International Journal of Coal Geology 105 (2013) 115

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International Journal of Coal Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijcoalgeo

Organic matter accumulation in the oil shale- and coal-bearing Huadian Basin
(Eocene; NE China)
Pingchang Sun a, b,, Reinhard F. Sachsenhofer b, Zhaojun Liu a, Susanne A.I. Strobl b, Qingtao Meng a,
Rong Liu a, Zhen Zhen a
a
Key-Laboratory for Oil Shale and Coexisting Minerals Mineralization, Exploration and Exploitation, College of Earth Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130061, China
b
Department Applied Geosciences and Geophysics, Montanuniversitaet Leoben, Peter-Tunner-Str. 5, A-8700 Leoben, Austria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Huadian Basin, located in northeastern China, is a fault-controlled basin lled by Eocene non-marine sed-
Received 24 September 2012 iments assigned to the Huadian Formation. The formation is subdivided from bottom to top into three mem-
Received in revised form 9 November 2012 bers: Pyrite Member, Oil Shale Member, and Carbonaceous Shale Member. Using bulk geochemical data from
Accepted 13 November 2012
borehole Hd3 and core descriptions from a high number of wells, the factors controlling organic matter accu-
Available online 29 November 2012
mulation have been evaluated.
Keywords:
The organic matter content of the Pyrite Member is relatively low (average TOC: 0.9 wt.%). Mudstones depos-
Basin evolution ited in shallow lacustrine environments contain between 1 and 2 wt.% TOC (max. 6 wt.%) and a kerogen Type
Sequence stratigraphy II (HI 400600 mg HC/g TOC). An arid climate prevented the accumulation of thick coal.
Eocene The overlying Oil Shale Member contains 13 oil shale layers, which are mined underground. The Oil Shale
Pull-part basin Member has been interpreted as a 3rd order sequence. Signicant differences exist between oil shales depos-
Kerogen type ited in different systems tracts: 2-m-thick coaly oil shale of low-quality (oil yield 3.5 wt.%) developed in the
Lacustrine environment lowstand systems tract. Oil shale, up to 7 m thick, of moderate quality (oil yield 4.18.0 wt.%) was deposited
Oil shale
during the transgressive systems tract (TST). Thinner (b 3 m) high quality oil shale (oil yield 6.419.8 wt.%) is
China
found in the highstand systems tract (HST) and at the base of the regressive systems tract. The lateral extent
of the oil shale layers reaches a maximum in the upper TST and the lower HST. The high number of oil shale
layers deposited in an overall deep lacustrine environment noties frequent changes in base level, controlled
by tectonic movements, short-term climatic cycles, or cycles in organic matter production.
The Carbonaceous Shale Member representing the balanced-ll to overlled stage of basin evolution hosts
economic coal seams, which are occasionally accompanied by shallow lacustrine shales with abundant
hydrogen-rich organic matter. Otherwise non-coal layers are typically low in organic matter (average TOC:
0.9 wt.%).
In contrast to the Huadian Basin, a very thick coal seam overlain by a single oil shale layer more than 100 m
thick developed in the Eocene Fushun Basin. This indicates major differences in the evolution of basins with
similar tectonic setting and age.
2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The Huadian Basin, located in northeastern China (Fig. 1), is a
pull-apart basin lled by Eocene non-marine sediments (Liu et al.,
2009a; Sun et al., 2011). It hosts a remarkably high number of oil
shale layers. Thirteen of them are considered commercial (thickness
> 0.7 m). These layers, labeled from top to bottom, are exploited un-
derground for the production of ship fuel. Several coal seams, each
about 1 m thick, in the upper part of the stratigraphic column are
mined in the eastern part of the basin. Despite of the remarkable
Corresponding author at: College of Earth Sciences, Jilin University, Jianshe str. 2199,
Changchun 130061, China. Tel.: +86 13674313295; fax: +86 43188502603.
E-mail address: sunpingchang711@126.com (P. Sun).
basin ll and the great economic signicance, the basin is practically
unknown in English-language literature.
Oil shale is commonly dened as a rock containing organic matter
that yields substantial oil and gas upon low temperature distillation
(Dyni, 2006). According to Chinese practice, oil shale is dened by
an oil yield in excess of 3.5 wt.% (Liu et al., 2009a). In the Huadian
Basin the oil yield is generally between 10 wt.% and 12 wt.% (max.
25 wt.%). The caloric value of the oil shale is typically between
25.9 MJ/kg and 36.4 MJ/kg, and the ash yield ranges from 54.0 wt.%
to 62.1 wt.%. Thus, according to the Chinese classication (Liu et al.,
2009a), Huadian oil shale belongs to the low ash, high oil yield type. Cur-
rently oil shale is mined by three private companies producing 50,000 t
of oil each year (Li, 2012). Vitrinite reectances (0.500.65%Ro) and
RockEval Tmax (Espitali et al., 1977) (~435 C) indicate that the oil
shale is thermally immature to marginal mature.

0166-5162/$ see front matter 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2012.11.009
2 P. Sun et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 105 (2013) 115
Fig. 1. Geological map of the Huadian Basin.
A wealth of papers has been published on the factors which con-
trol deposition of organic matter rich rocks including oil shales.
Amongst these factors are base level variations, water-column strati-
cation, tectonics, climate, global anoxic events, transgressive and hy-
drothermal events (Bechtel et al., 2012; Carroll and Bohacs, 1999,
2001; Desborough, 1978; Feng et al., 2009; Liu et al., 1993, 2006,
2009a,b; Meng et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2010). Within a sequence
stratigraphic frame, high-quality source rocks develop frequently
near the maximum ooding surface separating the transgressive sys-
tems tract (TST) and the highstand systems tract (HST). This is
because a high base level may cause oxygen-depleted bottom water in
the relatively deep basin favoring organic matter preservation and re-
sults in low sedimentation rates avoiding dilution of the organic matter
(Bohacs, 1993; Bohacs et al., 2000; Creaney and Passey, 1993; Mann and
Stein, 1997; Passey et al., 1990; Peters et al., 2000; Wignall and
Maynard, 1993). The patterns of organic matter accumulation within
a parasequence-scale strongly depend on the provenance of the organic
matter and the proximal or distal position of studied sections (Frank
and Tyson, 1995; Mulholland, 1998; Passey et al., 2010).
The aim of the present paper is to study the stratigraphic distribu-
tion of oil shale and coal layers in the Huadian Basin. An additional
goal is to study the factors controlling distribution and quality of oil
shale layers and to relate them to basin evolution. The study is
based on core descriptions from more than 100 boreholes and bulk
geochemical data from borehole Hd3, which drilled nearly the entire
Huadian Formation in the eastern part of the basin (Fig. 1).
2. Geological setting
Several oil shale bearing basins are located along the Dunhua
Mishan Fault Zone in northeastern China (Liu et al., 2009a; Fig. 1).
The most prominent ones are the Huadian and Fushun basins. The
Huadian Basin has a half-graben geometry and is bounded to the
south by a major strike-slip fault. Basin formation was a consequence
of dextral strike-slip faulting during Eocene time. Structural basin in-
version postdates the Eocene and resulted in reversion of Eocene nor-
mal faults (Sun et al., 2010).
The basin ll (Huadian Formation) is up to 1500 m thick and over-
lies various basement units including granite, Lower Paleozoic and
Permo-Carboniferous sedimentary rocks. Outcrops of the Huadian
Formation are rare, because of a Quaternary cover up to 15 m thick.
The Huadian Formation consists of three members. According to
Sun et al. (2011), these correspond to three 3rd order sequences
(Fig. 2). The members (sequences) are from bottom to top: Pyrite
Member (Sequence I), Oil Shale Member (Sequence II), and Carbona-
ceous Shale Member (Sequence III). The Oil Shale Member was dated
as middle Eocene based on a mammalian fauna (Beard and Wang,
 P. Sun et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 105 (2013) 115

Fig. 2. Facies architecture and sequence stratigraphic framework of the Huadian Formation (Sun et al., 2011).
3
4 P. Sun et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 105 (2013) 115
Fig. 3. Paleogeographic maps representing different members of the Huadian Formation (Sun et al., 2011).
1991; Manchester et al., 2005; Zhang et al, 1986). Paleogeographic
maps for each member are presented in Fig. 3).
The Pyrite Member was deposited during early stages of basin for-
mation in a shallow lake with limited areal extent (Fig. 3a; Sun,
2010). Alluvial fans and fan deltas lled the lake (Huadian Lake)
from the west and east, respectively. The sedimentary succession
comprises calcarenitic ne-grained sandstone and red, green and
gray mudstone deposited in fan-delta front and shallow lake envi-
ronments. The name of the unit reects the presence of large
crystals of hydrothermal pyrite lling fractures and pore space
(Sun, 2010). In the western part of the basin an unconformity sep-
arates the Pyrite Member from the Oil Shale Member (Fig. 2).
During deposition of the Oil Shale Member the Huadian Lake expanded
and deepened (Fig. 3b). Sun et al. (2011) subdivided the Oil Shale
Member (their Sequence II) into lowstand systems tract (LST), TST,
HST and regressive systems tract (RST). LST deposits record dominantly
aggradational stacking of purple mudstone and ne- to medium-
grained sandstone deposited in shallow lake and fan-delta front envi-
ronments. The TST is characterized by a change from shallow lake facies
with greenish-gray mudstones to deep lake facies with dark-gray
mudstones and oil shales. Oil shale deposition continued during
the HST. The thickness of oil shale layers increases towards
synsedimentary faults. In the RST, the terrigenous input increased and
the lake area decreased. Another unconformity is developed in the shal-
low western part of the basin at the top of the Oil Shale Member (Fig. 2).
The coal-bearing Carbonaceous Shale Member was deposited dur-
ing the nal stage of basin evolution when decreasing tectonic ac-
tivity and increasing sediment supply caused lling of the basin. A
shallow lake dominated the central basin, but it deepened towards
the main fault. This suggests that fault activity did not die out
completely. Fan deltas developed in the eastern and western por-
tion of the basin, whereas peat accumulated along its northern
and eastern margin (Fig. 3c).
Meng (2010) used palynological data and the coexistence ap-
proach of Mosbrugger and Utescher (1997), which is based on the cli-
matic requirements of the nearest living relatives of plant fossils, to
reconstruct the Eocene climate. According to her, the climate was
arid during deposition of the Pyrite Member and changed later to an
alternating wet-dry (Oil Shale Member; see also Quan et al., 2012)
and humid climate (Carbonaceous Shale Member).
3. Samples and methods
Core samples were taken from borehole Hd3 (Fig. 1). Bulk geochem-
ical analysis was performed within the depth interval of 543.017.0 m
using composite samples representative for a 1-m-thick interval. In ad-
dition ten point samples representative for a 2-cm-thick interval have
been taken between 345.5 and 340.0 m depth for inorganic geochemi-
cal analysis and thin section preparation.
Fischer assay oil yield (FA; wt.%), RockEval parameters, total or-
ganic carbon (TOC; wt.%) content and grain density have been deter-
mined by Mineral Resources Supervision and Inspection Center of
Ministry of Land (Changchun, China). FA was determined following
the Chinese standard ASTMD3904. TOC content was determined
using a LECO CS-400 instrument and RockEval pyrolysis was carried
out using a Rock-Eval 6 instrument following standard procedures
(Espitali et al., 1977). MDMDY-35 fully automatic machine was
used to determine the grain density of the samples based on the
criteria of GB/T 23561.2-2009. Main element oxide and trace element
contents were determined at the National Geological Experiment
Center of China using ICP-MS (Thermo Scientic X-series) and plasma
spectroscopy (ICP-AES) (following the criteria of DZ/T 0223-2001 and
JY/T 015-1996, respectively). Thin sections were studied using nor-
mal light and blue light irradiation.
Using information from 64 boreholes, the lateral distribution of oil
shale layers has been mapped.
 P. Sun et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 105 (2013) 115 5

Table 1
Minimum, maximum and average values of oil yield, total organic carbon (TOC) and hydrogen index (HI) in different units of the Huadian Formation.

Sequence Systems Oil yield (FA, wt.%) TOC (wt.%) HI (mg HC/g TOC)

tract Min.Max. Average Min.Max. Average Min.Max. Average

Huadian Formation Carb. Shale Mb. 0.14.0 0.3 0.110.9 0.9 1858 86
Oil Shale Member RST 0.18.5 0.8 0.313.9 2.0 2716 140
HST 0.119.8 2.5 0.330.3 4.8 2839 283
TST 0.18.0 1.7 0.117.3 4.3 1560 270
LST 0.13.5 0.6 0.110.7 1.7 5361 106
Pyrite Mb. 0.13.9 0.3 0.024.8 0.9 6601 167

4. Results
4.1. Bulk geochemical parameters
Minimum, maximum and average values of oil yield (FA), total or-
ganic carbon (TOC) and hydrogen index (HI) in different units of the
Huadian Formation are listed in Table 1.
Cross-plots of TOC versus oil yield (FA) for different members of
the Huadian Formation are shown in Fig. 4. Because oil yield depends
on both, TOC content and organic matter type, there is a signicant
scatter in data points. Obviously, coaly samples yield less oil than oil
shales with similar TOC contents. The regression line for samples
from the Oil Shale Member shows that samples with a TOC
>7.2 wt.% can be considered oil shales (FA >3.5 wt.%; Fig. 4).
4.2. Amount and type of organic matter in the Huadian Formation
The vertical distribution of organic matter-rich layers in borehole
Hd3 is described based on bulk geochemical data and macroscopic in-
spection separately for each member (Fig. 5). RockEval parameters
are presented in Fig. 6. Only in the case of the Oil Shale Member,
the description is based on systems tracts (Fig. 7).
4.2.1. Pyrite Member
The organic carbon content in the Pyrite Member (542.8371.3 m
depth) is generally low and the average TOC is 0.9 wt.% (Table 1). A
single coaly layer with a TOC of 24.8 wt.% and a Hydrogen Index
(HI) of 178 mgHC/gTOC occurs in the depth interval between 424
and 423 m (Fig. 5).
Oil shale is not present in the Pyrite Member, but three intervals
contain mudstones with a hydrogen rich kerogen Type II (Fig. 5)
reecting the predominance of aquatic organic matter:

517505 m: TOC contents in mudstones range from 0.9 to 6.0 wt.%

(average 2.1 wt.%) and the Hydrogen Index (HI) varies between
400 and 600 mgHC/gTOC).
496461 m: The 35-m-thick interval contains in average 1.1 wt.%
TOC (max. 2.2 wt.%). A plot of S2 versus TOC (Langford, and
Blanc-Valleron, 1990) suggests that a mineral matrix effect signi-
cantly reduces the measured HI (100360 mgHC/gTOC) and that
the true HI is about 445 mgHC/gTOC.
419386 m: Greenish mudstones with similar TOC contents (average
1.3 wt.%) and true HI values (510 mgHC/gTOC) occur between 419
and 386 m depth.

4.2.2. Oil Shale Member

The average TOC content of the Oil Shale Member (371.3203.1 m
depth; Sequence II according to Sun et al., 2011) is 3.6 wt.% and
reaches maxima in 13 oil shale layers. The lateral distribution of oil
shale layers and their oil yield are shown in Fig. 7. Unfortunately,
information from the deep central part of the basin is not available
because of missing well control.

Fig. 4. Cross-plots of TOC content versus oil yield (FA) for different members of the
Huadian Formation. The threshold value for oil shale according to the Chinese classi-
cation (FA = 3.5 wt.%) is shown. Numbers denote selected oil shale layers in the Oil
Shale Member.
4.2.2.1. LST (371.2348 m). The average TOC of the LST is 1.7 wt.%
(Table 1), but reaches 10.7 wt.% in an organic matter rich mudstone
near the base of the LST. This layer yields 3.5 wt.% oil, the threshold
value according to the Chinese oil shale classication. Therefore, it is la-
beled as oil shale layer 13 (Figs. 4, 5). A HI of 250300 mgHC/gTOC
classies the organic matter of oil shale layer 13 as Type II-III (Fig. 6)
and reects the presence of abundant coaly material. This low quality
oil shale is restricted to the eastern part of the basin (Fig. 7). Another
organic matter-rich mudstone with kerogen Type IIIII occurs between
358.6 and 356.8 m depth. The remainder of the LST, dominated by
(greenish-)gray sediments, is typically low in TOC and contains organic
matter Type III. This indicates that the LST contains a signicant contri-
bution of terrestrial organic matter.
6 P. Sun et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 105 (2013) 115

Fig. 5. Lithology, density log, TOC content, oil yield (FA) and hydrogen index (HI) in the Huadian Formation in borehole Hd3. Typical core photographs of coal and oil shale layers are
shown.
 P. Sun et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 105 (2013) 115 7

Fig. 6. The organic matter type of mudstone in the Huadian Formation. Diagrams after Espitali et al. (1977, 1984) and Langford and Blanc-Valleron (1990).
8 P. Sun et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 105 (2013) 115
 P. Sun et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 105 (2013) 115
4.2.2.2. TST (348268 m). The sediments of the TST contain in average
4.3 wt.% TOC (Table 1) and include oil shale layers 12 to 6, which are
4 to 6 m thick. The oil yield from oil shale layers ranges from 3.6 to
8.0 wt.% and the TOC ranges between 6.0 and 17.3 wt.%. The HI is typ-
ically between 400 and 500 mgHC/gTOC (max. 560 mgHC/gTOC;
Table 1) indicating the presence of kerogen Type II. Whereas oil
shale layers 12 to 9 representing the early TST are restricted to the
eastern part of the basin, oil shale layer 8 to 6 (late TST) cover nearly
the entire basin.
4.2.2.3. HST (268231 m). The average TOC content reaches a maximum
in the HST (4.8 wt.%; Table 1). Oil shale within the HST (layers 5 to 2) is
relatively thin (23 m), but rich in organic matter (av. 9.719.3 wt.%
TOC) and yields abundant oil (up to 19.8 wt.%; Figs. 4, 5). HI is between
463 and 839 mgHC/gTOC. Between layers 5 and 3, the TOC content in-
creases upwards and reaches a maximum of 30.3 wt.% in a 1-m-thick in-
terval of layer 3. Above this layer the TOC content of oil shale starts to
decrease. The organic matter type changes gradually from Type II
(layer 5) to Type I (layer 2; Figs. 6, 7).
4.2.2.4. RST (231203.1 m). The oil shale layer 1 marks the base of the
RST. Compared to the deeper layer 2, areal extent and organic matter
richness are reduced, but thickness (3 m) and kerogen type (I) are
similar (Fig. 4). The HI (~ 800 mgHC/gTOC), which is higher than in
any other oil shale layer, indicates the predominance of lacustrine
organic matter. The organic carbon content in overlying mudstone
samples decreases sharply (average TOC: 1.1 wt.%) and the organic
matter changes to Type III.
Maps showing extension and oil yield of oil shale layers are based
on 64 boreholes. The location of the boreholes is shown only for oil
shale layer 13. The area without well control is gray shaded. The se-
quence stratigraphic interpretation follows Sun et al. (2011). The
parasequence shown in Figs. 8 and 9 is highlighted by green color
(PMPyrite Member; CSMCarbonaceous Shale Member).
4.2.3. Carbonaceous Shale Member
The average TOC content of the Carbonaceous Shale Member
(203.116.9 m depth) is 0.9 wt.% (Table 1). In the thick mudstone inter-
val between 185 and 140 m depth, TOC is typically between 1.0 and
1.5 wt.%. Higher TOC contents occur in the depth intervals 186187 m
(6.1 %), 7879 m (10.9 wt.%), and 2324 m (8.0 wt.%) and are related
to decimeter-thick coaly layers (Fig. 5). HI values in the range of 190
to 250 mgHC/gTOC reect the predominance of land plants (kerogen
Type III).
Two thin organic matter-rich shale beds with high TOC contents
(6.57.6 wt.%) and a kerogen Type I (to II) (HI 650850 mgHC/gTOC)
occur a few meters above the coaly layers (Figs. 5, 6).
4.3. Vertical variations of organic and inorganic parameters in a
single parasequence
A core photograph together with four characteristic thin section
photographs from the lowermost parasequence in the TST of the Oil
Shale Member (Sequence II) is shown in Fig. 8. The vertical variations
of organic and inorganic parameters are displayed in Fig. 9. The
parasequence, about 6 m thick, overlies bright marlstone. It starts
with basal dark gray mudstone, grades into oil shale, passes upwards
through gray mudstone, and continues with silty mudstone.
Because of the regular 1-m-interval of samples used for organic
parameters, the determined values are often mixtures from several
Fig. 7. Lithology, density log, TOC content and hydrogen index (HI) in the Oil Shale Member. Oil shale layers are highlighted by gray shading and labeled 1 to 13. Their thickness,
maximum and average TOC contents are shown together with maximum and average HI values. Maps showing extension and oil yield of oil shale layers are based on 64 boreholes.
The location of the boreholes is shown only for oil shale layer 13. The area without well control is gray shaded. The sequence stratigraphic interpretation follows Sun et al. (2011).
The parasequence shown in Figs. 8 and 9 is highlighted by green color. PMPyrite Member; CSMCarbonaceous Shale Member.
9
lithologies. Thus, the TOC and HI of the basal 20-cm-thin dark gray
mudstone have not been determined. Quartz is the main detrital
mineral. About 60 vol.% of organic matter is derived from aquatic
organisms (amorphous sapropelic material), but the contribution of
terrestrial organic matter is also considerable (40 vol.%; Fig. 8a).
Some ostracode shells occur as well.
Dark-brown oil shale overlying the mudstone is 1.8 m thick and con-
tains in its upper part 10.2 wt.% TOC with an HI of 380 mgHC/gTOC
(Fig. 9). The oil shale is laminated with kerogen-, clay mineral- and
ostracode-rich layers (Fig. 8b). About 85 vol.% of the organic matter is
derived from amorphous sapropelic material or algae, whereas only
15 vol.% represent terrestrial sources.
The gray mudstone covering the oil shale (Fig. 8c) is 3.7 m thick. It
is composed of thin layers with clay minerals, quartz and subordinate
feldspar. Sapropelic organic matter (70 vol.%) is more abundant than
humic organic matter (30 vol.%). The TOC is about 4 wt.% and the HI
is higher (~550 mgHC/gTOC) than in the oil shale (Fig. 9).
Gray silty mudstone near the top of the parasequence contains
abundant detrital quartz (Fig. 8d) and subordinate feldspar. In con-
trast to underlying units, the clay mineral assemblage is dominated
by illite, mixed layer minerals and kaolinite. The composition of the
organic matter is similar to that of the underlying mudstone.
The results of major and trace element analysis are summarized in
Table 2. Their concentrations have been used to determine different inor-
ganic geochemical parameters, which are plotted versus depth in Fig. 9.
The chemical index of alteration (CIA = 100*Al2O3/(Al2O3 + Na2-
O + K2O + CaO); Nesbitt and Young, 1982) shows a general upward
decreasing trend, while the CaO/MgO and Sr/Ba ratios increase in
the same direction. Both ratios are inversely correlated with CIA.
The SiO2/Al2O3 ratio is characterized by a general upward decrease.
The V/(V + Ni) ratio is not correlated with any other parameter and
does not show any clear vertical trend. Moreover, enrichment coef-
cients in comparison to global shales (Turekian and Wedepohl, 1961)
have been calculated for elements assumed to be mainly weathering
products transported from the land (Co, Ni, Cu, V, Pb, Ti; ECL) and
autochthonous (Mo, Mn, Sr; ECI; Liu et al., 2005). The ECL/ECI ratio
has been plotted to indicate the source of mineral matter. The trend
is relatively similar to the CIA trend.
5. Discussion
5.1. Controls on organic matter accumulation in the Huadian Formation
5.1.1. Pyrite Member
Sequence I represents the early stages of basin evolution. The av-
erage TOC of sediments in the Pyrite Member is 0.9 wt.% and only a
single coaly layer has been penetrated in borehole Hd3. Important
to note is that the lowermost 100 m of Sequence I has not been
drilled by this borehole. However, because these rocks are typically
conglomerates and red mudstones, it is reasonable to assume that
they are even lower very low in TOC.
The organic matter content of mudstones deposited in shallow
lacustrine environments (Fig. 3a) is typically below 2 wt.% and low
in comparison to that of oil shale. Nevertheless the HI is high (400
600 mgHC/gTOC) suggesting good preservation of aquatic organic
matter. Consequently, the low TOC contents might result either
from low productivity or high sedimentation rates causing dilution
of the accumulated organic matter by detrital minerals.
The absence of thick coal is remarkable, as the initial stages of the
formation of strike-slip basins are often characterized by a single
10 P. Sun et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 105 (2013) 115
II
a III
c
b
Bottom
a b
Ostracodes
Quartz
Land plants
amorphous organic matter
0.2mm 0.2mm
Fig. 8. Core and thin section photographs of the lowermost parasequence in the TST of the Oil Shale Member (Sequence II after Sun et al., 2011). The position of thin section is
indicated.
thick coal seam. This coal seam typically forms part of a sedimentary
succession comprising from bottom to top uvial sediments, coal, and
lacustrine rocks (Sachsenhofer, 2000; Sachsenhofer et al., 2003). This
sequence reects the high subsidence rates characteristic for tectoni-
cally controlled basins (e.g. Lambiase, 1990). A good example for an
Eocene strike-slip basin with a thick coal seam overlain by lacustrine
oil shale is provided by the Fushun Basin (Johnson, 1990), located
southwest of Huadian (Fig. 1). Perhaps the absence of thick coal in
the Pyrite Member is due to a prevailing arid climate during deposi-
tion of the Pyrite Member (Meng, 2010), which prevented thick
peat accumulations. In contrast, a subtropical climate prevailed
during deposition of the Fushun coal (Wang et al., 2010). In addition
subsidence rates were probably lower in the Huadian Basin than in
the Fushun Basin. This is also reected by the regressive phase of
Sequence I.
5.1.2. Oil Shale Member
High subsidence rates caused a signicant deepening of the
Huadian Lake during the deposition of the Oil Shale Member.
Oxygen-depleted conditions in deep water environments favored
Top
d
amorphous organic matter
c d
Landplants
Ostracode
Quartz
0.2mm 0.2mm
the preservation of lacustrine organic matter. This stimulated the de-
position of a high number oil shale layers in the deep lake. Signicant
differences exist in the thickness, extension and composition of oil
shale layers in different systems tracts reecting different stages of
basin evolution (Fig. 10).
During early stages of deposition (LST), the lacustrine base level
was low and abundant detrital minerals were transported into the
basin. A single low-quality oil shale layer (13) with an oil yield of
only 3.5 wt.% accumulated in the shallow lake. Its kerogen type
(IIIII) reects a high amount of terrestrial (coaly) organic matter.
During the TST the base level and the accommodation space in-
creased. This improved the conditions for organic matter preserva-
tion signicantly and resulted in the deposition of seven relatively
thick oil shales (layers 126; Fig. 7). Although the present data do
not allow a denite distinction between the effects of organic mat-
ter production, preservation and dilution, we assume that the high
thickness of the oil shale layers and their relatively low TOC content
are due to dilution of the organic matter by abundant detrital mate-
rial. The HI of the oil shale ranges from 300 to 550 mgHC/gTOC.
 P. Sun et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 105 (2013) 115 11

Fig. 9. Vertical variation of geochemical parameters within the lowermost parasequence in the TST of the Oil Shale Member (Sequence II after Sun et al., 2011). CIA = 100*Al2O3/
(Al2O3 + Na2O K2O + CaO; ECL: the average ratio of the content of land derived elements (Co, Ni, Cu, V, Pb, Ti) compared to global shales (Turekian and Wedepohl, 1961); ECI: the
average ratio of the content of autochthonous elements (Mo, Mn, Sr) compared to global shales (Turekian and Wedepohl, 1961).

These values are slightly lower than those in the HST and RST
(Fig. 6). This difference shows either a minor admixture of terrestri-
al organic matter or preservation conditions, which were not as ex-
cellent as during the HST. Apparently the area of oil shale deposition
expanded westwards during the TST (Fig. 7).
The base of the extensive oil shale layer 5 is dened as the
maximum ooding surface. During the HST, the lake area was
large and the input of detrital minerals was at a minimum resulting
in slow net deposition. Consequently the thickness of the oil shales
layers decreased, but their quality in terms of TOC, HI and oil yield
increased. The richest oil shale (layer 3) was deposited during
this time interval. HI values (up to 839 mgHC/gTOC) show the

Table 2
Major (%) and trace elements (g/g) of mudstones in parasequence.

Sample Depth SiO2 % Al2O3 % MgO % CaO % Na2O % K2O %

Unit III (340.3340.0 m)

H-1 340.2 48.55 12.85 2.03 9.56 0.82 1.90

Unit II (344.0340.3 m)
H-2 341.2 48.25 12.20 1.66 6.74 0.82 1.57
H-3 342.2 63.18 16.31 1.68 2.35 1.19 1.59
H-4 343.2 56.83 14.20 1.54 4.06 1.21 1.89

Unit I (346.0344.0 m)
H-5 344.5 47.23 10.68 1.36 8.35 0.80 1.11
H-6 344.6 48.61 12.30 1.51 7.22 0.87 1.24
H-7 344.7 No date 16.57 1.51 3.24 0.94 1.39
H-8 344.8 51.39 12.43 1.36 4.43 1.02 1.48
H-9 345.3 62.57 15.13 1.62 2.40 1.29 1.59
H-10 345.8 54.12 12.80 1.54 1.20 0.99 1.21

Sample Depth Co Ni Mo P Cr Cu Zn Ba V Pb Mn Sr U Ti

Unit III (340.3340.0 m)

H-1 340.2 17.8 38.4 0.8 1074 69 18 97 206 67 17.8 1082 228 1.5 3574

Unit II (344.0340.3 m)
H-2 341.2 17.8 39.2 1.24 3099 64 37 87 529 61 13.9 1323 493 1.5 3348
H-3 342.2 8.6 19.9 0.97 133 88 22 65 492 88 19.2 647 264 2.0 5617
H-4 343.2 20.0 48.1 1.60 2227 76 34 85 568 77 20.6 571 378 2.8 4701

Unit I (346.0344.0 m)
H-5 344.5 16.1 42.4 1.40 1149 61 32 72 505 54 16.5 1714 481 1.8 3052
H-6 344.6 13.7 33.0 1.23 1215 65 31 76 535 59 15.7 1664 433 1.7 3295
H-7 344.7 19.1 49.1 1.73 309 86 27 97 491 86 15.2 569 294 2.7 4511
H-8 344.8 17.8 44.0 1.13 427 72 28 73 481 65 16.6 412 348 2.8 3673
H-9 345.3 9.6 20.3 0.86 1140 87 14 70 531 85 15.8 843 278 1.9 4804
H-10 345.8 25.8 61.9 1.19 154 95 48 153 501 71 14.2 222 248 2.5 2415

Shale (from Turekian and Wedepohl, 1961)

19 68.0 2.60 700 100 45 95 580 130 20.0 850 300 ND 4600
12 P. Sun et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 105 (2013) 115

Fig. 10. Characteristics of oil shale layers within different systems tracts (Oil Shale Member).

dominance of autochthonous aquatic organic matter and excellent
preservation conditions.
The oil shale layer 1 has an excellent quality, but relatively low lat-
eral extension (Fig. 7). It marks the base of the RST. During the re-
gressive phase the lacustrine base level dropped. This deteriorated
the conditions for the deposition of organic matter rich rocks
above oil shale layer 1. Dilution of organic matter by detrital min-
erals further decreased the TOC content.
The high number of oil shale layers is remarkable. For comparison,
only a single oil shale unit, up to 190 m thick, occurs in the neighbor-
ing Fushun Basin (Liu et al., 2009b; Meng et al., 2012). This indicates
that the conditions during oil shale deposition were less stable in the
Huadian Basin than in the Fushun Basin. At moment it is impossible to
decide whether this reects more frequent base level variations,
climatic changes or cycles in organic matter production. As a working
hypothesis, we assume that subsidence rates were lower and the lake
shallower in the Huadian Basin during oil shale deposition than in the
Fushun Basin.
5.1.3. Carbonaceous Shale Member
Three coaly layers were drilled in the Carbonaceous Shale Mem-
ber. Two of them are accompanied by bituminous shales. This relation
suggests that the bituminous rocks formed in shallow lacustrine

Fig. 11. Schematic lake-type model (Carroll and Bohacs, 1999) with position of different members of the Huadian Formation.
 P. Sun et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 105 (2013) 115
environments. In borehole Hd3 the bituminous shale between 185
and 184 m depth even reaches oil shale quality (4.0 wt.% oil yield).
Because this oil shale is not labeled by the mining authorities, we
assume that its lateral extension might be restricted.
Whereas the coal in Hd3 is apparently not economic, coal from the
Carbonaceous Shale Member is mined southeast of borehole Hd3 in
an underground mine. In contrast to the Pyrite Member, peat growth
was favored by a warm, humid climate with abundant precipitation
(Meng, 2010). The Huadian coal formed during the nal lling stage
of the basin. Sachsenhofer (2000) and Sachsenhofer et al. (2003) em-
phasized that coal accumulating during this lling stage is typically
thinner and richer in mineral matter, than coal accumulating in its
early, transgressive stage. The Huadian Basin (deposition of thin re-
gressive coal) and the Fushun Basin (deposition of thick transgressive
coal) support this general model.
With the exception of coal and rare bituminous shale layers, the TOC
content of the Carbonaceous Shale Member is typically low reecting
poor conditions for organic matter preservation in shallow lakes.
5.1.4. Summary
In Fig. 11 we use a classication of ancient lake basins proposed by
Carroll and Bohacs (1999), in order to summarize the lithological vari-
ability of the Huadian Formation. The terms overlled, balanced-ll,
and underlled lake basins refer to the balance between tectonically
controlled potential accommodation space and climatically controlled
water plus sediment supply. According to this concept, the Huadian
Basin started as an overlled basin (Pyrite Member), continued as a
balanced-ll basin (Oil Shale Member) and terminated as an overlled
lake basin (Carbonaceous Shale Member; Fig. 11). The underlled
stage was probably not reached, although some indications for climatic
uctuations with interim dry climates exist (see following section).
Oil-prone source rocks, but no oil shale, accumulated during the
overlled stage. Oil shale was deposited during the balanced-ll
stage, whereas, coaly layers, partly associated with bituminous shales,
accumulated during the nal overlled stage. As discussed, the depo-
sition of thick coal seams at the transition from the overlled stage to
the balanced-ll stage was prohibited by an arid climate.
5.2. Environmental controls during deposition of a single parasequence
Parasequences are interpreted to form in centuries to millennia
(Passey et al., 2010). Thus, the lithology of the studied parasequences
together with organic and inorganic parameters helps to understand
short-term changes in the depositional environment.
The lithological succession of a parasequence comprising from
bottom to top oil shale, gray mudstone and silty mudstone records an
upward-shoaling trend, which is typical for a distal parasequence (Fig. 8).
In the case of the studied parasequence located in the lower part
of the TST of the Oil Shale Member, only the basal 20 cm contain
abundant terrestrial organic matter. In contrast, sapropelic material
predominates in the oil shale and the overlying gray mudstone. Con-
sidering the predominance of sapropelic organic matter and the HI of
oil shale in the HST (up to 800 mgHC/gTOC; Fig. 6), the HI of the oil
shale in the studied parasequence (~ 400 mgHC/gTOC) is relatively
low. This may indicate relatively poor preservation conditions or a
subtle admixture of terrestrial organic matter. Surprisingly, the HI
of the upper part of the overlying mudstone (~ 550 mgHC/gTOC)
with TOC contents between 4.0 and 4.5 wt.% (and without oil shale
quality) is higher than that in the oil shale. The observed increase
in HI may be attributed to enhanced preservation conditions. The
relatively low TOC in the upper part of the parasequence, thus,
may reect either relatively low production in the surface water or di-
lution by detrital minerals. At least in the silty mudstone, dilution by
minerals is likely, whereas low production is more likely for the gray
mudstone.
13
Preservation of organic matter is mainly controlled by redox
conditions. The V/(V + Ni) ratio is a widely accepted redox parame-
ter (Jones, 1994). According to Hatch and Leventhal (1992), the ob-
served values (0.530.82) argue for strongly oxygen-depleted, but
not euxinic conditions. There is no clear vertical trend. Thus, the ob-
served V/(V + Ni) ratios cannot be used as arguments for enhanced
anoxia as a reason for the increased HI values in the upper part of
the parasequence.
Assuming that the chemical composition of the catchment area
did not change considerably during the time-span represented by a
parasequence, CIA values may reect climatic changes. A warm
humid climate enhances weathering, whereas weathering might be
minor in a cold or arid climate. According to Meng (2010), the
palaeoclimate during Oil Shale Member deposition was alternating
dry and wet. Thus, the observed CIA trend might indicate a single
shift from humid to arid climatic conditions. We speculate that the
arid climates caused salinity stratication. This water column strati-
cation might be responsible for the improved preservation of organic
matter in the shallow upper part of the parasequence.
Element concentrations and element ratios determined on bulk
rocks have to be used with great caution because the origin of elements
is often poorly constrained and because the absolute concentrations
and ratios reect both, the depositional environment, but also diagenet-
ic processes. Nevertheless, Sr/Ba ratios are often useful salinity proxies
(Liu et al., 1984; Wang, 1996). In lacustrine environments Sr/Ba values
>1 may indicate saline lake water caused by an arid climate (Shi et
al., 2003; Wang et al., 2005). Therefore, the upward increase in Sr/Ba
ratio and the excellent correlation between and CIA (correlation coef-
cient r 2 = 0.92) argue for an upward increase in salinity.
The ECL/ECI ratio is used as an index for terrestrial detrital input. Its
vertical trend suggests a relatively high input of terrestrial detrital ma-
terial during deposition of the basal mudstone layer. This agrees with
the high proportion of humic organic particles observed in this layer.
Within the oil shale the proportion of terrestrial clastic-detritus de-
creases upwards. There is no clear trend within the upper part of the
parasequence, but thin section observations show that the detrital
input increases in the uppermost part of the parasequence.
6. Conclusion
The Huadian Basin is an oil shale- and coal-bearing Eocene
pull-apart basin in northeastern China. In China oil shale is dened
by an oil yield >3.5 wt.%. In the case of Huadian oil shale, this value
corresponds to a TOC of 7.2 wt.%. The basin ll (Huadian Formation)
is subdivided into three members.
The Pyrite Member represents the early, shallow stages of basin
evolution. Compared to the Oil Shale Member, the organic matter
content in the varicolored sediments is low (average TOC:
0.9 wt.%). Mudstones with TOC contents between 1 and 2 wt.%
(max. 6 wt.%) contain a kerogen Type II (HI 400600 mg HC/g
TOC). The relatively low TOC contents result from limited produc-
tivity or dilution by inorganic matter.
The Oil Shale Member contains ne-grained, organic matter rich
sediments (average TOC: 4.0 wt.%) including 13 oil shale layers de-
posited in relatively deep lacustrine environments. The Oil Shale
Member has been interpreted as a 3rd order sequence. Signicant
differences exist between oil shales deposited in different systems
tracts: 2-m-thin coaly oil shale with low-quality (11 wt.% TOC; HI
250300 mg HC/g TOC; oil yield 3.5 wt.%) developed in the LST.
Relatively thick (47 m) oil shale with moderate quality (814 wt.%
TOC; HI 450550 mg HC/g TOC; oil yield 4.18.0 wt.%) was deposited
during the TST. Thin (b3 m) high quality oil shale (1330 wt.% TOC;
HI 450800 mg HC/g TOC; oil yield 6.419.8 wt.%) is found in the
HST and at the base of the RST. The lateral extent of the oil shale layers
14 P. Sun et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 105 (2013) 115
increases upwards within the TST and decreases within the upper
part of the HST and the base of the RST.
The high number of relatively thin (b 7 m) oil shale layers suggest
frequent changes in the depositional environment. Additional high-
resolution investigations (e.g. biomarker and isotope studies) are nec-
essary to decide whether these are due to base level uctuations
(water depth), cycles in organic matter production, or climatic changes.
Geochemical data on a parasequence scale suggest that apart from tec-
tonic processes, base level variations also might reect climatic cycles
inuencing the salinity of the lake water. The resolution of reconstruc-
tions of wet-dry cycles during the deposition of the Oil Shale Member
by Meng (2010) is not yet high enough to allow to expand this model
to the entire Oil Shale Member.
The Carbonaceous Shale Member represents the nal lling stage of
basin evolution. Mudstones within this member are typically low in
TOC (average: 0.9 wt.%). However, economic coal seams accumulat-
ed along the lake margins. Peat growth was favored by a warm
humid climate. Partly the coal seams are accompanied by bitumi-
nous shale layers of shallow lacustrine origin.
Remarkable differences exist between thickness and distribution of
oil shale and coal layers in the Huadian and Fushun basins of similar
(Eocene) age. In the Fushun Basin a single coal seam, several tens of me-
ters thick, is overlain by a 190-m-thick oil shale unit. A thick coal seam
underlying the oil shale-bearing deep lacustrine sediments is not pres-
ent in the Huadian Basin, because of a prevailing arid climate. The very
thick, uniform oil shale in the Fushun Basin indicates long-lasting stable
conditions during oil shale accumulation. This reects a deeper lacus-
trine environment possibly caused by higher subsidence rates.
Acknowledgments
Core Hd3 was generously provided by the Royal Dutch Shell plc to
Jilin University. The research project was nancially supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 40972076), the
Specialized Research Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Educa-
tion of China (No. 20110061110050), the National Innovation Project
of Production-Study-Research-Application of China (No. OSR-01-02),
and the Innovation Team of Jilin University of China (No. 201004001).
SUN PC also thanks the Austrian Exchange Service (OAD) for a four
month scholarship and Jilin University for airfares to Austria. Reviews
of Dr. H.-M. Schulz (GFZ Potsdam) and Dr. H.I. Petersen (GEUS) great-
ly helped to improve the paper.
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