IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. PAS-88, NO.
5, MAY 1969
Calculation of Corona Losses Beyond the Critical
Gradient in Alternating Voltage
JACQUES J. CLAD9, MEMBER, IEEE, CLAUDE H. GARY, AND CHRISTIAN A. LEFEVRE
Abstract-After a brief description of the physical phenomena
of ionization, charge movement, and ionic recombinations, a very
schematic description of the corona cycle results in a loss law
which, in particular, shows the influence of the conductor capacity.
A more accurate calculation method is then described, the results
of which agree very well with experience. This law enables the
conductor losses to be determined beyond the critical voltage by
the sole determination of its critical gradient.
INTRODUCTION
WHEN the electric gradient is sufficiently high in the im-
mediate vicinity of a conductor under voltage, positive
or negative ions are formed by corona. These ions are subjected
to the electric field, and when this is alternating, undergo mass
displacements which take them away from, then bring them
back to, the conductor. These displacements demand energy
and are the cause of corona losses.
Corona losses depend both on the amount of charge produced
by ionization and on the displacement of these charges. We
shall show in this paper that, when the gradient on the conductor
surface exceeds a certain figure, i.e., the critical gradient, it is
possible to calculate reasonably accurately the amount of charges
formed and their displacement law. Therefore the losses can be
calculated for this case.
Two calculation methods are described. The first is very
simple, but provides figures which roughly agree with the experi-
mental results. The second is far more accurate and in excellent
agreement with experience, but it calls for large computing
facilities.
Along EHV lines corona losses are only of practical importance
when the gradient exceeds the critical gradient, as often occurs
when the conductors are wet; in these conditions the losses can
be calculated from a knowledge of the critical gradient, i.e.,
the surface state of the conductor. The critical gradient of the
conductors, which depends on their size, on the atmospheric
conditions, and on the pollution, can be determined by tests on
small-scale plants (screen tests). Therefore such tests, combined
with the calculation methods described, should provide a good
estimation of the corona losses on transmission lines.
PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF LoSSES
Corona losses are the result of two distinct physical phenom-
ena: ionization and space-charge displacement.
Ionization
This occurs at the strongest point of the electric field, i.e.,
in the immediate vicinity of the conductor. On thin wires,
Paper 31 TP 66-408, recommended and approved by the Trans-
mission and Distribution Committee of the IEEE Power Group for
presentation at the IEEE Summer Power Meeting, New Orleans,
La., July 10-15, 1966. Manuscript submitted March 23, 1966; made
available for printing July 22, 1968.
The authors are with Electricite de France, Paris, France.
Fig. 1. Ac positive brush discharges.
Fig. 2. Ac negative brush discharges.
ionization takes the form of a continuous surface glow, or corona,
but on the stranded big conductors of HV lines, it is manifested
by brush discharges, discharges attached to an unevenness of
the conductor locally reinforcing the field. Figs. 1 and 2, obtained
by means of a synchroscope, show the different appearance of
these discharges during positive and negative alternation. The
main phenomenon of these discharges is the shock ionization of
the air molecules by free electrons. Because of the very great
mobility the electrons can acquire, in fields of approximately 30
kV/cm, the energy of 14 eV is necessary for the ionization of
an oxygen molecule. The reaction written
e-+ A - A+ + er + e
provides a positive ion A+ and an additional free electron.
The process renews itself and extends by the multiplication
of free electrons; this is the avalanche. When of positive polarity,
the avalanche stops on the conductor; when of negative polarity,
it stops on reaching the low field areas <20 kV/cm. We shall
not examine the complex, and different according to the polarity,
processes which maintain the discharge by regeneration of pri-
mary electrons. The important fact is that an equal number of
negative and positive charges are created in the air in the
immediate vicinity of the conductor. The charges of opposite
polarity to that of the conductor, attracted by the latter, rapidly
come on to it and are neutralized; the others move away. In
the case of negative polarity, the electrons that move away
cannot remain free in fields below 15 kV/cm and attach them-
selves to neutral molecules, thus forming negative heavy ions
of poor mobility similar to that of the positive ions.
Hence, outwardly, it is as if the conductor emitted ions of its
own polarity. We adopt this point of view in this paper, and
we shall refer to the ionic emission of the conductor.
If the superficial field of a conductor is increased, the ioni-
zation which at first is nonexistent appears and develops rapidly;
its appearance is all the more sudden if the conductor surface
is good. The corresponding superficial field, termed critical field,
is given for smooth conductors by Peek [1]:
Eo+ = Eo- = Eo = 308(1 + 0.3/Va.8)
-696 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, MAY 1969

where a is the radius of the conductor and 8 the relative density the number and on the strength of the brush discharge which
of the air. are very changeable factors greatly dependent on surface con-
For stranded conductors of overhead lines, a reduction coeffi- ditions. On the contrary, for V > Vo, the space charge is high
cient depending on the surface state has to be added to the enough to influence the conductor surface field.
above value. Hence the phenomenon is regulated, since any charge emission
by increasing the space charge provokes an increase in the
Space-Charge Displacement charge of opposite polarity induced onto the conductor, and
Once produced, the ions are attracted by the field and move therefore a reduction of the surface field, and finally a slowing
away from the conductor. If we ignore the displacement caused down of the emission. We term this the "generalized" loss
by thermal agitation, which has no resulting effect, and the mechanism; we shall see that, in this case, the losses can be
diffusion of concentration, the displacement of the ions is calculated, whereas it is pointless to attempt to calculate theo-
governed by the following simple law (viscous friction): retically the losses at voltages below the critical voltage.
V= A-E. SIMPLIFIED THEORY OF Loss CYCLE
The speed is proportional to the force, therefore to the applied The following theory is not given as a method of loss calcu-
field, at least as long as this speed is low compared to the thermal lation but as a form of explanation which, in spite of its simplicity,
agitation speed, i.e., at normal temperature and pressure for contains the main characteristics of the phenomenon and gives
fields below 15 kY/cm. The proportionality factor ,u, termed an approximation of the losses.
mobility, has in the air under these conditions the value The aim of the following different simplifying hypotheses is
,u 1.5 X 10-4 m2/V.s to enable the establishment of a simple charge-voltage diagram;
the experimental diagrams (see Fig. 3) show that a parallelogram
is a simplified shape to be acceptable.
The ions immediately consume through friction in the air
the energy obtained in the field; as they have no inertia, they do Simplifying Hypotheses>
not store any kinetic energy. (The inertia of ions starts to become Limitation of the Field to its Critical Value: The conductor
manifest only at frequencies above 1000 MHz.) emission is assumed to be null for E
In direct voltage the ions ever rejoin the ground (or the if E were even slightly higher than< Eo, but,
on the contrary,
Eo, the intensity of the
conductor of opposite polarity), and the consumed energy is ionization would be such that, by reaction of the space charge
simply eV, the product of their charge by the voltage. In thus produced, the field would be immediately brought to the
alternating voltage, the ions move several decimeters away threshold value of emission
from the conductor, then return to the latter at the following Eo.
Consequently the conductor charge can never exceed the
alternation. The total drop in potential of the ions during this corresponding critical value
trip depends on the displacement law. If the field is not pertur-
bated by the presence of the charges, the displacement and the Qo C=v0 (2)
corresponding loss of energy can be calculated without difficulty where C is the conductor capacity and v0 the instantaneous
(see Appendix I). The potential drop is of the same order of critical voltage.
magnitude as the line voltage, which means that the ionization The conductor charge also conforms to the relation
energy is completely insignificant compared to the energy con-
sumed by the charges during their displacement. Q= C.v+Qi (3)
During their return toward the conductor, the charges cross
with charges of opposite polarity and recombinations result. where Qi is the charge induced by the space charge and v the
The phenomenon is not necessarily total, but is important; it conductor instantaneous voltage.
follows the law In the presence of positive ionization, for example, the con-
ductor charge equals Qo, and therefore the induced charge is
dn+ dni-
dt
-= =-aen+*n-
dt
~~~~~(1) known; according to (2) and (3) it equals
where n+ and n- are the ionic concentrations and oz the ionic
Qi= -C(v-vo). (4)
recombination factor which for air, under normal conditions, is Influence of the Space Charge: Value Qe of the space charge
approximately 1.5 X 10-2 m3/s. and value Qi of the induced charge are connected by the relation
Generalized Losses Qi = -Qe,*C/Cs (5)
Loss experimental studies show two operating zones separated in which C8 is the capacity of the space charge with respect to
by the critical rms voltage V0, voltage at which the surface the ground (see Appendix II). CQ depends on the average radius
field of the conductor reaches, at voltage peak, the critical value of the space charge, a radius which varies during the cycle. In
Eo previously defined. order to retain the simplicity of the method, we are obliged to
Below the critical voltage the losses are low, fluctuating, and neglect the resulting variations of C8. A constant value of ca-
not reproducible; above the critical voltage the losses are high, pacity C8 is adopted during the cycle. This is justified by the
steadier, and more reproducible. The reason for this is that for fact that the charges emitted move very rapidly away from the
V < Vo the space charges are insufficient to have any effect conductor to zones in which their movement is considerably
on the conductor surface field; each brush discharge is inde- slowed down and in which their position only slightly affects
pendent of the others, and therefore the loss value depends on the value of the charge they induce.
CLADE et al.: CORONA LOSSES BEYOND CRITICAL GRADIENT 697

CHARGE f 0 F The graph of the evolution of the conductor charge can be

plotted immediately; it is formed by two horizontal lines of
ordinates Qo and -Qo (limitation of the superficial field) and
by two straight lines of slope C (maintenance of the induced
charge in the absence of ionization) which pass through known
points 2' and 5', respectively. Therefore the ionization can
already be observed to stop at the voltage peak and to start
r for voltage v, lower than critical voltage vo given by the simple
relation
0 VO vo-Vl = V -Vo (8)
0--l- where v is the peak voltage.
The charge graph QF provided by the supply can be plotted
I 11 L %-.#- -.1- -

V almost as easily.
During the ionization phases QF varies linearly with the
Vo a 72 kV r.m.s. voltage. For example, for positive polarity from (2), (6), and
(7) we get
Fig. 3. Experimental voltage-charge diagram. QF = C VO + C8(V- VO).
From this we get the ordinate of point 2 corresponding to the
CHARGE peak voltage which equals, if we term dq the additional charge
resulting from the corona,
(QF)max = CVc + dq
with
dq =
(Cs C) (v. vo). (9)
dq
Thus we draw straight line 6-2 and its symmetrical line 4-5.
The cycle is completed by two lines parallel to the straight line
VI O W q = C v (in accordance with the space-charge conservation hy-
VOLTAGE pothesis) which pass through points 2 and 5, respectively.
Analysis of Cycle and Experimental Verifications
What occurs during the positive alternation, for example? A
negative space charge remains from the preceding alternation,
which induces a positive space charge on the conductor. The
superficial field is therefore intensified and reaches its critical
Fig. 4. Theoretical voltage-charge diagram. Solid line-chiarge value for a voltage v lower than vo, thus verifying (8).
provided by the supply; dashed line-conductor charge. From this point the ionization enters into action and the
negative space charge progressively becomes positive canceling
itself for v = vO. This outline covers three simultaneous phe-
Space-Charge Conservation: By means of the two prece'ding d of nomena which are emission of positive charges, return to the
hypotheses the space charge is defined during the period's of conductor of negative charges, and recombination in space of
ionization. From (4) and (5) we get positive and negative charges. In this simplified description,
Qe = C8(v- vo). (6) however, there seems no point in attempting to define the role
of each of these phenomena.
We assume that the space charge remains constant alpart The ionization stops at the voltage peak as, when the voltage
from the periods of ionization. (This would imply that therre is starts to redecrease, the conductor charge decreases and therefore
no charge return to the conductor after the end of ionizati(on.) immediately becomes lower than the critical charge. The cycle
Therefore the space charge is defined throughout the period; continues, the space charge remaining constant, until the start
the same applies to the induced charge. of the negative polarity ionization.
According to (9) the losses are deduced from the area of cycle
Cycle Determination S= 4vo.dq:
P= 8f(C8- C)Vo(V- Vo) (10)
Cycle studies are based on the charge-voltage curve, shown in
Fig. 4, in which the instantaneous voltage is given on the absc issa where f is the frequency and V and Vo the rms voltages.
and the corresponding charge QF, provided by the supply,, on Critical voltage VO being known, this formula enables calcu-
the ordinate. The surface of the curve thus obtained fv d(:QF) lation of the losses providing that C,, is known; a method of
is equal to the energy consumed during one period. The variation estimating the latter is given in Appendix II. In particular, it is
cycle of the conductor charge is also represented on the gr'aph possible to estimate the ratio P2/P1 of the losses of two identical
in the form of a dotted line. If no space charge reaches the conductors of different capacity CI and C2 with respect to the
ground, which we assume, the charge provided by the supplly is ground, submitted to equal surface gradients. This ratio is
at any time equal to the sum of the conductor charge and of the P2 CC-C1
space charge: (11)
P1 Cc-C2
QF = Q + Qe. (7)
698 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, MAY 1969

where Cc is the space-charge capacity with respeot to the con- F

ductor; we get 1/C = 1/C8 + 1/Ce.
This formula shows the minimum dimensions acceptable for a
screen if the phenomenon is not to be overdisturbed and also
A&C = (csc5..F
gives the corrective figure for the measurements. The losses are
observed to increase with the capacity of the conductor, and the
difference increases when the voltage increases as Cc then
decreases.
At a first estimation, loss variation (10) is a lineary function
of the voltage. If the voltage influence on C. is taken into account
by adopting as the average radius of the space charge (see
Appendix I)
rm= 23/4\/y g9a/c, (12)
we get a very slightly parabolic law.
Furthermore, the preceding cycle shows the ionization advance
with respect to the voltage peak; this accounts for the reactive 123
/~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/V
1.1 12 IA1,3
effect of the corona. Exact calculation of the reactive effect as Fig. 5. Theoretical variation law of the capacity
observed in the preceding description is somewhat complicated in function of the voltage.
as it calls for harmonic analysis of the current produced by the
supply. The capacity apparent variation takes the form
AC= (CS-C)F
with
F = tsin spi cos spil)/r
(pi being determined by
cos no= 2VO/V- 1.
The variation of F is given in Fig. 5. The curve is almost recti-
linear with a pseudothreshold slightly above the critical voltage.
Experimental verifications have been made in two cylindrical
screens of radii 0.6 m and 1.5 m, respectively, in the axis of
which a smooth conductor 6 mm in radius was placed. Fig. 3
represents a series of voltage-charge cycles in the small screen
at different applied voltages.
From these diagrams the ionization is observed to start before
the critical voltage is reached and to cease before the voltage
repasses through the critical value. The theoretical study has
shown this ionization advance but has exaggerated it. On the
other hand, the quasi-rectilinear sections of the diagrams justify
the assumption of the induced charge constancy.
Fig. 6 represents a loss curve taken in the small screen under Fig. 6. Comparison between measured losses and losses
rain and a loss curve calculated by adopting a critical gradient calculated from the simplified theory.
go = 14.7 kV/cm rms, i.e., Vo = 40.6 kV rms. The average
radius of the space charge is calculated from (12) which, taking
, = 1.6 X 101 as the average mobility of the ions, provides at With regard to the reactive effect of the corona, the tests lead
the critical voltage a value of rm = 11 cm. From this comes the to an almost linear law of the capacity variation in function of
capacity of the space charge Cc= 19 pF/m according to the the voltage, with a threshold slightly above the loss threshold.
formula The theoretical curve of Fig. 5 agrees with these results, but
quantitatively the calculated capacity variation is higher than
Cc = 2wro/ln (rm/a). (13) the observed variation. This is due to the fact that the theoretical
While the adjustment is acceptable at the beginning, it is ionization advance is clearly greater than the observed advance.
obvious that afterwards the calculated curve does not increase
with sufficient rapidity. EFCOR PROGRAM
In view of the screen capacities C1 = 10.08 pF/m and C2= The simplified theory just described is based on very simple
12.06 pF and of the value Cc = 19 pF/m, according to (11) the but clearly defined assumptions. Experience shows that it pro-
ratio of the losses in the two screens would be vides a qualitative and partly quantitative approach to the
P2/P1= 1.28. phenomenon of generalized corona. Rather than complicate it
artificially in an attempt to make it more accurate, we have
However, as far as it is possible to judge from the experimental preferred to calculate completely the charge displacement. This
results, the real ratio is between 1.20 and 1.25; hence the calcu- is the aim of the EFfect CORona (EFCOR) program which we
lation is a little on the high side. describe along with the resuilts.
CLADE et al.: CORONA LOSSES BEYOND CRITICAL GRADIENT
Calculation: Principles and Description
Beyond the critical voltage, accurate calculation of the space-
charge displacement becomes rather difficult. As the charge
affects the field and as the field reacts on the charge, if we set
the problem mathematically, we find ourselves faced with a set
of equations with partial derivatives and variable limit con-
ditions (in alternating voltage) which are absolutely uninte-
grable. Only electronic computers can deal with such problems
by enabling the use of iteration methods. The perfected program
deals with the case of a conductor placed in a coaxial cylinder,
but the results can be immediately extended to single-phase
lines above the ground and to three-phase lines because of the
independence of the space charges on each conductor.
The main characteristics of this program follow.
Principle of the Charge Shell: With the adopted structure,
there is only one space variable, distance r to the conductor axis.
A method of solving the problem could have been, taking into
account the two functions E (r, t) field distribution and p (r, t)
charges distribution, to integrate by a final difference method
the partial derivative equation system. The charge density p
explicitly intervening and the taking into account of the recombi-
nation phenomenon and possibly of the diffusion would have
been easy, but on the other hand numerical stability problems
would certainly have arisen. We preferred to look at the problem
from a more physical angle: we had moving charges, we indi-
vidualized them and followed their displacement. Therefore we
assume the ionic emission of the conductor to be discrete; each
time it generates an infinitely thin cylindrical film of charges,
termed "shell." A new charge shell can be emitted at each
iteration. The displacement of each separate shell is followed
until its disappearance.
Emission: The conductor charge is calculated at each iteration
from the instantaneous value of the applied voltage and from
the position and charge of all the shells; this gives the value of
the new shell emitted according to the emission law introduced
as data. At present the simple critical charge law is used in the
following form: if calculated charge Q is less than the critical
charge, there is no emission; if charge Q is higher than critical
charge Qo, a shell is emitted which carries the surplus Q Qo;
-
if the elementary time is sufficiently short, the conductor charge
can hardly exceed Qo.
Displacement Law: The displacement is calculated from
dr = I E (r, tn) * dt.
The fields are previously calculated at the site of each of the cylinder of radius 0.6 or 1.5 m; therefore they can be compared
charges by means of the gauss theorem.
The displacement of the last shell emitted, which occurs in a tioned screens.
zone where the field is highly divergent, is calculated by the
more accurate
r= a/1 + 2dti , E/a.
The employed mobilities are
M+ 1.5 X 10-4
,u- = 1.8 X 10O4.
If a shell reaches the outer electrode, it is simply eliminated; It is observed that all the charges do not return onto the con-
if it reaches the conductor, it is eliminated but its charge is ductor, which agrees with experience; the charges develop pro-
returned to the supply.
Ionic Recombination: This phenomenon is taken into account; cycles necessary for the stabilization of the phenomenon. The
its law has already been stated, but it entails charge densities
which are not calculated. An equivalent law had to be found 24.85, and 24.77 W/m, respectively.
699
which expressed that the recombination is inversely proportional
to the crossing speed and obviously proportional to the charges
of each of the shells. By this mechanism the charge of one of the
shells can be cancelled, in which case the shell is eliminated.
Loss Calculation: At each iteration, we calculate the elementary
charge provided by the supply which is equal to the variation
of the conductor charge, plus the quantity of emitted charges,
and minus the quantity of charges returned onto the conductor.
This quantity multiplied by the instantaneous voltage gives
the elementary energy consumed. The addition of these quanti-
ties at the end of a period gives the losses.
General Development of the Program and Delivery of Results:
The main calculation phase is that of the iteration which consists
of the following operations:
1) calculation of the shells displacement
2) calculation of the emission and displacement of the emitted
shell
3) calculation of the recombinations
4) calculation of the conductor charge
5) calculation of the field at the level of each shell
6) calculation of the elementary loss and harmonic analysis
of the elementary current
7) delivery of the various quantities relating to the iteration
8) transfer to the following iteration.
Division of the cycle into 100 iterations provides adequate
accuracy. When the cycle is completed, a certain number of
factors are calculated: losses, the different terms of the harmonic
analysis of the corona current (and, in particular, fundamental
component in quadrature with the voltage which supplies the
apparent variation of capacity), positive and negative total
emitted charge, and total recombined charge. All these results
are delivered, and the following cycle is started. Experience has
shown that, for a given voltage step, the phenomenon is prac-
tically stabilized after five cycles. The following voltage step is
then calculated from the preceding state without returning to
the initial null conditions, which enables the new balance to be
attained much more quickly. Seven voltage steps are sufficient
to provide an accurate loss curve; these calculations take from
three to seven minutes on IBM 7094. The calculation can then
be remade with one of the data modified without interrupting
the operation.
Results Presentation
The following results relate to the calculation of the corona
in the vicinity of a conductor of radius a = 6 mm placed in a
with the experimental results obtained in the previously men-
Detailed Results of a Calculation: The data are as follows:
1) conductor radius a = 6 mm
2) screen radius R = 0.6 m
3) critical voltage Vo = 72 kV rms
4) applied voltage V = 90 kV rms
5) four successive cycles were calculated.
The charge displacement is shown in Fig. 7, on which, for the
sake of clearness, we have only shown a fraction of the shells.
gressively throughout the space, which explains the several
losses calculated for the four successive cycles were 12.50, 23.0,
700 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, MAY 1969

so
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
POSITIVE PEAK NEGATIVE PEAK
4

2 I NEGATIVE SHELLS
0
30: _
POSITIVE SHELLS
Is
20 s -- -

U 10 /, I, -
z I ILI -/ Z -I A 'K 'k XI I
rI lb- X

I-
a ( 1,,I
I

L
II llI"","","",",",,

t
,M,I
,
I
I{ IU II\
I
'

IVII\\ \ 1a,f
'''
I

I/N"\
s

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
TIME (mS)

Fig. 7. Space-charge movement calculated by EFCOR.

30

25

20

Fig. 8. Voltage-charge cycle calculated by EFCOR compared

to the experimentally measured cycle.

Ic L
x10- Alm
in.lu,
a = 6 mm
R = 0,6mm
Vo = 72 kV
V = 90 kV
5A Fig. 10. Superimposed graphs of measured losses and
of the losses calculated by EFCOR.

TABLE I
0 5 10 15 20 ffm.s.

C. M. g P
P Pl/P2 PI/P2
(kV/cm rms) (W/m) real calculated
20 5.7 1 1.15
22.5 10.3 1.15 1.18
25 15.6 1.21 1.25
27.5 21.7 1.24 1.26
-.1 0 I__ I__ I I_
Fig. 9. Corona current calculated by EFCOR compared to
the experimentally measured current.
CLAD,E et al.: CORONA LOSSES BEYOND CRITICAL GRADIENT 701

The voltage-charge cycle obtained at the fourth cycle is quantitatively satisfactory. However, the given ratio between
given in Fig. 8 and compared to the experimental cycle. A more screen and line losses can be accepted with reasonable confidence.
accurate comparison is made on the shape of the corona current Therefore it enables the results of screen measurements made on
(current provided by the supply after deduction of the normal this type of conductor to be transposed to a line, irrespective of
capacitive current of the conductor). This compensated, calcu- the type of conductor employed.
lated current is shown in Fig. 9, on which we have also plotted 5) Improvements in the EFCOR program should take the
with the same data the compensated current measured experi- following directions: introduction of a more realistic progressive
mentally on a smooth conductor. Taking into account the emission law, and better representation of bundle performances.
oscillations of the calculated current caused by the iteration,
this can be observed to agree excellently with the real current. APPENDIX I
Loss Curves: For the screen of radius R = 1.5 m the losses of Calculation of AC Charge Displacement in an Unmodified Field
the 6-mm radius conductor were calculated for surface gradients We assume the field to be unmodified by the presence of the
up to 30 kV/cm rms and for a series of critical gradients, i.e., charges; therefore the conductor superficial field is
go = 16.5, 20, 24, and 28 kV/cm rms.
The curves obtained are shown in Fig. 10; an evolution of the E(t) = E, cosso
shape of the curves is observed from one critical gradient to the with so = co t.
other. These shapes have to be compared to those of the loss The field at distance r from the axis of the conductor of radius
curves obtained experimentally and which are plotted on the a is expressed by
same figure. E(r, t) = E -cossoa/r. (14)
Obviously the sudden start of the calculated losses does not
correspond to reality except for very smooth conductors, but The radial speed of a charge situated at distance r is
apart from this point, the two sets of curves are very similar. dr/dt = A .E (r, t) (15)
Such results obtained by means of a calculation in which the
elements were not adjusted in view of better agreement proves where , is the mobility of the ions.
that the main phenomena have been taken into account and The displacement equation is written
that the physical mechanism corresponds to that assumed.
The ratio between the losses at equal gradients in the two r-dr = ,ugE,-a-c-Icosso*dso.
screens calculated by EFCOR correspond very satisfactorily to so being the phase value when the charge leaves the conductor,
the ratio measured experimentally, as shown in Table I. we integrate it with condition r = a for sp = spo:
Thus the EFCOR program provides a detailed analysis of
the process and enables the conductor losses to be determined r = a\/l + (sin so - sin soo)2t Ec/a.w. (16)
beyond the critical voltage by the sole determination of its Calculation of Corresponding Losses
critical gradient.
If q is the value of the moving charge, the amount of ele-
CONCLUSIONS mentary energy is
Corona losses in alternating voltage result from the displace- dr
ment of the space charges produced by ionization. When the dw = q E (r, t) - -.dt.
dt
voltage exceeds a certain critical voltage, the loss process can be
studied 1) either by a simple method based on analysis of a Hence from (15)
charge-voltage diagram or 2) by a far more detailed, but ob- dw= q.g.E2(r,t).dt
viously more complex calculation, which consists in following and from (14)
step-by-step the movement of all the emitted charges. This dw = q , [E, * cos o * a/r (t) ]2dt.
calculation is carried out by the EFCOR program.
The first method gives a concise and correct picture of the By introducing displacement law (16) we get
general aspect of the phenomenon and of the influence of certain
parameters. The second provides an accurate analysis verified dw = q-Ecoa cos2so*dso
by experience. 2 sin so-sin a
The practical consequences of these studies are as follows: where
1) The losses of a cylindrical conductor can be calculated sin a= sin so- aco/2. E6
for any voltage above a voltage termed critical in function of
this critical voltage only. with -r/2 < a < +r/2.
2) Inverse loss measurements in given surface conditions at a Integration over the entire displacement, i.e., for s varying
given voltage enable the critical gradient to be determined by from soo tor - soo provides
this calculation; thus we have a method of determining what is - Cos t2 (oo + a)
commonly termed "surface state coefficient." W= q.EC.a cosa.Iln a) -cossoO
si
S2((po- a)
3) Screen tests enable the critical voltage to be determined
in function of the surface conditions. For this the screen has to
be correctly dimensioned. This can be checked by the EFCOR - (2r-s0o) sin ].
program which shows no excessive difference between losses on
a line and the losses in the screen. Average Radius of the Space Charge
4) In the case of bundle conductors, the EFCOR program
cannot be applied directly at present and the results obtained, For a charge leaving at the voltage peak 90 = 0 the maximum
by assimilating the bundle to its equivalent conductor, are not distance is reached at cancellation of the voltage so = Yr/2 and
702
equals, according to (16),
r= aV1+2 .E/aEcc.
We take this distance as approximate average radius rm of the
space charge. By introducing the superficial gradient g = E^/2
plus a slight approximation we have
-\Ig a/co.
rM= 23/4s (12)
APPENDIX II
Charge Induced onto a Conductor by an Outside Charge
If q. is a charge situated at distance r from the axis of a
conductor of radius a and of capacity C with respect to the
ground, it induces on the conductor a charge qi equal to
qi = - 0(r) * qe.
The proportionality coefficient 0(r) is the value at distance r
from the conductor of the Laplacian potential function which is
equal to one on the considered conductor and to 0 on the ground
(and on the other conductors, if any). We shall not demonstrate
this classical result.
The equipotential surfaces are cylindrical in the vicinity of a
conductor, and 0 (r) becomes
0(r) = 1 - C ln (r/a)/2ireo.
REFERENCES
[1] F. W. Peek, Dielectric Phenomena in High Voltage Engineering.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1920.
[2] J. Ryan and H. H. Henline, "The hysteresis character of corona
formation," AIEE Trans., vol. 43, pp. 1118-1124, October 1924.
[3] C. T. Hesselmeyer and J. K. Kostko, "On the nature of corona
loss," AIEE Trans., vol. 44, pp. 1016-1024, September 1925.
[41 R. Holm, "Die Theorie der Wechselstromkorona an Hochspan-
nungsleitungen," Archiv fur Elektrotechnik, vol. 18, pp. 567-
582, 1927.
[5] R. Pelissier and D. Renaudin, "Mecanisme de l'effet de couronne
sur les lignes de transport d'6nergie en courant alternatif,"
Bull. S.F.E. Paris, p. 53, February 1949.
Discussion
H. H. Newell (Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Mass.),
T. W. Liao (General Electric Company, Philadelphia, Pa.), and
F. W. Warburton (New England Electric System, Worcester,
Mass.): Contemporaries investigating a problem are always eager
to evaluate the parallel work of others. The approach by the authors
to determine corona loss on EHV conductors is most interesting.
It is a commendable effort but does raise questions on foul-weather
losses.
The discussers have observed conductor corona on a 1.026-inch
diameter conductor of a 230-kV line in over 50 night storms at a
viewing distance of 1.5 m. The center conductor gradient was 16
kV rms/cm. The visible corona varied in most storms at the ob-
served section of conductor, but the only visible light in practically
all snows was from impingement plumes. In most cases during
rain, spray plumes composed nearly all visible corona. Impingement
plumes in an appreciable rain were few in number and low in inten-
sity. Long exposures of the camera disclosed no or few other glow
points. Slides and a movie to point up these facts were presented
in the oral discussion.
From visual and camera observations of still and swinging con-
ductors the discussers calculated maximum snow losses on the
Manuscript received Judy 27, 1966.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, MAY 1969
basis of 6 pulses per cycle per foot of 1.026-inch diameter conductor.
Extrapolating to 345 kV and a 1.6-inch conductor this means
10 pulses per cycle per foot of conductor, or 600 pulses per second
per foot, or 107 pulses per second per mile of three-phase circuit.
Losses in 4-inch long plumes would then approximate 107 (number
of pulses) X 100 (kV drop over 4-inch plume) X 0.1 (amperes of
current from [61) X 0.5 X 10-6 (duration of a pulse in seconds) =
50 kW per mile of circuit. To this must be added a fraction of 50 kW
for the charging and disruption of snowflakes or energy expended
before the plume is initiated. Also temperatures, wind, and size
and form of snowflakes will change plume formations. A similar
procedure could be applied to the dominant spray plumes in rain.
In the cases of both rain and snow the plume secondary streamers or
stems during any one cycle are confined to areas of less than 1 per-
cent of the conductor surface. Could the authors comment on this
analysis?
With an increase in EHV lines, conductor storm loss could be-
come important in scheduling generation for the next 24 hours.
Do the authors believe that there is any possibility of good estimates
of tomorrow's line losses from 24-hour weather forecasts?
REFERENCES
[6] B. J. Jakubczyk and L. Boulet, presented at the IEEE Winter
Power Meeting, New York, N. Y., January 31-February 5, 1965
F. W. Warburton (New England Power Service Company, Worces-
ter, Mass.): We know how to build very quiet 115-kV transmission
lines simply because conductor corona at 115 kV is negligible. We
need radical new thinking and application to gain comparable
quietness for EHV conductors, and the new knowledge by the
authors is most welcome.
We question a method which incurs the inherent errors of a model
conductor.
We believe the concept of the authors is best applied to a conductor
where the area surface in corona and the corona gradients can be
estimated with a good degree of accuracy. We submit that this
does not apply to most ac conductors. At any one instant in foul
weather no more than a fraction of 1 percent of the conductor
surface is causing practically all corona loss, and this fraction will
vary widely from storm to storm and with other factors. The in-
tensified gradients occurring at snow and water particles in corona
are not known and will vary widely with particle size and confor-
mation. To substantiate our contention we would like to show two
slides and one 16-mm movie, the latter lasting three or four minutes.
One slide would show snowflake-impingement plumes on a field
conductor, and the movie would show water-drop spray plumes
traveling down the bottom of the same conductor.
From the above we do not know how the method proposed by
the authors can predict ac conductor corona loss of an upcoming
storm without making many assumptions which in themselves
afford a simpler forecast by other means.
Manuscript received July 28, 1966.
Jacques J. Clade, Claude H. Gary, and Christian A. Lefevre: We
should like to thank the discussers for their comments on this paper.
In their discussions we took note of two main objections.
1) Ionization on big line conductors appears at a limited number
of points, representing in surface less than 1 percent of the whole
conductor surface; in this we agree. Our model, for which we assume
that ionization reaches over the entire conductor surface, would
Manuscript received September 19, 1966.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. PAS-88, NO. 5, MAY 1969 703

thus appear far removed from reality. On the contrary, we consider
that ionization may be treated as a continuous phenomenon when
the sources are sufficiently numerous for their zones of action to
overlap, the sources being then no longer independent. In this case,
it can be seen experimentally, and this constitutes the criterion for
application of our model, that all increase in the number of sources
does not result in a proportional increase in losses. How can this
loss limitation be explained other than by the effect of screening or
lowering of the superficial field of a conductor induced by the space
charge emitted by the sources? We consider this mechanism, ex-
plained at length in our paper, as being fundamental; its practical
consequences are highly favorable, for it is this that limits losses
under heavy rain or snow.
In this connection the EFCOR program allowed us to establish
the absolute maximum limit of losses corresponding to a given
structure with the worst possible surface state of the conductor.
These maximum losses prove to be of 250 kW/km and per phase
for the 750-kV line equipped with a four-conductor bundle. This
limit is very high but its very existence is not devoid of interest.
2) The second objection concerns the practical application of the
method. Losses are a function of many parameters, changeable or
difficult to estimate. Discussers mentioned temperature, wind, and
the size and form of snowflakes. Many others exist, known or
unknown. We do not claim to deduce losses fully from calculation
including all these data. We have said that to apply this method
one must have recourse to experimentation in order to determine
the surface state coefficients to be introduced, these coefficients
taking stock of the nature of the conductor surface and the various
atmospheric conditions. This necessary recourse to tests on the
conductors themselves does not, however, take away from the
theoretical interest of the explanation of the loss mechanism.
Practically the proposed method allows us to deduce with con-
fidence the real line losses of values measured on different conductors
or conductors placed in different environments. The flexibility and
economic advantage of this process combining test and calculation
is thus made clear.
In reply to the question concerning the daily loss forecast, we
believe this to be possible, provided we dispose of a sufficient number
of previous tests and in so far as the meteorological forecasts are
confirmed the next day.
Before concluding, we should like to say that even if the calcu-
lation plan of Mr. Newell, Mr. Liao, and Mr. Warburton provides in
the circumstances a quite plausible value of losses under snow, their
plan still does not quite tally with our own experiments. The latter
have shown that if large discharges of values up to 0.1 A X 0.5
10-6 s = 50 000 pC are in fact produced in positive polarity and
are moreover entirely responsible for the line disturbance level,
these discharges are less numerous than the discussers indicated
and make only a small contribution to the line losses. We believe
that losses in both positive and negative polarity are due to very
numerous micro discharges coming from many more sources than
those few of paintbrush characteristic aspect, visible in Fig. 1 and
which are responsible for big discharges. It seems to us that there is
therefore no possible good relation between the number of big
discharges and the value of losses. This is confirmed by our screen
tests which show that disturbance level (due to large discharges)
may very well vary inversely in function of the meteorological
conditions.

American Electric Power 765-kV Transmission

Line Project
A. JAMES SAMUELSON, MEMBER, IEEE

Abstract-In 1966 the design of a 765-kV transmission line DEVELOPMENT

network was instigated in the AEP System. This construction Extent
project was started in 1967 and is to be completed by 1972. The
overall development, design, and construction features of this The 765-kV project is our newest, most ambitious program to
project, to date, are reviewed. date. The extent and route of this project are shown in Fig.-1.
The various line segments traverse diverse terrain, ranging from
INTRODUCTION the Appalachian Mountains in West Virginia to the rolling
farmland of northern Indiana.
A T THE END of last year the operating companies of
American Electric Power Service Corporation (AEP) had Conductor Size
in operation 36 miles of 500 kV, 1318 tower miles of 345 kV (1971
circuit miles), and 4154 miles of 138 kV (6394 circuit miles). Our Based upon preliminary evaluation of alternate conductor
present construction program includes approximately 200 miles sizes and bundle configurations, it was decided to construct this
of double-circuit 345 kV and 1150 miles of single-circuit 765 kV. project using a four-conductor bundle per phase, of 954-kcmil
45/7 aluminum conductor, steel reinforced (ACSR) with 18-inch
spacing and two seven-conductor no. 8 Alumoweld ground wires.
Paper 68 C 57-PWR, recommended and approved by the Trans-
mission and Distribution Committee of the IEEE Power Group Tower Type
for presentation at the 1968 EHV Transmission Conference, Mon-
treal, P. Q., Canada, September 30-October 2. Manuscript sub- Two types of structures are employed on these projects:
mitted June 3, 1968; made available for printing November 1, 1968. a steel self-supporting (rigid) type and an aluminum, guyed V
The author is with the American Electric Power Service Corpo-
ration, New York, N. Y. type (Fig. 2). Because of terrain variations it was decided to