Table of Contents

Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. iii
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................. viii
List of Appendices ............................................................................................................. ix

Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................................. 1
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Purpose .................................................................................. 2
1.2 Defining Disability .............................................................................................. 3
1.2.1 The Medical Model
1.2.2 The Expert/Professional Model
1.2.3 The Tragedy/Charity Model
1.2.4 The Social Model
1.2.5 The Social Adapted Model
1.2.6 The Economic Model
1.2.6 The Customer/Empowering Model
1.2.7 The Religious Model
1.2.8 The ICF Framework: A Holistic Approach

Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................................... 10
2 Review of Literature .................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Historical Overview of the Paralympic Games .................................................... 10
2.2 Social Exclusion and Indifference to People With Disabilities
2.3 Framing of Disability in the Media ....................................................... 16
2.3.1 Passive Victim .......................................................................................... 16
2.3.2 Supercrip ................................................................................................... 16
2.3.3 Cyborg....................................................................................................... 17
2.4 Media and the Paralympic Games ........................................................................ 18

Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................................... 24
3 Methodology ................................................................................................................ 24
3.1 Framing Theory .................................................................................................... 24
3.2 Sample................................................................................................................... 25
3.3 Data Collection Procedure .................................................................................... 26
3.4 Data Analysis Procedure ....................................................................................... 27
3.5 Trustworthiness ..................................................................................................... 27
3.6 Limitations and Delimitations ............................................................................... 29

Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................................... 31
4 Findings and Discussion .............................................................................................. 31
4.1 Defining the Frames .............................................................................................. 31
4.2 Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................. 32
4.3 Dominant Frame: Athletic .................................................................................... 33
4.4 Reading Deeper: Athletic But ........................................................................... 36
4.5 Problematizing: The Other vs. the Ideal Athletic Body .................................... 39
4.5.1 Medical / Patient ....................................................................................... 41
4.5.2 Supercrip ................................................................................................... 43

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4.5.3 Charity / Victim ........................................................................................ 44
4.5.4 Cyborg....................................................................................................... 45
4.5.5 Little Brother ......................................................................................... 46
4.6 The Way Forward ................................................................................................. 48

Chapter 5 ........................................................................................................................... 50
5 Conclusion and Recommendations .............................................................................. 50
5.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 50
5.2 Recommendations for Future Research ................................................................ 51
5.3 Practical Implications............................................................................................ 51
References ......................................................................................................................... 54
Appendices ........................................................................................................................ 67
Curriculum Vitae .............................................................................................................. 74

List of Tables
Table 1: Components of the ICF Framework (WHO, 2002) .................................................... 6
Table 2: Formal Agreements between the IOC and the IPC .................................................. 14
Table 3: Analytical Frames and Their Meanings .................................................................... 32
Table 4: Primary Thematic Distribution of Disability Representations (N = 88)................... 32
Table 5: Secondary Thematic Distribution of Disability Representations (N = 88) .............. 33
Table 6: Underlying Theme Distribution among Texts Coded as "Athletic" (N = 54) .......... 36

List of Figures
Figure 1: The ICF Framework (WHO, 2001) ........................................................................... 5
Figure 2: International sports organizations for individuals with disabilities (Adapted from
Doll-Tepper, 2004) ................................................................................................................. 12

List of Appendices
Appendix A: Summary of Important Media Framing Studies................................................ 67
Appendix B: The National Post Articles for Analysis ............................................................ 69
Appendix C: The Globe and Mail Articles for Analysis ........................................................ 71
Appendix D: Kitzinger's "Cues" for Media Analysis ............................................................. 73

2
 Abstract

In our modern day society, media culture plays a critical role in socialization of ideas.
Stories told by the media about Paralympic athletes have the potential to influence our
understanding of disability. This research thesis aims at examining methodologically the role of
print media in covering the 15th Summer Paralympics games which were held from 07th Sep
2016 to 18th Sep 2016 based on the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the ________ articles
published in the Times of India in English daily and Dainik Jagran in Hindi daily. In the
research study I had made a thorough study on the sports content published in newspaper on
Paralympics as against the entire content published on the same page and then did the content
comparative analysis based on the study. The results demonstrate that there is wide disparity in
the news coverage of Summer Paralympics games and also on the contingent of Indian athletes
and their performances both in the Hindi and English newspapers. The outcome of the study
might be influenced due to the more focus of Indian newspapers on cricket, tennis and football
which are more popular in Indian subcontinent and around the world.

3
 Acknowledgments
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, __________, for her
unrelenting support during my time at Western. It was though her persistence that I completed
my undergraduate degree and was encouraged to apply for graduate training. Her kindness and
understanding have helped me through what has been an intellectually stimulating time, but also
a challenging time in my life both physically and emotionally. Her expertise and patience in
guiding me through this learning process have been invaluable.

Thank you to my fellow students. I have learned so much from you as we have explored
our interests alongside each other. I wish you all the very best, and I am especially grateful to
have made some lifelong friends along the way. I must also acknowledge Alex Mai who served
as my secondary coder for this study. I would also like to thank my family for the love and
support they provided me during preparation of this thesis and I am glad that I can make you
proud.

4
 Chapter 1

1. INTRODUCTION

Historically, disability has been defined in a highly medicalized fashion. The medical
model conceives disability as a biological product, the result of physical and/or mental
impairments that exist independent of the wider sociocultural, physical, and political
environments. Further, as per the understanding of social model, disability is simply the result of
an unaccommodating environment and demands a political response. In an attempt to combine
merits of both models, the World Health Organization (WHO) has developed a model known as
the International Classification of Functioning, Health and Disability (ICF) that adopts a
biopsychosocial framework of complex interactions that make up the phenomenon of disability.

The definition of disability currently endorsed by the WHO and United Nations such that
persons with disabilities are persons who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or
sensory impairments, which, in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and
effective participation in society on an equal basis with others

Disability is not a topic that everyone is comfortable discussing. Many real societal
barriers exist for people living with disabilities. These challenges can include limited
interpersonal interactions between disabled and nondisabled people. As a result, much of the
information that the general public receives about disability issues is disseminated by news
media rather than directly from people with lived experience of disability. For a short period of
time following each Olympic Games, the Paralympic Games take the world stage and offer a
space for disability and disability issues to be a greater focus of media attention and
conversation. This study, therefore, focuses on the messages presented in the media during this
time of heightened awareness.

Among various ways of media, newspaper reading plays an important role in helping us
to gather information about the entire world. Print media helps us to visualize the happenings of
everyday life in more realistic way that compels us to think deeply about the incident. The print
media constitutes an influential role player in equity as it portrays the dominant images in
society.

5
 1.1 PURPOSE
In our modern society, media culture plays a critical role in socialization. The stories that
are told by the media about Paralympic athletes have the potential to influence our understanding
of disability.
To that end, the purpose of this study was to examine the representations of disability and
Paralympic athletes by the Indian national print media surrounding the 15th Summer Paralympic
Games held at Rio de Jenario in Brazil. The international importance of the Paralympic Games
provides incentive for periodic media coverage of parasport, an area of sport generally otherwise
absent from mainstream news.

1.2 DEFINING DISABILITY

A disability is any continuing condition that restricts everyday activities. The Disability
Services Act (1993) defines disability as meaning a disability:

which is attributable to an intellectual, psychiatric, cognitive, neurological, sensory or physical

impairment or a combination of those impairments
which is permanent or likely to be permanent
which may or may not be of a chronic or episodic nature
which results in substantially reduced capacity of the person for communication, social
interaction, learning or mobility and a need for continuing support services1.

There are several concepts of disability that are in use at any given time in history. As a part of
this study, it is important to understand some of the basic models of disablement and their merits
and shortcomings. Models are influenced by two fundamental philosophies. The first sees
disabled people as dependent upon society. This can result in paternalism, segregation and
discrimination. The second perceives disabled people as customers of what society has to offer.
This leads to choice, empowerment, equality of human rights, and integration. As we examine
the different Models in this and subsequent articles, we will see the degree to which each
philosophy has been applied.

1
http://www.disability.wa.gov.au/understanding-disability1/understanding-disability/what-is-disability/
6
1.2.1 The Medical Model

The Medical Model holds that disability results from an individual persons physical or
mental limitations, and is largely unconnected to the social or geographical environments. It is
sometimes referred to as the Biological-Inferiority or Functional-Limitation Model.

It is illustrated by the World Health Organisations definitions, which significantly were

devised by doctors:

Impairment: any loss or abnormality of psychological or anatomical structure or

function.
Disability: any restriction or lack of ability (resulting from an impairment) to perform an
activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being.
Handicap: any disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from impairment or a
disability that limits or prevents the fulfilment of a role that is normal for that individual."

WHO Classification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps, 1980

From this, it is easy to see how people with disabilities might become stigmatised as "lacking" or
"abnormal".

The Medical Model places the source of the problem within a single impaired person, and
concludes that solutions are found by focusing on the individual. A more sophisticated form of
the model allows for economic factors, and recognizes that a poor economic climate will
adversely effect a disabled persons work opportunities. Even so, it still seeks a solution within
the individual by helping him or her overcome personal impairment to cope with a faltering labor
market.

In simplest terms, the Medical Model assumes that the first step solution is to find a cure
or - to use WHO terminology make disabled people more "normal". This invariably fails
because disabled people are not necessarily sick or cannot be improved by remedial treatment.
The only remaining solution is to accept the "abnormality" and provide the necessary care to
support the "incurable" impaired person. Policy makers are limited to a range of options based
upon a programme of rehabilitation, vocational training for employment, income maintenance
programmes and the provision of aids and equipment.

7
 This Functional-Limitation (Medical) model has dominated the formulation of disability
policy for years. Although we should not reject out-of-hand its therapeutic aspects which may
cure or alleviate the physical and mental condition of many disabled people, it does not offer a
realistic perspective from the viewpoint of disabled people themselves. To begin with, most
would reject the concept of being "abnormal". Also, the model imposes a paternalistic approach
to problem solving which, although well intentioned, concentrates on "care" and ultimately
provides justification for institutionalisation and segregation. This restricts disabled peoples
opportunities to make choices, control their lives and develop their potential.

Finally, the Model fosters existing prejudices in the minds of employers. Because the
conditional is "medical", a disabled person will ipso facto be prone to ill health and sick leave, is
likely to deteriorate, and will be less productive that work colleagues.

1.2.2 The Expert/Professional Model

The Expert/Professional Model has provided a traditional response to disability issues

and can be seen as an offshoot of the Medical Model. Within its framework, professionals follow
a process of identifying the impairment and its limitations (using the Medical Model), and taking
the necessary action to improve the position of the disabled person. This has tended to produce a
system in which an authoritarian, over-active service provider prescribes and acts for a passive
client.

This relationship has been described as that of fixer (the professional) and fixee (the
client), and clearly contains an inequality that limits collaboration. Although a professional may
be caring, the imposition of solutions can be less than benevolent. If the decisions are made by
the "expert", the client has no choice and is unable to exercise the basic human right of freedom
over his or her own actions. In the extreme, it undermines the clients dignity by removing the
ability to participate in the simplest, everyday decisions affecting his or her life. E.g. when
underwear needs to be changed or how vegetables are to be cooked.

1.2.3 The Tragedy/Charity Model

The Tragedy/Charity Model depicts disabled people as victims of circumstance,

deserving of pity. This and Medical Model are probably the ones most used by non-disabled
people to define and explain disability.

8
 Traditionally used by charities in the competitive business of fund-raising, the application
of the Tragedy/Charity Model is graphically illustrated in the televised Children in Need appeals
in which disabled children are depicted alongside young "victims" of famine, poverty, child
abuse and other circumstances. Whilst such appeals raise considerable funds for services and
equipment which are not provided by the state, many disabled people find the negative victim-
image thoroughly offensive. In fact Children in Need has been described as "televisual garbage
oppressive to disabled people" M. Oliver quoted in C. Donnellan "Disabilities and
Discrimination Issues for the Nineties" 1982. Some go as far as interpreting the tragic portrayal
as a means of maintaining a flow of donations and keeping able-bodied people in work.

The Tragedy/Charity Model is condemned by its critics as dis-enabling, and the cause of
much discrimination. Speaking on the BBC Everyman programme The Fifth Gospel (date?),
Nabil Shaban said: "The biggest problem that we, the disabled have, is that you, the non-
disabled, are only comfortable when you see us as icons of pity." Because disabled people are
seen as tragic victims, it follows that they need care, are not capable of looking after themselves
or managing their own affairs, and need charity in order to survive.

From tragedy and pity stems a culture "care". Although highly praiseworthy in many
respects, it carries certain dangers. Numerous charities exist to support and care for people with a
particular type of disability, thereby medically classifying, segregating and often as with the
Medical Model institutionalising many disabled people. Over 400,000 adults in Great Britain
are affected by institutionalisation. Given the choice, many, if not most would opt for community
life with adequate support.

The idea of if being recipients of charity lowers the self-esteem of people with
disabilities. In the eyes of "pitying" donors, charitable giving carries with it an expectation of
gratitude and a set of terms imposed upon the beneficiary. The first is patronising; the second
limiting upon the choices open to disabled people. Also, employers will view disabled people as
charitable cases. Rather than address the real issues of creating a workplace conducive to the
employment of people with disabilities, employers may conclude that making charitable
donations meets social and economic obligations.

This is not to advocate dismantling charities and outlaw caring, charitable acts, which
enrich our society and bring badly needed funds. But we do need to educate charity managers
and professionals to review the way they operate and ensure that funds are channelled to promote

9
the empowerment of disabled people and their full integration into our society as equal citizens
requiring our respect and not our pity.

1.2.4 The Social Model

The Social Model views disability as a consequence of environmental, social and

attitudinal barriers that prevent people with impairments from maximum participation in society.
It is best summarised in the definition of disability from the Disabled Peoples International:

"the loss or limitation of opportunities to take part in the normal life of the
community on an equal level with others, due to physical or social barriers."

Its philosophy originates in US civil rights movement and has been championed by The
British Council of Organisations of Disabled People and Rights Now, which calls for self-
determination. It is advocated in the UK by leading thinkers such as Dr Steven Duckworth and
Bert Massie and has been the guiding light for the The Local Government Management Board
and the establishment of the new Commission for Disabled People.

It is also referred to as the Minority-Group Model of Disability. This argues from a socio-
political viewpoint that disability stems from the failure of society to adjust to meet the needs
and aspirations of a disabled minority. This presents a radically different perspective on
disability issues and parallels the doctrine of those concerned with racial equality that "racism is
a problem of whites from which blacks suffer." If the problem lies with society and the
environment, then society and environment must change. If a wheelchair user cannot use a bus,
the bus must be redesigned.

To support the argument, short-sighted people living in the UK are not classified as
disabled. Eye-tests and visual aids which are either affordable or freely available means that
this impairment does not prevent them participating fully in the life of the community. If,
however, they live in a third-world country where such eye-care is not available they are severely
disabled. The inability to read and subsequently learn and gather information would be counted
as a severe impairment in any society.

This Model implies that the removal of attitudinal, physical and institutional barriers will
improve the lives of disabled people, giving them the same opportunities as others on an

10
equitable basis. Taken to its logical conclusion, there would be no disability within a fully
developed society.

The strength of this Model lies in its placing the onus upon society and not the individual.
At the same time it focuses on the needs of the individual whereas the Medical Model uses
diagnoses to produce categories of disability, and assumes that people with the same impairment
have identical needs and abilities. It also offers positive solutions that have been proved to work
in, for example, Canada, Australia and the USA.

The Model faces two challenges. Firstly, as the population gets older the numbers of
people with impairments will rise and making it harder for society to adjust. Secondly, its
concepts can be difficult to understand, particularly by dedicated professionals in the fields of
charities and rehabilitation. These have to be persuaded that their role must change from that of
"cure or care" to a less obtrusive one of helping disabled people take control of their own lives.

The Social Models limitations arise from its failure to emphasise certain aspects of
disability. Jenny Morris adds a feminist dimension. "While environmental barriers and social
attitudes are a crucial part of our experience of disability and do indeed disable us to suggest
that this is all there is, is to deny the personal experience of physical and intellectual restrictions,
of illness of the fear of dying." (Pride against prejudice, 1991) Black disable people face
problems of both racial and disability discrimination within a system of service provision
designed by white able-bodied people for white disabled people.

1.2.5 The Social Adapted Model

This is a new model, built upon the Social Model, but incorporating elements of the
Medical Model. It accepts that impairments identified be the latter are significant, but stipulates
that far more problems are created for disabled people by social and environmental causes. Not
all problems of impairment can currently be addressed, but if we recognise our environment as
discriminatory we can do much to change it so that disabled people are enabled to higher
achievement.

Unlike the Social Model, the Social Adapted Model recognises that the inability of some
disabled people to adapt to the demands of society may be a contributory factor to their
condition. However, it still maintains that disability stems primarily from a social and
environmental failure to account for the needs of disabled citizens. The advantage of this Model
11
is that it does not concentrate on individuals limitations, but takes account of peoples
capabilities and potential.

1.2.6 The Economic Model

Under this Model, disability is defined by a persons inability to participate in work. It

also assesses the degree to which impairment affects an individuals productivity and the
economic consequences for the individual, employer and the state. Such consequences include
loss of earnings for and payment for assistance by the individual; lower profit margins for the
employer; and state welfare payments.

The Economic Model is used primarily by policy makers to assess distribution of benefits
to those who are unable to participate fully in work. In recent years, however, the preoccupation
with productivity has conflicted with the application of the Medical Model to classify disability
to counter fraudulent benefit claims, leading to confusion and a lack of co-ordination in
disablement policy.

The challenge facing the Economic Model is how to justify and support, in purely
economic terms, a socially desirable policy of increasing participation in employment. Classical
economic laws of supply and demand stipulate that an increase in the labour market results in
decreased wages. Arguably, extending access to work through equal opportunities reduces an
employers labour costs, but other factors come into play.

The value of labour is based upon its contribution to marginal cost, i.e. the cost of
producing the last unit of production. This only works when employees make an equal
contribution to marginal cost. However, evidence suggests that disabled employees make a lower
contribution than their work colleagues do, resulting in losses in production and lower profits for
the employer.

Employers may recognise compensations for any loss in employing less-productive

disabled employees through kudos, publicity, customer alignment and expansion arising from
their presentations as an organisation with community values. However, employers are not
generally altruistic and hold the economic viability and operational effectiveness of their
organisation as higher priorities than demonstrating social awareness. Their economic option is
to pay disabled employees less or have the losses met through subsidy.

12
 The problem for the users of Economic Model is one of choice. Which is better: to pay
the disabled employee for loss of earnings, or the employer for loss of productivity? The first
carries stigma for the disabled person by underlining their inability to match the performance of
work colleagues. With the latter, difficulties arise in correctly assessing the correct level of
subsidy. The productivity of a disabled employee may well change, as well as the marginal costs
of the total workforce.

This leaves one outstanding difficulty for the socially minded economist. How do we
achieve an equitable, effective, value-for-money distribution of disability related benefits? It is
likely that there will be people with disabilities that prevent them from doing working. There will
be others whose productivity levels are so low that the tax benefits to the public purse are
outweighed by the employment subsidy. In economic terms, these people are unemployable and
should be removed from employment to supplementary benefits, saving the expenditure on the
subsidy. But is this socially acceptable? This apparent conflict has created ambiguity in agreeing
social security goals and has led to stigmatisation of disabled people as a burden on public funds
rather than partners in the creation of general social prosperity.

Social security benefits are not designed to remove disabled people from poverty. The
policy maker needs to balance equity (the right of the individual to self-fulfilment and social
participation through work) and efficiency. The true value of the Economic Model is maintaining
this balance in the macroeconomic context of trade cycles, inflation, globalisation and
extraordinary events such as wars.

1.2.7 The Customer/Empowering Model

This is the opposite of the Expert Model. Here, the professional is viewed as a service
provider to the disabled client and his or her family. The client decides and selects what services
they believe are appropriate whilst the service provider acts as consultant, coach and resource
provider.

Recent operations of this Model have placed financial resources into the control of the
client, who may choose to purchase state or private care or both.

1.2.8 The Religious Model

13
 The Religious Model views disability as a punishment inflicted upon an individual or
family by an external force. It can be due to misdemeanours committed by the disabled person,
someone in the family or community group, or forbears. Birth conditions can be due to actions
committed in a previous reincarnation.

Sometimes the presence of "evil spirits" is used to explain differences in behaviour,

especially in conditions such as schizophrenia. Acts of exorcism or sacrifice may be performed
to expel or placate the negative influence, or recourse made to persecution or even death of the
individual who is "different".

In some cases, the disability stigmatises a whole family, lowering their status or even
leading to total social exclusion. Or it can be interpreted as an individuals inability to conform
within a family structure. Conversely, it can be seen as necessary affliction to be suffered before
some future spiritual reward.

It is an extreme model, which can exist in any society where deprivation is linked to
ignorance, fear and prejudice.

1.2.9 The ICF Framework: A Holistic Approach

The International Classification of Functioning, Health, and Disability (ICF) developed by the
WHO and approved in 2001, provides a holistic framework (Figure 1) for examining the overall
health condition of an individual based on the interaction between various dimensions. The ICF
was published in 2001 as a major revision to its predecessor, the International Classification of
Impairment, Disability and Handicap (ICIDH) of the 1980s. The ICIDH was primarily focused
on consequences of disease and thus had a highly causal and linear framework linking
impairment with disability. The ICF conceptual model allows one to link the physical
impairments with behavioural patterns and to consider them in an individual environmental and
personal context to come to a thorough impression of his/her overall health state. The
components of the ICF framework are explained in Table 1.

14
 The conceptual framework of the ICF demonstrates interactions among components with
bi-directional arrows, showing that each component can influence and likewise be influenced by
the other. Impairments that exist as a result of a heath condition can lead to activity limitations
and participation restrictions. The extent to which these limitations and restrictions are

15
experienced as disability by an individual are also impacted by contextual factorsboth personal
and environmental. These contextual factors can be categorized as barriers, increasing disability,
or facilitators that ameliorate the lived experience of the individual. The disability experience is
understood as the entirety of these interactions.

Disability activists applaud the ICF for showing the possibility that major negative
aspects of a disabled persons life are socially induced However, the contextual factors
(Environmental and Personal) are the two areas of the ICF that are most lacking in clarity.
Environmental factors have been enhanced by the work of a specific task force and can now be
shown as either facilitators or barriers across several categories, but these elements still lack a
code that demonstrates magnitude. Personal factors (i.e., race, gender, age, coping styles) have
yet to be developed due to the understanding that these aspects are not readily reduced to a code.
As a result, the inclusion of personal factors in the application of the ICF is at the discretion of
the service provider or medical professional.

It is the theoretical framework of the ICF that underlies my understanding of disability

throughout this study. I agree that impairment should be acknowledged in discussions of
disability; however, I also find it unrealistic for disability to be conceptualized in the absence of
contextual factors. The ICF allows room for the interface of both concepts and is therefore the
model that I have chosen to adopt.

16
 Chapter 2

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Paralympic Games are a parallel competition to the Olympic Games that exist for
athletes with physical disabilities. People question whether or not sport for people with
disabilities can be elite.
Disability, particularly in sport, has traditionally been excluded or poorly represented in
the media. As the field of critical disability studies has grown, so too has the interest of scholars
in examining the intersections between disability, sport, and the media. When Goggin and
Newell (2000) set out to examine the media representations leading up to the 2000 Paralympic
Games in Sydney, they reported finding only one previous study specifically addressing the
Paralympics in the media (Schell & Duncan, 1999). However, since the turn of the century we
have seen a surge of related studies focusing on representations of disability in sport both in print
(e.g., Golden, 2003; Howe, 2008; Peers, 2009; Smith & Thomas, 2005; Thomas & Smith, 2003)
and on television (e.g., Ellis, 2009; Pereira & Montero, 2009; Quinn, 2007).

The Paralympic Games is an international competition for people with physical

disabilities such as mobility disabilities, amputation, visual disabilities, and cerebral palsy. It is
the second largest competition in the world after the Olympic Games. The Games are held every
four years following the Olympic Games and are governed by the International Paralympic
Committee (IPC). Both the summer and winter events of the Paralympic Games are held in the
same year and in the same host city as those of the Olympic Games.

The mass media neglect and do not promote disability sports such as the Paralympic
Games because the public tends to pay attention to the things that are perceived to be relevant
and exciting. Agenda Setting Theory states that mass media organizations determine what the
general population considers newsworthy by deciding how much attention a news story
receives2 and hence more coverage is given to Olympics. Despite the very important role of
national media to advocate for disability sports, they emphasize popular sports in accordance
with the tastes of the public.

Different people look on the subject disability in many ways. The Person with Disability
(PWD) are consider as an object of pity, sympathy, isolated or rejected in the family and other

2
http://www.communicationstudies.com/communication-theories
17
social institutions. People maintain a social distance and treat disabled as outsiders. The
development of disabled individuals depends on their personality and the way society treats and
motivates them. This will be determined by the attitude towards his/her own disability, towards
other disabled people and other members of the society as well as the attitude of the society
towards him

While coverage of the Paralympics is very limited in comparison to the Olympic Games,
the media pays more attention to the Paralympic Games than to any other disability sport events.
Disability sports and athletes with disability are subjects of negative stereotypes and
disadvantages in the mass media in these respects because most disability sport coverage is
focused on athletes having a specialty as a disabled person rather than being competitive.

Media depictions of individuals with disabilities can be positive or negative, and so

media coverage affects the perceptions of individuals with disabilities among the general public.
People with disabilities in sports are not often discussed and represented because they are treated
as outsiders and seen as having low value.

Individuals with disabilities are not commonly shown in the media. When they are, they
are often represented by fixed stereotypes such as victims, heroes, evil and warped villains,
burdens on family and friends, or accident survivors who would be better off dead.

They may also be shown as successful in overcoming their terrible lives, as fearful,
pitiful, innocent, helpless, survivors, or as supercrips. According to magic bullet theory, this
stereotypical portrayal of disabled people leads to negative perception in the mind of audiences
as they being passive directly perceive what is shown, also printing or broadcasting such type of
content media tend to set an agenda that disabled be viewed less than the able-bodied people and
get marginalized.

Since the Paralympic Games were born as the Olympic-style games for athletes with a
disability when the Rome Olympic Games were held in 1960, they have expanded their sport
program and an increasing number of athletes and countries have participated.

Over the past decade the coverage of disability sports has increased ever so slightly.
However the authors of most recent studies acknowledge that the marginalized role of disability
in the media coverage has not been improved. Reporters still focused primarily on the
disabled instead of athlete. The Paralympics, the Worlds most elite sporting events for
disabled person, receives scant coverage compare to the Olympics.
18
 When athletes with disabilities are covered, they are most often framed as supercrip.
When representing sports, the mass media in general emphasize actions, records, elite
performances, drama etc. However the newspapers also focus on performances results, statistics
and behind the scene stories. Sports then are consonant with expectation, their script follows a
familiar pattern and at the same time the unexpected outcome creates excitement. Sports
personalities are depicted as celebrity and as such are often cast to the forefront public interest.
Historically films portray people with disability as victims, relatively seldom as heroes or
villains.

Media portrayed people with disability as pitiable and pathetic, as supercrip, sinister,
evil, and criminal, as better off dead, as burden and also as unable to live a success life. The
main group of individuals with physical disability which was by far the most over representatives
the wheel chair fraternity. This is because the public perception of the athlete with disabilities is
historically that of individuals in wheelchair.

Sports coverage in the media tends to focus on able-bodied activity. Consequently, able-
bodied athletes are portrayed as superior and athletes with disabilities are portrayed as inferior.
In other words, the media has not treated athletes with disabilities in the same way as able-
bodied athletes due to the perception that athletes with disabilities could not be competitive or
that they should be viewed simply as inspirational figures who overcome their adversities to
succeed.

The athletes themselves would like to be shown for their achievements and not their
impairments but are often portrayed negatively in the media. The Spiral of Silence theory
states that people are less likely to express their opinions if they are the minority. This is because
they fear they will be isolated by the majority and suffers social rejection.3

The marginalization of athletes with disabilities can be divided into three aspects:
masculinity, physicality, and sexuality. Female athletes have been expected to conform to norms
of femininity such as playing female sports, appearing feminine rather than masculine, and being
sexually attracted to men. Male athletes have been expected to conform to norms of masculinity
and sexuality. However, even if female athletes with disabilities appear to be soft, beautiful, and
tough and male athletes with disabilities appear aggressive and strong, they are excluded from
sport because they do not meet the social concept of the ideal body.

3
http://www.communicationstudies.com/communication-theories
19
 The paralympic game today remains the reserved, and the inheritance of a loaded history
by bring together not only the history of sports and sports and sports practices but also the
evolution of the treatment and representation of people of disabilities.

2.1 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW ON PARALYMPIC GAMES

Sport for athletes with impairment has existed for more than 100 years, and the first sport clubs
for the deaf were already in existence in 1888 in Berlin. It was not until after World War II
however, that it was widely introduced. The purpose of it at that time was to assist the large
number of war veterans and civilians who had been injured during wartime.

In 1944, at the request of the British Government, Dr. Ludwig Guttmann opened a spinal
injuries centre at the Stoke Mandeville Hospital in Great Britain, and in time, rehabilitation sport
evolved to recreational sport and then to competitive sport.

On 29 July 1948, the day of the Opening Ceremony of the London 1948 Olympic Games, Dr.
Guttmann organised the first competition for wheelchair athletes which he named the Stoke
Mandeville Games.4

The Stoke Mandeville Games were held annually and grew to an international
competition in 1952 with the addition of ex-servicemen from the Netherlands. By 1957 the Stoke
Games boasted 360 athletes from 24 countries. Guttman reached out to the International Olympic
Committee, and with their permission the Stoke Games were hosted in Rome in 1960 following
the Olympics with 400 athletes from 23 countries competing in wheelchair event. These Games
are considered by many the formal founding of the Paralympic Games. Since 1960 the
Paralympic Games have been held paralleling the Summer and Winter Olympic Games schedule.

It was in 1976, when the first Winter Games in Paralympics history were held in Sweden,
and as with the Summer Games, have taken place every four years.

Also in 1960, an International Working Group on Sport for the Disabled was set up to
study the problems of sport for persons with impairment. It resulted in the creation, in 1964, of
the International Sport Organisation for the Disabled (IOSD) who offered opportunities for those

4
https://www.paralympic.org/the-ipc
20
athletes who could not affiliate to the International Stoke Mandeville Games: visually impaired,
amputees, persons with cerebral palsy and paraplegics.

When the Paralympic Games began in 1952, only wheelchair users participated. In later
Games, most of the athletes who participated in the Paralympics were in wheelchairs due to
spinal cord injuries. In 1976; athletes with amputation and visual impairment were added.
Athletes with ambulatory cerebral palsy were added in 1980, and 33 athletes with cerebral palsy
who used wheelchairs, other locomotive impairments including dwarfism, limb deficiencies,
muscular dystrophy, osteogenesis, imperfecta, postpolio conditions and multiple sclerosis were
added in 1984.

During this time of growth, several international organizations specific to disability

groupings formed including the International Sport Organization for the Disabled (ISOD, 1968),
the Cerebral Palsy-International Sport Recreation Society (CP-ISRA, 1978), the International
Blind Sports Association (IBSA, 1981), and the International Sports Federation for Persons with
Mental Handicap (INAS-FMH, 1986). To facilitate coordination for the Games, the International
Coordinating Committee Sports for the Disabled (ICC) was created in 1982. The ICC evolved
into what is now known as the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) in 1989 following the
Arnheim Seminars in 1987. The IPC is situated in Bonn, Germany. Figure 2 shows the current
structure of international sports organizations for persons with a disability.

21
 The Paralympic Games have faced many issues in establishing themselves as a valid and
elite sporting competition with aspirations of being recognized at the level of the Olympic
Games. However, with each iteration, the Paralympics continue to approach the level of
spectacle of the Olympic Games.

In 2008, 3,951 athletes from 146 countries competed at the Beijing Paralympics. The
media coverage of the 2008 Paralympics was more extensive than ever before (International
Paralympic Committee, 2000). However, only a few Paralympic athletes were shown in the
coverage, and they were not framed in the media in the same way as Olympic athlete.5
However, the Paralympic Games in London 2012 have been dubbed the greatest Paralympic
Games ever by Sir Philip Craven, President of the IPC. Records were set across the board for
sport performance, attendance, media attention, and overall support of the Paralympic Games.
The Paralympic Movement currently includes athletes with disabilities ranging from mild visual
impairment to quadriplegia competing in twenty-nine sports through winter and summer.

5
https://www.paralympic.org/the-ipc
22
2.2 SOCIAL EXCLUSION AND INDIFFERENCE TO PEOPLE WITH
DISABILITIES

Historically, the concept of disability remained as one of the most neglected and forgotten
development agenda by both the State and the non-state actors. They have always been
considered as recipients of charity and welfare.

Social exclusion is:

(a) Multidimensional, encompassing social, political, cultural and economic dimensions, and
operating at different social levels;

(b) Dynamic, impacting in different ways to differing degrees at different social levels over
time; and

(c) Relational focuses on exclusion as the rupture of relationships between people and the
society resulting in a lack of social participation, social protection, social integration and
power.6

Social exclusion is a process. It can involve the systematic denial of entitlements to

resources and services, and the denial of the right to participate on equal terms in social
relationships in economic, social, cultural or political arenas. Exclusionary processes can occur
at various levels within and between households, villages, cities, states, and globally.

Many people are excluded from the development process because of their disabilities,
and hence they go from their rights and needs. People with disabilities are at a higher risk of
social exclusion because of the lack or limited access to social environment and unemployment,
the lack or limited access to goods and services, stigmatization of disabled people, the lack of
adequate training, the lack of specialized services, the inadequacy of the education systems.

Social exclusion is thus denial of three capabilities; first, it emphasizes that the inability
to participate in, and be respected by, mainstream society is a violation of a basic right that
should be open to all citizens. Second, social exclusion demands for equal to all for all aspects of
citizenship. Third, it recognizes the diversity of people in their ability to make use of
opportunities.

6
Islam, M. Rezaul, Rights of the People with Disabilities and Social Exclusion, International Journal of Social Science
and Humanity, Vol. 5, No. 2, February 2015
23
2.3 FRAMING OF DISABILITY IN THE MEDIA

Major frames commonly used to talk about people with disabilities in the media can be described
as the passive victim, the supercrip, and the cyborg. These frames have been found in television
shows and books and are further supported by media studies in the area of Paralympic sport.

2.3.1 Passive Victim

The passive victim frame is intimately linked with the medical model of understanding
disability. This frame is constructed when language such as suffers from, afflicted by, or
stricken with is used to describe an individuals condition. . Visually, the passive victim frame
is represented by images of people with disabilities who do not fully participate in social
activities. This frame is damaging as it represents people with disabilities as liabilities to society.
It promotes ideas of dependence and a drain on society by portraying people with disabilities as
less than fully active citizens.

2.3.2 Supercrip

The supercrip model frames the person with a disability as heroic because of his/her
ability to overcome disability and perform feats normally considered not possible. This frame
portrays exceptional people with disabilities surmounting the impossible7. However, in showing
these great personal achievements, the media is inadvertently providing an impractical point of
reference against which many will judge the everyday person with a disability. Since it appears
that the supercrip is able to overcome his/her disability with spirit and determination, people
attribute lower performance in individuals with disabilities to a lack of character and other
internal characteristics.

2.3.3 Cyborg

The cyborg frame is common in discussions relating to technology in parasport

competition. The cyborg frame is also present whenever a oneness with assistive devices is
emphasized; for example, with a wheelchair or the sledge in hockey. A cyborg is a combination
of man and machine

7
http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4135&context=etd

24
2.4 MEDIA AND THE PARALYMPIC GAMES

Although the Paralympic Games are not treated as serious, real sport competitions,
coverage of the Paralympic Games is offered for image reasons in most newspapers. Since the
Paralympic Games were born as the Olympic-style games for athletes with a disability when the
Rome Olympic Games were held in 1960, they have expanded their sport program and an
increasing number of athletes and countries have participated.

How one is portrayed in the media can have positive or negative consequences. Media is
known to stereotype people with disabilities. Print media defines disabled as supercrip, as
overcoming to succeed as a meaningful member of society and to live a normal life.

Use of the supercrip stereotype exhibiting terms, such as courage, special, hero,
extraordinary are mostly used in studies of sport media coverage prior to 2004. Often, media
presents disability sport events as human interest stories rather than elite level sports
competitions. The narrative stresses for athletes to exert superhuman efforts to succeed, or they
deserve our pity, or they are fearful because of their terrible limitations. Media disempowers
athletes with disabilities through patronizing and stereotypical reporting. Another common
theme is the inferiority of the Paralympics when compared to the Olympics.

Howe (2008) and Quinn (2007) both found evidence for a change in media portrayals of
Paralympic athletes at the time of the 2004 Paralympic Games in Athens. In her study, Quinn
(2007) determined that Paralympic athletes were primarily framed as athletic. However, despite
the relatively desirable frame, the portrayal was seen as highly uni-dimensional which could be
problematic for those people with impairments who have no desire to be athletic. Howes (2008)
investigation of the production of media stories from inside the newsroom also suggested a shift
away from headlines that celebrate the triumph over adversity to a more sport focused format.

25
 Chapter 3

3. Methodology

The aim of this study design was to discern how the two major Indian national newspapers
framed Paralympic athletes at the Rio 2016 Paralympic Games.

3.1 Framing Theory

Framing refers to the process whereby as producers and consumers of media we organize
information. It is rare that all facts related to an event are shared. Rather, media producers
"frame" stories by highlighting particular information. Entman (1993) states that framing is to
select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a communicating test,
in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral
evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation for the item described. Researchers may choose
to examine the production of media coverage, to analyze content of media, or to explore the
implications for audiences and how frames influence people's reactions. For this purpose, the
focus will be on the content of the articles collected from the two Indian national newspapers i.e
The Times of India in English Daily and Dainik Jagran in Hindi.

Media frames analysis relies on a constructivist world view and aligns itself with critical
realist or relativist ideals. In either case, the importance of language as the point of access to
meaningfully understanding of realities is emphasized. Therefore, a multi-paradigmatic approach
combining critical and constructionist paradigms is appropriate for discussion of media framing
around issues of disability in sport.

The critical paradigm suggests that dominant news frames are the outcome of reporting
designed to reproduce existing hegemonic social structures theorizes that social inequality is
reproduced and sustained by the media, suggesting that changes in societal attitudes will be
followed by new media representations.

The constructionist paradigm suggests that journalists serve to produce interpretive

packages that represent the positions of their primary sources. However, this approach suggests
that opportunities to be heard are not equal among citizens. Thus, media frames may restrict
access to information and construct political awareness of individuals.

26
3.2 Sample

This study focuses on representations of Paralympic athletes by the Indian print media.
Therefore, the primary source for this study consists of articles about the Paralympic Games
drawn from the Times of India with a circulation of 4.9 million readers and Dainik Jagran with a
circulation of 16.429 million readers, according to the 2010 Indian Readership Survey findings.
These two newspapers were chosen for the sample because they are Indias two national daily
newspapers.

3.3 Data Collection Procedure

The timeframe for data collection was from 07th Sep 2016 to 18th Sep 2016 during Rio
2016 Paralympic Games. It was selected to capture articles in the lead-up to the Paralympic
Games, as well as articles that would be reflecting on the Games following the Closing
Ceremonies.

Articles for analysis were found using manual hand-searching technique of hard-copy
newspapers purchased daily during the data collection period. The Newspapers were searched
using a list of targeted keywords i.e Paralympic or Paralympian and and limiting the publication
dates to the data collection period.

In total, the sample size was 206 articles consisting of 104 articles from The Times of
India out of which 18 articles are based on Paralympic Games and 102 articles from Dainik
Jagran out of which 25 articles are based on Paralympic Games. A full listing of articles by
publication date and headline can be found in Appendices B and C. All data used for this study is
publically available.

3.4 Data Analysis Procedure

The 206 texts were analyzed using techniques of media frames analysis through the lens
of critical disability theory with the goal to determine contemporary representations of disability
in sport. Qualitative analysis was performed to discover emergent frames in the text. This study
adopted a linguistic analysis approach which focuses on what is talked about, by whom, where,

27
and why. In this approach, frames are emergent with focus placed on the use of linguistic devices
and the role they play in the presentation of frames.

A list of elements that can act as key cues to signify the presence of a frame in a text is
made and are listed in Appendix D. These types of cues were manually coded.

3.5 Limitations and Delimitations

This study is limited in the ability to generalize the findings across cultures. As framing
relies on a constructionist view, the findings are limited to the social context (both location and
time) from which they originate. This research also had inherent time limitations that prevented
the researcher from using a wider sample and adding more content to the analysis. As in any
research involving qualitative and quantitative work, the subjective nature of the methods used
can be viewed as a limitation.

The delimitations set for this project were primarily a result of the timeline for
completing the thesis as well as access to relevant materials. Firstly, the focus of the study was
on the content portion of the media cycle. This decision was made to facilitate the study design
and to choose one set of methods. The study was gender-neutral as the goal was to determine
overarching representations of athletes with disabilities rather than to begin a discussion of
gender politics. The sources for the sample were chosen because of their status as major Indiaqn
National dailies and because of their ready availability to the researcher both in print and online.

28
 Chapter 4

4 Findings and Discussion

The results in this section were established through extensive analysis of the sample data
collected. Descriptive statistics are used to provide the reader with a cursory overview of the
analytical frames and their frequencies before exploring the qualitative findings.

A qualitative and quantitative approach was used to deconstruct the various themes
presented by The Times of Indian and Dainik Jagrans coverage of the 2016 Paralympic Games.
The most frequent and relevant themes reflect the messages communicated in the sample as well
as many historically important frames in disability sport coverage.

4.1 Defining the Frames

The final analysis of the texts resulted in the use of six frames: athletic, medical/patient,
supercrip, charity/victim, cyborg, and little brother. The terminology of the analytical frames was
selected as a result of emergent patterns in the texts as well as from their presence in previous
studies of disability representation in media. Athletic, supercrip, charity/victim, and cyborg
themes have all been found in previous disability framing studies by researchers including
Hardin and Hardin (2004), Mason (2013), Schell and Duncan (1999), and Silva and Howe
(2012). Little brother is a term created by the primary researcher in this study to represent the
hierarchical relationship between able-bodied sport and sport for people with disabilities. Table 3
provides descriptions of the analytical frames used for final analysis.

Table 3: Analytical Frames and Their Meanings

Frame Code Meaning / Cues

Athletic A competition results, sport performance, training, coaching, ability
Medical / Finance B injuries, diagnosis, prognosis, medical staff, assistive devices,
Financial assistance
Supercrip C tragic hero, overcoming, character, emotional strength
Charity / Victim D pity, unable, burden, in need of saving, damaged, love
Cyborg E technology, more than human, super-ability
Little Brother F Less/more than able bodied sport, less/more than Olympic

29
4.2 Descriptive Statistics

Qualitative coding was compiled and ultimately each sample article was assigned a code.
These results have been summarized into quantitative descriptive statistics. Table 4 displays the
primary findings

Bibliography

Clair, J. M. (2012). Disability in the Global Sport Arena: A Sporting Chance. new york: routledge.

Islam, M. R. (feb 2015). Rights of the People with Disabilities and Social Exclusion. International Journal
of Social Science and Humanity, , 1-7.

30
K. Dixon, T. G. (2015). The Impact of the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games: Diminishing Contrasts ...
uk: palgrave macmillan.

Keith Gilbert, O. J. (2008). The Paralympic Games: Empowerment Or Side Show? uk: meyer and meyer.

King, C. (2012). international review for the sociology of sports. Media Portrayals of Male and Female
Athletes .

King, C. (2007). Media Portrayals of Male and Female Athletes. International Review for the Sociology of
Sport J , 187-190.

Monedero, J. A. (2014). Social Image of Disability. Vulnerability of the Dignity of Women with Disability
and Social Exclusion Contexts . Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences , 115-120.

http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4135&context=etd

Hocking & Stacks, 1998; Wimmer & Dominick, 1991

http://www.disability.wa.gov.au/understanding-disability1/understanding-disability/what-is-disability/

https://www.paralympic.org/the-ipc

http://www.communicationstudies.com/communication-theories

31
Appendix 1 - Examination points

1. How much coverage, article-wise is given to Rio Paralympic Games on sports page
in The Times of India?
2. How much coverage, article-wise is given to Rio Paralympic Games on sports page
in Dainik Jagran?
3. Comparison of coverage of Paralympic Games in Times of India and Dainik jagran?
4. How many articles are published on Paralympic as compared to articles on Cricket,
Football, Tennis and Other sports in The Times of India?
5. How many articles are published on Paralympic as compared to articles on Cricket,
Football, Tennis and Other sports in Dainik Jagran?
6. Comparison of number of articles published on Paralympic Games in Times of
India and Dainik jagran?
7. Whether the content on athletes with disabilities placed on front page of newspaper
more often than inside sports section?
8. Do content of athletes with disabilities highlight the theme of disability more often
than theme of athleticism?

32
DATA ANALYSIS:

1. How much coverage, article-wise is given to Rio Paralympic Games on sports page
in The Times of India?

Ans:

Total Articles Artices on Other Artices on Rio % of Coverage

Published Sports Paralympic Games
The Times
=15*100/222 =
of India 222 207 15
6.76%

Chart Representation:

Coverage given article-wise in The Times of

India
7%

Articles Published on
other sports

Artices on Rio Paralympic

Games
93%

On the analysis of above Pie Chart, it is evident that the Indian English Daily named The
Times of India has not given enough space for publishing articles on the Rio 2016 Paralympic
Games. The space allocated for publishing content on Paralympic Games is just 7% which is
Very Poor. Also, representation and coverage of foreign paralympic athletes is negligible in the
published contents on Rio 2016 Paralympic Games.

33
 2. How much coverage, article-wise is given to Rio Paralympic Games on sports page
in Dainik Jagran?

Ans:

Total Articles Artices on Artices on Rio % of

Published Other Sports Paralympic Games Coverage
Dainik
=20*100/122
Jagran 122 102 20
= 16.4%

Chart Representation:

Coverage given article-wise in Dainik Jagran

16% Articles Published on

other sports

Artices on Rio
Paralympic Games

84%

On the analysis of above Pie Chart, it is evident that the Indian Hindi Daily named Dainik
Jagran has given more space than The Times of India but that was not enough for representing
the athletes of the Rio 2016 Paralympic Games. The space allocated for publishing content on
Paralympic Games is 12% which is also Poor. Also, representation and coverage of foreign
paralympic athletes is negligible in the published contents on Rio 2016 Paralympic Games.

34
 3. Comparison of coverage of Paralympic Games in Times of India and Dainik jagran?

Ans:

Times of India Artices on Dainik Jagran % of

Total Other Sports Coverage
Articles =15*100/222
Published 107 15
= 6.76%

Chart Representation:

Coverage given article-wise in Dainik Jagran

12% Articles Published on

other sports

Artices on Rio
Paralympic Games

88%

On the analysis of above Pie Chart, it is evident that the Indian Hindi Daily named Dainik
Jagran has given more space than The Times of India but that was not enough for representing
the athletes of the Rio 2016 Paralympic Games. The space allocated for publishing content on
Paralympic Games is 11% which is also Poor. Also, representation and coverage of foreign
paralympic athletes is negligible in the published contents on Rio 2016 Paralympic Games.

35
36
4. How many articles are published on Paralympic as compared to articles on Cricket,
Football, Tennis and Other sports in The Times of India?

37
5. How many articles are published on Paralympic as compared to articles on Cricket,
Football, Tennis and Other sports in Dainik Jagran?

38
6. Comparison of number of articles published on Paralympic Games in Times of
India and Dainik jagran?

39
7. Whether the content on athletes with disabilities placed on front page of newspaper
more often than inside sports section?

40
8. Do content of athletes with disabilities highlight the theme of disability more often
than theme of athleticism?

41