01 LoadFlow R1 PDF

LOAD FLOW
A. J. Conejo
Univ. Castilla La Mancha

2011
22 July 2011 1
The load flow problem
0. References
1. Introduction
2. Problem formulation
Two-bus case
Matrix YBUS
General equations
Bus classification
Variable types and
limits
22 July 2011 2
3. The Gauss-Seidel solution technique

Introduction
Algorithm initialization
PQ Buses
PV Buses
Stopping criterion
22 July 2011 3
4. The Newton-Raphson solution technique

Introduction
General fomulation
Load flow case
Jacobian matrix
Solution outline
22 July 2011 4
5. Fast decoupled AC load flow

6. Adjustment of bounds
7. DC load flow
8. Comparison of load flow solution methods
22 July 2011 5
References
1. A. Gmez Expsito, A. J. Conejo, C.

Caizares. Electric Energy Systems.
Analysis and Operation. CRC Press, Boca
Raton, Florida, 2008.
2. A. R. Bergen, V. Vittal. Power Systems

Analysis. Second Edition. Prentice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1999.
22 July 2011 6
1. Introduction
22 July 2011 7
Introduction
A snapshot of the system
Most used tool in steady state power system

analysis
Knowning the demand and/or generation of

power in each bus, find out:
buses voltages
load flow in lines and transformers
22 July 2011 8
Introduction
The problem is described throught a non-

lineal system of equations
Need of iterative solution techniques
Solution technique: accuracy vs. computing

time
22 July 2011 9
Introduction
Applications:
1. On-line analyses
State estimation
Security
Economic analyses
22 July 2011 10
Introduction
2. Off-line analyses
Operation analyses
Plannig analyses
Network expansion planning
Power exchange planning
Security and adecuacy analyses
- Faults
- Stability
22 July 2011 11
2. Problem formulation
22 July 2011 12
Problem formulation
Two-bus case
We want to find out the relationship between

j
Si Pi jQi and Vi Vie i in all buses of the power
system
I1 YS I2
V1 YG V2
YG
22 July 2011 13
Transmission line model
Problem formulation
Two-bus case
Using Kirchhoff laws:

I1 V1 YG ( V1 V2 ) Y S
I2 V2 YG ( V2 V1) Y S
Matrix notation:
I1 Y G Y S Y S V1 Y11 Y12 V1
I V V
2 YS Y G Y S 2 Y 21 Y 22 2
IBUS YBUS VBUS
22 July 2011 14
Problem formulation
Two-bus case
Complex power injected in each bus:

S1 SG1 SD1 P1 jQ1 V1 I1*
S2 SG2 SD2 P2 jQ2 V2 I2*
S1 V1 I1* V1 ( Y11
*
V1* Y12
*
V2* )
S2 V2 I2* V2 ( Y21
*
V1* Y22
*
V2* )
22 July 2011 15
Problem formulation
Two-bus case continuation
Notation:
Yik Yik e j ik
Vi Vi e j i
Replacing:
2
P1 jQ1 V1 Y1k Vk e j( 1 k 1k )
k 1
2
P2 jQ2 V2 Y2k Vk e j( 2 k 2k )
k 1
22 July 2011 16
Problem formulation
Two-bus case continuation
Therefore, the no lineal equations for the 2

buses network are:
2
Pi Vi Yik Vk cos (i k ik )
k 1
2
Qi Vi Yik Vk sin (i k ik )
k 1
i 1, 2
22 July 2011 17
Problem formulation
Matrix Ybus
Two bus case
Y11 Y12 YG YS YS
YBUS

Y21 Y22 YS YG YS
22 July 2011 18
General building rules
Matrix Ybus
1. Self admittance of node i, Yii ,equals the
algebraic sum of all the admittances
connected to node i
2. Mutual admittance between nodes i and

k, Yik ,equals the negative of the sum of
all admittances connecting nodes i and k
3. Yik Yki
22 July 2011 19
Problem formulation
Matrix Ybus
Caracteristics of YBUS
1. YBUS is symmetric
is very sparse
2. YBUS
(>90% for more than 100 buses)
22 July 2011 20
Ybus example
Shunt element YG j 0.01 (two per line)

Series element ZS j 0.1
j19.98 j10 j10

YBUS j10 j19.98 j10

j10 j10 j19.98
22 July 2011 21
Problem formulation
General equations
2n equations (static load flow equations)

n
Pi PGi PDi Vi Yik Vk cos (i k ik ) 1
k 1
n
Qi QGi QDi Vi Yik Vk sin (i k ik ) 2
k 1
i 1,..., n
n bus system
22 July 2011 22
Problem formulation
General equations
Polar representation for voltages and rectangular
for admittances
n
Pi Vi Vk (Gik cos ik Bik senik ) [1]
k 1
n
Qi Vi Vk (Gik senik Bik cos ik ) [2]
k 1
where
Y ik Gik j Bik
ik i k
22 July 2011 23
Problem formulation
General equations
4n variables
Vi, i,Pi, Qi ; i 1,...,n
If 2n variables are specified, the other 2n are

determined by equations [1] and [2]
22 July 2011 24
Problem formulation
BUS Classification
1. PQ buses
Pi known ( PDi known, PGi zero)

Qi known (QDi known, QGi zero)
Vi unknown
i unknown
22 July 2011 25
Problem formulation
BUS Classification
2. PV buses
Pi known
Qi unknown
Pi known ( PGi specified, PDi known)

Vi known (specified)
Qi unknown ( QGi unknown, QDi known)

i unknown
22 July 2011 26
Problem formulation
BUS Classification
3. Slack bus, generator with large capacity.

V1 known (specified)
1 known (specified, typically 1 0
reference)
P1 unknown ( PD1 known, PG1 unknown)
Q1 unknown ( QD1 known, QG1 unknown)
22 July 2011 27
Problem formulation
Variable types and limits
Power balance
n n
PGi PDi PLOSS
i1 i1
n n
QGi QDi QLOSS
i1 i1
22 July 2011 28
Problem formulation
Variable types
Control variables
PGi (excepting slack bus)
QGi or V i
Non-control variables
PDi QDi
State variables
Vi i
22 July 2011 29
Problem formulation
Variable limits
Voltage magnitude Vi min Vi Vi max
Power angle i k i k max (every existing line)
Power limits
PGi,min PGi PGi,max

QGi,min QGi QGi,max
22 July 2011 30
3.The Gauss-Seidel solution
technique
22 July 2011 31
Gauss-Seidel solution technique
No lineal system:
f (x) 0 x F( x )
Iteration
x (r 1) F( x (r ) )
Stoping rule
x (r 1) x (r )
22 July 2011 32
Example f ( x) x 2 5x 4 0
x 0 . 2 x 2 0 .8
x (r 1) 0.2( x (r ) )2 0.8 ; x ( 0 ) 2
r 0, x (1) 0.2 22 0.8 1.6
r 1, x ( 2 ) 0.2 1.6 2 0.8 1.312
r 2, x ( 3 ) 0.2 1.312 2 0.8 1.1442
...
r 5, x ( 6 ) 1.0103
r 6, x ( 7 ) 1.0042
...
r 10, x (11) 1.0001
r 11, x (12 )
1.0000
Many iterations!
r 12, x (13 ) 1.0000
22 July 2011 33
Algorithm beginning
1) Known
Pi i 2,...,n (PV & PQ Buses)
Qi i m 1,...,n (PQ Buses)
Vi i 2,...,m (PV Buses)
V1 slack bus
V i min , V i max i m 1,...,n (PQ Buses)
QGi,min , QGi,max i 2,...,m (PV Buses)
22 July 2011 34
Algorithm beginning
2) Build YBUS
3) Initialize voltages
0
Vi Vi i m 1,...,n
0
i i i 2,...,n
22 July 2011 35
PQ buses
4) PQ buses
* * * * n
Si Pi jQi V i Ii Vi Y ii V i
V i Y ik Vk
k 1
k i

1 Pi jQi n

Vi
Y ii V i*
Y ik V k

k 1
k i
P jQi
Ai i i m 1,...,n
Y ii
Y ik
Bik i m 1,...,n ; k 1,...,n ; k i
Y ii
22 July 2011 36
PQ buses
At iteration (r+1) and bus i, the available values of

voltages at previous buses are used:
Ai i1 n
(r 1) (r 1)
Bik V k Bik V k
(r )
Vi (r ) *

(Vi ) k 1 k i1
22 July 2011 37
PV buses
5) PV buses
* * * n
Si Pi jQi V i Ii
V i Y ik V k
k 1
* n
Qi V i Y ik V k
k 1
22 July 2011 38
PV buses
At iteration (r+1):
(r ) * i1 (r 1) (r ) * n (r )
Q(ir 1) ( V i ) Y ik V k ( V i ) Y ik V k
k 1 k i
Pi jQ(ir 1)
i angleV i
(r 1)
Ai
Y ii
A (r 1) i1 (r 1) n (r )

(ir 1) angle (r ) Bik V k Bik V k
i
( V i )* k 1 k i1
22 July 2011 39
PV buses
Beware of limits!
Q(ir 1) Qi,min Q(ir 1) Qi,min & i becomes PQ
Q(ir 1) Qi,max Q(ir 1) Qi,max & i becomes PQ
(more on this below)
22 July 2011 40
PV buses
6) Stop criterion
Vi(r 1) Vi(r ) ; i 2,...,n
6.1) Slack bus power (after convergence)

* n
P1 jQ1
V1 Y1k V k
k 1
22 July 2011 41
Algorith final calculations
6.2) Compute line currents (after convergence)

ILik ( V i V k ) YLik ; Iik 0 V i Y ik 0
ILki ( V k V i ) YLik ; Iki0 V k Y ki 0
Vi Vk
i ILik YLik ILki k
Sik Iik 0 Iki0 Sik
Y ik 0 Y ki0
22 July 2011 42
6.2) Compute line complex power (after convergence)
* * * * *
Ski V k ( V k V i )YLik V k V k Y ki 0 ;
* * * * *
Sik V i ( V i V k )YLik V i V i Y ik 0 ;
Vi Vk
i ILik YLik ILki k
Sik Iik 0 Iki0 Sik
Y ik 0 Y ki0
22 July 2011 43
6.3) Compute losses (after convergence)

Sloss , ik Sik Ski ; k, i
Sloss Sloss , ik
k,i
7) If no convergence, go to step 4.
22 July 2011 44
Algorithm improvement
Acceleration factor (in order to decrease

the number of iterations):
~
(r 1)
Vi(r 1) V i V i
(r ) (r )
Vi
1.6 (generally recommended)
22 July 2011 45
Gauss-Seidel
Matlab code
function [Vfinal,angfinal,nite,P,Q,errorplot,tiempo]=Gaussgen(m,n,Ybus,Vmodini,Angini,P,Q,tol,Vmax,Vmin,Qmax,Qmin)
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%-function [Vmod,ang,nite,P,Qerrorplot,tiempo]=Gaussgen(m,n,Ybus,Vmodini,Angini,P,Q,tol,Vmax,Vmin,Qmax,Qmin)
%-Resuelve de forma general problema de carga por el metodo de Gauss-Seidel
%-donde:
%-2...m nudos PV; (m=1 cuando no hay nudos PV)
%-n nudos totales
%-Ybus matriz de admitancias
%-Vmodini tensiones iniciales modulo
%-Angini angulos iniciales RADIANES
%-P potencia activa inicial
%-Q potencia reactiva inicial
%-tol tolerancia para error en tension y potencia reactiva
%-Vmax Vmin valores limites aceptables para las tensiones
%-Qmax Qmin valores limites aceptables para las potencias reactivas
%-nite numero de iteraciones
%-Vfinal vector con todas las potencias para cada iteracion
%-angfinal igual pero con los angulos
%-tiempo, tiempo invertido en hacer las operaciones
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%calculo de la matriz B
B=zeros(n,n);
for t=1:n
for k=1:n
B(t,k)=Ybus(t,k)/Ybus(t,t);
end
end
22 July 2011 46
Gauss-Seidel
Matlab code 2
%calculos los valores en coordenadas cuadrangulares de la tension
V=zeros(n,1);
for a=1:n
V(a)=Vmodini(a)*exp(i*Angini(a));
end
ang=Angini;
%empieza el bucle:
error=1; %valores iniciales para poder entrar en el bucle
errorQ=1;
nite=0;
tic;
while max(abs(error))>tol | max(abs(errorQ))>tol
nite=nite+1;
Vmod=abs(V);
Vini=V;
ang=angle(V);
Qini=Q;
%calculo las reactivas para los nudos PV
if m>1
for l=2:m
AQ=0;
for k=1:n
AQ=AQ+Ybus(l,k)*V(k);
end
Q(l)=-imag((V(l)')*AQ);
end
22 July 2011 47
%calculo las A para todos los nudos:
for a=1:n
A(a)=(P(a)-i*Q(a))/Ybus(a,a);
end Gauss-Seidel
%calculo los angulos nudos PV:
for l=2:m
Matlab code 3
Aang=0;
for k=1:n
Aang=Aang+B(l,k)*V(k);
end
ang(l)=angle(A(l)/((V(2))')-Aang+B(l,l)*V(l));
end
end
for a=1:n
A(a)=(P(a)-i*Q(a))/Ybus(a,a);
end
%ahora actualizo los voltajes otra vez:
for a=1:n
V(a)=Vmod(a)*exp(i*ang(a));
end
%ahora calculo los nudos PQ
AV=zeros(n,1);
for p=m+1:n
for k=1:n
AV(p)=AV(p)+B(p,k)*V(k);
end
V(p)=A(p)/((V(p))')-AV(p)+B(p,p)*V(p);
end
error=Vini-V;
errorQ=Qini-Q;
errorplot(1,nite)=norm(abs(error));
Vfinal(:,nite)=abs(V);
angfinal(:,nite)=ang*180/pi; %paso a grados
22 July 2011 end 48
Gauss-Seidel
Matlab code 4
%calculos los valores de potencia para el nudo slack:
S1=0;
for t=1:n
S1=S1+(V(1)')*(Ybus(1,t)*V(t));
end
P(1)=real(S1);
Q(1)=-imag(S1);
tiempo=toc;
%alerta por si se sobrepasan valores aceptables:
if max(Vmod)>Vmax | min(Vmod)<Vmin
disp('SE SOBREPASAN LIMITES TENSIONES!!')
end
if max(Q)>Qmax | min(Q)<Qmin
disp('SE SOBREPASAN LIMITES REACTIVA!!')
end
ang=(180/pi)*angle(V);
Vmo=abs(V);
%represento los errores por iteracion:
plot(1:nite,errorplot,'o');grid on;xlabel('iteracion');ylabel('error por iteracion');title('evolucion error tesion');
%------------------------------------------------------------%
% %
% Realizado por Carlos Ruiz Mora octubre 2006 %
% %
%------------------------------------------------------------%
22 July 2011 49
Gauss-Seidel example
22 July 2011 50
G-S Example
Solution tolerance is set to 0.1 MVA.
ONE TWO
THREE
22 July 2011 51
G-S Example
Data below. Base power is SB=100 MVA:
Bus Voltage (p.u.) Power Lin Impedance (p.u.)
(slack)
1 1.02 1-2 0.02+0.04j
2 1.02 PG=50 MW 1-3 0.02+0.06j
3 - PC=100 MW 2-3 0.02+0.04j

QC=60 MVAr (each)
22 July 2011 52
Solution procedure
1. Data and unknown:
Bus Type Data Unknown
1 Slack V1=1.02 1=0.0 P1 Q1
2 PV V2=1.02 P2=0.5 2 Q2
3 PQ P3=-1.0 Q2=-0.6 3 V3
22 July 2011 53
Solution procedure
YBUS
ONE TWO
15 35 j 10 20 j 5 15 j
YBUS 10 20 j 30 60 j 20 40 j

5 15 j 20 40 j 25 55 j
THREE
22 July 2011 54
Solution procedure
3. Voltage magnitude initialization (iteration 0):
PQ bus
V3 V30 1
2 02 0 All buses but the reference one

3 03 0
Vector form:
1.02 0
V 0 1.02 0 0

1 0
22 July 2011 55
Solution procedure
Per iteration:
- PV buses (Q, ) i=2,...,m (bus 2)
- PQ buses (V, ) i=m+1,...,n (bus 3)
- Stopping criterios:
a) convergence Sslack and power flows;
b) no converge new iteration
22 July 2011 56
Solution procedure
4. PV buses: iteration (r+1) :

bus 2:

Q(2r 1) ( V2(r ) )* Y21V1( r 1) ( V2(r ) )* Y22 V2( r ) ( V2(r ) )* Y23 V3( r )
P2 jQ(2r 1)
2 angle [ V2 ] A (2r 1)
Y22
22 July 2011 57
Solution procedure
A (2r 1) (r )
(2r 1) ( r 1)
angle (r 1) * B21V1 B23 V3
( V2 )
where
Yik
Bik is a constant
Yii
22 July 2011 58
Solution procedure
5. Buses PQ iteration (r+1):
bus 3:
A3
V3(r 1) (r ) * B31V1(r 1) B32 V2(r 1)
( V3 )
where
P3 jQ3
A3
Y33
Are constants for PQ buses
Yik
Bik
Yii
22 July 2011 59
Solution procedure
6. Stopping criterion:
10 3
| Vi(r 1) Vi(r ) |
& i 2, 3; j 2
| Q(jr 1) Q(jr ) |
22 July 2011 60
Solution procedure
If convergence:
6.1) Slack power
*
Sslack P1 jQ1 V1* ( Y11V1 Y12 V2 Y13 V3 )
6.2) Power flows S12 , S21, S13 , S23 , S31, S32
Sik Vi ( Vi - V *k )YLik
* *
22 July 2011 61
Solution procedure
6.3) Line losses:
Slosss ,ik Sik Ski k, i 1,2,3
Sloss Sloss ,12 Sloss ,13 Sloss ,23
7. If no coveergence, the procedure continues in Step 4.
22 July 2011 62
Implementation
MATLAB:
22 July 2011 63
Solution
11 iterations needed to attain the solution
Iteration (pu) 1 2 3 ... 10 11

0.5083
P1 ,Q1(slack) - - - ... -
0.0716
P2 0.5 0.5 0.5 ... 0.5 0.5
Q2 0.81 0.4084 0.4696 ... 0.5493 0.5501
P3 -1.0 -1.0 -1.0 ... -1.0 -1.0
Q3 -0.6 -0.6 -0.6 ... -0.6 -0.6
22 July 2011 64
Solution
Iteration 1 2 3 ... 10 11
V1 1.02 1.02 1.02 ... 1.02 1.02
1 ( ) 0 0 0 ... 0 0
V2 1.02 1.02 1.02 ... 1.02 1.02
2 ( ) 0.0675 -0.1596 -0.2885 ... -0.4667 -0.4685
V3 1.0041 1.0042 1.0043 ... 1.0043 1.0043
3 ( ) -0.5746 -0.7336 -0.8278 ... -0.9580 -0.9593
22 July 2011 65
Solution
Errors for |V| & |Q|:
Iteration 1 2 3 ... 10 11
Max. Error V 0.0041 9.6810-5 5.0510-5 ... 1.1510-6 6.7410-7
Max. Error Q 0.8160 0.4076 0.0612 ... 0.0014 8.1110-4
22 July 2011 66
Final Solution
Bus P (MW) Q (MVAr ) V (pu)

1 50.83 7.16 1.02 0
2 50.00 55.01 1.02 -0.4685
3 -100 -60.00 1.0043 -0.9593
22 July 2011 67
Checking
Checking using Power-World:
ONE TWO
THREE
22 July 2011 68
Checking
Bus 1 Bus 2 Bus 3

Solution G-S PW G-S PW G-S PW
V (pu) 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.0043 1.0043
() 0 0 -0.4685 -0.4710 -0.9593 -0.9612
P (MW) 50.83 50.98 50.00 50.00 -100 -100
Q (MVAr) 7.16 7.10 55.01 55.12 -60 -60
22 July 2011 69
Checking
Variable V P Q
Error Max. (%) 0% 0.53 % 0.29% 0.84 %
22 July 2011 70
4. The Newton-Raphson solution
technique
22 July 2011 71
The Newton-Raphson solution technique
Introduction
One variable
f ( x ) 0, f ( x ( 0 ) ) 0, f ( x (0 ) x ( 0 ) ) 0
(0)
( 0 ) df
f ( x x ) 0 f ( x ) x
(0) (0) (0)
...
dx
f ( x(0) )
x ( 0 ) (0)
; x (1) x ( 0 ) x ( 0 )
df

dx
f ( x (r ) )
x (r 1) x (r ) (r )
df

dx
22 July 2011 72
Introduction
Example
df ( x )
f ( x ) x 2 5 x 4 0; 2x 5
dx
( r 1) ( x ( r ) )2 5 x ( r ) 4 ( 0 )
x x (r )
; x 0 .5
2x 5
(r )
0 .5 2 5 0 . 5 4
x (1)
0 .5 0.9375
2 0 .5 5
0.9375 2 5 0.9375 4
x ( 2)
0.9375 0.9988
2 0.9375 5
0.9988 2 5 0.9988 4
x (3)
0.9988 1.0000
2 0.9988 5
Fast!
22 July 2011 73
General formulation
General case
f ( x ) 0 : Rn Rn f ( x ( 0 ) ) 0, f ( x ( 0 ) x ( 0 ) ) 0
f ( x ( 0 ) x ) f ( x ( 0 ) ) J( 0 ) x ( 0 ) 0
x (0)
J ( 0 ) 1
f ( x(0) )
x (1) x ( 0 ) x ( 0 )
x (r 1)
x (r )

J(r ) 1
f ( x (r ) )
22 July 2011 74
General formulation
f1 f1 f1
x
x1 f1 x 2 x n
1
x f f2 f2 f2

x 2 f 2 J x1 x 2 x n

x f
n n fn fn fn

x1 x 2 x n
22 July 2011 75
Load flow case
(2r )
( r )
3
n
(r ) fiP () Vi Vk (Gik cos ik Bik sinik )
x (r )
(r )
n
Vm1
k 1
n
fiQ () Vi Vk (Gik sinik Bik cos ik )

k 1
Vn(r )1
(r )
Vn
Pi () fiP, Pi Pi,sp
Qi () fiQ, Qi Qi,sp
2 ,..., n ; Vm1,..., Vn
22 July 2011 76
Load flow case
Using Taylor:
(r ) (r ) (r ) (r )
f f f f
Pi,sp fiP(r ) iP (2r ) ... iP (nr ) iP Vm(r)1 ... iP Vn(r )
2 n Vm1 Vn
(r ) (r ) (r ) (r )
f f f f
Qi,sp fiQ(r ) iQ (2r ) ... iQ (nr ) iQ Vm(r)1 ... iQ Vn(r )
2 n Vm1 Vn
The increments below should be 0:
Pi(r ) Pi,sp fiP(r ) ; Q(ir ) Qi,sp fiQ(r )
22 July 2011 77
Load flow case
Matrix notation:
P2(r ) f (r ) f2P
(r )
(r )
2

2P ... ...
2 Vn
P2(r ) ... ... ... ... (r )
(r ) (r )
n

Qm1 ... (r ) ... ... ... Vm1
fnQ fnQ
(r )
... ... (r )

Qn 2
(r ) n Vn
22 July 2011 78
Jacobian matrix
PQ buses generate 2 Jacobian rows

corresponding to P and Q
PV buses generate 1 Jacobian row

corresponding to P
22 July 2011 79
Jacobian elements
Jacobian dimension
2 NPQ NPV
NPQ Number of PQ buses
NPV Number of PV buses
22 July 2011 80
Jacobian elements
Jacobian dimension
P(r ) H(r ) N(r ) (r 1)

(r ) (r ) (r )
V (r 1)
Q J L V (r )
V (r 1) (r 1)
instead of V
V (r )
for improving computational efficiency
22 July 2011 81
Jacobian elements
m k
Pk
Hkm Vk Vm (Gkm sinkm Bkm cos km )
m
Pk
Nkm Vm Vk Vm (Gkm cos km Bkm sinkm )
Vm
Qk
Jkm Vk Vm (Gkm cos km Bkm sinkm )
m
Qk
Lkm Vm Vk Vm (Gkm sinkm Bkm cos km )
Vm
22 July 2011 82
Jacobian elements
k m
Pk
Hkk Qk Bkk Vk2 Note :
k
Pk
Nkk Vk Pk Gkk Vk2 km k m
Vk
Qk
Jkk Pk Gkk Vk2 Y km Gkm jBkm
k
Qk
Lkk Vk Qk Bkk Vk2
Vk
22 July 2011 83
Solution outline
1. Build YBUS
2. Specify 1 0
Pi i 2,...,n
Qi i m 1,...,n
Vi i 2,...,m
V1
i , i 2,...,n
3. Initialize
V i , i m 1,...,n
22 July 2011 84
Solution outline
4. Compute Pi(r ) (for PV & PQ Buses), Q(ir ) (for PQ Buses)

5. If Pi(r ) P & Q(ir ) Q
1) P1 jQ1

then compute 2) line flows
3) Stop

else go on
6. Compute submatrices H(r ), N(r ), J(r ), L(r )

22 July 2011 85
Solution outline
7. Solve (r 1) H(r ) N(r ) 1 P(r )

V (r 1) (r ) (r ) (r )
V (r ) J L Q
8. Update
(r 1) (r ) (r 1) PV & PQ Buses
V (r 1) V (r ) V (r 1) PV Buses
9. Go to step 4
22 July 2011 86
The Newton-Raphson, Matlab Code
function [V_modulo, V_fase, P, Q, N_iter, T_calculo, Error_p] = nraphson(V_modulo_ini, V_fase_ini, P_ini, Q_ini, Y, npv)
%
% [V_modulo, V_fase, P, Q, N_iter, T_calculo, Error_p] = nraphson(V_modulo_ini, V_fase_ini, P_ini, Q_ini, Y, npv)
%
% Obtencion de indices de nodos: 1 -> SLACK;
% 2,...,M -> PV;
% M+1,...,N -> PQ
n = length(V_modulo_ini);
m = npv + 1;
% Parametros del Metodo

Tol = 0.0001; % Tolerancia del metodo (Perdida de potencia).
Error_p = 1; % Error inicial (A un valor mayor que Tol).
N_iter = 0; % Numero de iteraciones.
% Valores iniciales
V_modulo= V_modulo_ini';
V_fase = V_fase_ini';
P = P_ini';
Q = Q_ini';
j=sqrt(-1);
22 July 2011 87
tic;
while (Error_p > Tol) % Bucle principal (Se permiten 50 iteraciones como mucho).
if (N_iter >50)
error('Demasiadas iteraciones');
break
end
V = V_modulo.*exp(j*V_fase); % Expresion compleja de la tension
S = V.*conj(Y*V); % Expresion compleja de la potencia
DP = P(2:n)-real(S(2:n)); % Incremento de potencia activa (nudos PV y PQ)
DQ = Q(m+1:n)-imag(S(m+1:n)); % Incremento de potencia reactiva (nudos PQ)
PQ = [DP ; DQ];
Error_p = norm(PQ,2); % Error en esa iteracion
DS_DA = diag(V)*conj(Y*j*diag(V)) + diag(conj(Y*V))*j*diag(V);

DS_DV = diag(V)*conj(Y*diag(V./V_modulo)) + diag(conj(Y*V))*diag(V./V_modulo);
% Construccion del Jacobiano

J = [real(DS_DA(2:n , 2:n)) real(DS_DV(2:n , m+1:n))
imag(DS_DA(m+1:n , 2:n)) imag(DS_DV(m+1:n , m+1:n))]
dx=J\PQ; % indices: 1...n-1 = fases en PV y PQ; n...final = modulos en PQ
22 July 2011 88
V_fase (2:n) = V_fase(2:n) + dx(1:n-1); % Actualizamos la fase de las tensiones (nudos PV y PQ)
V_modulo (m+1:n)= V_modulo(m+1:n) + dx(n:end); % Actualizamos el modulo de las tensiones (nudos PQ)
N_iter = N_iter + 1; % Incremento el numero de iteraciones
disp('Pulse una tecla para continuar')

pause
end
P=real(S); % Calculo de la potencia activa
Q=imag(S); % Calculo de la potencia reactiva
V_fase=V_fase*180/pi; % Paso de Radianes a grados
T_calculo=toc;
% **** ENTRADAS ****

%
% V_modulo_ini = Modulo de la tension para comenzar a iterar (conocidos en SLACK y PV).
% V_fase_ini = Fase de la tension para comenzar a iterar (conocido en SLACK).
% P_ini = Potencia activa en los nodos (conocido en PV y PQ).
% Q_ini = Potencia reactica en los nodos (conocido en PQ).
% Y = Matriz de admitancias nodales.
22 July 2011 89
% **** SALIDAS ****
%
% V_modulo = Modulo de la tension en todos los nodos.
% V_fase = Fase de la tension en todos los nodos.
% P = Potencia activa en todos los nodos.
% Q = Potencia reactiva en todos los nodos.
% N_iter = Numero de iteraciones.
% T_calculo = Tiempo de calculo.
% Error_p = Error.
%
%
% **** OBSERVACIONES ****
%
% Los nodos deben estar ordenador asi:
%
% *1 : SLACK.
% * 2...m : PV.
% * m+1...n : PQ.
%
%
% **** FECHA Y AUTOR ****
%
% Laura Laguna - Octubre de 2005
22 July 2011 90
Ejemplo resuelto por el mtodo
de Newton-Raphson
22 July 2011 91
Newton-Raphson Example
Checking with Matlab and PowerWorld
22 July 2011 92
ONE TWO
Bus Voltage p.u Power

1 1.02 -
THREE
2 1.02 PG=50 MW
3 - PC= 100 MW
QC=60 MVAr
22 July 2011 93
Data:
Line Impedance p.u.

1-2 0.02+0.04j
1-3 0.02+0.06j
2-3 0.02+0.04j each
22 July 2011 94
3 buses:
Bus1: Slack
Bus 2: PV
Bus 3: PQ
Voltage magnitude at bus 3 initialized at 1.02.
Angles intitialized to zero.
22 July 2011 95
Y bus:
15.0000 - 35.0000j - 10.0000 + 20.0000j - 5.0000 + 15.0000j

Y - 10.0000 + 20.0000j 30.0000 - 60.0000j - 20.0000 + 40.0000j
- 5.0000 + 15.0000j 25.0000 - 55.0000j
- 20.0000 + 40.0000j
Intitialization:
2 3 0
V3 1.02
22 July 2011 96
Residuals:
3
Pi Piesp - Vi Vj (Gij cos ij Bijsen(ij )) i 2,3
j1
3
Qi Qiesp - Vi Vj (Gijsenij - Bij cos(ij )) i 3
j1
22 July 2011 97
Checking:
P2cal 0.36241014 P2 0.5 P2 0.5

cal
cal cal 1
P
3 0 P
3 1 P3

Q3 7.247510
cal 15
Q3 0.6 Q3 0.6
cal

No tolerance satisfied: the process continues.
22 July 2011 98
Jacobian:
H22 H23 N23 62.4240 41.6160 20.4000

J H32 H33 N33 J 41.6160 57.2220 25.5000
M 20.8080
32 M33 L 33
26.0100 56.1000
22 July 2011 99
First iteration:

2 - 0.4557 1.0200 0
3 - 0.9406
V 1.0200 ; - 0.4557
V
1.0046 - 0.9406
3 - 0.0154
V3
22 July 2011 100

Ejemplo por Newton-Raphson
Residuals:
P2cal 0.4958 P2 0.5 0.4958 0.0042

cal P 1 ( 0.9835) 0.0165
P
3 0.9835 3
Q3 0.5874
cal
Q3 0.6 ( 0.5874) 0.0126

No convergence.
22 July 2011 101

Jacobian for iteration 2:
61.8860 41.1614 20.0540

J 40.8145 56.0994 24.1371
20.8409 26.2162 54.6707

22 July 2011 102

State variables at iteration 2
1.0200 0
2 - 0.0154
3 - 0.0206 V 1.0200 ; - 0.4710
V 1.0043 - 0.9612
3 - 3.002410
-4
V3
22 July 2011 103

Residuals:
P2cal 0.5000 P2 0.5 0.5000 0.066410

5
cal 5
P3 1.0000 P3 1 ( 1.0000) 0.545410
Qcal 0.6000
Q
0.6 ( 0.6000)
4.969810 6
3 3
Tolerance OK.
22 July 2011 104

Jacobian iteration 3:
61.8860 41.1614 20.0540

J 40.8145 56.0994 24.1371
20.8409 26.2162 54.6707

2
- 0.645810-5
1.0200 0

3 - 0.753410-5 V 1.0200 ; - 0.4710
V
1.0043 - 0.96810
- 1.110610-7

3

V3
22 July 2011 105

Final power values:
P1 0.5098 Q1 0.0710
P 0.5000 Q 0.5513
2 2
P3 1.0000 Q3 0.6000
22 July 2011 106

convergence
22 July 2011 107

convergence
22 July 2011 108

convergence
22 July 2011 109

convergence
22 July 2011 110

Power World
5 0 ,9 7 7 M W 5 0 ,0 0 0 M W
7 ,0 9 5 M var 5 5 ,1 2 6 M var
UNO
C ERO
1 ,0 2 0 pu
1 ,0 2 0 pu
0 ,0 0 0 Deg
-0 ,4 7 1 Deg
DO S
1 ,0 0 4 3 pu
-0 ,9 6 1 Deg
100 MW
6 0 M var
22 July 2011 111

Bus V(p.u) P Q
0 (PW) 1.02 0 50.9763 7.0955
0 1.02 0 50.9755 7.0954
1 (PW) 1.02 -0.4710 50 55.1256
1 1.02 -0.4710 50.0006 55.1228
2 (PW) 1.0043 -0.9612 -100 -60
2 1.0043 -0.9612 -99.9989 -59.9970
22 July 2011 112

Largest error below 0.1 MVA.
More effective technique than Gauss Seidel.
Convergence is fast (if adequate initialization).
22 July 2011 113

Including tap-changing transformers
22 July 2011 114

Tap-Changing transformer
A tap changing transformer makes the

admitance matrix dependent on the
transformer parameter t.
The Jacobian matrix also depends on t.
22 July 2011 115

Admitance matrix
Equivalent circuit:
t:1 Ycc
Ycc i t j
i j
1 t t 1
Ycc 2 Ycc
t t
t 1
22 July 2011 116

Admitance matrix
General building rules

1. Self admittance of node i, Yii , equals the
algebraic sum of all the admittances
connected to node i
2. Mutual admittance between nodes i and
k, Yii , equals the negative of the sum of
all admittances connecting nodes i and k
3. Yik Yki
22 July 2011 117

Tap-changing
Example
22 July 2011 118

Tap-changing
Example
1 Z13 3 Z 23 2
Yshunt 13 Yshunt 13 Yshunt 23 Yshunt 23
Ycc
t 4
The tap-changing
transformer
controls voltage 1 t t 1
Ycc 2 Ycc
of bus 4 t t
22 July 2011 119

Tap-changing
Example
1
Y11 Yshunt 13 ; Y12 0 ;...
Z13
1 1 1 t Ycc
... Y33 Yshunt 13 Yshunt 23 Ycc 2
Z13 Z 23 t t
Ycc
Y34
t
Ycc t 1
Y44 Ycc Ycc
t t
It does not depend

22 July 2011
on t! 120
Tap-changing
Example
Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14

Y Y22 Y23 Y24
Y 21
Y31 Y32 Y33 ( t ) Y34 ( t )
Y
41 Y42 Y43 ( t ) Y44
22 July 2011 121

Tap-changing transformer
Load flow equations:

n
Pi Vi Vk Gik cos ik Bik sin ik
k 1
n
Qi Vi Vk Gik sin ik Bik cos ik
k 1
22 July 2011 122

Taylor Expansion:
(r ) (r ) (r )
fiP fiP fiP
Pi dato
f (r )
(r )
... (r )
Vm 1 ...
(r )
2 n Vm1
iP 2 n
(r )
fiP
(r )
fiP
... V (r )
t t (r )

n
n
V
(r ) (r ) (r )
f f f
Qidato fiQ(r ) iQ (2r ) ... iQ (nr ) iQ Vm(r)1 ...
2 n Vm1
(r ) (r )
fiQ fiQ
... V (r )
t t (r )

n
n
V
22 July 2011 123
The admitance matrix depend on t.
The Jacobian matrix has a new column.
The new variable (t) replace the voltage value

at the corresponding PQ bus.
22 July 2011 124

Increment t is divided by t to improve

computational efficiency.
The Jacobian matrix maintains its # of column

& rows.
The variable t is considered in the last place.
22 July 2011 125

The Jacobian matrix blocks are:

H(r ) N(r ) C(r )
J (r ) (r ) (r )
M L D
H, N, M & L are the standard blocks.

Submatrix C & D have as many columns as
the # of tap-changing transformers.
22 July 2011 126

Derivatives with respect to t:

fiP n
Gik Bik
Ci t t Vi Vk cos ik sinik
t k 1 t t
fiQ n
Gik Bik
Di t t Vi Vk sinik cos ik
t k 1 t t
C & D multiplied by t!
22 July 2011 127
Iterative procedure analogous, but:
If t hit any of its limit, it is fixed to the limit &

the corresponding bus becomes PQ.
If the procedure converge, fix t at its closest

integer value & continues the iteration with
that t fixed.
22 July 2011 128

Tap-changing
Example
1.- Slack
2.- PV
3.- PQ
4.- PQ
5.- PQV
22 July 2011 129

Tap-changing
Example
Data:
Line impedances: 0.001+j0.05 p.u.

Shunt admitances: j0.05 p.u. (2 per line).
Transformer: 0.9<t<1.1, steps of 0.005; Zcc=j0.1.
22 July 2011 130

Tap-changing
Example
Bus Voltage (pu). Power
1 1.00 Slack
2 1.00 Pg=150MW
3 -- Pc=50MW, Qc=10MVAr
4 -- Pc=0MW, Qc=0MVAr
5 1.00 Pc=100MW,Qc=50MVAr
22 July 2011 131

Tap-changing
Example
Ylnea Ylnea Ylnea
1 2 4 3
Yshunt Yshunt Yshunt

Yshunt Yshunt
Yshunt
Ycc 5
t
1 t t 1
Ycc 2 Ycc
t t
22 July 2011 132

Tap-changing
Example
Admitance matrix:
Yl Ys Yl 0 0 0
Y 2Yl 2Ys 0 Yl 0
l
0 0 Yl Ys Yl 0
YBUS Ycc (1 t ) Ycc
0 Yl Yl 2Yl 2Ys Ycc 2
t t t
0 Ycc
0 0 Ycc
t
22 July 2011 133

Tap-changing
Example
0.3998 j19.942 0.3998 j19.992 0 0 0
0.3998 j19.992 0.7997 j39.884 0 0 .3998 j19 .992 0

Ybus 0 0 0.3998 j19.942 0.3998 j19.992 0

0 0 .3998 j19.992 0 .3998 j19. 992 0 .7997 j49 . 884 j10
0 0 0 j10 j10
Variable initial values:

2 3 4 5 0;
V3 V4 1;
t 1;
22 July 2011 134
Tap-changing
Example
Increment calculations:
P2 1.5 P2cal 1.5
P cal 0 .5
3 0 . 5 P 3
P4 P4cal 0
cal

5 1 P5 1
P
Q3 0.1 Qcal 0.1
3

Q 4 Q 4 0
cal
Q 0.5 Qcal 0.5

5 5
22 July 2011 135

Tap-changing
Example
Jacobian
39.984 0 19.992 0 0 0.3998 0

0 19.992 19.992 0 0.3998 0.3998 0

19.992 19.992 49.984 10 0.3998 0.7997 0
J 0 0 10 10 0 0 0

0 0.3998 0.3998 0 19.892 19.992 0

0.3998 0.3998 0.7997 0 19.992 49.754 10
0 0 0 0 0 10 10
22 July 2011 136

Tap-changing
Example
First iteration:
2

3
0
4 0.0993 1 0

0 . 0744 1 0
5

V3 0.1744 V 0.9623 ; 0.0993 ; t 0.918
V3
0.968 0.0744
V 0 . 0377

4
0.032 1 0.1744
V4
t 0.082
t
22 July 2011 137
Tap-changing
Example
Admitance matrix:
0.3998 j19.942 0.3998 j19.99 0 0 0

0.3998 j19.992 0.7997 j39.884 0 0.3998 j19.992 0

Ybus 0 0 0.3998 j19.94 0.3998 j19.992 0
0 0 . 3998 j19 . 992 0 . 399 j19 . 99 0 . 7997 j51 . 750 j10 . 8933

0 0 0 j10.893 j10
22 July 2011 138

Tap-changing
Example
Power computation:
P1 0 Q1 0.05
P 1.4521 Q 0.5647
2 2
P3 0.4657 Q3 0.1407
P Q
4 0 . 069 4 0 . 1027
P5 1.0527 Q5 0.492
22 July 2011 139

Tap-changing
Example
Power increments:
P2 1.5 1.4521 0.0479
P 0.5 0.4657 0.0343
3
P4 0.069 0.069
P 0.0527
5 1 1 . 0527
Q3 0.1 0.1407 0.0407

Q 4 0.1027 0.1027
Q5 0.5 0.492 0.008
22 July 2011 140

Tap-changing
Example
Jacobian matrix:
39.9193 0 19.3273 0 0 1.0523 0

0 18.6075 18.6075 0 0.0954 0.8359 0

19.2698 18.6261 48.3879 10.492 0.0912 0.8183 1.0527
J 0 0 10.492 10.492 0 1.0527 1.0527

0 0.8359 0.8359 0 18.3261 18.6075 0

1.8242 0.0912 0.6803 1.0527 18.6261 48.5934 11.746
0 0 1.0527 1.0527 0 10.492 10.492
22 July 2011 141

Tap-changing
Example
Second iteration
2
0.0002
3
4 0.005 1 0

0 . 003 1 0.0002
5

3 0.0021 V 0.9607 ; 0.1043 ; t 0.9144
V
V3
0.9644 0.0744
V 0 . 0016

4
0.0037 1 0.1723
V4
t 0.0039
t
22 July 2011 142
Tap-changing
Example
Admitance matrix:
0.3998 j19.942 0.3998 j19.992 0 0 0

0.3998 j19.992 0.7997 j39.884 0 0 .3998 j19 .992 0

Ybus 0 0 0.3998 j19.942 0.3998 j19.992 0

0 0 .3998 j19.992 0.3998 j19.992 0 . 7997 j51 . 8447 j10.9365
0 0 0 j10.9365 j10
22 July 2011 143

Tap-changing
Example
Power calculations:
P1 0.0031 Q1 0.0501
P 1.4998 Q 0.6391
2 2
P3 0.4998 Q3 0.1000
P Q
4 0 . 000 4 0 . 0006
P5 1.0000 Q5 0.4999
22 July 2011 144

Tap-changing
Example
Power increments:
P2 1.5 1.4998 0.2065
P 0.5 0.4998 0.1969
3
P4 0.000 0.0057
P 0.0258 10 3
5 1 1 . 0000
Q3 0.1 0.1000 0.0339

Q
4 0 . 0006 0 . 6375
Q5 0.5 0.4999 0.1218
22 July 2011 145

Tap-changing
Example
Tap to the closest feasible value:
t 0.9144 t 0.915
Admitance matrix:
0.3998 j19.942 0.3998 j19.992 0 0 0
0.3998 j19.992 0.7997 j 39.884 0 0.3998 j19.992 0

Ybus 0 0 0.3998 j19.942 0.3998 j19.992 0

0 0.3998 j19.992 0.3998 j19.992 0.7997 j51.8282 j10.929
0 0 0 j10.929 j10
22 July 2011 146

Tap-changing
Example
Power calculation:
P1 0.0031 Q1 0.0501
P 1.4998 Q 0.6391
2 2
P3 0.4998 Q3 0.1000
P Q
4 0 . 0007 4 0 . 0075
P5 0.9993 Q5 0.4926
22 July 2011 147

Tap-changing
Example
Power increment calculations:
2

P2 1.5 1.4998 0.0002 3
P 0.5 0.4998 0.0002
3 4
P4 0.0007 0.0007 5
P 0.0007 ; V3
5 1 0 . 9993 V
Q3 0.1 0.1000 0.0000 3
V4
Q 4 0.0075 0.0075 V4
Q5 0.5 0.4926 0.0074 V
5
V
5
22 July 2011 148
Tap-changing
Example
Jacobian:
39.2449 0 19.253 0 0 1.103 0

0 18.5072 18.5072 0 0.1307 0.8689 0

19.1935 18.5271 48.2132 10.4926 0.1282 0.7431 0.9993
J 0 0 10.4926 10.4926 0 0.9993 0.9993

0 0.8689 0.8689 0 18.3071 18.5072 0

1.872 0.1282 0.7445 0.9993 18.5271 48.1983 10.4926
0 0 0.9993 0.9993 0 10.4926 9.5074
22 July 2011 149

Tap-changing
Example
Final values
2

3 0.0007
4 0.0289 1 0

0 . 0152 1 0.0002
5
V
3 0.1699 10 V 0.9607 ; 0.1043
3
V3
0.9644 0.0744
V 0 . 0552

4
0.0558 0.9991 0.1725
4
V
V5 0.8522
V
5
22 July 2011 150
Tap-changing
Example
Final power values:
P1 0.0031 Q1 0.0501
P 1.5000 Q 0.6402
2 2
P3 0.5000 Q3 0.1000
P Q
4 0 . 0000 4 0 . 000
P5 1.0000 Q5 0.5000
22 July 2011 151

Power World
22 July 2011 152

5. Fast decoupled AC load flow
22 July 2011 153

Fast decoupled AC load flow
Two simplifications:
Do not build Jacobian at each iteration (small error
introduced, then, the procedure needs more
iterations to reach the solution)
Decoupling between P- and Q-V (not

recommended in system highly loaded and/or with
low voltage levels)
22 July 2011 154

P(r ) H(r ) N(r )

( r 1)
(r ) (r ) (r 1)
( r ) V

Q J L V (r )
Assume:
i) V i 1 .0 i
ii) Gik Bik i, k
iii) cos(i k ) 1.0
sin(i k ) 0.0
iv) Qk Bkk
22 July 2011 155
We have:
H B~1 , L B~2 , N 0 , J 0
~
ik Bik

~ ~
B1 , B2 ~
B
Elements of YBUS
Bii Bii
22 July 2011 156

P(r ) B~ ( r 1)
0
(r )
1
~ (r 1)
Q 0 B 2 V
~

P(r ) B1 (r 1) (1)
~

Q(r ) B 2 V (r 1) ( 2)

( r 1) ~ 1
B1 P(r )
V
( r 1) ~ 1
B 2 Q(r )
Use Newton-Raphson Iteration

22 July 2011 157
Fast decoupled load flow. Flow diagram
DATA INPUT
Calculate Delta P
Real Reactive YES

power YES power
coverged coverged
? ?
NO NO
Solve (1) and update angles
Calculate Delta Q
NO
Reactive YES Real YES

power power
coverged coverged
? ?
NO NO
Solve (2) and update V
OUTPUT RESULTS
22 July 2011 158
Fast decoupled load flow. Matlab Code
function [V_modulo, V_fase, P, Q, N_iter, T_calculo, Error_p] = desacoplado(V_modulo_ini, V_fase_ini, P_ini, Q_ini, Y,
npv)
%
% [V_modulo, V_fase, P, Q, N_iter, T_calculo, Error_p] = desacoplado(V_modulo_ini, V_fase_ini, P_ini, Q_ini, Y, npv)
%
% Obtencion de indices de nodos: 1 -> SLACK;
% 2,...,M -> PV;
% M+1,...,N -> PQ
n = length(V_modulo_ini);
m = npv + 1;
% Parametros del Metodo
Tol = 0.0001; % Tolerancia del metodo (Perdida de potencia).
Error_p = 1; % Error inicial (A un valor mayor que Tol).
N_iter = 0; % Numero de iteraciones.
% Valores iniciales
V_modulo= V_modulo_ini';
V_fase = V_fase_ini';
P = P_ini';
Q = Q_ini';
DS_DA = diag(V)*conj(Y*j*diag(V)) + diag(conj(Y*V))*j*diag(V);

DS_DV = diag(V)*conj(Y*diag(V./V_modulo)) + diag(conj(Y*V))*diag(V./V_modulo);
22 July 2011 159

%J = [real(DS_DA(2:n , 2:n)) real(DS_DV(2:n , m+1:n)) % Construccion del Jacobiano
% imag(DS_DA(m+1:n , 2:n)) imag(DS_DV(m+1:n , m+1:n))];
H = imag(-Y(2:end , 2:end))
L = imag(-Y(m+1:end,m+1:end))
j=sqrt(-1);
tic;
while (Error_p > Tol) % Bucle principal (Se permiten 50 iteraciones como mucho).
if (N_iter >50)
error('Demasiadas iteraciones');
break
end

S = V.*conj(Y*V); % Expresion compleja de la potencia
DP = P(2:n)-real(S(2:n)); % Incremento de potencia activa (nudos PV y PQ)
DQ = Q(m+1:n)-imag(S(m+1:n)); % Incremento de potencia reactiva (nudos PQ)
Dfase = H\DP;
Dmodulo = L\DQ;
PQ = [DP ; DQ];
Error_p = norm(PQ,2); % Error en esa iteracion
22 July 2011 160

V_fase (2:n) = V_fase(2:n) + Dfase; % Actualizamos la fase de las tensiones (nudos PV y PQ)
V_modulo (m+1:n)= V_modulo(m+1:n) + Dmodulo; % Actualizamos el modulo de las tensiones (nudos PQ)
N_iter = N_iter + 1; % Incremento el numero de iteraciones
% disp('Pulse una tecla para continuar')

% pause
end
P=real(S); % Calculo de la potencia activa

Q=imag(S); % Calculo de la potencia reactiva
V_fase=V_fase*180/pi; % Paso de Radianes a grados
T_calculo=toc;
% **** ENTRADAS ****

%
% V_modulo_ini = Modulo de la tension para comenzar a iterar (conocidos en SLACK y PV).
% V_fase_ini = Fase de la tension para comenzar a iterar (conocido en SLACK).
% P_ini = Potencia activa en los nodos (conocido en PV y PQ).
% Q_ini = Potencia reactica en los nodos (conocido en PQ).
% Y = Matriz de admitancias nodales.
22 July 2011 161

% **** SALIDAS ****
%
% V_modulo = Modulo de la tension en todos los nodos.
% V_fase = Fase de la tension en todos los nodos.
% P = Potencia activa en todos los nodos.
% Q = Potencia reactiva en todos los nodos.
% N_iter = Numero de iteraciones.
% T_calculo = Tiempo de calculo.
% Error_p = Error.
%
%
% **** OBSERVACIONES ****
%
% Los nodos deben estar ordenador asi:
%
% *1 : SLACK.
% * 2...m : PV.
% * m+1...n : PQ.
%
%
% **** FECHA Y AUTOR ****
%
% Laura Laguna - Nobiembre de 2005
22 July 2011 162

Fast decoupled load flow: Exaple
Tolerance 0.1 MVA.
ONE TWO
THREE
22 July 2011 163

Power base SB = 100MVA

Bus Voltage p.u. Power
1 1.02 -
2 1.02 PG=50 MW
3 - PC=100 MW
QC=60 MVAr
Line Impedance p.u.

1-2 0.02+0.04j
1-3 0.02+0.06j
2-3 0.02+0.04j
(cada una)
22 July 2011 164

Admitance matrix
15 35 j 10 20 j 5 15 j
Ybus 10 20 j 30 60 j 20 40 j

5 15 j 20 40 j 25 55 j
22 July 2011 165

Data and unknown:

Bus Type Data Unknown
Slack and V1 = 1.02
1 P1, Q1
reference 1=0.0
P2 =0.5
2 PV 2, Q2
V2 = 1.02
P3 = -1.0
3 PQ 3, V3
Q3 = -0.6
Inicialization:
2 = 3 = 0.0 ; V3 = 1.02 p.u.
22 July 2011 166

Flow diagram
Vi(0) , i(0), Piesp, Qiesp Compute: Delta P
Compute: Pical, Qical

Yes Yes
Convergence P? Convergence Q?
NO
Solve subproblem 1 and update angles NO
Compute: Delta Q
Yes Yes
Convergence Q? Convergence P?
NO
NO
Solve subproblem 2 and update voltages
Final results
22 July 2011 167

60 40
Compute H ; L 55
40 55
Calculate P and Q:
P2cal 0.36241014 P2 0.5 P2 0.5

cal
cal cal 1
P
3 0 P
3 1 P3

Q3 7.247510
cal 15
Q3 0.6 Q3 0.6
cal

No convergence
22 July 2011 168

First iteration:

2 - 0.4213 1.0200 0
3 - 1.3481
V 1.0200 ; - 0.4213
V
3 - 0.0109 1.0091 - 1.3481

V3
22 July 2011 169

Residuals:
P2cal 0.7385 P2 0.5 P2 0.2385

cal
cal P 1 Pcal 0.3003

P
3 1. 3003 3 3
Qcal cal
0.4583
3 0 .1417 3
Q 0.6 Q 3
Error = 0.5976 no convergence
22 July 2011 170

System state (second iteration)

2 - 0.0372 1.0200 0
3 0.2857
V V 1.0200 ; - 0.4585
3 - 0.0083 1.0008 - 1.0264
V3
22 July 2011 171

Residuals:
P2cal 0.6578 P2 0.5 P2 0.1578

cal
cal P 1 Pcal 0.1936

P
3 1.1936 3 3
Q3 0.7444
cal
Q3 0.6 Q3 0.1444
cal

Error = 0.2885 no convergence
22 July 2011 172

System state (third iteration):

2 - 0.0315 1.0200 0
3 0.1788
V 1.0200 ; - 0.4900
V
3 0.0026 1.0034 - 0.8836
V3
The process continues.
22 July 2011 173

After 9 iterations:
P2cal 0.5006 P2 0.5 P2 0.595410

cal 3
cal P 1 Pcal 0.7006103

P
3 1. 0007 3 3
Qcal cal 3
3 0 . 5992 3
Q 0. 6 Q 3 8.334610
Error = 0.0012 convergence attained
22 July 2011 174

System state at iteration 10:

2
- 0.159210-3
1.0200 0
3 0.614110-3
V V 1.0200 ; - 0.4710
- 1.515410-5
1.0043 - 0.9614
3

V3
22 July 2011 175

Residuals:
P2cal 0.5003 P2 0.5 P2 0.286310

cal 3
cal cal 3
P3 1.0004 P3 1 P3 0.351610
Qcal cal 4
3 0. 6003 3
Q 0.6 Q 3 3.334910
Error = 5.628510-4 convergence attained
22 July 2011 176

State at iteration 11:

2
- 0.056710-3
1.0200 0
3 0.325110-3
V 1.0200 ; - 0.4711
V
1.0043 - 0.9611
6.063410-6

3

V3
0.5098 0.0711

P 0.5003 Q 0.5515
1.0004 0.6003

22 July 2011 177
convergence
22 July 2011 178

convergence
22 July 2011 179

convergence
22 July 2011 180

convergence
22 July 2011 181

6. Variable limits
22 July 2011 182

Variable limits
Physical considerations
1. Voltage magnitudes out of limits

a PQ BUS does not meet
v min
i v i v max
i
Action: Warning! voltage problem
2. Flow magnitudes out of limits

A line does not meet
- S max S S max
ij ij ij
Action: Warning! overloading of lines problem
22 July 2011 183

Variable limits
Physical Considerations
3. Reactive Power out of limits

A PV BUS does not meet
min max
Qi Qi Qi
Action: Wrong Formulation!
Specified voltage cannot be attained
Formulate the problem properly
22 July 2011 184

Variable limits
Computational Considerations
Changing PV to PQ
no yes
Q hits
limit?
no Yes Change to
Q=Qmax ? QG>Qmax? P-Q
Q=Qmax
Yes No
yes
Change to P-V Yes Change to
V >Vdato? V=Vdato P-Q
QG<Qmin?
Q=Qmin
No No
Stay as
P-Q Stay as
P-V
Yes Change to P-V
V <Vdato? V=Vdato
No
Stay as
P-Q
22 July 2011 185

7. DC load flow
22 July 2011 186

DC load flow
Approximate solution.
Two simplifications:
In network model: do not consider series
resistences and shunt admittances
Assume Vi=1 at all buses
22 July 2011 187

DC load flow
Approximate analytical solution
V V
i j
P sin
ij X ij
ij
2
V V V
i i j
Q - cos
ij X X ij
ij ij
Assume
i) Vi 1.0 i
ii) sinij ij
iii) cos ij 1.0
22 July 2011 188
DC load flow
Approximate analytical solution
ij
Pij Bijij Biji Bij j
Xij

n
n
n
Pi Pij Bij i Bij j
j1 j1 j1
j i
ji j i
P B
where n
Bii' Bij
j1
ji
22 July 2011
Bij' Bij 189
DC load flow
Continuation
Vi V j
Qij Bij ( V i V j ) Bij V i Bij V j
Xij
n
n n

Qi Qij Bij V i Bij V j
j1
j1 j1
ji
ji ji
Q B' V
22 July 2011 190

DC load flow
Continuation
Solution
P B' PQ & PV Buses
Q B' V PQ Buses
1 V1 P2 Qm1

; V ; P ; Q
n Vn Pn Qn

' n

ii ij
B B

B
' j1
ji ; B ij
1
Xij
'
Bij Bij
22 July 2011 191
DC Power flow: example
22 July 2011 192

ONE TWO
THREE
22 July 2011 193

Data
0 1.02 -
1 1.02 PG=50MW
2 - PC=100MW, QC=60MVAr
Line Impedance p.u.

0-1 0.02+0.04j
0-2 0.02+0.06j
1-2 0.02+0.04j (both)
22 July 2011 194

41.67 25 16.67
B 25 75 50

16.67 50 66.67
P0 41.67 25 16.67 0
0.5 25 75 50 1

1.0 16.67 50 66.67 2
Q0 41.67 25 16.67 1.02
Q 25 75 50 1.02
1
0.6 16.67 50 66.67 V2
22 July 2011 195

P0 41.67 25 16.67 0

0.5 25 75 50 1
1.0 16.67 50 66.67
2
22 July 2011 196

Po= -251 - 16.672

0.5= +751 - 502
-1.0= -501 + 66.672
Q0= 41.67*1.02 - 25*1.02 - 16.67V2

Q1= -25*1.02 + 75*1.02 - 50V2
-0.6= -16.67*1.02 - 50*1.02 + 66.67V2
22 July 2011 197

Solution:
P0 0.5p.u.=50MW
Q0 0.15p.u.=15MVAr
Q1 0.45p.u.=45MVAr
1 -1.1459
2 -0.3819
V2 1.011p.u.
22 July 2011 198

PowerWorld comparison:
Var DC PowerWorld DC PowerWorld G-S

P0 0.50p.u. 0.50p.u. 0.509p.u.
Q0 0.15p.u. 0.00p.u. 0.07p.u.
Q1 0.45p.u. 0.00p.u. 0.55p.u.
1 -0.3819 -0.3820 -0.47
2 -1.1459 -1.1459 -0.96
V2 1.0056p.u. 1.0000p.u. 1.0043p.u.
22 July 2011 199

0,00 MW 50,00 MW
0,00 Mvar 0,00 Mvar
CERO
UNO
DOS
TRES
100,00 MW
22 July 2011 60,00 Mvar 200
Data.
0 1.02 -
1 1.02 PG=50MW
Line Impedance p.u.

0-1 0.02+0.04j
0-2 0.02+0.06j
1-2 0.02+0.04 (both)
2-3 0.1j
22 July 2011 201

41.67 25 16.67 0
25 75 50 0
B
16.67 50 76.67 10
0
0 10 10
P0 41.67 25 16.67 0 0
0.5 25 75 50 0 1

0.0 16.67 50 76.67 10 2
1 .0 0
0 10 10 3
Q0 41.67 25 16.67 0 1.02
Q 25 75 50 0 1.02
1
0.0 16.67 50 76.67 10 V2
0 .6 0
0 10 10 V3
22 July 2011 202
P0 = -251 -16.672-0*3
0.5 = 751 - 502-0*3
0.0 = -501 + 76.672-103
-1.0 = -0*1 - 102+103
Q0 = 41.67*1.02 - 25*1.02 - 16.67V2 + 0*V3

Q1 = -25*1.02 + 75*1.02 - 50V2 + 0*V3
0.0 = -16.67*1.02 - 50*1.02 + 76.67V2-10*V3
-0.6 = 0*1.02-0*1.02 - 10*V2 + 10*V3
22 July 2011 203

PowerWorld comparison:
Var DC PowerWorld G-S PowerWorld DC

P0 0.50p.u. 0.51p.u. 0.50p.u.
Q0 0.00p.u. 0.11p.u. 0.00p.u.
Q1 0.00p.u. 0.67p.u. 0.00p.u.
1 -0.3819 -0.48 -0.382
2 -1.1459 -0.91 -1.1459
3 -6.8755 -7.05 -6.8755
V2 1.011p.u. 1.002p.u. 1.000p.u.
V3 0.951p.u. 0.932p.u. 1.000p.u.
22 July 2011 204
8. Comparison of load flow
solution methods
22 July 2011 205

Comparison of load flow methods
1. Gauss-Seidel (G-S)
Simple technique
Iteration time increases linearly with the
number of buses. Lower iteration time than N-
R. Seven times faster in large systems
Linear rate of convergence. Many iterations
required for getting close to the solution
Number of iteration increases with the
number of buses
22 July 2011 206

(Continuation)
2. Newton-Raphson (N-R)
Widely used
Iteration-time increases linearly with the number of
buses
Quadratic rate of convergency. A few iterations for
getting close to the solution
Number of iterations independent of the number of
buses of the system
The Jacobian is a very sparse matrix
Method non-sensitive to slack bus choice and the
presence of series capacitors
Sensitive to initial solution
22 July 2011 207
(Continuation)
3. AC decoupled
B has to be computed and factorized only once

~
It requires more iterations than Newton-

Raphson method
Iteration time is 5 times lower than Newton-
Raphsons iteration time
Useful for analyzing topology changes because B
~
can be easily modified
Used in planning and contigency analyses
22 July 2011 208

(Continuation)
4. DC Decoupled
Analytical, approximate and non-iterative method

Good approximation for , not that good
approximation for V
Used in reliability analyses
Used in optimal pricing calculations
Good for getting an initial point
22 July 2011 209

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LOAD FLOW

Univ. Castilla La Mancha

3. The Gauss-Seidel solution technique

4. The Newton-Raphson solution technique

5. Fast decoupled AC load flow

1. A. Gmez Expsito, A. J. Conejo, C.

2. A. R. Bergen, V. Vittal. Power Systems

Most used tool in steady state power system

Knowning the demand and/or generation of

The problem is described throught a non-

Need of iterative solution techniques

Solution technique: accuracy vs. computing

We want to find out the relationship between

Using Kirchhoff laws:

Complex power injected in each bus:

Therefore, the no lineal equations for the 2

Two bus case

2. Mutual admittance between nodes i and

(>90% for more than 100 buses)

Shunt element YG j 0.01 (two per line)

j19.98 j10 j10

2n equations (static load flow equations)

Vi, i,Pi, Qi ; i 1,...,n

If 2n variables are specified, the other 2n are

Pi known ( PDi known, PGi zero)

Pi known ( PGi specified, PDi known)

Qi unknown ( QGi unknown, QDi known)

3. Slack bus, generator with large capacity.

Voltage magnitude Vi min Vi Vi max

Power angle i k i k max (every existing line)

PGi,min PGi PGi,max

At iteration (r+1) and bus i, the available values of

(more on this below)

Vi(r 1) Vi(r ) ; i 2,...,n

6.1) Slack bus power (after convergence)

6.2) Compute line currents (after convergence)

Sik Iik 0 Iki0 Sik

Sik Iik 0 Iki0 Sik

6.3) Compute losses (after convergence)

Acceleration factor (in order to decrease

plot(1:nite,errorplot,'o');grid on;xlabel('iteracion');ylabel('error por iteracion');title('evolucion error tesion');

Data below. Base power is SB=100 MVA:

Bus Voltage (p.u.) Power Lin Impedance (p.u.)

2 1.02 PG=50 MW 1-3 0.02+0.06j

3 - PC=100 MW 2-3 0.02+0.04j

Bus Type Data Unknown

1 Slack V1=1.02 1=0.0 P1 Q1

3. Voltage magnitude initialization (iteration 0):

2 02 0 All buses but the reference one

- PV buses (Q, ) i=2,...,m (bus 2)

- PQ buses (V, ) i=m+1,...,n (bus 3)

4. PV buses: iteration (r+1) :

6.1) Slack power

6.2) Power flows S12 , S21, S13 , S23 , S31, S32

Slosss ,ik Sik Ski k, i 1,2,3

Sloss Sloss ,12 Sloss ,13 Sloss ,23

7. If no coveergence, the procedure continues in Step 4.

Iteration (pu) 1 2 3 ... 10 11

Q2 0.81 0.4084 0.4696 ... 0.5493 0.5501

P3 -1.0 -1.0 -1.0 ... -1.0 -1.0

Q3 -0.6 -0.6 -0.6 ... -0.6 -0.6

2 ( ) 0.0675 -0.1596 -0.2885 ... -0.4667 -0.4685

V3 1.0041 1.0042 1.0043 ... 1.0043 1.0043

DS_DA = diag(V)conj(Yjdiag(V)) + diag(conj(YV))jdiag(V);

% ENTRADAS