VARIABLE-FREQUENCY NETWORK

PERFORMANCE
LEARNING GOALS

Variable-Frequency Response Analysis

Network performance as function of frequency.
Transfer function

Sinusoidal Frequency Analysis

Bode plots to display frequency response data

Filter Networks
Networks with frequency selective characteristics:
low-pass, high-pass, band-pass
 SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCY ANALYSIS

A0e j ( t + )
A0 H ( j )e j ( t + )
H (s)
B0 cos( t + ) B0 | H ( j ) | cos( t + + H ( j ) )
Circuit represented by
network function
To study the behavior of a network as a function of the frequency we analyze
the network function H ( j ) as a function of .
Notation
M ( ) =| H ( j ) |
( ) = H ( j )
H ( j ) = M ( )e j ( )
Plots of M ( ), ( ), as function of are generally called
magnitude and phase characteri stics.

20 log10 (M ( ))
BODE PLOTS vs log10 ( )
( )
HISTORY OF THE DECIBEL

Originated as a measure of relative (radio) power

P2
P2 |dB (over P1 ) = 10 log
P1

V2 V22 I 22
P=I R=2
P2 |dB (over P1 ) = 10 log 2 = 10 log 2
R V1 I1

V |dB = 20 log10 | V |
By extension I |dB = 20 log10 | I |
G |dB = 20 log10 | G |

Using log scales the frequency characteristics of network functions

have simple asymptotic behavior.
The asymptotes can be used as reasonable and efficient approximations
 Poles and Zeros and Transfer Functions

Transfer Function: A transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace

transform of the output to the input with all initial
conditions equal to zero. Transfer functions are defined
only for linear time invariant systems.

Considerations: Transfer functions can usually be expressed as the ratio

of two polynomials in the complex variable, s.

Factorization: A transfer function can be factored into the following form.

K ( s + z )( s + z ) ... ( s + z )
G ( s) = 1 2 m

( s + p )( s + p ) ... ( s + p )
1 2 n

The roots of the numerator polynomial are called zeros.

The roots of the denominator polynomial are called poles.

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 Poles, Zeros and the S-Plane
An Example: You are given the following transfer function. Show the
poles and zeros in the s-plane.
( s + 8)( s + 14)
G (s) =
s ( s + 4)( s + 10)

j axis

S - plane

origin
o x o x x
-14 -10 -8 -4 0 axis

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 Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots

Characterization: Considering the transfer function of the

previous slide. We note that we have 4 different
types of terms in the previous general form:
These are:
1 1
K , , , ( s / z + 1)
s ( s / p + 1)
B

Expressing in dB: Given the tranfer function:

K ( jw / z +1)
G ( jw) = B

( jw)( jw / p +1)

20 log | G ( jw | = 20 log K + 20 log | ( jw / z + 1) | 20 log | jw | 20 log | jw / p + 1 |

B

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 Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots

Mechanics: We have 4 distinct terms to consider:

20logKB

20log|(jw/z +1)|

-20log|jw|

-20log|(jw/p + 1)|

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 Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots

Mechanics: The gain term, 20logKB, is just so many

dB and this is a straight line on Bode paper,
independent of omega (radian frequency).

The term, - 20log|jw| = - 20logw, when plotted

on semi-log paper is a straight line sloping at
-20dB/decade. It has a magnitude of 0 at w = 1.

20
-20db/dec

-20

=1
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 Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots

Mechanics: The term, - 20log|(jw/p + 1), is drawn with the

following approximation: If w < p we use the
approximation that 20log|(jw/p + 1 )| = 0 dB,
a flat line on the Bode. If w > p we use the
approximation of 20log(w/p), which slopes at
-20dB/dec starting at w = p. Illustrated below.
It is easy to show that the plot has an error of
-3dB at w = p and 1 dB at w = p/2 and w = 2p.
One can easily make these corrections if it is
appropriate.

20

0
-20db/dec
-20

-40

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 Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots
Mechanics: When we have a term of 20log|(jw/z + 1)| we
approximate it be a straight line of slop 0 dB/dec
when w < z. We approximate it as 20log(w/z)
when w > z, which is a straight line on Bode paper
with a slope of + 20dB/dec. Illustrated below.

20
+20db/dec
0

-20

-40

=z

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Example 1:

Given: 50, 000( jw + 10)

G ( jw) =
( jw + 1)( jw + 500)

First: Always, always, always get the poles and zeros in a form such that
the constants are associated with the jw terms. In the above example
we do this by factoring out the 10 in the numerator and the 500 in the
denominator.

50, 000 x10( jw /10 + 1) 100( jw /10 + 1)

G ( jw) = =
500( jw + 1)( jw / 500 + 1) ( jw + 1)( jw / 500 + 1)

Second: When you have neither poles nor zeros at 0, start the Bode
at 20log10K = 20log10100 = 40 dB in this case.

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Example 1: (continued)

Third: Observe the order in which the poles and zeros occur.
This is the secret of being able to quickly sketch the Bode.
In this example we first have a pole occurring at 1 which
causes the Bode to break at 1 and slope 20 dB/dec.
Next, we see a zero occurs at 10 and this causes a
slope of +20 dB/dec which cancels out the 20 dB/dec,
resulting in a flat line ( 0 db/dec). Finally, we have a
pole that occurs at w = 500 which causes the Bode
to slope down at 20 dB/dec.

We are now ready to draw the Bode.

Before we draw the Bode we should observe the range

over which the transfer function has active poles and zeros.
This determines the scale we pick for the w (rad/sec)
at the bottom of the Bode.

The dB scale depends on the magnitude of the plot and

experience is the best teacher here. wlg
 Bode Plot Magnitude for 100(1 + jw/10)/(1 + jw/1)(1 + jw/500)
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
60

40

20

dB Mag Phase (deg)

dB Mag 0
Phase (deg)

-20

-60

-60
0.1 1 10 (rad/sec) 1000
100 10000
(rad/sec)

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 Using Matlab For Frequency Response

Instruction: We can use Matlab to run the frequency response for

the previous example. We place the transfer function
in the form:
5000( s +10) [ 5000 s + 50000 ]
=
( s +1)( s + 500) [ s + 501s + 500]
2

The Matlab Program

num = [5000 50000];
den = [1 501 500];
Bode (num,den)
In the following slide, the resulting magnitude and phase plots (exact)
are shown in light color (blue). The approximate plot for the magnitude
(Bode) is shown in heavy lines (red). We see the 3 dB errors at the
corner frequencies.
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 B ode Diagram s

From: U(1)
40

30

20
P has e (deg); M agnitude (dB )

10

-10
1 10 100 500
0

-20

-40
To: Y (1)

-60
100(1 + jw / 10)
-80 Bode for: G ( jw) =
(1 + jw)(1 + jw / 500)
-100
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4

Frequenc y (rad/sec )
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 Phase for Bode Plots
Comment: Generally, the phase for a Bode plot is not as easy to draw
or approximate as the magnitude. In this course we will use
an analytical method for determining the phase if we want to
make a sketch of the phase.

Illustration: Consider the transfer function of the previous example.

We express the angle as follows:

G ( jw) = tan ( w / 10) tan ( w / 1) tan ( w / 500)

1 1 1

We are essentially taking the angle of each pole and zero.

Each of these are expressed as the tan-1(j part/real part)

Usually, about 10 to 15 calculations are sufficient to determine

a good idea of what is happening to the phase.

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 Bode Plots
Example 2: Given the transfer function. Plot the Bode magnitude.
100(1 + s / 10)
G (s) =
s (1 + s / 100)
2

Consider first only the two terms of

100
jw

Which, when expressed in dB, are; 20log100 20 logw.

This is plotted below.

The is
40
-20db/dec a tentative line we use
dB 20 until we encounter the
first pole(s) or zero(s)
0
not at the origin.
-20

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1 (rad/sec)
 Bode Plots
Example 2: (continued) The completed plot is shown below.
100(1 + s / 10)
G (s) =
s (1 + s / 100)
2

1 1 1 1 1 1
60

-20db/dec
40

20

dB Mag -40 db/dec Phase (deg)

0

-20

100(1 + s / 10)
G (s) =
-40 s (1 + s / 100)
2

-60
0.1 1 10 100 1000
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(rad/sec)
 Bode Plots
Example 3:
80(1 + jw)3
Given: G( s) = 20log80 = 38 dB
( jw)3 (1 + jw / 20)2
1 1 1 1 1 1

-60 dB/dec

60

dB Mag 40

-40 dB/dec
20

-20 .

0.1 1 10 100 wlg

(rad/sec)
 Bode Plots
Example 4:
10(1 jw / 2)
Given: G ( jw) =
(1 + j 0.025w)(1 + jw / 500) 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
60

40

+ 20 dB/dec
20 -40 dB/dec

dB Mag Phase (deg)

0

-20 Sort of a low

pass filter
-40

-60
2
0.1 1 10 100 1000 wlg

(rad/sec)
 Bode Plots
Given:
(1 + jw / 30) (1+ jw / 100)
2 2

G ( jw) =
(1+ jw / 2) (1+ jw / 1700)
2 2

Example 5
1 1 1 1 1 1
60

40

20

dB Mag Phase (deg)

0

-40 dB/dec
-20 Sort of a low
pass filter
+ 40 dB/dec
-40

-60
0.1 1 10 100 1000 wlg

(rad/sec)
 Bode Plots

Given: problem 11.15 text

Example 6
640( jw + 1)(0.01 jw + 1) 64( jw + 1)(0.01 jw + 1)
H ( jw) = =
( jw) ( jw + 10)
2
( jw) (0.1 jw + 1)
2

.
-40dB/dec

40 . -20db/dec

20
.
-40dB/dec
0
dB mag

-20 . -20dB/dec

-40 .

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 wlg

 Bode Plots

Design Problem: Design a G(s) that has the following Bode plot.

Example 7

40
30 dB

20
+40 dB/dec -40dB/dec

0
dB mag
? ?

30 900
0.1 1 10 100 1000 wlg
rad/sec
 Bode Plots
Procedure: The two break frequencies need to be found. Recall:

#dec = log10[w2/w1]
Then we have:

(#dec)( 40dB/dec) = 30 dB

log10[w1/30] = 0.75 w1 = 5.33 rad/sec

Also:

log10[w2/900] (-40dB/dec) = - 30dB

This gives w2 = 5060 rad/sec

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 Bode Plots
Procedure:

(1 + s / 5.3) 2 (1 + s / 5060) 2
G( s) =
(1 + s / 30) 2 (1 + s / 900) 2
Clearing:
( s + 5.3) 2 ( s + 5060) 2
G( s) =
( s + 30)2 ( s + 900)2

Use Matlab and conv:

N 1 = ( s 2 + 10.6s + 28.1) N 2 = ( s 2 + 10120s + 2.56 xe7 )

N1 = [1 10.6 28.1] N2 = [1 10120 2.56e+7]
N = conv(N1,N2)
1 1.86e+3 2.58e+7 2.73e+8 7.222e+8

s4 s3 s2 s1 s0

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 Bode Plots
Procedure: The final G(s) is given by;

( s + 10130.6 s + 2.571e s + 2.716e s + 7.194e )

4 3 8 2 8 8

G ( s) =
( s + 1860 s + 9.189e s + 5.022e s + 7.29e )
4 3 2 2 7 8

Testing: We now want to test the filter. We will check it at = 5.3 rad/sec
And = 164. At = 5.3 the filter has a gain of 6 dB or about 2.
At = 164 the filter has a gain of 30 dB or about 31.6.

We will check this out using MATLAB and particularly, Simulink.

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Matlab (Simulink) Model:

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Filter Output at = 5.3 rad/sec

Produced from Matlab Simulink

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Filter Output at = 70 rad/sec

Produced from Matlab Simulink

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 Reverse Bode Plot
Required:
From the partial Bode diagram, determine the transfer function
Example 8 (Assume a minimum phase system)

Not to scale
68

20 db/dec

-20 db/dec
30

20 db/dec

dB

1 110 850
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 Reverse Bode Plot
Required:
From the partial Bode diagram, determine the transfer function
Example 9 (Assume a minimum phase system)

100 dB
-40 dB/dec

Not to scale
50 dB
-20 dB/dec
-20 dB/dec

10 dB
-40 dB/dec

0.5 40 300
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w (rad/sec)
Appendix
 General form of a network function showing basic terms

Poles/zeros at the origin

Frequency independent

K 0 ( j ) N (1 + j1 )[1 + 2 3 ( j 3 ) + ( j 3 ) 2 ]...
H ( j ) =
(1 + j a )[1 + 2 b ( j b ) + ( j b ) 2 ]...

log( AB ) = log A + log B First order terms Quadratic terms for

N complex conjugate poles/zeros
log( ) = log N log D
D
| H ( j ) |dB = 20 log10 | H ( j ) | = 20 log10 K 0 N 20 log10 | j |
+ 20 log10 | 1 + j1 | +20 log10 | 1 + 2 3 ( j 3 ) + ( j 3 ) 2 | +...
20 log10 | 1 + j a | 20 log10 | 1 + 2 b ( j b ) + ( j b ) 2 | ..
z1z2 = z1 + z2 H ( j ) = 0 N 90
z1 Display each basic term
= z1 z2 1 1 2 3 3 separately and add the
z2 + tan + tan + ...
1 ( 3 ) 2 results to obtain final
1

answer
1 2 b b
1
tan a tan ...
1 ( b ) 2

Lets examine each basic term

Constant Term

the x - axis is log10

this is a straight line

Poles/Zeros at the origin N | ( j ) N |dB = N 20 log10 ( )

( j )
( j ) N = N 90
 | 1 + j |dB = 20 log10 1 + ( ) 2
Simple pole or zero 1 + j
(1 + j ) = tan 1
<< 1 | 1 + j |dB 0 low frequency asymptote (1 + j ) 0

>> 1 | 1 + j |dB 20 log10 high frequency asymptote (20dB/dec) (1 + j ) 90

The two asymptotes meet when = 1 (corner/break frequency)
Behavior in the neighborhood of the corner
distance to
FrequencyAsymptoteCurve asymptote Argument
corner = 1 0dB 3dB 3 45
octave above = 2 6dB 7db 1 63.4
octave below = 0 .5 0dB 1dB 1 26.6

Asymptote for phase

High freq. asymptote

Low freq. Asym.
Simple zero

Simple pole
 Quadratic pole or zero t 2 = [1 + 2 ( j ) + ( j ) ] = [1 + 2 ( j ) ( ) ]
2 2

2
| t 2 |dB = 20 log10 (1 ( ) )
2 2
+ (2 )
2 t 2 = tan 1
1 ( ) 2
<< 1 | t 2 |dB 0 low frequency asymptote t 2 0
>>1 | t 2 |dB 20 log10 ( ) 2 high freq. asymptote 40dB/dec t 2 180
= 1 | t 2 |dB = 20 log10 ( 2 ) Corner/break frequency t 2 = 90
= 1 2 2 | t 2 |dB = 20 log10 2 1 2 Resonance frequency 1 2 2 2
t 2 = tan 1

2
These graphs are inverted for a zero

Magnitude for quadratic pole Phase for quadratic pole

LEARNING EXAMPLE Generate magnitude and phase plots
10(0.1 j + 1)
Draw asymptotes Gv ( j ) = Breaks/corners : 1,10,50
for each term ( j + 1)(0.02 j + 1)
Draw composites

dB
40
20 10 |dB
20dB / dec
0
20 dB / dec
20
90
45 / dec

45 / dec
90
0.1 1 10 100 1000
asymptotes
LEARNING EXAMPLE Generate magnitude and phase plots
25( j + 1)
Draw asymptotes for each Gv ( j ) = Breaks (corners) : 1, 10
( j ) 2 (0.1 j + 1)
Form composites

dB
40
28dB
20
0
40dB / dec
20

45 / dec
90

45
90
180

270
0.1 1 10 100
Final results . . . And an extra hint on poles at the origin

dB
40 dB
dec 20
dec
dB
40
1 dec
K0
= 0 = ( K 0 )2
( j ) 2 dB
LEARNING EXTENSION Sketch the magnitude characteristic
104 ( j + 2) breaks : 2, 10, 100
G ( j ) =
( j + 10)( j + 100) But the function is NOT in standard form
Put in standard form G ( j ) =
20( j / 2 + 1) We need to show about
( j / 10 + 1)( j / 100 + 1) 4 decades

dB
40
25 |dB
20
0
20
90

90
1 10 100 1000
LEARNING EXTENSION Sketch the magnitude characteristic
100(0.02 j + 1 It is in standard form
G ( j ) =
( j ) 2 break at 50
Double pole at the origin
dB
40
20
0
20
90

90

270
1 10 100 1000
Once each term is drawn we form the composites
LEARNING EXTENSION Sketch the magnitude characteristic
Put in standard form 10 j not in standard form
G ( j ) =
j ( j + 1)( j + 10) zero at the origin
G ( j ) =
( j + 1)( j / 10 + 1) breaks : 1, 10
dB
40
20
0
20dB / dec
20 20dB / dec

90

90

270
0.1 1 100
10
Once each term is drawn we form the composites
LEARNING EXAMPLE A function with complex conjugate poles
25 j
t 2 = [1 + 2 ( j ) + ( j ) 2 ] G ( j ) =
[
( j + 0.5) ( j ) 2 + 4 j + 100 ] 2 = 1 / 25
= 0.2
Put in standard form 0.5 j = 0.1
G ( j ) =
[
( j / 0.5 + 1) ( j / 10) 2 + j / 25 + 1]
Draw composite asymptote
dB
40
20
= 1 | t 2 |dB = 20 log10 (2 )
0
8dB
20
90

90
Behavior close to corner of conjugate pole/zero
is too dependent on damping ratio.
Computer evaluation is better
270
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Evaluation of frequency response using MATLAB Using default options
25 j
G ( j ) =
[
( j + 0.5) ( j ) 2 + 4 j + 100 ]
num=[25,0]; %define numerator polynomial
den=conv([1,0.5],[1,4,100]) %use CONV for polynomial multiplication
den =
1.0000 4.5000 102.0000 50.0000
freqs(num,den)
Evaluation of frequency response using MATLAB User controlled
25 j
G ( j ) =
[
( j + 0.5) ( j ) 2 + 4 j + 100 ]
>> clear all; close all %clear workspace and close any open figure
>> figure(1) %open one figure window (not STRICTLY necessary)
>> w=logspace(-1,3,200);%define x-axis, [10^{-1} - 10^3], 200pts total
>> G=25*j*w./((j*w+0.5).*((j*w).^2+4*j*w+100)); %compute transfer function
>> subplot(211) %divide figure in two. This is top part
>> semilogx(w,20*log10(abs(G))); %put magnitude here

>> grid %put a grid and give proper title and labels
>> ylabel('|G(j\omega)|(dB)'), title('Bode Plot: Magnitude response')
Evaluation of frequency response using MATLAB User controlled Continued

Repeat for phase USE TO ZOOM IN A SPECIFIC REGION OF INTEREST

>> semilogx(w,unwrap(angle(G)*180/pi)) %unwrap avoids jumps from +180 to -180

>> grid, ylabel('Angle H(j\omega)(\circ)'), xlabel('\omega (rad/s)')
>> title('Bode Plot: Phase Response')

No xlabel here to avoid clutter

Compare with default!

LEARNING EXTENSION Sketch the magnitude characteristic
= 1 / 12
t 2 = [1 + 2 ( j ) + ( j ) ]
2 0.2( j + 1)
G ( j ) = 2 = 1 / 36 = 1 / 6
j [( j / 12) 2 + j / 36 + 1]
= 1 | t 2 |dB = 20 log10 (2 )
= 9.5dB
dB
40
20
20dB / dec
0
20 0dB / dec
90
40dB / dec

90

12 270
0.1 1 100
10
 0.2( j + 1)
G ( j ) =
j [( j / 12) 2 + j / 36 + 1]

num=0.2*[1,1];
den=conv([1,0],[1/144,1/36,1]);
freqs(num,den)
DETERMINING THE TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM THE BODE PLOT

This is the inverse problem of determining frequency characteristics.

We will use only the composite asymptotes plot of the magnitude to postulate
a transfer function. The slopes will provide information on the order
A. different from 0dB.
There is a constant Ko
A K 0 |dB
B K 0 |dB = 20 K 0 = 10 20
C D
E B. Simple pole at 0.1
( j / 0.1 + 1) 1
C. Simple zero at 0.5
( j / 0.5 + 1)
D. Simple pole at 3
( j / 3 + 1) 1
E. Simple pole at 20
( j / 20 + 1) 1
10( j / 0.5 + 1)
G ( j ) =
( j / 0.1 + 1)( j / 3 + 1)( j / 20 + 1)
If the slope is -40dB we assume double real pole. Unless we are given more data
 Determine a transfer function from the composite
LEARNING EXTENSION magnitude asymptotes plot

A. Pole at the origin.

C Crosses 0dB line at 5
E
5
j
A
B. Zero at 5
D
B
C. Pole at 20

D. Zero at 50
E. Pole at 100

5( j / 5 + 1)( j / 50 + 1)
G ( j ) =
j ( j / 20 + 1)( j / 100 + 1)

Sinusoidal
DESIGN EXAMPLE BASS-BOOST AMPLIFIER
DESIRED BODE PLOT
(non-inverting op-amp)

500
f =
P
2

OPEN SWITCH

(6dB)

Switch closed??
DESIGN EXAMPLE TREBLE BOOST
Original player response Desired boost

Design equations

Proposed boost circuit

Non-inverting amplifier Filters