with dilute sulfur arid in atest tube. Include a description of haw yau'would test for any gas given off 1) ‘te the fll equation far the reaction between nickel and dilate sulfuric acid, ) Nickel) carbonate isa green insoluble pawder. Describe ‘what yau would see f you added a spatula measure of nickel carbonate tame dilute hydrochloric acd ina ‘test tube. Inelude a descriptian of haw you would test for any gas given of COJg) + H.O0) } 2Alls] + 6+CMaq) —> 2A an) + 34 fa) ) HON) + HCl) + H,0 aa) + Chie) ) 2ovs) + Cuaa) > Zn*laq) + Cus) 1) NH) + HOG) + NH") + CHS) 3} NeOHisq) + HCl) —> NaCiiag) + H,O1D Sodium lychide, NaH ts white fone slid in hil the Inydrogem evists asa H fon, The electron structures of the = 6) > Sodium hydride reacts violently with waster. The hydride fon reacts with the water Fike this: omo@) & a0 ® 7 @) At the beginning of the reaction there were sodium ions, hydride ions and water molecules present. (Which of these acts asan ack? Exptain your reasoning (W) Wien of these aets as. bate? Explain your reasoning, 1b) Name the products af this reaction, «)_ Deserts wht you right expect ta cee during the course ofthe reaction 44) Assuming that you used areasonable quantity of sodium hydride, what would you expeet the pH ofthe final solution ta be? Zinc granules react slovey with cold dilate sulfuric acid to give tiydrogen gas and aeolourls slut af ine slat. Zofs)+H,S0 {aq} 280,00) +H ‘mall mous of capper) sua solution are ofan added to the misturtoincreve the rate of the reaction. The copper(ll) sulfate reacts with some of the zine to produce fcpper The copper n-cantact wrth the ane speed up the rencion [Desigh an esiperimentto find out whether the rate of the reaetion dapends on hour muh capper( sullate you sed ‘amambar -if you do an experiment ike this, fis important to change only one thing at atime. As yau vant to find out ‘abt happen f you change the amaunt of eappar(t) suifste, {tis important that everything else stays the ame fram one Part of the experiment ro the nest. ‘Your secount should include a diagram ofthe apparatus yau are going ta use, and an outine of how you will do tha ‘experiment. Full practical detaiare nat expected - to ‘docenbe this in detail eu take you several hears ef woe! ‘Yau may find iewseti to look ace st Chapter 6 on rates of resetion for ideas,