C4 Cheat Sheet

Chapter Usual types of questions Tips What can go ugly

1 Partial Be able to split a fraction whose The textbook provides two methods for dealing with top Forgetting the extra term when the
Fractions denominator is a product of heavy fractions. The algebraic long division method is miles denominators factors are squared.
linear expressions, e.g.
2+3 easier! Being sloppy at algebraic long division!
(+1) 2 +2 2 +2
e.g. (+1) = 2 +. Using long division we get a quotient of 1 Be careful with substitution of negative
Be able to split a fraction where
values.
one (or more) of the factors in and a remainder of + 2, thus:
You may have to spot that you need to
the denominator are squared, 2 + 2 + 2
2+3 =1+ factorise the denominator first before
e.g. 2 (+1) 2
+ ( + 1)

+2
expressing as partial fractions.
Deal with top-heavy fractions Then split the into partial fractions as normal.
(+1) Not realising the fraction is top heavy and
where the highest power in the Dont forget that when you have a squared factor in the therefore trying to incorrectly do:
denominator is greater or equal denominator, you need two fractions in your partial fraction 2 2
to the highest power in the = +
sum: ( + 1) + 1
2 +2 2
denominator, e.g + 2+
(+1) 2
( + 1) +1
When you have three unknowns its generally easiest to use
substitution to get two of them (e.g. the and the ) then
compare the coefficients of 2 to get the . For the above
example:
2 ( + 1) + ( + 1) + 2
We can see immediately, without needing to write out the
expansion, that 0 = + , by comparing 2 terms.
2 Parametric (

) Note: You will NOT be asked to sketch parametric equations. Hitting a dead end converting parametric
Know that =
Equations
( ) To convert parametric equations involving trig functions to equations to Cartesian. See tips on left.


(This makes sense as we have just divided Cartesian ones, the strategy is usually to make sin and Forgetting to multiply by when
numerator and denominator by ) cos the subject before using the identity sin2 + cos2 integrating parametric equations.
Be able to integrate parametric 1. Often squaring one of the parametric equations helps so
equations. Remember that the in can be
that we have sin2 and/or cos 2 :
Be able to convert parametric = 3 sin 2 = 4 cos 2
replaced with , which is easy to
equations into a single Cartesian = 23 sin cos remember, as the s cancel if we think of
one. 2 = 12 sin2 cos 2 and just as quantities.
2 = 12(1 cos 2 ) cos 2
2
2 = 12 (1 ( ) )
4 4

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3 Binomial Expanding out an expression of (1 + ) = 1 + () +
(1)
()2 Many things!
Expansion the form (1 + ) , where is 2!
( 1)( 2) Lack of brackets when squaring/cubing
negative or fractional. + ()3 + things, e.g. you need (2)3 = 8 3 not 2 3
3!
Expanding out an expression of Your expression may be a binomial expansion in disguise, e.g. With say (3 + 4)1, forgetting to raise the
the form ( + ) , where 1 3 3 you factor out to the power of -1.
1 1 1
needs to be factorised out first. (1
= 2) = 1 + ( )
2 (2) + 2 2 (2)2 + Forgetting to put the factorial in the
1 2 2 2!
Finding the product of two denominators of the Binomial coefficients
When the first term is not 1, you have to factorise this
Binomial expansions, e.g. (a common error is instead of )
number out, raised to the power outside the brackets. e.g. 3 3!
1 + 1 1 1 Being careless in using your calculator when
(1 + )2 (1 )2 1 1 5 2
1 (4 + 5)2 = 42 (1 + ) simplifying coefficients.
4 Be ridiculously careful with signs!
1 5
= 2 [1 + ( ) + ] Accidentally forgetting the minus in the
2 4 1
Ensure the outer brackets are maintained till the very end, power when expanding say (+1)2
when you expand them out.
When finding the product of two expansions, then if you
needed up to the 2 term, then you only need to find up to
the 2 term in each of the two expansions. Only consider
things in the expansion which are up to 2 . e.g.
1 + 1 + 1 1
= = (1 + )2 (1 )2
1 1
1 1 1
(1 + )2 1 + 2
2 8

1 1 3
(1 ) 2 1 + + 2
2 8
1 1 1 1 1 3
(1 + )2 (1 )2 (1 + 2 ) (1 + + 2 )
2 8 2 8
1 3 1 1 1
= 1 + + 2 + + 2 2
2 8 2 4 8
1
= 1 + + 2
2

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4- Appreciate that =
Differentiation represents exponential growth
when > 1, and exponential
decay when 0 < < 1 (and
from C3, know the graphs for
each).
Know that ( ) = ln
(proof unlikely to be asked for)
Be able to differentiate
implicitly, e.g. ( 2 ) = 2
and subsequently be able to
make the subject.
Be able to set up differential
equations, e.g. understand that
the temperature falls at a rate
proportional to its current
temperature could be
represented as =
Connect different derivatives
involving rates, e.g. =
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Example of implicit differentiation (which involves collecting A classic is to accidentally treat or as
constants rather than variables, when
the terms on one side and factorising it out):
differentiating implicitly. Note that
Given that 2 + 2 = 2 , find .
() = if is a constant, but () =
Differentiating both sides with respect to :
+ by the product rule, and not just .
(2 ) + 2 + 2 = 2
When differentiating implicitly, you might
(2 + 2) = 2 2 forget to put the , e.g. ( 2 ) = 2
2 2 rather than the correct 2
=
2 + 2
Exponential functions do not behave like
They particularly love use of the product rule!
polynomials when differentiated. e.g.
A differential equation is an equation involving both some
variables and derivatives involving those variables, e.g. a mix ( 3 ) = 3 2 , but (3 ) = 3 ln 3, and
of , and . Solving this equation means to obtain an absolutely not 31 !
Many students often get their equation
equation only involving the variables, and not the derivatives.
wrong when connecting rates of change,
Whenever you see the word rate, think /.
often say dividing instead of multiplying, or
A circles radius increases at a rate of 2cm/s. Find the rate of
vice versa. If you use the fill in the
increase of its area when the radius is 10cm.
diagonals tip on the left this will unlikely be
First note the variables involved: , and because were
a problem.
talking about rates, . We need to find . Since derivatives
behave pretty much like normal fractions, first write the
following product with the and copied into the
diagonals:
=
Then fill the remaining diagonals with the remaining variable,
: =
One value, in this case = 2, is always given. The other we
need to form some formula, in this case = 2 (and often
using simple geometry to find an area of volume), and
differentiate:
= 2
Thus when = 10, = 2 10 = 20
Thus: = 20 2 = 40
5 - Vectors (In rough descending order of how
frequently they appear in exams)
Find the point of intersection of
two lines or prove that two lines
do not intersect.
Find the angle between two
lines.
Finding a missing // value of
a point on a line.
Find the length of a vector or the
distance between two points.
Find the nearest point on a line
to a point not on the line (often
the origin) note: not in your
textbook!
Show lines are perpendicular.
Show a point lies on a line.
Show 3 points are collinear (i.e.
lie on the same straight line)
Find the area of a rectangle,
parallelogram or triangle formed
by vectors.
Find the equation of a line.
Find the reflection of a point in a
line.
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When you see the , , unit vectors used in an exam When finding the angle between two lines,
question, never actually use this notation yourself: always accidentally using the full vector
just write all vectors in conventional column vector form. representation of the line (in your dot
Almost always draw a suitable diagram. This will be product), and not just the direction
particularly helpful when you need to find the area of some 1
shape (typically the last part of a question). component, e.g. using ( 2 ) instead of
When finding the area of a shape, you can almost always use 3 + 2
1
your answers from previous parts of the questions, including just the correct ( 0 ).
lengths of vectors and angles between two vectors.
1
Remember that area of non-right angled triangle = 2 sin Making sign errors when subtracting
where the angle appears between the two sides and . A vectors, particularly when subtracting an
parallelogram can be cut in half to form two congruent non- expression involving a negative. Correctly:
right angled triangles (i.e. multiply by 2). 1 1
(2) ( 2 ) = ( 4 )
To show 3 points , , are collinear, just show that
is a 7 2
3 2 4
multiple of (i.e. vectors are parallel). Once finding out and (or and ) when
Show 3 + 3 + 2 lies on the line with vector equation = solving simultaneous equation to find the
+ 3 + 4 + ( ) intersection of two lines, forgetting to show
3 1+
that these satisfy the remaining equation.
i.e. Show (3) lies on ( 3 ). Equating 3 = 1 + to = 2. Forgetting the square root when finding the
2 4
magnitude of a vector.
Then 4 = 4 2 = 2, so and components are same.
Let 1 : = (9 + 13 3) + ( + 4 2)
Given point has positive vector 4 + 16 3 and lies on
1 such that is perpendicular to 1 , find .
9+
1 : ( 13 + 4 )
3 2
Note that the direction vector of the line, and the vector
are perpendicular. is just a point on the line so can be
9+
represented as ( 13 + 4 ) for some specific we need to
3 2
find.
1
Direction vector of 1 is ( 4 )
2

6 - Integration Integrate a large variety of
expressions. See the integration
cheat sheet overleaf. But by
category:
o Integrating trig
functions, including
reciprocal functions and
squared functions
sin2 , cos2 , sec 2 2,
etc.
o Integrating by reverse
chain rule (also known
as integration by
inspection).
o Integrating by a given
substitution.
o Integration by parts.
o Integrating by use of
partial fractions.
o Integrating top heavy
fractions by algebraic
division.
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4 9+ 5
= ( 16 ) ( 13 + 4 ) = ( 3 4 )
3 3 2 2
5 1
Thus: ( 3 4 ) ( 4 ) = 0
2 2
5 + 12 16 4 = 0
1
=
3
1 1
9+ 9
3 3
Thus: = 13 + 4(13) = 14 13
1 2
3 2( ) 3
( 3 ) ( 3)
One often forgotten integration is exponential functions such Where to start!
as 2 . Differentiating has effect of multiplying by of the One big problem is just not knowing what
base, and thus integrating divides by it. i.e. method to use to integrate a particular
1 expression. The cheat sheet overleaf should
(2 ) = ln 2 2 2 = 2 +
ln 2 help, as should lots of practice of a variety
Know the two double angle formulae for like the back of of expressions!
your hand, for use when integrating sin2 or cos 2 Similarly getting stuck on integration by
In general, know your integrals of all the trig squares, i.e. substitution, because you cant get the
sin2 , cos2 , tan2 , 2 , sec 2 , cot 2 whole original expression only in terms of
For integration by reverse chain rule, always consider the new variable ( or otherwise).
some sensible expression to differentiate, then adjust for the Perhaps the all-time biggest mistake is
factor difference. e.g. forgetting to consider the effects of chain
(4 3)5 rule. e.g. Accidentally doing
Then your working might be: cos 2 = sin 2
Consider = (4 3)6 . Then Sign errors when integrating/differentiating
= 6(4 3)5 (3) = 18(4 3)5 trig functions. Other than sin and cos, be
1 careful about cot/cosec:
(4 3)5 = (4 3)6 +
18 (cot ) = 2
For integration by substitution, the official specification says
Except in the simplest of cases, the substitution will be thus 2 = cot +
given. A common one: Forgetting about the chain
Remember that starting with the substitution, say = 2 + rule when integrating expressions of the
1, it helps to make the subject, except in some cases where form ( + ) , see (4 3)5
theres a trigonometric substitution, e.g. if = sin + 1, but example.
sin appears in the expression to integrate, then we might
 Be able to differentiate
parametric equations:
= Similarly ln is a constant. ln 2 would
Calculate volumes of revolution
both for normal and parametric
equations:
= 2
= 2
Solve differential equations.
e.g. = +
Trapezium Rule as per C2, but
now with C3/C4 expressions to
integrate. You will frequently be
asked to compare the actual
error and the estimated area
using the rule, and the
percentage error.
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make sin the subject instead. Remember that constants differentiate to
Differentiate and make the subject also, then ensure
nothing, i.e. ( 2 ) = 0 not 2!
original expression is only in terms of new variable.
Dont feel as if you need to memorise a separate formula for
differentiate to ln 2.
parametric volumes of revolution, since = clearly by
If 2 = + 1 is the substitution, youre
the fact that the s cancel. doing unnecessary work if you then square
You have to change the limits whenever you do either of: (a) root. Differentiating implicitly:
parametric integration or (b) integration by substitution,
2 =1
because youre integrating in terms of a new variable.
= 2
This is more use for STEP, but remember that () =
This is much much tidier!
(), useful when the limits are the wrong way round.
Forgetting to change your limits for either
You can tidy things up sometimes using () = parametric integration or integration by
+ (), since the -1 can be factored out the integral. substitution!
For integration by parts, if you ever have to IBP twice, write But note that in integration by substitution,
the second integral as a separate result first before once youve changed back to the original
substituting it in after. This is to avoid sign errors and keep variable (probably ), you should use the
things tidy. e.g. Workings might be: original limits.
2 cos Dont try and use integration by parts if you
can use integration by inspection.
= 2 = cos 2
e.g. For , then integration by parts
would lead to a dead end.
= 2 = sin
For differential equations, ensure the
2 2
sin = sin 2 sin
variable at the top of the matches what
For 2 sin : youve moved to the LHS. e.g. If
= 2 = sin = 2
= 2 = cos then its the you want on the LHS.
2 sin = 2 cos 2 cos
= 2 cos + 2 cos
= 2 cos + 2 sin
cos = 2 sin (2 cos + 2 sin )
2
= 2 sin + 2 cos 2 sin +
 Note the nice double negative tidying up trick towards the
end.

If youre solving = + , then you need the (or

whatever variable appears at the top of ) on the LHS. This

is always achieved by a division or multiplication, which may
require factorisation first:
1
= ( + 1) = +1

1 1
= + 1 ln|| = 2 + +
2
1 2 1 2
= 2 ++ = 2 +
Note in the above example, we let some new constant =
to help tidy things up. If we had ln + on the right-
hand-side, wed make = ln so that ln + ln = ln().
Similarly if we had ln = + , and hence = + =
, we could make = .
In differential equations, ensure you separate the RHS into
the form ()() first so that you are able to divide by
1
(), e.g. = + = (1 + ) 1+ =
In differential equations, if youre given initial conditions
(note, often = 0 is often implied for the initial condition),
then its generally easier to plug them in to work out your
constant of integration sooner rather than later.

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 C4 Integration Cheat Sheet
() How to deal with it () (+constant) FormBk? () How to deal with it () (+constant) FB?
Standard result cos No For any product of sin and cos 1 No
cos 4
Standard result sin No with same coefficient of , use 8
In formula booklet, but use ln|sec | Yes double angle.
sin 1
which is of the form sin 2 cos 2 sin 4
2
cos
() Of form () (()) sin

() Use algebraic division. ln| + 1|
For both sin2 and cos 2 use 1 1 No 1
sin 2 + 1
identities for cos 2 2 4 +1 +1
cos 2 = 1 2 sin2 Use partial fractions. ln|| ln| + 1|
1 1 ( + )
sin2 = cos 2
2 2 Reverse chain rule. Of form 2 ln| 2 + 1|
cos 2 = 2 cos 2 1 1 1 No
+ ()
1 1 + sin 2
2 4 ()
cos 2 = + cos 2 Power around denominator so 1
2 2 ( 2 + 1)1
()
1 + tan2 sec 2 tan No ( + )

NOT of form . Rewrite as 2
()
tan2 sec 2 1 product.
Would use substitution = ln| + cot | Yes ( 2 + 1)2
+ cot , but too hard Reverse chain rule (i.e. Consider
for exam. = ( 2 + 1)1 " and differentiate.
Would use substitution = ln|sec + tan | Yes Fraction top heavy so do algebraic 1
2 + ln|1 2|
sec + tan , but too hard for division first. Then split into 2
1
algebraic fractions as ln |2 + 1|
exam.
cos 4 2 1 = (2 + 1)(2 1) 2
which is of the form ln| | Yes + 1 2+1
sin For any function where inner
()
function is linear expression, 2
() 1
divide by coefficient of ln|1 3|
By observation. cot No! 3
By observation. tan Yes (but + Use sensible substitution. = 1 3
(2 + 1)2 (3 1)
memorise) 2 + 1 or even better, 2 = 15
1 + cot 2 2 cot No 2 + 1.
Standard result No Reverse chain rule. 1 6
sin
= ln = ln 1 No 6
Use identities in C3 formula 1 Sort of
Then differentiate implicitly. ln() cos 5
Standard result ln No booklet, 10
1
sin 3 cos 2 = (sin 5 + cos 3) 1
2 + sin 3

Use IBP, where = ln , = 1 ln No Note: has never come up in an exam. 6

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