se oat y 41998 uonsod « seo passers eso sodind a S04. “(966 Bosay poe Bin pinous sopea! ee spur soqums Tout “sumjon poe SUV TDS GNV SYOLDIn ‘wong pow pauaraad are oe 40 no wt urdanyqoog, 21 30 axe 246 50 SHOU yy ou nde poveaBon mo pee see uaipet ing ‘anes cr 30 S03 27 Ho 0m unruyap ayy 24 01 1UEau! ust sekdeN> 4 7 rs usp atop o woes amp effet 20} piepues pod su. 3921100 ‘argue. aq104 pons cs ‘adoouos aes an ‘315 249 on pre Uonduosep 240A ‘ureo>eds u uouos 90 10 spo 24 Jo suotetauso poe wontnod sreneo 01 posh a ep so NOY SUA ANGLES NODS “M pur [[wEH Ydasof so)ewW2UI)] jeuojsuaulig-2224) t sso of reanuoyy ‘2 pig samo XB (ons 9p 01 fondo 259) 24 feu uonow 3ugunsp wsnoPIY 1 sxdexp uu soumpawog u spoway \oreorey He,The method most often used fr defining a post tin in SD space isthe Cartesian coortnate stom inwhich a position vector ha thre coordinates that "uniquely dings the point in space, Thee cose sinatesare muti orthogonal Thelor Coordinates or the projection ‘onto the reference frame. For example, recon in Hye 2.1 located 3¢ distances from the V2. Plane, 4 from the XZ plane, and fiom the XY Plane. The location ofthis postonis defined by che ‘coordinates (A,A,AJ. Two vector ar¢ considered qual ifall of the respective components ofthe seciorsare equal. That vectow Aend Hare equa HA=B,A Bandas 8 >I igure 84 -A3.0 coordinate epten ‘Ader met of representing the components Of point Ais by wing wn secon, Unit wear ae defined asvectorsof unt lengthalong each ofthe sees ‘ofthe coordinatesjstem and are specie es and Ealong the X.¥-and Zanes respectively igure Specifically. a unit vector €, is defined se ‘A. The double bars mean the norm or magni 36 Recoarch Methods in Bomocheriaa —_—_ ofthe vector this opertion defined in appendix D, The untveetors sociated with each of thew ofthe inthe rairestion, F= (10,0) im the yiection, j= (0J,0)and (28) in the 2aieton, = (0.0.1) Any vector can then be represented using its Car (san coordinates or the vector sum of A=UAAAD 25) cach component by the nora or by diving ragnitde ofthe the unt vector ithe i Root k oak ate Oran hint et usa VECTOR OPERATIONS 4a 8D analysis, several operations and concepts concerning vectors are critically important wo aa ingan understanding of motion in 8D space. Howsuey ate presented only brief in appendix D Shi book. Readers are urged to reler to more riled presentations of the concepts in other ICES 1 of the computations done in $D kinematics oacomplshed selatvely efficiently sig mat A mars any rectangular array of numbers fh number inthe array ivan omen I the say rons and ncolumas, the mati is referred to on aati Each element ofthe mati cn ee ented by its tow and colin positions numberof oweand colsmnsinaatrn denotes Walsfax tn ay es) clement ais the element inthe second row nd the thre column, or the element inthe (23) place Generally each elementin matrix [A can be red tos where 1s the row namber and ji column number A matrix having only one row i several columns ina mans For example balefs 29) Comserey x matrix can have several rows bat only (oles metric For example, al-| 210) We wil encounter a numberof special matrices in this chapte A square matx has the same mabe foftows and columns. Adiagonal matrix isa square Airc in which the elements oa the diagonal, l=. )ae nonzero andthe oes are ar. air TA] fea square, diagonal matty ja, 00 Henatanageepe tetera loo. Aa identity matrix ia square matrix whote diagonal ements equal 1. Designate I} matrices, they sare wren lke this —— Tiroe-Dimeasional Kinematics 97 213) The transpose of matrix (A} i designated as (AJ" and isone in which the rons and cons are inte: changed. ay ten[ay=fa, a. MATRIX OPERATIONS ASD anahsis involves many operations concerning ‘mawices with which you mustbecome fama These ‘operationsare presented in appendix Ea this book. Ast vector operations, eaderrarewged toreler to more detailed presentations of the concep in other sources COLLECTION OF Allcurrentmuliamera motion anablsatemsan Collect SD data, The orientation and arrangement ofthe camerasare not aerial ina 8D setup asin 82D setup (igure 2). Each of the cera only has to provide a set of 2D coordinates, with each digitzed lands appearing in atleast two cameras rom these sis of 2D coordinates, 3D spatial coordinates are gene ‘erated. fa most eases, thei lar renformation (DLT) method (Abdet-Asic and Karare 1971) eased to aleulate the $D coordinates. The DLT method ‘stablshes a linear telatonship between the 2D ‘amera coordinates ofeach bad Landmark and the representation of this andmark in SD space, "The technique to do this relatively straight forward and, in this ehapte, we only outline the methodology. More detalled explanations of DLT methods are presented in papers by Milles Shap- ino, and MeLawghiin (1980); Shapio (1978); at Marzan and Karara (1075) A et of» pon called ‘oa paints, defines an aj spe ora coordinate ‘stem inthe laboratory. The contol points have Known leeaons in real units in $D space The set3 Rocosrch Methods in Biorechanigs camera Direction of maton camera + Computer ‘Gamera y altratod 3-0 space & t camera 3 camera 2 = Fpure 2.3 Typical mucamera expeinentl stp fora 9. Kinematic ane wang side. ‘f contol points must contain atleast sx noncopi- ‘ar point (= 6), ut unvally many more than that are tse. In fact, up 1920 control points are often ‘wed. The images ofthese control poi are then captured by all eameras in 2 muleamers setup and igized to prodsce 2 coordinates leach point in ‘each camera view. From the 2D coordinates othe n nnoncoplanar control points, ast of 2x equation is develope for eal camer view Thisset of equations |s then sohed for 11 DEF parameters (L, through 1,) relate to each camera. The DLT parameters tehlectthe lationship beencen SD space snd the 2D ‘camera image. The equstion for one camera are KAUX SLY OLE bs em a0 and TgXebaxenazco 2 heres the number ofthe conto pin: 3, and Jae the dgined 2D coordinates fo the acon {ot poin X,Y and are the known ject space ornate the th cntel polntand Ly to Lease ‘he DLT parameters “The Src ot equation ih 1 unknown par exe forma an overdcermined oon (Lee more ‘cuntons an nknown) ssl wee Squares technique (ier Shap, and Me ug 1960), The DE parameters contin implicit infor ‘ation elng othe camera onentatonsand ocr tions Once these DLT parameter are known, the Eentrel pins canbe rmved rum te aboatory. ‘Themarkerthatare placed onaubjectcan ten be ‘apuure by the same camera asthe subject moves ‘through the calibrated object space. When these markers have been digitized in 2 space in at leat, two cameras, the 2 coordinates ofthe landmarks and the DLT parameters can be entered into the ‘uation took forthe 3D coordinates wing the same equation Inthis ease, hovever, we save fe X, Yeand 2, the 3D coordinates ofthe points The DLT method isnot the ely method wed to etermine HD coordinates roma et of 2D coord nates Other methodsncide nonlinear transforma: ‘dons The techniques ofallaresmilarin hat know locations of markersin bD space are combined wth ‘heir digitized images in 2D space to determine & Ssetof nonlinear equations fomvhich the locations ‘of unknown markers can be deermined, SOORDINATE SYSTEMS Two coordinate systems mut be defined when com ducting a 3D anayis These ae the poe or labore tory comiinate stem (GOS) andthe lal code ‘sue (LCS) GLOBAL OR LABORATORY COORDINATE SYSTEM ‘The GOS is also eeferred to the neti! mfomer ‘prom ad i i determined when the abject apace [Sdefined during the SD data capture. Tis coord nate sstem—generaly a righthanded, orthogonal system with an arbitrary oigin~defines the Fixed Coordinate stem in the laborsory fom which ll pposiionsare ultimately derived. In thie chapter, the (GCS is designated using upperame eters withtheary designation of X,¥, and 2. In Bean, te Xx pointed nominally the mediolateral divection, the Yas weopsteroy and the Zax vera Bic untvecion forthe CCSare 1} Er repectvey LOCAL COORDINATE SYSTEM Fe 5 ia efrence em thats fined fins body orssegmentandmeeswh pe bir or tgmen Like the CS, LES sin a nighthanded orthogonal date psec orign geeraly cata center nao the by oF ent In chapter th LOS di acs owercleferr yandrand ie favor sre Joan repeat sso ich ht he aio De UC pons medically the pa fo anteropontrry ar the nai Fray The onenton of he LS tothe cinesthe onenon of the body or et in apace and tchange se Sy ore ent ses thoigh the 3D apc Caletaing he ewan ofthe LCS in the OCS ded ina terscon of hs chaptr How ihe Ln deine depends om how the marker tobe dg or unched are paced on ie body ose guesion Te CCSand LS and teisepecve ivetorsae dete in gure 2 ofthe sae stmpton that we wed for 2D app (oD, The mou imporant of hee inthe bly consits of segtents Segments Considered rgd If he length ofthe segment foe nt change This, ofcourse, no rer he el varus detngsth are nog THowevey ty making ti aampton we "ay mathemati for which we oid solon: We mus we at oft est oncolnearpinsoneachsogmentto define gl body nS epace. Notaries th he are not ina sgh ie Ieshould ao be understood that when we mea the Kinemaes of body or segment we are rng w detemine the acne te stele res This ot simple proposon bectse are limited in how we tepresent the individual ea structures Although alent the noncl markers must be paced on each segment se markers can be paced and oriented on atin multiple configurations, Examples of Coal or fed coordinate satom “Woe Dimensional Kinematics a8 Local or moving 2 coordina system oe _—? © Figure 2.4 Onentaon ofthe GOS and LCS rlrence ames three such configurations are presented in Higures 2Band 26 ‘Broadly speaking, there are four categories of ‘configuration: (1) markers mounted on bone pins (2) skinmounted markers on specific atomical landmarks on the segment, (3) strays of markers fa rigid surface shat i atached to the body. and (@) a combination of markers on anatomical land marks and ara of markers. Great care must be taken wo ensure thatthe weight ofthe marker the markeratachment devices moving relive to the hhones donot produce movement artifacts (Karsion and Tranberg 1909) The marker configuration that ‘we use in is chapter isa combination of aray of ‘markers pled onarigi surface and mashes paced fon anatomieal andar (gure 26) ‘An artayof three nocollinesr markers ona pin Standard aging which other marker sytem often are hel Decl ataching dhe markerta the bone fives the most accurate measurement of the motion ‘ofthat bone (Fuller eta. 1097;Reinecinid «a 1907), The least aecurate marker set uses three individual, aoncollinear markers placed direct on the skin (Faller etal 1997; Kariston and Traberg 1909; Reinschmidt etal. 1997). Because the mark ers move independent ofeach other, 3 great deal of errors introduced into subsequent cleulations Faller eta. (1997) reporeed displacements of the individual narkersreiatve to the bone of up to 20 tm, whereas other sudies ported wales of up 0 0-mam (Rednschmide eta. 1997). Reinschynidt et al. (1997) reported that dhere wat good agreementrch Methods in Biomechanics “0 —_— ——— fam ras} fas 7 + Greater trochanter a : | secu win lt a | % ow Wandmartere— | | \ | i Weed maker \ |- Wond marker © 1 | \j rr wvateous\ [| Lf , Ve > re Prstmettananees © DC ‘tigwe 8s Examples o pica marker contguaion wad gat torsares: using antomicalandnat; (maker ‘tig conn ofanaariea makars and maven wen and fd stl es ob Denen skin and bone markers in knee Mesion’ extension, but a great deal of disagreement in "ndution /adauetion and internal external ation hen compared othe respective ranges of motion The average error rlaive tothe range of motion 48215 for flexion extension, 689 for abduction, ‘udduction, and 70% fo nternal/external rotation. should be noted that she motion of hin markers salto task dependent For motions in which there isan impact wansient for example, the motion of sin-motnted markers was greater than thatof bone marker, Tn many instances, researchers have placed the roncolinear markers on a righ sruture (igure 2.) and atuiched the structure tothe segment Because allo the markers are affixed to the rig structure, the markers all move relative to each other and ae not independent of each other Angeloni et al (1993) reported that signifeanly areaterdisplocements occurred with skinrmounted markers thanvith markers mounted on rig plates and suggested thatthe latter markers wee prefer able to skinmmounted markers for both practicality and accuracy Manal etl, (2000) evaluated several onchided that se of four markers tached to Fig shells optimal, The authors myggested that—_—_____________ ee imensionalKineratics 41 ioe crest) about she longitudinal axis occurred even vith the smi. ‘optimal marker set. esalor super, |) Anterior superior Tn several marker sets, the tad of marks on a Wecspne WSIS)“. tac spire (SIS) segment may consist of two markers on ancomical Ye locations anda third marker placed on a tod fe Fetal teahrat locations and faced oma tod tha projet cra tom the aepment (agar 230) \ ‘This mares wed wo eter mesure $D craton . 4 ofthe segment about is longi axis Eason 2) Po aay ad Tranerg (199) sggenied at he inert of Imhes paced on rode might be rete tan sin "Therefore when deciding hearer conf ration ote ue rsearchers mist be awa othe Leg aay . imenenenaf 8b cootaaes Onteaionet isaninancie Daihen pacn ontene ee ew Ripuntan mociad cane poet = thion, procedure may charge eston joe wis tos Consequenyrexerthere mus eae aet.s Canola cfsmstorconiguston ingrid hich of de extemal placed marker congestion: error te andar atic rutowon opin forte tak under espn Ture ise so mai more, he acca of meairemen from ment rately ne measure ean be mad foal uch asl shuld be placed more italy to atoid rent fenion/extensan munemens. Howes Sewtiaasea the ore proximal porion athe seconday tui motons are lew tele an men Hower rouadonal devauonsof=? about particulary internal exeral rotation ab the Ge metiawalsndamcropoveiorucsandea! Eons ee segmene From the Scientific Literature ) Far Mga a 189 Acongusoeloveresvoty itn raha va anne ater onsen Soo oi “The purpose ofthis study was to evaluate the vat of ekin-mounted markers in measuring the ‘3:0 kinematics ofthe underbjing bone. Kinematic data for marker arraye mounted on skeletal fins screwed ciroctinto tre bone were compared to data for markers and marke arays placed ‘Siroctyon the skin The key findings ofthe study as they pertain tothe chapter were that + sotttiseue motion re task; ‘+ the power spectra of to skin: and pin-mounted markers covered sina frequency bends and inere was no eviderce of a eietnc,equendy- dependent sof tissue arifac, + Joint angles calculated rom the skinmmounted araye were significantly diferent rom the fxpectee values; and v0 10 the underlying bone was up to 20 mm, depending on the "shin mountos marker dita existed a transient response to heel tke in gait. Forlow-mass ‘markers, however, this could be removed with optimal smoothing techniqueses 42 Research Methods in Biomechanigg DETERMINATION OF THE A number of methods can be used to determine the LCS from the external markers In thichaptos we describe only one ofthese techniques in many Inaanees, researchers collect data from a sanding o.teny=n-y (27) Figure 2.13 represen atime series ofthe 8 hip nls daring walking tha ws esleulsted sing this ‘approach. From dhese graphs we can se tha the Alexion extension graph is very similar os compare ble graph Iisa clear thatthe range of mation ‘of he abcton/adducdon and ail tation angles snot very large relative to the flexion angle. Davie ft (1991) stated that abduction adduction and Axil rotation angles are not sed in thelr elinical laboratory because ofthe poor signabto-nose ratio sociated with these data. However, while these Angles are small iis Uhough that they may eon tai information dats pertinent to understanding human locomotion Cateuate che hip angles with the same formulae that were used fr the ee angles but use the pels LLGS and thigh LCS. The sume formulae are alo sohed forthe ane angles, sing the leg LCS al {oot LS, butte terminelogy concerning the actions fs diferent. For the ankle, the Hlexion/ extension Angle, a, refers to ane dorilxion’ plane Hexion, the second angle 8. is more appropriately referred ‘oasankleimersion/eversion and heal yotation ale is referred vo as abduction adduction For the leftlower extremity, the LOS ofeach seg- ‘ments computed in exaely the sine manner aor the right limb. However, the dvection i medtaly "figure 2.12, Wing SD ip angle anormal sbject (he ne an a crea ply aut lack el ove ie yc fesonenasen, fe) schon (0 itenaleal ei otaion, eaten pein en ean armani aes by Row sna Gos (Benner: tinea el 2 lrecte,whereasitwas laterally ditcted inthe ight Timb. Mainaining the orientation LCS ofeach ey. ‘ment results in only slight adjustment to the foe mulae for abducion/ addiction and axl otation angles and no adjustment othe flexion extension Angle: To mainain the same polariy between eight" nd left limbs, the let him acon adduction and axial rotadon angle simpy need to be mul: plied by-1Tree Lmons.ons Kinematice From the Scientific Literature Davis RB, S Ounpuy,.Tybursh and LR Gape 1981. A got ana data collection end reduc tion eemigue Human Movant Seance 1O878-82 Human motion ean be charactrzed by means of gat analyia. Galt analysis the systematic mes urement, deserption, ad assessment of quan ties that ae representative of human mation. 1 thes paper Davis eta. describe the development fol the Newington Chicdren's Hospital Gale Labo- Fatory, wih emphasis on the equipment used in the laboratory, the marker se, andthe computa tions used te quantty human lecomation. In this laboratory, foreach eogmont LCS, Y ia medily drcted, Xie antonio dvected end Z ie vert. tally rected Joint angle determination ia based ‘on Eulor angles wih a YXZ rotaion sequence, ‘corresponding to flexion/extension adduction? Abduction, and intemaesternal sequonce (seo ‘igure 2-14). ‘The authors sated hat a numberof efnements ofthe data-colletion procedure were under wy, “These inckided improving the hip-oint centering gorithm and developing a better fot mode JOINT COORDINATE SYSTEM Tae jointcoordinate stem (JCS) was fist propored twdesrie the motion ofthe knee joint (Groed and Saniay 168) and hassince been applied othe other Towerexrrminy joie The meshod war devloped se taal tree rotations besween body segments had functional snatomical meaning. The [CS proach cs one coordinate ais from each LCS ofthe two Begrents that constitute the joint In the example ‘ofthe ke, the longitudinal vie ofthe JOS the k ‘usof the LCSofthedsalsegment al the Iaterally Pome embedeon |gomanatoyton Shank embedded Figure 284. Lover ete end coo fate stare ued compe jt agin ‘poten ace and aon cr diected axiss the ans from the LCS ofthe prox ‘mal segment. The third axe floating axis that the crossproductof te lngiadinal ard Intel axes ‘and thus is perpendicular tothe pare formed by these directed kes (Rus iu) shoul be clear thatthe ertcal and ateral ker of thier are not necestil perpendicular The [CSis, ierefore not ‘2 orthogonal item. In addition, the coordinate ‘stem may not havea common origin, The JOS for sv insantin ime forthe knee joint x ichematcally presented in Figure 2.18nee joint coornata eye \ er Tm Fag \ cd Floating axis ae fl ie | \Waa, \ Cie figure 2.15. A dagianati represent ofthe CS the hae. The ral mn the ei te np re rredalats isthe ans at he Pigh LCS and esting tie th rcs product oth tere me The angles forthe JCS are once again designated 1s a for Nexion/ extension, for abivction sdduc tion, and -yfor external interna rotation, Flexion ‘extension sasumed bea rotation about the later ally directed ax ofthe proximal segment (eau) bduction/ adduction ia rotation abou ating fxs andaual etation ira rotation sbout the vertical tnt ofthe dist segment (Ke). The floating ais (FA) isdetined as ‘Based on the markersetdhat hasbeen used through ‘ue thls chapter, the right limb angle ealeulaions Nexion extension 0 cos (FFs) oe luton faction Z ) 0) 08 (Eau Fane b-0-<0{ ) xia otation en 1290-008 ( ‘a 6) The left im joint angles ae cleat the same manner. However, to saint polarity between let and righimb th ‘Adducton and axa rotation angles plied by HELICAL ANGLES “Another method of representing the ¢ ‘onerelerence stem to another i ise lncalansorsemwais(Wolting etal 1901. In this technique, a poston » orientation vectorare defined. Any fa fom areference position can be des of 8 roution about and transition al Aliected fine or ais (he the heel space wth unit diecion igure 2.1) Tang eases thas wl not coincide w! Aefined axes of the LS af ether segme Insantaneous posiion and orientate are defined and dessbed with respect UGS (Spoor and Velde 1980), gues Frtonalatsor Cy ipnisteoton marsenste Svar atrg te Sue taaretaces Te item paivp,tponee || tecstemememte f / sete siren | The orientation vectors defined fo fonmation matrix (1) a eaeulated pre ‘equation 24). The Grientation vector ave calculated using the relationships Spoor and Veldpaus (1980). The een ponents can be determined a: fram ] sino = 4) Ty, anon lear =1 andsind= YiVwecan wed! ‘equation 10 sole for sn 6‘TweeDimensional Kiematics 81 From the Scientific Literature | Cin |, 3nd K Vana. 1997 Coupling parameters in runners with normal and excessive rons ‘on. Jounal Agate Biomechanes 1340828 “The purpose ofthis study was to investigate diferonces inthe coupling behavior at foot and ince motions during the support phao of sunning in subjects clasifed a normal pronator and Srihose with excessive pronation. Thee dimensional data were colacied and anlle and knee “gles ware computec using the JCS analysis desenbed inthe previous section (igure 2.17). cursion ratios beween rearfoot everson and iba nternal rotation were compared De- ‘ween the two groups and found to be significant lawer in tho pronator subjects. Ting [bolween peak everson, knee flexion, and knee internal rotation was alga assessed. The timing Between peak knee and rearfoot angles was not signficantly diferent between the groups, ‘although times were ore closely matched in the normal eubjects, Result of ts etudy aug ‘gested that increased mation of the rear foot cen lead to excessive movoment atthe kre. 5 2 Figure 4.17 Ensemble Snole-angle diagram of aise ‘certian andes tral oe wv Wi oN See seme .. is seiereenspec coon actee npc tan sn0=(LV (i) =i Tod HF) 59) ere fin 8> iV we cam te the following, Using these components, we can decompose the on she orc fete ne ino thee orthogonal ages cote Hy se tty=l) es) a) Io eee ° en then calcein, fang se ° -t | es sistas : 7 Taal | 80 roan (258) The ves angle compu age ela aa [err procedure cepescntthe onenao of the egment {thesame mannerasthe three Cardan or the thee in JeSangles do.52 Rosearch Methods in Biorechanioe CARDAN/EULER SYSTEM VS. JOINT COORDINATE SYSTEM VS. HELICAL ANGLES. OF the methods presented here, the Cardan/Ealer and JOS techniques are the most widely used for ‘ililating 3 joist anges. Neither of these to approaches appears wo have any obvious advantages ‘or disadvantages oer each oe. face the pr ‘ple of the wo approaches i the same and the angles calculated by each should ge exactly the same results. There are advantages ail drawbacks, however o using al ofthese tecinigues, The major advantage for Caran’ Esler angles is ‘hat they af widely sted in lomechanies and pro videa wellunderstood anatomical representation of {pintmovement However thesequence dependence ‘of the angles i thought o bes dsadvantage More Jmporant isthe problem of gimda bk Ths oecrs when the second rotation equals divided by 2 Fesulng ina mathemati sngulariy: However this is generally a much greater problem inthe upper ‘extremly than in the Tower extrem Helical angles are especialy good when the rote ‘on is very small and they eliminate the problem of gimbal fock. However the representation af pint motion provided by belical angles does not orrespond wih an anatomical representation that isclinialy meaningful In addon, helical angles are verysenstve to noisy coordinate ata Thevelore, ‘he coordinate data must be satay smoothed before the heieal angles are alelated, SEGMENT ANGLES individual segrsent to the GCS. They ean be cles lated in mach the same way that jont angles ake Hower, instead of using an LCS matrn for eh segment (see equations 231 and 232), the LOS ‘atrx of the segment in question and the identity ‘matrix representing the GCS can be used. From these wo matrees, wansformation matrix can be computed (see equation 284. When thse done thesegmentanglescan be computed. Usa either aCardan/Evler or helical approach canbe tse for this purpose, SUMMARY OO ‘The definition ofthe tem knematézapplies equally Inboth 2D and 3Dspace-Itshould be treed that SD joint angles are not equialent to planarview 2D angles. order to caleuate $D joint angles, & muldeamera setup is necesary: The 22 views of ‘ach camera are then converted toa 4D view ofthe movement, eneraly aa direct fear transfor tion method: When establishing the 3 vew of the ‘movement, GCS must be dened Various marker setups, all of which have pros and cons, ean be used. Minimally, homer, three noncollinear markers should define each segment ‘These markers are used to dene an LCS foreach segmentthat moves ath thesegment asthe segment roves through space. We can use the LCSe of two ‘Segments to determine a rotational ransformation mati The matrix forms the bas forthe elevation ‘ofboth joint and segment anges, Several methods are used to calewate joint angles. including (1) the Cardan, Euler approach, {@) the JCS approach. and (3) the finite hell axis Approach. The mor widely wed inthe biomechanier Tterature appear to be the Cardaa/ Euler and JCS approaches SUGGESTED READINGS Allard. A. Caporto, A. Lundberg. ane Cough Chien, U.K: fon Wily Soe Nig BM, and W. Herzog. 1904 nna 9th May “ulbsbll Sy New Yor Jan Wey & Sa Vaughn C2 BL Data) G O'Connor: IB Py ‘sof Huan Cait Charpaige t Human Rtn Zatsioy,VM, 198. Knot of ea Nien Cham