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Warning : Selling or buying pirated books is an offence. Legal action shall be taken against the bookseller(s) and student(s) or whoever found guilty of such an offence in any way. Published by = R.K. GUPTA (B.Sc. Engg. Mech.) for LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD 22, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002. , [011-23 26 23 68 Phonae’: {ovat 262370 Hoe 011-23 25 25 72 011-28 26 22 79 Branches * 129/1, [IIrd Main Road, IX Cross Chamrajpet, Bangalore (Phone : 080-26 61 15 61) * 26, Damodaran Street, T. Nagar, Chennai (Phone : 044-24 34 47 26) * St. Benedict's Road, Cochin (Phone : 0484-239 70 04) + Pan Bazar, Rani Bari, Guwahati (Phones : 0361-254 36 69, 251 38 81) + 4-2-453, Ist Floor, Ramkote, Hyderabad (Phone : 040-24 75 02 47) + Adda Tanda Chowk, N.D. 365, Jalandhar City (Phone : 0181-222 12 72) + 106/A, Ist Floor, S.N. Banerjee Road, Kolkata (Phones : 033-22 27 37 73, 22 27 52 47) + 18, Madan Mohan Malviya Marg, Lucknow (Phone : 0522-220 95 78) = 128A, Block 3, First Floor, Noorani Building, L.J. Road, Mumbai (Phone : 022-24 46 39 98) « Radha Govind Street, Tharpagna, Ranchi (Phone : 0651-230 77 64) ‘EMAIL : colaxmi@hotmail.com WEBSITE : www.laxmipublications.com First Edition : Sept. 1983 Complied by : Smt. Nirmal Bansal Ninth Edition : 2005 All Rights Reserved with Author & the Publishers. Author : Dr. R.K. Bansal C-11010/05/07 Price : Rs. 360.00 Only. EFM-0559-360-FLUID MECHANICS & HM Typesetted at : Shubham Composer, Delhi. Printed at: Dharmesh Art Process, New Delhi-110028.CONTENTS Chapter Digi Chapter 1. Properties of Fluids 1-33 LL. Introduction oe 1 12. Properties of Fluids ‘ 1 1.2.1. Density or Mass Density é 1 1.2.2. Specific Weight or Weight Density * 1 1.2.3. » Specific Volume a 2 124. Specific Gravity i 2 = te 2 LS. Viscosity 3 Units of Viscosity oy 3 Kinematic Viscosity 5 Newton’s Law of Viscosity : 5 Variation of Viscosity with Temperature 6 Types of Fluids : 4 Solved Problems 1.3—1.19 : 6 imic Properties . i 141. Dimension of R ‘ 18 142. Isothermal Process : 18 1.4.4. | Universal Gas Constant “ 19 1.5. Compressibility and Bulk Modulus 21 1.6. Surface Tension and Capillarity Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble Surface Tension on a Liquid Jet Solved Problems 1.25—1.27 1.6.4. Capillarity Solved Problems 1.28—1.32 1.7. Vapour Pressure and Cavitation Highlights i BS BBEREREBIS :@ 24. Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric and Vacuum Pressures 25 Manometers 2.5.2. Mechanical Gauges 2.4, Simple Manometers 26.1. Piezometer 2S. Pressure at a Point in Cerapressiile Fluid 28.1. Isothermal Process © 28.2. Adiahatic Process 2.8.3. ‘Temperature at any Point in Compressible Fluid 2.8.4. Temperature Lapse-Rate (L) Highlights Exercise—2 Forces on Surfaces Vertical Plane Surface Submerged in Liquid 3.4, Horizontal Plane Surface Submerged in Liquid Solved Problem 3.13 ” 3.5. Inclined Plane Surface Submerged in Liquid Solved Problems 3.14—321 3.6. Curved Surface Submerged in Liquid Solved Problems 3.22—8.81 Lock Gates S Pr aa2—338 3.8. Pressure Distribution in a Liquid Subjected to 3.8.1. Liquid Containers Subject to Constant ‘Horizontal Acceleration Solved Problems 3.24—3.26 3.8.2. Liquid Containers Subjected to Constant Solved Problems 3.37—5.38 Highlights Feercse 24Gi) pier 4. Buoyaney and Ploatation 44. Introduction Buoyancy i, Centre of Buoyancy = 41-46 4.4, Meta-centre 4.5, Meta-centric Height 4.6, Analytical Method for Meta-centric Height Solved Problems 4.7—4.11 rc 4c. Conditions of Equilibrium of a Floating and Submerged Bodies 4.7.1, Stability of a Submerged Body . 4.7.2. Stability of a Floating Body Solved Problems 412—4 18 48. Experimental Method of Determination of ‘Meta-centrie Height Solved Problems 4,19—4,20 4.9. Oscillation (Rolling) of a Floating Body ged lights eal ee 5.2. Methods of Deseribing Fluid sti ‘5.3. Types of Fluid Flow 5.3.1. Steady and Unsteady Flows 5.3.2. Uniform and Non-uniferm Flows 6.33. Laminar and Turbulent Flows 5.3.4. Compressible and Incompressible Flows 5.3.5, Rotational and Irrotational Flows 5.3.6. One, two and Three-Dimensional Flows SA. Rate of Flow or Discharge (Q) . Continuit; uation Solved Problems §.1—5.5 5.0. Contingtty Bquation in Three: Dimensiuns .6.1. Continui ation in Cylindrical 5.7. Velocity and Acceleration 5.7.1. Local Accel werkin Solved Problems 5.6—5.9 4.8. Velocity Potential Function and-Stream Function 5.8.1. Velocity Potential Function E82 Si Funct 5.8.3. Equipotential Line 5.84. 1 x s k: eC iB BEBE EEEBE EREBEEES 3 187 BEBEEB E BI BE BBE BEREEI B lea EERE Copyrighted material(xii) 6.8.5. Flow Net 5.8.6, Velocity Potential Function From Equation (5.9) 5.9. Types of Motion Li 7 . Rotation 5.9.1. 6.9.2. Linear Deformation 6.9.3, Angular Deformation or Shear Deformation 5.9.4. 5.95. Vorticity | 5101 Forced Vortex Flow 6.10.2. Free Vortex Flow 6.10.3. Equation of Motion for Vortex Flow 5.10.4, 6.10.5. 5.10.6. Equation of Forced Vortex Flow Solved Problems 5.20—5.25 Closed Cylindrical Vessels : Solved Problems 5.26—5.31 a Equation of Free Vortex Flow Solved Problom 5.32 Important Cases of Potential Flow Uniform Flow 6.12.1. Uniform Flow Parallel to x-Axis 6.12.2. Uniform Potential Flow Parallel to y-Axis Source Flow Sink Flow Solved Problems 5.33—5.35 Free-Vortex Flow Super-Imposed Flow 5171 i FE FE BEE Source and Sink Pair Solved Problems 5.36—5.37 617.2. Doublet G Solved Problem 5.38 5173. is (Flow Past a Half-Body) (Plow Past a Rankine Oval Body) Solved Problem 5.42 A Doublet in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Circular Cylinder) Solved Problems 5.43—5.44 Highlights Exercise—5 E REBEEBREBBEBEE BEEEE PBEE EB BB BEREEEREEEBRER(aii) Chapter 6, Dynamics of Fluid Flow 256-312 6. Introduction a 256 . Equations of Motion 256 . Euler's Equation of Motion = 267 . Bernoulli's Equation from Euler's Equation 258 ‘Assumptions a 258 "Solve — 2 258 6.6, Bernoulli's Equation for Real Fluid a 262 6.7. Practical Applications of Bernoulli's Equation 3 265 &.Z1 Venturimeter 265 Solved Problems 6.10-—~6.21 * 267 6.2 Pitot-tuhe 282 lve 6.28 283 6.8. The Momentum Equation _ 3 285 Solved Problems 6.29635 08 6.9. Moment of Momentum Equation 295 Solved Problems 6.36—6.37 295 6.10, Free Liquid Jets 298 Highlights 3 304 Exercise—6. 306 Chapter 7. Orifices and Mouthpieces 813-850 ZL. Introduction 313 2, Classifications of Orifices 7 313 Flow Through an Orifice : 313 4, Hydraulic Co-efficients = 314 74.1. Co-efficient of Velocity (C.) 314 7A. Co-efficient of Contraction (C,) Ss 315 7.4.3. Co-efficient of Discharge (C,) : 315 ved Probl 112. 15 5, Experimental Determination of Hydraulic Co-efficient: - 216 7.5.1, Determination of C, 316 7.5.2. Determination of Co-efficient of Velocity ©, 317 7L5.3.__Determinatian of Co-efficient of Contraction C, es z 317 Solved Problems 7.3—7 10 31 7.6. Flow Through Large Orifices i 323 7.6.1. Discharge Through Large Rectangular Orifice * 324 Solved Problems 7 1)—=7 1g _324 4.1, Discharge Through Fully Submerged Orifice se 326 Solved Problems 7.14—715 BT 18, Discharge Through Partially Submerged Orifice ae 327 Solved Problem 7.16 B28 pyrightad miv) ‘Time of Emptying a Tank Through an Orifice hv 1s 7.17—7.] 10. Time of Emptying a Hemispherical Tank 211, Time of Emptying a Circular Horizontal Tank s Probleme 7221.28 LAX. Classification of Mouthpieces Lia Flow Through an External Cylindrical Mouthpiece Salved Problems’ 2 ‘Li4. Flow Through a Convergent-Divergent Mouthpiece ‘L1G, Flow Through Internal or Re-entrant on Borda's Mouthpiece Highlights Exercise—7 d Wai S Discharge Over a Rectangular Notch or Weir 8.4, Discharge Over a Triangular Notch or Weir Solved problems 8.4—-8.6 . Advantages of Triangular Notch or Weir over Rectangular Notch or Weir _ 8, Discharge Over a Trapezoidal Notch or Weir Solved Problem 8.7 3.2. Discharge Over a Stepped Notch Solved Problem 8.8 SS. Effect on Discharge Over a Notch or Weir ace ia Dad 8.8.1. For Rectangular Weir or Notch a 8.8.2. For Triangular Weir or Notch os ‘Solved Problems 8.98.11 84. (a) Time Required to Empty a Reservoir or a ‘Tank with a Rectangular Weir or Notch on (@) Time Required to Empty a Reservoir or a Tank with a Triangular Weir or Notch Salved P. < 8198.14 Velocity of Approach EE Empirical Formulae for Discharge Over Rectangular Woir Cipolletti_ Weir or Notch "Solved Problems 8.23—8.24 Discharge Over a Broad-Crested Weir F 328 829 aa 332 834 ‘B35 831 337 Ags 340 adi B43 45 346 248 BEEBE BBEE 8 BEER EBERE BEREEE Copyrighted material(au) 8.14. Discharge Over a Narrow-Crested Weir 8. Discharge Over an Ogee Weir 8.16, Discharge Over Submerged or Drowned Weir Solved Problems 8.25827 Highlights Exercise—8 Chapter 9. Viscous Flow 9.1, Introduction 9.2. Flow of Viscous Fluid Through Circular Pipe Solved Problems 9.1--96 1.3. Flow of Viscous Fluid between Two Parallel Plates Solved Problems 9.7—9.12 9.4. Kinetic Energy Correction and Momentum Correction Factors Solved Problem 9.13 2.5. Power Absorbed in Viscous Flow 9.6.1, Viscous Resistance of Journal Bearings Salved Problems 914-9 18 9.5.2. Viscous Resistance of Foot-step Bearing Solved Problems 9.19—9.20 9.5.3. Viscous Resistance of Collar Bearing Solved Problems 921—9.22 © 4. f Ds riction in Viscous Flow 1,7. Movement of Piston in Dash-pot 9.8. Methods of Determination of Co-efficient of Viscosity . 9.8.1. Capillary Tube Method . 9.8.2. Falling Sphere Resistance Method 9.8.3. Rotating Cylinder Method 9.8.4, Orifice Type Viscometer 882 a2 386 392 395 209 393 402 402, 403 406 407 407 408 409 410 412 413 41d 414 415 416 417 418 422, 424, Highlights Exercise9 Chapter 10. Turbulent Flow 428-459 428 428 10.1. Introduction 10.2. Reynolds Experiment 10.3. Frictional Loss in Pipe Flow 10.3.1. Exprossion for Loss of Head Due to Friction in Pipes 10.3.2. Expression for Co-efficient of Friction in Terms of Shear Stress 10.4. Shear Stress in Turbulent Flow 10.4.1. Reynold Expression for Turbulent Shear Stress sae 432 10.4.2. Prandt] Mixing Length Theory for ‘Turbulent Shear Stress e& 8 B(avi) 10.5, Velocity Distribution in Turbulent Flow in Pipes 10.5.1. Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Boundaries 10.5.2. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Smooth Pipes 10.5.3. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Rough Pipes Solved Problems 10.1—10.4 10.5.4. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Terms of Average Velocity Solved Problems 10.5—10.6 Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow Smooth Pipes by Power Law 10.6, Resistance of Smooth and Rough Pipes Solved Problems 10.7—10.13 Highlights Exercise —10 BREEE BE 88 8 8 B Chapter ii, Flow Through Pip Li. Introduction, 11.2. Loss of Energy in Pipes 11.8. Loss of Energy (or head) Due to Friction Solved Problems 11.1—11.7 lia, Minor Energy (Head) Losses 11.4.1. Loss of Head Due to Sudden Enlargement Tg Tan. of Hand Due to Rudden Contraction Solved Problems 11.8—11.14 11.4.3. Loss of Head at the Entrance of a Pipe 11.4.4. Loss of Head at the Exit of Pipe BOL f Head D 0 5 ina Pipe 11.4.6. Loss of Head Due to Bend in Pipe 11.4.7. Loss of Head in Varioys Pipe Fittings Solved Problems 11.15—11.21 1.5. Hydraulic Gradient_and Total Energy Line 11.5.1, Hydraulic Gradient Line 11.6.2. Total Energy Line Solved Problems 11.22—11.26 11.6, Flow Through Syphon Solved Problems 11.27—11.29 11.7. Flow Through Pipes in Series or Flow Through Compound Pipes 3 SEBBBEBE BEBBESRESA~ RSBBBBBBBB LLA. Equivalent Fipe LLS. Flow Through Parallel Pipes 11.10. Flow Through Branched Pipes Solved Problems 11.42—11.44(xvii) «Power Transmission Through Pipes wi 525 Thee ere ‘Transmission of Power “ 526 11.112. Maximum Efficiency of Transmission of Power 526 Flow Through Nozzles . 30 11.12.1, Power Transmitted Through Nozzle a a2 Beanie ian Bee Transmitted Through Nozzle “4 532 11.123. Diameter of Nozzle for Maximum ‘Transmission of Power Through Nozzle Iv 7 1.4811. . Water Hammer in Pipes Ee 536. 11.13.1, Gradual Closure of Valve Pe 537 11.13.2, Sudden Closure of Valve and Pipe is Rigid .. 537 11.13.3. Sudden Closure of Valve and Pipe is Elastic ... 538 11.13.4. Time Taken by Pressure Wave to Travel from the Valve to the Tank and from Tank to the Valve “ 540 Solved Problems 11.52—11.55 oy 540 Pipe ork 542 11.14.1, Hardy Cross Method " 543 Highlights we 847 Exercise— 11 . 549 Chapter 12. Dimensional and Model Analysis 554-605 12.1. Introduction 554 122. Secondary or Derived Quantities 554 Solved Problem 12.1 . ‘555 Dimensional Homogeneity - 566 Methods of Dimensional Analysis 556 12.4.1, Rayleigh’s Method ws 556 12.4.2. Buckingham’s x-Theorem ~ 560 12.4.3. Method of Selecting Repeating Variables 12.4.4. Procedure for Solving Problems by Buckingham’s Theorem Solved Problems 12.8—12.14 12.5. Model Analysis 12.6, Similitude-Types of Similarities 12.7. Types of Forces Acting in Moving Fluid 8. Dimensionless Numbers 12.8.1, Reynold’s Number (R,) 12.8.2. Froude's Number (F,) 12.8.3. Euler's Number E,) 12.8.4. Weber's Number (W,) 12.8.5 Mach’s Number Of BESRS3aSS82 &wii) Model Laws or Similarity Laws owe 578 12.9.1, Reynold's Model Law - 8aB Solved Problems 12.15—12.18 579 12.9.2. Froude Model Law 582 219-125 585 12.9.8. Euler’s Model Law 590 2.9.4. Weber Model Law 591 12.9.5. Mach Model Law 591 Solved Problem 12.28 i 592 12,10, Model Testing of Partially Submerged Bodies 593 12.11, Classification of Models ote 599 12.11.1. Undistorted Models ae 599 1211.2. Distorted Models 600 12.11.38. Scale Ratios for Distorted Madels 00 Solved Problem 12.33 601 Highlights 601 Exercise—12 - 602 13.2.1. Laminar Boundary Layer os 607 13.2.2. Turbulent Boundary Layer wi 608 13.2.3. Laminar Sub-layer 408 13.2.4. Boundary Layer Thickness (5) 608 13.2.5. Displacement Thickness (5*) 608 13.2.6. Momentum Thickness (0) 610 13.2.7. Energy Thickness (8"*) 610 Solved Problems 13.1—13.2 61 13.8. Drag Force on a Flat Plate Due to Boundary Layer 614 13.3.1. Local Co-effieient of Drag [Cp"! siz 13.8.2. Average Co-efficient of Drag (Cy) ve air 1.3.3. Boundary Conditions for the Velocity Profiles a alr Solved Problems 13.18.12 az 15.4. Turbulent Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate 633 Solved Problem 13.13 633 13.5. Analysis of Turbulent Boundary Layer sea 636 13.6, Total Drag on a Flat Plate Due to Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layer ste 636 Solved Problems 19.14—18.17 637 1.1. Separation of Boundary Lay - 4a Boundary Layer Separation 643 13.7.2. Location of Separation Point 644 Solved Problem 13.18 om 645(xix) 13.7.3. Methods of Preventing the Separation of Boundary Layer a 646 Highlights : 646 Exercise—13 i 648 Chapter 14. Forces on Submerged Bodies 651-806 14... Introduction 651 14.2. Fores Exerted by a Flowing Fluid on a Stationary Body 651 142.1, Drag 2 652 14.2.2. Lift 65! 14.5, Expression for Drag and Lift 652 14.3.1. Dimensional Analysis of Drag and Lift - 653 ve 14.15, Bd 14.8.2. Pressure Drag and Friction Drag 664 14.3.3. Stream-lined Body 665 14.3.4. Bluff Body a 665 14.4. Drag on a Sphere ae 665 Solved Problem 14.16 4.4. 14.5. Terminal Velocity of a Body " 667 Solved Problems 14.17—14.20 667 14.6. Drag on a Cylinder 3 671 14.7. Development of Lift on a Circular Cylinder 2 671 14.7.1. Flow of Ideal Fh Cylinder " 672 14.7.2. Flow Pattern Around the Cylinder Imparted to the Cylinder 672 14.7.3 Expression for Lift Force Acting on Rotating Cylinder 674 14.7.4. Drag Force Acting on a Rotating Cylinder... 676 14.7.5. Expression for Lift Co-efficient for Rotating Cylinder oo 676 14.7.6. Location of Stagnation Points for a Rotating Cylinder in a Uniform Flow-field 677 14.7.7. Magnus Effect 67 Solved Problems 14.21—14.23 677 14.8. Development of Lift on an Airfoil ‘ 680 14.8.1. Steady-state of a Flying Object a 681 Solved Problems 14.24—14.25 oe 681 Highlights 8 683 Exercise—14 684 Chapter 15. Compressible Flow 687-730 15.1. Introduction é 687 15.2. Thermodynamic Relations 687 687 15.2.1. Equation of State & 15.2.2. Expansion and Compression of Perfect Gas ... 68815.3. 15. 15.8. 15.9. 15.10, 15.11. ex) Basic Equations of Compressible Flow 16.3.1, Continuity Equation 15.3.2. Bernoulli’s Equation Solved Problems 15.1—15.3 15.3.3. Momentum Equations Velocity of Sound or Pressure Wave in a Fluid 15.4.1. Expression for Velocity of Sound Wave in a Fluid 15.4.2. Velocity of Sound in Terms of Bulk Modulus 15.4.3. Velocity of Sound for Isothermal Process 18.4.4. Velocity of Sound for Adiabatic Process Mach Number Solved Problems 15.4—15.7 Propagation of Pressure Waves (or Disturbances }) in_a Compre: le Fluid 15.6.1. Mach Angle 15.6.2. Zone of Action 15.6.3. Zone of Silence Solved Problems 15.8—15.10 . Stagnation Properties 15.7.1. Expression for Stagnation Pressure (p,) 15.7.2. Expression for Stagnation Density (p,) 15.7.3. Expression for Stagnation Temperature (T,) Solved Problems 16.11—15.12 Area Velocity Relationship for Compressible Flow Flow of Compressible Fluid Through Orifices and Nozzles Fitted to a Large Tank 15.9.1. Value of n or 21 for Maximum Value P2 of Mass Rate of Flow 16.9.2. Value of V» for Maximum Rate of Flow of Fluid 15.9.3, Maximum Rate of Flow of Fluid Through Nozzle 15.9.4. Variation of Mass Rate of Flow of Compressible Fluid with Pressure ratio (2) Pt 15.9.5. Velocity at Outlet of Nozzle for Maximum Rate of Flow is Equal to Sonic Velocity Solved Problems 15.13—-15.15 Mass Rate of Flow of Compressible Fluid Through Venturimeter Solved Problem 15.16 Pitot-Static Tube in a Compressible Flow Solved Problem 15.17 Highlights Exercise—15 689 689 689 691 696 696 698 699 799 700 703 704 704 705 705 709 712 713 nT m1 718 TAL 724 725 725(xxi) Hii. Introduction if.2. Classification of Flow in Channels 16.2.1. Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow 6.2.3 aminar Flow and Turbulent. Flow Flow 16.4. Discharge Through Open Channel by Chezy’s Formula Solved Problems 16.1—16.7 16.4. Empirical Formulae for the Value of Chezy’s Constant Solved Problems 16.8—16.12 16.5. Most Economical Section of Channels 16.5.1. Most Economical Rectangular Channel Solved Problems 16,13—16.15 16.5.2, Most Economical Trapezoidal Channel Solved Problems 16.16—16.22 16.5.3. Best Side Slope for Most Economical m1 Tal za 732 732 733 734 738 739 143 743 144 746 148 Trapezoidal Section i 756 Solved Problems 16.23—16.24 16.5.4. Flow Through Circular Channel 760 Solved Problems 16.25—16.29 760 16.5.5. Most Economical Circular Section 765 Solved Problems 16.30—16.32 16.6, Non-Uniform Flow through Open Channels a 771 16.7. Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve 5 mm 16.7.1. Critical Depth (f,) 713 16.7.2. Critical Velocity (V,) m3 16.7.3. Minimum Specific Energy in Items of Critical Depth . 14 Solved Problems 16.33—16.35 714 16.7.4. Critical Flow 715 16.7.5. Streaming Flow or Sub-critical Flow or Tranquil Flow ws 16 16.7.6. Super-Critical Flow or Shooting Flow or Torrential Flow 116 16.7.7. Alternate Depths 76 16.7.8. Condition for Meximum Discharge for a Given Value of Specific Energy 76 Solved Problems 16.36—16. 37 76 16.8. Hydraulic Jump or Standing Wave 717 16.8.1. Expression for Depth of Hydraulic Jump 118 16.8.2. Expression for Loss of Energy Due to Hydraulic Jump 5 780 16.8.3, Expression for Depth of Hydraulic Jump in Terms or Up-stream Froude Number ee 781(exii) 16.8.4. Length of Hydraulic Jump 781 Solved Problems 16.38—16.42 781 16.9, Gradually Varied Flow (G.V.F.) 184 16.9.1. Equation of Gredually Varied Flow 784 Solved Problems 16.43—16.44 786 16.9.2. Back Water Curve and Affux 187 16.9.3. Expression for the Length of Back ‘Water Curve 788 Solved Problem 16.45 789 Highlights 790 Exercise—16 793 ch npolsi 12.1. Introduction 7 2. Force Exerted by the Jet on a Stationary Vertical Plate 197 17.2.1, Force Exerted by a Jet on Stationary Inclined Flat Plate 798 17.2.2. Force Exerted by a Jet on Stationary Curved Plate 199 Solved Problems 17.1—17.6 801 17.8. Force Exerted by a Jet on a Hinged Plate 803 Solved Problems 17.7—1710 (a) 804 17.4. Foree Exerted by a Jet on Moving Plates 808 17.4.1. Force on Flat Vertical Plate Moving in the Direction of Jet 809 17.4.2. Foree on the Inclined Plate Moving in the Direction of the Jet 809 Solved Problems 17.11—17.13 810 11.4.3. Force on the Curved Plate when the Plate is Moving in the Direction of Jet a12 Solved Problems 17.14—17.17 813 4. Force Exerted by a Jet of Water on an Un-symmetrical Moving Curved Plate when Tangentially at one of the Tips 17.4.5. Force Exerted by a Jet of Water on a 17.4.6. 17.5.1. 17.5.2. det Stril Solved Problems 17.18—1723 ‘Marien ‘of Vanes Force Exerted on a Series of Radial Curved Vanes Solved Problems 17.24—17.26 17.5. Jet Propulsion Jet Propulsion of a Tank with an Orifice Solved Problems 17.27—17.28 Jet Propulsion of Ships Solved Problems Highlights Exercise-—17 17.29—17.33 828 831 834 835 837 837 838 843Introduction we 847 2 hines os B47 3.5. General Layout of a Hydro-electric Power Plant we B47 4. Definitions of Heads and Efficiencies of a Turbine a7 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines 850 isi. Pelton Wheel (or Turbine) oe B51 18.6.1. Velocity Triangles and Work Done for 18.6.2. Points to be Remembered for Pelton Wheel .. 855 18.6.3. Design of Pelton Wheel 867 Solved Problems 18.11—18 13 868 18.7. Radial Flow Reaction Turbines 7s 8i1 18.7.1. Main Parts of a Radial Flow Reaction Turbine ~ 871 18.7.2. Inward Radial Flow Turbine 872 18.7.3. Degree of Reactions 814 18.7.4. Definitions 878 Solved Problems 18.14—18.20 878 18.7.5. Outward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine 886 Solved Problems 18.21—18.22 887 18.8. Francis Turbine 889 18.8.1. Important Relations for Francis Turbines 890 Solved Problems 18.23—18.26 890 18,9. Axial Flow Reaction Turbine ai 897 18.9.1, Some Important Point for Propeller (Kaplan Turbine) “ 829 18.10, Draft Tube % 909 18.10.1. Types of Draft Tubes 909 18.10.2. Draft Tube Theory - 210 18.10.3. Efficiency of Draft Tube 910 Solved Problems 18.33 (a)—18.35 “ 911 18.11. Specific Speed ‘ 914 18.11.1. Derivation of the Specific Speed “ 914 18.11.2. Significance of Specific Speed 915 Solved Problems 18.36—18.41 915 18.12. Unit Quantities 921 18.12.1. Unit Speed a 921 18.12.2. Unit Discharge os 921 18.12.3. Unit Power ws 922 18.12.4. Use of Unit Quantities (N,, Q,, P,) - 922 Solved Problems 18.41 (4)—18.45 ey 923 18.18. Characteristic Cur of Hydraulic Turbines ‘ee 927 Tait eae cl atie Ceres 18.13.2. Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves se 928(xxiv) 18.13.3. Constant Efficiency Curves or Muschel Curves or Iso-Efficiency Curves a 929 18.14. Governing of Turbines 930 Highlights 931 Exercise—18 933 rifagal Pumps 938-984 184 Introduction a 938 9.2, Main Parts of a Centrifugal Pump 938 18.3. Work Done by the Centrifugal Pur (or by Impiller) on Water st 940 Centrifugal Pump * 941 Solved Problems 19.1—19.12 944 19.5. Minimum Speed for Starting a Centrifugal Pump 958 Salved Problems 19.12 19.15 959 19.6. Multistage Centrifugal Pumps 961 19.6.1. Multistage Centrifugal Pumps for High Heads Sn 961 19.6.2. Multistage Centrifugal Pumps for High Discharge ae 962 Solved Problems 19.16—19.17 962 19.7. Specific Speed of a Centrifugal Pump (N,) 964 19.7.1. Expression for Specific Speed for a Pump 964 19.8. Model Testing of Centrifugal Pumps 965 Salved Problems 19.18—19.22 966 19.8. Priming of a Centrifugal Pump 971 19.10. Characteristic Curves of Centrifugal Pumps 971 19.10.1. Main Characteristic Curves 971 19.10.2. Operating Characteristic Curves 972 19.10.3. Constant Efficiency Curves 972 9.11. Cavitation . 973 19.1.1. Precaution Against Cavitation 973 19.112 Effects of Cavitation % 974 19.11.3. Hydraulic Machines Subjected to Cavitation . 974 1911.4. Cavitation in Turbines a 974 19.1.5. Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps “ 974 Salved Problem 19.23 « 975 19.12. Maximum Suction Lift (or Suction Height) 976 19.15. Net Positive Suetion Head (NPSH) 5 978 19.14. Cavitation in Centrifugal Pump - 978 Solved Problem 19.24 979 Highlights x 980 Exorciso=19 os 982 Chapter 20. Reciprocating Pumps Wil. Introduction 24.2. Main Parts of a Reciprocating Pump 20.5. Working of a Reciprocating Pump(xxv) 20.3.1, Discharge Through a Reciprocating Pump... 936 20.3.2, Work Done by Reciprocating Pump 987 20.3.3, Discharge, Work Done and Power : Reauired to Drive a Double-acting Pump... 987 20.4. Slip of Reciprocating Pump. 988 20.4.1. Negative Slip of the Reciprocating Pump 939 20.5. Classification of Reciprocating Pumps aa 989 Solved Problems 20.1—20.2 989 20.6. Variation of Velocity and Acceleration in the Suction and Delivery Pipes Due to Acceleration of the Piston As 990 20.7. Effect of Variation of Velocity on Friction in the Suction and Delivery Pipes 993 Solved Problem 20.3 is 993 Indicator Diagram 995 20.8.1. Ideal Indicator Diagram ‘ 995 20.8.2. Effect of Acceleration in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram ve 996 Solved Problems 20.4—20.9 8 996 20.8.3. Effect of Friction in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram oe 1004 20.8.4, Effect of Acceleration and Friction in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram 1005 Solved Problems 20.10—20.12 1007 20.8.5. Maximum Speed of a Reciprocating Pump 1011 Solved Problem 20.13 1012 20.9. Air Vessels 1013 20.10. Solved Problems 20.14—20.18 1022, Comparison between Centrifugal Pumps and Reciprocating Pumps ats 1029 Highlights saa 1029 Exercise—20 ae 1030 Chapter iuid System 165 061 _ Introduction 10: 21.2. The Hydraulic Press - 1033 21.2.1. Mechanical Advantage : 1034 21.2.2. Leverage of the Hydraulic Press 1084 21.2.3. Actual Heavy Hydraulic Press 1034 Solved Problams 211-218 O35 21.3. The Hydraulic Accumulator, 1037 21.3.1. Capacity of Hydraulic Accumulator 1038 Solved Problems 21.6—21.11 1039 21.3.2. Differential Hydraulic Accumulator 3 1043 ‘The Hydraulic Intensifier 1043 Solved Problems 21.12—-21.1 1045 The Hydraulic Ram a 1045 Solved Problems 21.14—21.15 1047(xvi) 21.6. The Hydraulic Lift 1048 21.6.1. Direct Acting Hydraulic Lift 1049 216.2. Suspended Hydraulic Lift 1049 Solved Problems 21.16—21.17 1050 21.7, The Hydraulic Crane 1052 Solved Problems 21.18—21.20 1052 21,8. The Fluid or Hydraulic Coupling 1055 The Hydraulic Torque Converter 1056 21.10, The Air Lift Pump 1057 21.11. The Gear-Wheel Pump 1058 Highlights 1059 Exercise—21 1080 Objective Type Questions 1062-1084 Answers to Objective Type Questions 1085 Appendix 10861 CHAPTER Properties of Fluids > 1.1 INTRODUCTION Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of the fluids (liquids or gases) at rest as well as in motion. Thus this branch of science deals with the static, kinematics and dynamic aspects of fluids. The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics. The study of fluids in motion, where pressure forces are not considered, is called fluid kinematics and if the pressure forces are also considered for the fluids in motion, that branch of science is called fluid dynamics. > 1.2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 1.2.1 Density or Mass Density. Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of a fluid to its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density. {t is denoted the symbol p (rho). The unit of mass density in SI unit is kg per cubic metre, i.e., ke/m?. The density of liquids may be considered as constant while that of gases changes with the variation of pressure aif! temperature. Mathematically, mass density is written as _ Mass of fluid Volume of fluid * The value of density of water is 1 gm/cm* or 1000 kg/m’. 1.2.2 Specific Weight or Weight Density. Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of a fluid to its volume. Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called weight density and it is denoted by the symbol w. ' we a ‘Thus mathematically, w= \Veishtof fluid _ (Mess of fluid) x Acceleration due to gravity Volume of fluid Volume of fluid Mass of fluid x g _ a of fluid f Mass of fluid | « ” Volume of fluid? w= pg we LD)2 Fluid Mechanics The value of specific weight or weight density (w) for water is 9.81 x 1000 Newton/m’ in SI units. 1.2.3 Specific Volume. Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of a fluid is called specific volume. Mathematically, it is expressed as : Volume of fluid Specific volume =o = Mass of fluid Volume Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is expressed as m*/kg. It is commonly applied to gases. 1.2.4 Specific Gravity. Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or density) of a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard fluid. For liquids, the standard fluid is taken water and for gases, the standard fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is also called relative density. It is dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbol S. Weight density (density) of liquid Weight density (density) of water Sifor gases) = Weight density (density) of gas Weight density (density) of air ‘Thus weight density of a liquid = $ x Weight density of water $x 1000 x 9.81 Nim* Sx Density of water = Sx 1000 kg/m’. s(1.1A) If the specific gravity of a fluid is known, then the density of the fluid will be equal to specific gravity of fluid multiplied by the density of water. For example the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6, hence density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m’, Mathematically, S(for liquids) = The density of a liquid Problem 1.1 Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of a liquid which weighs 7 N. Solution. Given : 7 1s Lo ) Volume = | litre = —— mr 1 litre = —— m* or] litre = 1000 cm " " ( 1000 1000 Weight =7 N (i) Specific weight(w) = eight -__7N__ _ 7990 Nim?. Ans. ‘Volume ( 1 ) @ 1000 (ii) Density (p) = = 200 joj? 713.5 kgim?, Ans. ¢ 98! = Density offiquid _ 7135. ~ Density of water 1000. = 0.7135. Ans. (iii) Specific gravity Density of water = 1000 kg/m?)Properties of Fluids 3 specific weight and weight of one litre of petrol of specific Problem 1.21 Calculate the densi gravity = 0.7 = a . 1000; 3 Solution. Given: Volume =1 litre = 1 x 1000 cm’ oe = 0.001 m Sp. gravity S207 (i) Density (p) Using equation (1.1.A), Density (p) = SX 1000 kg/m? = 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m’. Ans. (ii) Specific weight (w) Using equation (1.1), w=p xg = 700 x 9.81 N/m? = 6867 Nim?, Ans. (iii) Weight (W) We know that specific weight = “eieht Volume or w= or 6867 = 0.001 0.001 W = 6867 x 0.001 = 6.867 N. Ans. > 1.3 VISCOSITY Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer ofthe fluid. When two layers of a fluid, a distance ‘dy’ apart, move one over the other at different velocities, say wand u + duas shown in Fig. 1.1, the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers. The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent top layer. This shear are stress is proportional to the rate of change of veloc- ity with respect toy. It is denoted by symbol tcalled Tau, Mathematically, ow i dy dit Fig. 11 Velocity variation near a solid boundary. or tn we(1.2) ry where (called mu) is the constant of proportionality and isknownas the co-efficient of dynamic viscosity oranly viscosity. “ represents the rate of shear strain or rate of shear deformation or velocity gradient. > ) ‘Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear stress requited to produce unit rate of shear strain, From equation (1.2), we have pt = 13) 1.3.1 Units of Viscosity. The units of viscosity is obtained by putting the dimensions of the quantities in equation (1.3)Shear stress Force/Area Change of veloc (Hee) x 1 Change of distance (Time }* Length _ Force/(length)? _ Force x Time 1 (Length)? Time InMKS system, force is represented by kgf and length by metre (m), in CGS system, force is represented by dyne and length by cm and in SI system force is represented by Newton (N) and length by metre (m). kgf-sec at ~ ‘mes ee MKS unit of viscosity CGS unitof viscosity Inthe above expression N/m*is also kn i as Pascal which is represented by Pa. Hence N/m* = Pa = Pascal Sl unit of viscosity = Ns/m? = Pas. Newton-sec__ Ns SLunit of viscosity d. The unit of viscosity in CGS is also called Poise which is equal to SY*°-S°° The numerical conversion of the unit of viscosity from MKS unit to on unit is given below : one kefisee _ 981N-t00 (+ kgf =9.81 Newton} ™m m But one Newton = one ig (mass) xone (2 ; }(aeeeraton sec 7 (1600 gen) X'¢100 ea) = 1000 x 100 a sec’ sec’ = 1000 x 100 dyne {: dyne gmx S| see cone kefs€ _ 9.91 x 190000 $¥88-8° ~ 981 x 190000 fme-see_ om 100 100 x em = 98,1 SIMESE _ 98.1 poise Prise} om’ ‘Thus for solving numerical problems, if viscosity is given in poise, it must be divided by 98.1 to get its equivalent numerical value in MKS one.kgf-see _ 98INS _ 96 1 poise But a oN (poise or One poise = 1 NS. m 10 mi ____ dyne xs (ee) s Alte ite Method. Or cena | ele | BE Jjernate Method. One poise = “P+ % etBut dyne argent < yg + One pis - 12m _ 10 sem, 1 100 x19 BLK gy 132 = 10 poise. 1000 sm 10sm Note. (i) In SI units second is represented by ‘s’ and not by ‘sec’. (i) If viscosity is given in poise, it must be divided by 10 to get its equivalent numerical value in ST units. Sometimes 2 unit of viscosity as centipoise is used where 1 centipoi 1 1 poi . = jpg Poise or 1eP=7 5 P — [eP=Centipoise, P = Poise] The viscosity of water at 20°C is 0.01 poise or 1.0 centipoise. 1.3.2 Kinematic Viscosity. Itis defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid. Itis denoted by the Greek symbol (v) called ‘nu’. Thus, mathematically, = Viscodty (LA) Density ~—p. The units of kinematic viscosity is obtained as Unitsof____Forcex Time __ Force x Time Units of Pp ength? x Mass Mass. ene Length)? Length Mass x ERE Time “s Force = Mass x Acc. (Time) Length Mass = Mass x ime’ Length " _ (Length)* "Time In MKS and SI, the unit of kinematic viscosity is metre’/sec or m’/sec while in CGS units itis written as cm’/s, In CGS units, kinematic viscosity is also known stoke. 2 Thus, one stoke =cm’/s = (4) m/s = 10‘ m/s Centistoke means =. stoke. 100 1.3.3 Newton's Law of Viscosity. It states that the shear stress (t) on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain, The constant of proportionality is called the co-efficient of viscosity. Mathematically, it is expressed as given by equation (1.2) or as apie are6 Fluid Mechanics Fluids which obey the above relation are known as Newtonian fluids and the fluids which do not obey the above relation are called Non-newtonian fluids. 1.3.4 Variation of Viscosity with Temperature. Temperatur affects the viscosity. The viscosity of liquids decreases with the increase of temperature while the viscosity of gases increases with the increase of temperature. This is due to reason that the viscous forces ina fluid are due to cohesive forces and molecular momentum transfer. In liquids the cohesive forces predominates the molecular momen- tum transfer, due to closely packed molecules and with the increase in temperature, the cohesive forces decreases with the result of decreasing viscosity. But in case of gases the cohesive force are small and molecular momentum transfer predominates. With the increase in temperature, molecular momentum transfer increases and hence viscosity increases. The relation between viscosity and temperature for liquids and gases aie: 1 For liquids, 1 = ty | ——_- (LAA) (i For liquids, (soca) (1.4A) where = Viscosity of liquid at °C, in poise lp = Viscosity of liquid at 0°C, in poise , B'=are constants for the liquid For water, bg = 1.79 x 103 poise, o = 0.03368 and B = 0.000221. The equation (1.4.A) shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity decreases . (id) For a gas, =p) tat- Be .-(1.4B) where for air [lp = 0.000017, at = 0.000000056, B = 0.1189 x 10°. The equation (1.4 B) shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity increases. 1.3.5. Types of Fluids. The fluids may be classified into the following five types : 1. Ideal fluid, 2. Real fluid, 3. Newtonian fluid, 4. Non-Newtonian fluid, and 5. Ideal plastic fluid. 1. Ideal Fluid. A fluid, whichis incompressible andis hav- ing no viscosity, is known as an ideal fluid. Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which exist, have some vis- cosity. 2. Real Fluid. A fluid, which possesses viscosity, isknown as real fluid, All the fluids, in actual practice, are real fluids. 3. Newtonian Fluid. A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly, proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as a Newtonian fluid. + SHEAR STRESS 4. Non-Newtonian Fluid, A real fluid, in which the shear ye gerry Grapienr (34) stress is not proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity 7 vay gradient), known as a Non-Newtonian fluid. Fig. 12 Types of fluids. 5. Ideal Plastic Fluid. A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as ideal plastic fluid. 2 Problem 1.3 Ifthe velocity distribution over a plate is given by u = = yy! in which w is the velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate, determine the shear stress at of fluid as 8.63 poises. y = Oand y = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscositProperties of Fluids 7 Solution, Given : (5). Also (3) ie (4 A Jaseors \d¥ Value of p= 8.63 poise = De Slunits = 0.863 N sim? Now shear stress is given by equation (1.2) as t= pt a y (i) Shear stress at y = 0 is given by \ teh (#) = 0.863 x 0.667 = 0.5756 N/m?, Ans. Vys0 (ii) Shear stress at y = 0.15 m is given by dy My -o1s =H (4 = 0,863 x 0.367 = 0.3167 Nim’, Ans. 'y=01s Problem 1.4 A plate, 0.025 mm distant from a fixed plate, moves at 60 cm/s and requires a force of 2N per unit area i.e., 2 N/m? to maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates. Solution, Given : Distance between plates, .025 mm. 025 x 107° m Velocity of upper plate, u = 60 cm/s = 0.6 m/s T FIXED PLATE Fig. 1.3 Force on upper plate, F=20%. m This is the value of shear stres: Let the fluid viscosity between the plates is 1. Using the equation (1.2), we have t= Wt a y —0=u=0.60 m/s 025 x 10"? m where — du = Change of velocit dy = Change of distanes ‘t= Force per unit area = 2.0 A m 0.60, ye 20x 025x107? osx? s Ns 0.60 . m = 8.33 x 107° x 10 poise = 8.33 x 10° poise. Ans. Problem 1.5 A flat plate of area 1.5 x 10° mm? is pulled with a speed of 0.4 m/s relative to another plate located at a distance of 0.15 mm from it. Find the force and power required to maintain this speed, if the fluid separating them is having viscosity as 1 poise. 20=p = 8.33 x 10"8 Fluid Mechanics Solution. Given : Area of the plate, A=1.5x10°mm? Speed of plate relative to another plate, du = 0.4 m/s Viscosity =I poise= 1 . du 1 04 N Using equation (1.2) we have t=p 44 = + x 04 _ - 266,66 equation (1.2) Hay = 10 * asxi07 m (i). Shear force, F=t x area = 266.66 x 1.5 = 400 N. Ans. (i) Power* required to move the plate at the speed 0.4 m/sec =F xu=400 x0.4= 160 W. Ans. Problem 1.6 Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = 1 poise. The oil is used ‘for lubricating the clearance between a shaft of diameter 10 cm and its journal bearing. The clear- ‘ance is 1.5 mm and the shaft rotates at 150 r.p.m. Solution. Given : p= 1 poise = Ns 10 mi Dia. of shaft, D=10cm=0.1m Distance between shaft and journal bearing, Smm = 15x10 m Speed of shaft, 150 rp.m. ‘Tangential speed of shaft is given by DN 0.1.x 150 ws TON _ RXOIXDO «0.785 mis 60 60 . ‘ du Using equation (1.2), TH where du = change of velocity between shaft and bearing =u - 0 =u = 1x 0785_ = 52.33 Nim?. Ans. 10 15x10 Problem 1.7 Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for lubrication between a square plate of size 0.8 m x 0.8 m and an inclined plane with angle of inclination 30° as shown in Fig. 1.4. The weight of the square plate is 300 N and it slides down the inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. The thickness of oil film is 1.5 mm. % Solution. Given: Pe Area of plate, A=0.8 x 0.8 = 0.64 m? Angle of plane, 30° Weight of plate, W=300N Velocity of plate, u=03 m/s xu Nm/s= F xu Ws Nav/s = Watt) * Power =Properties of Fluids 9 Thickness of oil film, tedy=15mm=15x10%m Let the viscosity of fluid between plate and inclined plane is U. Component of weight W, along the plane = W cos 60° = 300 cos 60° = 150 N Thus the shear force, F , on the bottom surface of the plate = 150 N F = 130" in? = Sees = ga Ni ‘Now using equation (1.2), we have du "ay where du = change of velocity =u ~0 =u = 0.3 m/s 15x10 m 03 15x107 150x 15 x107° 0.6403 Problem 1.8 Two horizontal plates are placed 1.25 cm apart, the space between them being filled with oil of viscosity 14 poises. Calculate the shear stress in oil if upper plate is moved with a velocity of 25 mis. (AMLE,, 1972) Solution. Given : Distance between plates, and shear stress, = LITN sim? = -17x 10 = 11.7 poise. Ans. 1.25 cm = 0.0125 m Viscosity, Velocity of upper plate, Shear stress is given by equation (1.2) as, t= pL # - where du = Change of velocity between plates = u- 0 = u = 2.5 m/sec. dy = 0.0125 m. 4 25 Hh 29 10 0125 Problem 1.9 The space berween two square flat parallel plates is filled with oil. Each side of the plate is 60 cm. The thickness of the oil film is 12.5 mm. The upper plate, which moves at 2.5 metre per sec requires a force of 98.1 N to maintain the speed. Determine : (i) the dynamic viscosity of the oil in poise, and (ii) the kinematic viscosity of the oil in stokes if the specific gravity of the oil is 0.95. (AMLE,, Winter 1977) t = 280 N/m, Ans, Solution. Given : Each side of a square plate .60 m «. Area, .36 m? Thickness of oil film, 2.5 mm = 12.5 x 10° m Velocity of upper plate, 5 m/sec10. Fluid Mechanics Change of velocity between plates, du = 2.5 m/sec Force required on upper plate, F = 98.1 N Force _F _ 981N Area A 036m" (i) Lett = Dynamic viscosity of oil Shear stres ‘ ‘ du. Bl 25 Using equation (1.2), tap S of SS apx sop eavasion (2) 8 ay 036 © * 133x107 98.1 | 12.5107 Ns Ns ; Se x SR = 1.3635 = 036 2.5 1305 we pase] = 1.3635 x 10 = 13.635 poise. Ans. Let v = kinematic viscosity of oil Using equation (1.1 A), Mass density of oil, p=5x 1000 = 0.95 x 1000 =950 kg/m’? 126as(¥S) Using the relation, v = e we getv= a = 001435 m’/sec = 001435 x 10* cm/s = 14.35 stokes. Ans. (+ em?/s = stoke) Problem 1.10 Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kg/m’. The shear stress at 4@ point in oil is 0.2452 N/m? and velocity gradient at that point is 0.2 per second. Solution. Given : Mass density, 981 kg/m? Shear stress, = 0.2452 N/m? Velocity gradient, 44 L025 dy Using the equation (1.2), =i 01 0.2452 = x 0.2 y <= = 1.226 Nem? Kinematic viscosity v is given by bh _ 1.226 p 981 = 0.125 x 10 x 10! em*/s = 0.125 x 10? cm’/s = 12,5 em’/s = 12.5 stoke. Ans. (2 cm/s = stoke) Problem 1.11. Determine the specific gravity of a fluid having viscosity 0.05 poise and kinematic viscosity 0.035 stokes. Solution. Given : = 125 107? m/sec Viscosity, 1 = 0.05 poiseProperties of Fluids 11 .035 stokes Kinematic viscosity, .035 cm/s {+ Stoke = cm?/s} .035 x 10° m/s Using the relation v = #, we get 0.035x 10°* = 295 x1 p 10 p il aie QRS kg/m? x107 1428.5, ). gr. of liquid = = ele = 143. i. Sp. gr. of liquis Density of water 7 Too, 7-285 = 143, Ans. Problem 1.12 Determine the viscosity of a liquid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and specific gravity 1. Solution. Given : Kinematic viscosity Sp. er. of liquid Vv =6 stokes = 6 cm/s = 6 x10" m/s 9 Let the viscosity of liquid z Density of the liquid Now sp. gr. of a liquid = SPB i Density of water e Lg = Density of liquid 1000 s+ Density of liquid = 1000 x 1.9 = 1900 #2 mm «+ Using the relation + we get ° 6x10 =. 1900 x 10° x 1900 = 1.14 Ns/m* 14 x 10 = 11.40 poise. Ans. Problem 1.13 The velocity distribution for flow overa flat plate is given by u= 4 y~y in which u is the velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate, Determine the shear stress at y = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.6 poise. Solution. Given : 3 y-y¥ 3 ay 4 3 At 15, — =— -2x0.15=0.75-0.390=0.45 ‘ dy 4 2 Viscosity, 1 =85 poise = 25. Ns (- 10 poise = 135) 10 mi? im= 03825 N.. Ans. mi Problem 1.14 The dynamic viscosity of an oil, used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve is 6 poise. The shaft is of diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 r.p.m. Calculate the power lost in the bearing for a sleeve length of 90 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm. Using equation (1.2), Solution. Given : 1.5mm Viscosity = 6 poise wl NOL gg Ne 10m” om? Dia. of shaft, D=04m Speed of shaft, N= 1901.p.m Sleeve length, L=90 mm = 90 10" m SLEEVE: Thickness of oil film, 121.5 mm= 15x10 m Fig. 1.5 . . DN Tangential velocity of shaft, u = <= A - d Using the relation cop dy where du = Change of velocity = u— 0 = u = 3.98 m/s dy = Change of distance = t = 1.5 1073 m 10 x 298 _ = 1592 Nim? 15% 10% ‘This is shear stress on shaft Shear force on the shaft, F = Shear stress x Area = 1592 x mD x L = 1592 x mx .4 x 90 x 107 = 180.05 N Torque on the shaft, T= Force x 2 = 180.05 x Ss = 36.01 Nm _ 2m NT _22x190x ~~ 60 60 Problem 1.15 If the velocity profile of a fluid over a plate is a parabolic with the vertex 20 cm ~ from the plate, where the velocity is 120 cm/sec. Calculate the velocity gradients and shear stresses at a distance of 0, 10 and 20 cm from the plate, if the viscosity of the fluid is 8.5 poise. Solution. Given : Distance of vertex from plate Velocity at vertex, *Power lost 716.48 W. Ans. Viscosity, aN iscosity, a eat 2nN 2nNT * in S.Lunit=T* @=T x =~ wan = <2" w; Power in S.1. unit=T * @=T x attThe velocity profile is given parabolic and equation of velocity profile is uzay't+byt+c wd) where a, b and c are constants. Their values are determined from boundary conditions as : (a) ay=0,u=0 (b) at y= 20 cm, w= 120 cm/sec () at y= 200m, 24 =0, dy Substituting boundary condition (a) in equation (i), we get c=0. Boundary condition (b) on substitution in (i) gives 120 = (20)! + (20) = 400a + 206 wlll) Boundary condition (c) on substitution in equation (i gives du — =2lay+b ay * or 0=2xax20+b=400+b Solving equations (ii) and (ii) for @ and b From equation (iii), b=—40a Substituting this value in equation (ii), we get 120 = 400a + 20 x (— 40a) = 400a ~ 8602 =~ 4004 120 3 b =—40 x (-0.3) = 12.0 Substituting the values ofa, 5 and cin equation (0, u=—0.3y + 12y, Velocity Gradient di SY 2-03 x2y 4 12=-0.6y 412 dy , (du aty =0, Velocity gradient, ©] = -0.6x0+ 12 = 12/5, Ans. y du aty=10cm, (=) =-0.6x 10 +12=-6 + 12=6/s. Ans. dy ysl0 aty=20¢em, (<) == 0.6204 12=- 12+ 12=0. Ans. ® dy ‘y=20 Shear Stresses Shear stress is given by, top ft dy14 Fluid Mechanics © () Shear stress at y = 0, t=u (#) = 0.85 x 12.0 = 10.2 N/m’. Y) ya y=0 (ii) Shear stress at y = 10, t -(#) = 0.85 x6.0=5.1 N/m’, 5 y=10 (iii) Shear stress at y = 20, t= (=) =085 x 0=0. Ans. », ‘y=20 Problem 1.16 A Newtonian fluid is filled in the clearance between a shaft and a concentric sleeve. The sleeve attains a speed of 50 cm/s, when a force of 40 N is applied to the sleeve parallel to the shaft, Determine the speed if a force of 200 N is applied. (A.M.LE., Summer 1980) Solution. Given : Speed of sleeve, u, = 50 cm/s when force, F,=40N. Let speed of sleeve is wu; when force, F) = 200 N. Using relation tap tt dy where t= Shear stress = Fore _ F Area A thange of velocity = u-O=u learance = y Fay A x Po Abe oy {- A,pand y are constant} y Rok Uy Substituting values, we get 42.= 200 50° u = SAN = 50x 5 = 250 emis. Ans Problem 1.17 A 15cm diameter vertical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another cylinder of diameter 15.10 cm. Both cylinders are 25 cm high. The space between the cylinders is filled with a liquid whose viscosity is unknown. If a torque of 12.0 Nm is required to rotate the inner cylinder at 100 r.p.m., determine the viscosity of the fluid. (Al Winter 1979) Solution. Given : Diameter of cylinder 15 m Dia. of outer cylinder 0.151 m Length of cylinders, L=25cm=0.25 m =12.0Nm Torque,Speed, N= 1005p. Letthe viscosity =p Tangential velocity of eylinder, v= nee = ete = 0.7854 m/s Surface areaof cylinder, A ="D xX L= =x 0.15 x 0.25 = .1178 m? Now using relation veg lt dy where du=u-O= w= .7854 m/s iij= sins) wie GOUT pe HXT8S4 0005 Shear force, F = Shear stress x Area x 1178 Torque, T=Fx 2 1.0 = 2X78 Li78 x 4 p= 122%.0005 2 = 9 864 N sim? 7854x1178 x 15 = 0.864 x 10 = 8.64 poise. Ans. Problem 1.18 Two large plane surfaces are 2.4 cm apart. The space between the surfaces is filled with glycerine. What force is required to drag a very thin plate of surface area 0.5 square metre between the two large plane surfaces at a speed of 0.5 m/s, if : (i) the thin plate is in the middle of the wo plane surfaces, dnd (ii) the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm from one of the plane surfaces ? Take the dynamic viscosity of glycerine = 8.10 x 10"! N s/m*. Solution. Given : Distance between two large surfaces = 2.4 cm iil laa Area of thin plate, A=05m? | 420m Velocity of thin plate, 0.6 m/s ten Viscosity of glycerine, = 8.10 107 N sim? | Case I. When the thin plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1.7 (a)] tia nT Let F, = Shear force on the upper side of the thin plate Fig. 1.7 (a) F, = Shear force on the lower side of the thin plate F = Total force required to drag the plate Then FoF\+Fy The shear stress (t) on the upper side of the thin plate is given by equation,elative velocity between thin plate and upper large plane surface .6 m/sec stance between thin plate and upper large plane surface .2.em= 0.012 m (plate is a thin one and hence thickness of plate is neglected) 1, = 8.10 10-!'x (28) = 40.5 N/m? 012 Now shear force, F shear stress x Area = XA =405 x 0.5 = 20.25 N Similarly shear stress (1,) on the lower side of the thin plate is given by mah Ht) 910x107 x {—°9_) = 40.5 Nim? dy), 0012 Shear force, Fy=%)X A=405 x05 = 20.25 N Total force, Fs F, + Fy = 20.25 + 20.25 = 40.5 N. Ans. Case II. When the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm from one of the plane surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1.7 (b)]. Let the thin plate is a distance 0.8 cm from the lower plane surface, Then distance of the plate from the upper plane surface =24-0.8=1.6cm=.016m (Neglecting thickness of the plate) The shear force on the upper side of the thin plate, F, = Shear stress x Area = t, XA du 1, (06 | x4=8.10x 10x |? | x05 = 15.1 (3) x x10" x (25) x05 =15.18N ‘The shear force on the lower side of the thin plate, Fred ap (24) sed dy), Fig. 1.7 @) 06 08/100 Total force required = F, + F; = 15.18 + 30,36 = 45.54 N. Ans. Problem 1,19 A vertical gap 2.2 cm wide of infinite extent contains a fluid of viscosity 2.0 N s/m? and specific gravity 0.9. A metallic plate 1.2 m x 1.2 m x 0.2 cm is to be lifted up with a constant velocity of 0.15 m/sec, through the gap. If the plate is in the middle of the gap, find the force required. The weight of the plate is 40 N. Solution. Given : Width of gap = 2.2 cm, viscosity, 1 = 2.0. N s/m? Sq. gr. of fluid =09 = 810% 10" ( ) x05 =2026NWeight density of fluid = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kgf/m* = 900 x 9.81 Nim? (eo 1 kgf =9.81 N) Volume of plate =1.2mx1.2mx02em = 1.21.2 002 m3 = 00288 m? Thickness of plate 02cm Velocity of plate 0.15 m/sec Weight of plate =40N. When plate is in the middle of the gap, the distance of the plate of plate from vertical surface, of the gap " (aa of gap~Thickness of plat - 2 (22-02) 2 ‘Now the shear force on the left side of the metallic plate, F, = Shear stress x Area =n (24) x Aarea=20x( 23) 1.2% 12N dy), OI =lem=.01m, (cr Area = 1.2.x 1.2 m’) =43.2N. Similarly, the shear force on the right side of the metallic plate, Fy = Shear stress x Area = 2.0 x (2) x 12x 1.2=43.2N Total shear force =F, + F,=43.2+43.2=864N. In this case the weight of plate (which is acting vertically downward) and upward thrust is also to be taken into account. The upward thrust = Weight of fluid displaced ‘Weight density of fluid) x Volume of fluid displaced =9.81 x 900 x 00288 N (-e Volume of fluid displaced = Volume of plate = .00288) = 25.43 N. ‘The net force acting in the downward direction due to weight of the plate and upward thrust = Weight of plate — Upward thrust = 40 ~ 25.43 = 14.57 N Total force required to lift the plate up =Total shear force + 14.57 = 86.4 + 14.57 = 100.97 N. Ans, > 1.4 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES Fluids consist of liquids or gases. But gases are compressible fluids and hence thermodynamic prop- erties play an important role. With the change of pressure and temperature, the gases undergo largevariation in density. The relationship between pressure (absolute), specific volume and temperature (absolute) of a gas is given by the equation of state as p= RToc Ea Rr AS) where p = Absolute pressure of'a gas in N/m” W& Specific volume = > R = Gas constant T = Absolute temperature in °K p = Density of a gas. 1.4.1 Dimension of R. The gas constant, R, depends upon the particular gas. The dimension of R is obtained from equation (1.5) as ret eT 1 (Im MKS units Ra heli tet (8) ox ke°K m (ii) In SI units, p is expressed in Newton/m? or N/m’, N/m? _ N-m _ Joule [Joule = N-m] eK kg-K For air, Nem J Rin SI=29.3x981 = 287 —— = kg°K kg-K 1.4.2, Isothermal Process. If the changes in density occurs at constant temperature, then the process is called isothermal and relationship between pressure (p) and density (p) is given by ; = Constant (1.6) 1.4.3 Adiabatic Process. If the change’in density occurs with no heat exchange to and from the gas, the process is called adiabatic. And if no heat is generated within the gas due to friction, the relationship between pressure and density is given by Pp = Constant (LD) ? where k = Ratio of specific heat of a gas at constant pressure and constant volume. 4 for air.1.4.4 Universal Gas Con'stant. m = Mass of a gas in kg Let Y = Volume of gas of mass m solute pressure = Absolute temperature Then, we have pv =mRT (1.8) where R = Gas constant. Equation (1.8) can be made universal, i.e., applicable to all gases if it is expressed in mole-basis. Let n =Number of moles in volume of a gas V = Volume of the gas = Mass of the gas molecules Mass of @ hydrogen atom m = Mass of a gasin kg Then, we have nxM=m. Substituting the value of m in equation (1.8), we get pv =nXMXx RT (1.9) ‘The product M x Ris called universal gas constant and is equal to 848 —*&"™ __in MKS units and kg-mole °K 8314 J/kg-mole K in SI units. One kilogram mole is defined as the product of one kilogram mass of the gas and its molecular weight. Problem 1.20 A gas weighs 16 N/m? at 25°C and at an absolute pressure of 0.25 Nimn?. Deter- mine the gas constant and density of the gas. Solution. Given : Weight density, ‘Temperature, 6 N/m 1=25°C T=273 + 1= 273 + 25 = 288K p =0.25 Nimm? (abs.) = 0.25 x 10° N/m? = 25 x 10* N/m? (O Using relation w = pg, density is obtained as w_ 16 5 %2J8 < 163 kgm’, Ans. e981 1 ns (ii) Using equation (1.5), é =RT Ra Pg KI". sings N™ en pT 1.63x 288 kgk" Problem 1.21 A cylinder of 0.6 m’ in volume contains air at 50°C and 0.3 N/mm? absolute pres- sure. The air is compressed to 0.3 m’. Find (i) pressure inside the cylinder assuming isothermal process and (ii) pressure and temperature assuming adiabatic process. Take k = 1.4. Solution. Given : Initial volume, 0.6 m*Temperature 1, =50°C . T, = 273 + 50 = 323°K Pressure Pp, = 0.3 N/mm’ = 0.3 x 10° N/m? = 30 x 10* N/m? Final volume Vv) =0.3 m* kad (W Isothermal process Using equation (1.6), é = Constant or p¥ = Constant. Pr, = P22 vy, a a py= BA. N08 66 0 Nia = 06 Net dew ci 03 (ii) Adiabatic process : Using equation (1.7), 2 = Constant or p W" = Constant ' Divi = pW. 14 vi 0.6 =py—t =30x10'x || =30x« 10*«2!* PAS Pie (s) = 0.791 x 10° Nim? = 0.791 Nimm?. Ans. » For temperature, using equation (1.5), we get PY =RT and also p V* = Constant = and Z x vt = Constant RTV*" = Constant or . T V*" =Constant : TV =hvz" g Ris also constant} M 06 04 T,=T,|— =323 | — = 323 x 2°4 = 426.2°K: ; e] (i) : ty = 426.2 - 273 = 153.2°C. Ans. Problem 1.22 Calculate the pressure exerted by 5 kg of nitrogen gas at a temperature of 10°C if the volume is 0.4 m'. Molecular weight of nitrogen is 28. Assume, ideal gas laws are applicable. Solution. Given : Mass of nitrogen =Skg ‘Temperature, 1=10°C * T=273 + 10 = 283°K Volume of nitrogen, Vv =04m' Molecular weight =28 Using equation (1.9), we have pV =n x Mx RTN-m kg-mole °K and one kg-mole = (kg-mass) x Molecular weight = (kg-mass) x28 8314 N-m where M x R = Universal gas constant = 8314 R fornitrogen = =~ = 296.9 2B ke°K ‘The gas laws for nitrogen is pV = mRT, where R = Characteristic gas constant or PX0.4-=5 x 296.9 x 283 _ 5% 2969 x 283 az = 1050283.7 N/m? = 1.05 N/mm”. A: > 1.5 COMPRESSIBILITY AND BULK MODULUS Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of elasticity, K which is defined as the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain. Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in Fig. 1.9. Let ¥ = Volume of a gas enclosed in the cylinder p =Pressure of gas when volume is V i Let the pressure is increased to p + dp, the volume of gas SYLRDER decreases from W to V- dV. ee Then increase in pressure = dp kgf/m? Decrease in volume adv Volumetric strain = x ~ve sign means the volume decreases with increase of pressure. Increase of pressure Volumetric strain ap Bulk modulus K= en(1.10) Compressibility is given by we) Relationship between Bulk Modulus (K) and Pressure (p) for a Gas The relationship between bulk modulus of elasticity (K) and pressure for a gas for two different processes of compression are as (o For Isothermal Process. Equation (1.6) gives the relationship between pressure (p) and density (p) of agas as 2 = Constant por pW = Constant Differentiating this equation, we get (p and V both are variables) pd¥+Ndp=0 or pd¥=-Wdp or p= ae Substituting this value in equation (1.10), we get 1.12) (ii) For Adiabatic Process, Using equation (1.7) for adiabatic process ra = Constant orp ‘= Constant Differentiating, we get pd(v*) + V*(dp) = 0 or pxkxV! av +V'dp=0 or pkd'’ + Ndp =0 [Cancelling V‘* to both sides} Wap kd Y = — We k= - —— or pi ‘dp or ph dv Hence from equation (1.10), we have K=pk w(1.13) where K = Bulk modulus and k = Ratio of specific heats. Problem 1.23 Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid, if the pressure of the liquid is increased from 70 N/cm* to 130 N/cm?, The volume of the liquid decreases by 0.15 per cent. Solution, Given : Initial pressure Final pressure dp = Increase in pressure Decrease in volume 130 - 70 = 60 N/em* 15% ~4¥ 4, O15 Vv 100 Bulk modulus, K is given by equation (1.10) as dp _ 60N/em? _ 60x 100 av as as Vv 100 Problem 1.24 What is the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid which is compressed in a cylinder from a volume of 0.0125 m’ at 80 N/cm’ pressure to a volume of 0.0124 m’ at 150 N/em’ pressure ? =4x10'N/em?. Ans, = Solution. Given : Initial volume, V=0.0125 m> Final volume 1.0124 m? Decrease in volume, dV = .0125 —.0124 = .0001 m°Initial pressure = 80 Nécm? Final pressure = 150 N/em? Increase in pressure, dp = (150 — 80) = 70 N/m? Bulk modulus is given by equation (1.10) as ge PS Spoor = 70 % 125 Nlem? “V 0125 = 8.75 x 10° Nim”. Ans. > 1.6 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface between two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a membrance under tension. The magnitude of this force per unit length of the free surface will have the same value as the surface energy per unit area. It is denoted by Greek letter o (called sigma). In MKS units, it is expressed as kgf/m while in SI units as Nim. The phenomenon of surface tension is explained by Fig. 1.10. Consider three molecules, B, C of a liquid ina mass of liquid. The molecule A is attracted in all directions equally by the surrounding molecules of the liquid. Thus the resultant force acting on the molecule A is zero. But the molecule B, which is situated near the free surface, is acted upon by upward and downward forces which are unbalanced. Thus a net resultant force on molecule B is acting in the downward direction. The molecule C, situated on the free surface of liquid, does experience a resultant downward force. All the molecules on the free surface experience a downward force. Thus the free surface of the liquid acts like a very thin film under tension of the surface of the liquid act as though it is, an elastic membrance under tension. 1 Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet. Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius ‘r’, On the entire surface of the droplet, the tensile force due to surface tension will be acting. Let o= Surface tension of the liquid p = Pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess of the outside pressure intensity) d = Dia. of droplet. Let the droplet is cut into two halves. The forces acting on one half (say left half) will be (tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut portion as shown in Fig. 1.11 (b) and this is equal to Fig. 1.10 Surface tension. = 0x Circumference =oxnd24 Fluid Mechanics a Ra mp fi the area ~ d? and =p x = ( (i pressre force onthe area Fd and-=px 7 d'asshown () in Fig. 1.11 (c). These two forces will be equal and opposite \\_/ under equilibrium conditions,i.e., (@)OROPLET —() SURFACE TENSION px z @=0xnd P o d 4 * p= o* re esF t4) rye 4 a (c) PRESSURE FORCES Equation (1.14) shows that with the decrease of diameter of Fig. 1.11. Forces on droplet. the droplet, pressure intensity inside the droplet increases. 1.6.2 Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble. A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two surfaces in contact with air, one inside and other outside. Thus two surfaces are subjected to surface tension. In such case, we have px ¥ Pa2x(oxnd) _ ond _ 80 15) ea eal 4 1.6.3 Surface Tension on a Liquid Jet. Consider a liquid jet of diameter ‘a’ and length ‘L* as shown in Fig. 1.12. Let p= Pressure intensity inside the liquid jet above the outside pressure Surface tension of the liquid. 4 2 Consider the equilibrium of the semi jet, we have 4 Force due to pressure =p X area of semi jet 2 xLxd L ° 2 Force due to surface tension x2L. z Equating the forces, we have 4 pxLxd=ox2Lb ' 4 ox2L 4 ‘bxd sa(lat6) @ © Fig. 1.12 Forces on liquid jet. Problem 1.25 The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is 0.0725 N/m. The pres- sure inside a droplet of water is to be 0.02 N/cm? greater than the outside pressure. Calculate the diameter of the droplet of water. Solution. Given : Surface tension, o = 0.0725 N/m Pressure intensity, p in excess of outside pressure is p= 0.02 Nlem? = 0.02 x 10¢ m Let d =dia. of the droplet4x 0.0725 d = 00145 m = 00145 x 1000 = 1.45 mm. Ans. Using equation (1.14), we get p = # or 0.02 x 10° = 4x 0.0725 0.02 x(10)* Problem 1.26 Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm diameter when the inside pressure is 2.5 N/m? above atmospheric pressure. Solution. Given : Dia. of bubble, d Pressure in excess of outside, p For a soap bubble, using equation (1.15), we get 80 __8&xo or 2.5=— d 40x10 = 25x40x10% o N/m = 0.0125 N/m. Ans. Problem 1.27 The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.32 N/cm? (atmospheric pressure). Calculate the pressure within the droplet if surface tension is given as 0.0725 N/m of water. Soluition. Given : Dia. of droplet, d=0.04mm =.04x 10m Pressure outside the droplet = 10.32 N/cm* = 10.32 x 10° N/m? Surface tension, 9 = 0.0725 N/m The pressure inside the droplet, in excess of outside pressure is given by equation (1.14) ot = 40 _ 4600725 7950 Nim? = PSN. - 0,725 Niem? d 04x10" 10° cm’ «. Pressure inside the droplet = p + Pressure outside the droplet = 0.725 + 10.32 = 11.045 N/em?. Ans. 1.6.4 Capillarity. Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid, The tise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while the fall of the liquid surface is known as capillary depression. It is expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid. Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of the tube and surface tension of the liquid. + Expression for Capillary Rise. Consider a glass tube of small if diameter ‘d’ opened at both ends and is inserted ina liquid, say water. | + I The liquid will rise in the tube above the level of the liquid. 4 | i ape Let h= height of the liquid in the tube. Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of liquid of height h is balanced by the force at the surface of — | (quip the liquid in the tube. But the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube, | is due to surface tension. Fig. 1,13 Gapillary rise. Let 6 = Surface tension of liquid © = Angle of contact between liquid and glass tube. The weight of liquid of height h in the tube = (Area of tube x h) xp xgoT Pxnxpxe wT) where p = Density of liquid Vertical component of the surface tensile force (@ x Circumference) x cos xmdx cos 6 vee( 1-18) For equilibrium, equating (1.17) and (1.18), we get 4 Pxhxpxg=oxndx cos 6 oxKd xcos@_ 40c0s0 a ea( 19) or h z d? xpx 4 PXs ‘The value of @ between water and clean glass tube is approximately equal to zero and hence cos 0 is ‘equal to unity. Then rise of water is given by 40 pxgxd Expression for Capillary Fall. If the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the level of mercury in the tube will be lower than the general level of the outside liquid as shown in Fig. 1.14. Let h= Height of depression in tube. Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the mercury inside the tube. First one is due to surface tension acting in the downward direction and is equal to ¢ x nd x cos 0. Second force is due to hydrostatic force acting upward and is equal to intensity of pressure at a depth x Area A +» (1.20) apex Eb apgxhx te (> p=pgh} Equating the two, we get oxndx cos 6 = pgh x z é ae eof L21) 8 Value of @ for mercury and glass tube is 128°. Fig. ue Problem 1.28 Calculate the capillary rise in'a glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter when immersed vertically in (a) water and (b) mercury. Take surface tensions 6 = 0.0725 N/m for water and 0 = 0.52 Nim ‘for mercury in contact with air. The specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6 and angle of contact = 130°, Solution. Given : Dia. of tube, d=25.mm=2.5x 10m Surface tenstion, o for water = 0.0725 N/m for mercury 0.52 N/m Sp. gr. of mercury = 13.6Density 13.6 x 1000 kg/m’. (a) Capillary rise for water (6 = 0) 4o 4 x 000725 pxgxd 1000x981x25x 107 = 0118 m= 1.18 em. Ans. Using equation (1.20), we get h = (6) For mercury Angle of constant between mercury and glass tube, @= 130° 40 cos 4x 0.52 x cos 130° pxgxd 136x1000x9.81 x 2.5x 10> —004 m= 0.4 em. Ans. The negative sign indicates the capillary depression. Using equation (1.21), we get h= Problem 1.29 Calculate the capillary effect in millimetres in a glass tube of 4 mun diameter, when immersed in (i) water, and (ii) mercury. The temperature of the liquid is 20°C and the values of the surface tension of water and mercury at 20°C in contact with air are 0.073575 N/m and 0.51 N/m respectively. The angle of contact for water is zero that for mercury 1.30°, Take density of water at 20°C as equal t0 998 kg/m’. (UP.S.C. Engg. Exam., 1974) Solution. Given : Dia of tube, d=4mm=4x10%m The capillary effect (i.e., capillary rise or depression) is given by equation (1.20) as 46 cos pxexd where 6 = surface tenstion in kgf/m angle of contact, and p = density () Capillary effect for water © = 0.073575 Nim, 0 = 0° p = 998 kg/m? at 20°C _ 4 0073575 x cos 0° “998 x981x4x 107 (ii) Capillary effect for mercury © =0.51 N/m, @ = 130° and P = sp. gr. x L000 = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m? 4x051x cos 130° 13600 x 9.81% 4x 107 ‘The negative sign indicates the capillary depression. =751x 10° m=7.51 mm. Ans. — 2.46 x 10° m = — 2.46 mm. Ans. Problem 1.30 The capillary rise in the glass tube is not to exceed 0.2 mm of water. Determine its minimum size, given that surface tension for water in contact with air = 0.0725 N/m. Solution. Given : Capillary rise, Surface tension, .2 mm = 0.2 x 10° m ).0725 NimLet dia. of tube =d The angle @ for water =0 Density (p) for water = 1000 kg/m? Using equation (1.20), we get pe — cr 2x i? = AOS _ pxexd 1000x 981xd _ 4x 0.0725 1000 x 9.81 x.2107 ‘Thus minimum diameter of the tube should be 14.8cm, = 0.148 m = 14.8 cm. Ans. Problem 1.31 Find out the minimum size of glass tube that can be used to measure water level if the capillary rise in the tube is to be restricted to 2 mm. Consider surface tension of water in contact with air as 0.073575 N/m. (Converted to SI Units, A.M.LE., Summer 1985) Solution. Given : Capillary rise, h=2.0mm=2.0x 107m Surface tension, 6 = 0.073575 N/m Let dia. of tube =d The angle 6 for water 0 The density for water, p = 1000 kg/m* Using equation (1.20), we get n= 40 op 2.9x 19-3 = 4 %0.073575 pxexd 1000x 981xd 4x 0.073575 = ODOR Igy 70015 m=1.5 em, Ans. ‘Thus minimum diameter of the tube should be 1.5 em. Problem 1.32 An oil of viscosity 5 poise is used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve. The diameter of the shaft is 0.5 m and it rotates at 200 r p.m. Calculate the power lost in oil for a sleeve length of 100 mm. The thickness of oil film is 1.0 mm. (Delhi University, December, 1992 (NS)] Solution. Given : Viscosity, = 5 poise => =05N sim 10 Dia. of shaft, D=05m Speed of shaft, N=200r.p.m. Sleeve length, L=100mm=100x 10° m=0.1 m Thickness of oil film, 1=1.0mm=1x10%m Tangential velocity of shaft, u = TON. = 2X05%200 _ 5 935 ays 60 60 . ; du Using the relation, rap dyProperties of Fluids 29 where, du = Change of velocity = u~0 235 mis dy =Change of distance = = 1 x 10 m 95%5235 = 9617.5 Nim? 1x 107 This is the shear stress on the shaft .'. Shear force on the shaft, F = Shear stress x Area = 2617.5 x nD x L (ys Area= nD xL) = 2617.5 xx 0.5 x 0.1 = 410.95 N Torque on the shaft, T = Force x 3 = 410.95 x Ss = 102.74Nm 2 N Power* lost = T x @ Watts-= Tx Ww = 102.74 x ame = 2150 W= 2.15 kW. Ans. 1.7 VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION A change from the liquid state to the gaseous state is known as vaporization. The vaporization (which depends upon the prevailing pressure and temperature condition) occurs because of continuous escaping of the molecules through the free liquid surface. Consider a liquid (say water) which is confined in a closed vessel. Let the temperature of liquid is 20°C and pressure is atmospheric. This liquid will vaporise at 100°C. When vaporization takes place, the molecules escapes from the free surface of the liquid. These vapour molecules get accumulated in the space between the free liquid surface and top of the vessel. These accumulated vapours exerta pressure on the liquid surface. This pressure is known as vapour pressure of the liquid. Or this is the pressure at which the liquid is converted into vapours. Again consider the same liquid at 20°C at atmospheric pressure in the closed vessel. If the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced by some means, the boiling temperature will also reduce. If the pressure is reduced to such an extent that it becomes equal to or less than the vapour pressure, the boiling of the liquid will start, though the temperature of the liquid is 20°C. Thus a liquid may boil even at ordinary temperature, if the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced so as to be equal or less than the vapour pressure of the liquid at that temperature, Now considera flowing liquid in a system. If the pressure at any point in this flowing liquid becomes equal to or less than the vapour pressure, the vaporization of the liquid starts. The bubbles of these vapours are carried by the flowing liquid into the region of high pressure where they collapse, giving rise to high impact pressure. The pressure developed by the collapsing bubbles is so high that the material from the adjoining boundaries gets eroded and cavities are formed on them. This phenomenon is known. as cavitation. Hence the cavitation is the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of a flowing liquid in aregion where the pressure of the liquid falls below the vapour pressure and sudden collapsing of these vapour bubbles in a region of higher pressure. When the vapour bubbles collapse, a very high pressure is created. The metallic surfaces, above which the liquid is flowing, is subjected to these high pressures,. which cause pitting action on the surface, Thus cavities are formed on the metallic surface and hence the name is cavitation. 2nNT 2nN Waits or =" kW. The angular velocity « = = ants or gular velocity eo = * Power incase of S.1. Unit = Tx @ or Zan30 = Fluid Mechanics HIGHLIGHTS 1. The weight density or specific weight of a fluid is equal to weight per unit volume. It is also equal to, w=pxg. 2, Specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. 3. The shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient “ Mathematically, t= jt * 4. Kinematic viscosity vis given by v = # Pp 5. Poise and stokes are the units of viscosity and kinematic viscosity respectively. ‘To convert the unit of viscosity from poise to MKS units, poise should be divided by 98.1 and to convert poise into SI units, the poise should be divided by 10. SI unit of viscosity is Ns/m? or Pa s, where N/m? = Pa = Pascal. 7. Por a perfect gas, the equation of state is 2 = RT P where R = gas constant and for air = 20.3 *8™ = 287 Jikg °K. ke°K 8. For isothermal process, 2 =Constant whereas for adiabatic process, 2 = constant. p dp 9. Bulk modulus of elasticity is given as K = “2. ulk modulus of elasticity is gi (&) Vv) r 10, Compressibility isthe reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity or = + 11, Surface tension is expressed in N/m or dyne/em. The relation between surface tension (6) and difference 40 of pressure (p) between the inside and outside ofa liquid drop is given as p = —? For a soap bubble, p= #s 2 Poraliguidjes pas d er 40 cos 6 12. Capillary rise or fall of a liquid is given by h= 7g ‘The value of @ for water is taken equal to zero and for mercury equal to 128°. EXERCISE 1 (A) THEORETICAL PROBLEMS 1, Define the following fluid properties : Density, weight density, specific volume and specific gravity of a fluid. 2, Differentiate between : (i) Liquids and gases, (ii) Real fluids and ideal fluids, (iif) Specific weight and specific volume of a flui What is the difference between dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity ? State their units of ‘measurements.= ex 10. 1B. 14. 15. 16. 17. Explain the terms : (?) Dynamic viscosity, and (i) Kinematic viscosity. Give their dimensions. (AM.LE,, Summer 1988) State the Newton's law of viscosity and give examples of its application. (Delhi University, June 1996) Enunciate Newton’s law of viscosity. Explain the importance of viscosity in fluid motion. What is the effect of temperature on viscosity of water and that of air? (AMLE., Winter 1987) Define Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids. What do you understand by terms : (i) Isothermal process, (ii Adiabatic process, and (iii) Universal-gas constant. Define compressibility. Prove that compressibility for a perfect gas undergoing isothermal compression is A white for a perfect gas undergoing isentropic compression is —. P bed Define surface tension, Prove that the relationship betweer surface tension and pressure inside a droplet of 4 liquid in excess of outside pressure is given by p = + Explain the phenomenon of capillarity. Obtain an expression for capillary rise of a liquid. (@ Distinguish between ideal fluids and real fluids. Explain the importance of compressibility in fluid flow. (AM.LE., Summer 1988) (b) Define the terms : density, specific volume, specific gravity, vacuum pressure, compressible and in- compressible fluids. (R.G-P. Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal $ 2002) Define and explain Newton's law of viscosity. (Delhi University, April 1992) Convert 1 kg/s-m dynamic viscosity in poise. MLE, Winter 1991) Why does the viscosity of a gas increases with the increase in temperature while that of a liquid decreases with increase in temperature ? (AMLE, Winter 1990) (a) How does viscosity of a fluid vary with temperature ? (6) Cite examples where surface tension effects play aprominent role. (J.N.T.U., Hyderabad $ 2002) (@® Develop the expression for the relation between gauge pressure P inside a droplet of liquid and the surface tension. (ii) Explain the following : Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids, vapour pressure, and compressibility. (R.G.P.V., Bhopal 5 2001) (B) NUMERICAL PROBLEMS One litre of crude oil weighs 9.6 N. Calculate its specific weight, density and specific gravity. (AM.LE,, Summer 1986) (Ans. 9600 N/m*, 978.6 kg/m’, 0.978] 3 The velocity distribution for flow over a flat plate is given by u = 2 y*?, where w is the point yelocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate. Determine the shear stress at y = 9 cm. Assume dynamic viscosity as 8 poise. (Nagpur University) [Ans. 0.839 N/m?] A plate, 0.025 mm distant form a fixed plate, moves at 50 cm/s and requires a force of 1.471 N/m? to maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates in the poise. {Ams. 7.357 x 104] Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = 1.2 poise and is used for lubrication in the clearance between a 10 cm diameter shaft and its journal bearing. The clearance is 1.0 mm and shaft rotates at 200 rp.m. [Ans. 125.56 Nim?) ‘Two plates are placed at a distance of 0.15 mm apart. The lower plate is fixed while the upper plate having surface area 1.0 m* is pulled at 0.3 m/s. Find the force and power required to maintain this speed, if the fluid separating them is having viscosity 1.5 poise. [Ans. 300N, 89.8 W] An oil film of thickness 1.5 mm is used for lubrication between a square plate of size 0,9 mx 0.9 m and an inclined plane having an angle of inclination 20°. The weight of the square is 392.4 N and it slides down the plane with 2 uniform velocity of 0.2 m/s. Find the dynamic viscosity of the oil. [Ams. 12.4? poise]32 Fluid Mechanics z 10. u. 12. 13, 14. 18. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Ina stream of glycerine in motion, at a certain point the velocity gradient is 0.25 metre per sec per metre. ‘The mass density of fluid is 1268.4 kg per cubic metre and kinematic viscosity is 6.30% 10 square metre per second. Calculate the shear stress at the point. (U.P.S.C., 1975) |Ans. 0.2 N/m?] Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 980 kg/m? when at a certain point in the oil, the shear stress is 0.25 N/m? and velocity gradient 0.3/s. [ame 0.000849 or 849 soto Determine the specific gravity of a fluid having viscosity 0.07 poise and kinematic viscosity 0.042 stokes. [Ans. 1.667] Determine the viscosity of a liquid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and specific gravity 2.0. [Ans. 11.99 poise] Ifthe velocity distribution of a fluid overa plate is given by u= (3/4)y -y°, where w is the velocity in metre per second at a distance of y metres above the plate, determine the shear stress at y = 0.15 metre. Take dynamic viscosity of the fluid as 8.5% 10° kg-sec/m?. (A.M.LE,, Winter 1974) (Ans. 3.825 x 10° kgf/m?] An oil of viscosity 5 poise is used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve. The diameter of shaft is 0.5m and it rotates at 200 r.p.m. Calculate the power lost in the oil for a sleeve length of 100 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 1.0 mm. [Ans. 2.15 kW] Z 2. The velocity distribution over a plate is given by w= > yy" in which w is the velocity in m/sec at a distance of ym above the plate, Determine the shear stress at y = 0, 0.1. and 0.2 m. Take H = 6 poi Ans. 0, 0028 and 0.159 Nim] In question 13, find the distance in metres above the plate, at which the shear stress is zero. [Ans. 0.333 m] The velocity profile of a viscous fluid over a plate is parabolic with vertex 20 cm from the plate, where the velocity is 120 em/s. Caleulate the velocity gradient and shear stress at distances of O, 5 and 15 em from the plate, given the viscosity of the fluid = 6 poise,[Ans, 12fs, 7.18 N/m?; 9/s, 5.385 N/m? ; 3/s, 1.795 N/m?} ‘The weight of a gas is given as 17.658 N/m’ at 30°C and at an absolute pressure of 29.43 N/cm’. Deter- [am L.8kg 53955 aa mine the gas constant and also the density of the gas. ye > m kg?K A cylinder of 0.9 m* in volume contains air at 0°C and 39.24 N/cm? absolute pressure. The air is com- pressed to 0.45 m°. Find (i) the pressure inside the cylinder assuming isothermal process, (ii) pressure and temperature assuming adiabatic process. Take k= 1.4 for air. [Ans. (i) 18.48 Nicm’, (ii) 103.5 N/m?, 140°C] Calculate the pressure exerted by 4 kg mass of nitrogen gas at a temperature of 15°C if the volume is 0.35 m°. Molecular weight of nitrogen is 28. [Ans, 97.8 N/em?) ‘The pressure of a liquid is increased from 60 N/cm* to 100 N/cm? and volume decreases by 0.2 per cent. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity. {Ans. 2x 10" Nicm*) Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a fluid which is compressed in a cylinder from a volume of 0,009 m’ at 70 N/cm? pressure to a volume of 0.0085 m’ at 270 N/cm* pressure. [Ans. 3.6 x 10° N/em*] ‘The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is given as 0.0716 N/m. The pressure inside a droplet of water is to be 0.0147 N/cm? greater than the outside pressure, calculate the diameter of the droplet of water. {Ans. 1.94 mm] Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 30 mm diameter when the inside pressure is 1.962 Nim? above atmosphere. [Ans. 0.00735 N/m] ‘The surface tension of water in contact with air is given as 0.0725 N/m. The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.02 mm is atmospheric (1032 —; |. Calculate the pressure within the droplet of water. (Ans. 11.77 N/em?]24. Calculate the capillary iise in a glass tube of 3.0 mm diameter when immersed vertically in (a) water, and (b) mercury. Take surface tensions for mercury and water as 0.0725 N/m and 0.52 Nim respectively in contact with air. Specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6. [Ans. 0.966 cm, 0.3275 cm] 25, ‘The capillary rise in the glass tube used for measuring water level is not to exceed 0.5 mm, Determine its minimum size, given that surface tension for water in contact with air = 0.07112 N/m. —_[Ans. 5.8 cm] 26. (SI Units). One litre of crude oil weighs 9.6 N. Calculate its specific weight, density and specific gravity. (Converted to SI units, A.M.I.E., Summer 1986) [Ans. 9600 Nim*; 979.6 kg/m’ ; 0.9786] 27. (SI Units). A piston 796 mm diameter and 200 mm long works in a cylinder of 800 mm diameter. If the annular space is filled with a lubricating oil of viscosity 5 cp(centi-poise), calculate the speed of descent of the piston in vertical position. The weigh of the piston and axial load are 9.81 N. [Ans. 7.84 m/s} 28. (SI Units). Find the capillary rise of water in a tube 0,03 cm diameter. The surface tension of water is 0.0735 Nim. {Ans. 9.99 cm] 29. Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of two litres of a liquid which weight 15 N. (Delhi University, April 1992) (Ans, 7500 N/m’, 764.5 kg/m>, 0.764] 30, A 150 mm diameter vertical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another cylinder of diameter 151 mm. Both the cylinders are of 250 mm height. The space between the cylinders is filled with a liquid of viscosity 10 poise. Determine the torque required to rotate the inner cylinder at 100 r.p.m. (Delhi University, April 1992) (Ans. 13.87 Nm] 31. A shaft of diameter 120 mms rotating inside a journal bearing of diameter 122 mm at a speed of 360 r.pm. The space between the shaft and the bearing is filled with a lubricating oil of viscosity 6 poise. Find the power absorbed in cil if the length of bearing is 100 mm. (Delhi University, May 1998) (Ans. 115.73 W] 32. A shaft of diameter 100 mm is rotating inside a journal bearing of diameter 102 mm at a space of 360 p.m, The space between the shaft and bearing is filled with a lubricating oil of viscosity 5 poise. The length of the bearing is 200 mm. Find the power absorbed in the lubricating oil. (Delhi University, June 1996) [Ans. 111.58 W] 33. Assuming that the bulk modulus of elasticity of water is 2.07 x 10° kN/m? at standard atmospheric conditions, determine the increase of pressure necessary to produce 1% reduction in volume at the same temperature. (Delhi University, June 1997) (Hint. K = -dW Increase in pressure (dp) = Kx ( 7 ) = 2.07 x 10° x 0.01 = 2.07 x 10° kN/m?, Ans. ] 34. A square plate of size 1 mx 1 mand weighing 350 N slides down an inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 1.5 mvs. The inclined plane is laid on a slope of 5 vertical to 12 horizontal and has an oil film of 1 mm. thickness. Calculate the dynamic viscosity of oil. UL.N.T.U,, Hyderabad, § 2002} iC (Hint. A=1x1=1 om, W=350N,u= 15 ms, tan = 3 Component of weight along the plane = W x sin Be AB here sin @= BCS AC = JAB? +BC? where sin @=—~=— AC 13 = 12? +57=13 5 F = Wsin @ = 350 x — sin @ = 350.x = where du=u—0= w= 1.5 m/s and 34.615 Now . dy dy=1mm=1x 10? m F dy _ 134615 1x107 Ns ‘ oe ye —~— = 0.0897 5 = 0.897 Ans. oS 97 poise Ans.]CHAPTER Pressure and its Measurement >» 2.1 FLUID PRESSURE AT A POINT Consider a small area dA in large mass of fluid. If the fluid is stationary, then the force exerted by the surrounding fluid on the area dA will always be perpendicular to the surface dA. LetdF is the force acting on the area dA in the normal direction. Then the ratio of aF is known as the intensity of pressure or simply pressure and this ratio is represented by p. Hence mathematically the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is _ aF =o If the force (F) is uniformly distributed over the area (A), then pressure at any point is given by _ F _ Fore “A” Area’ Force or pressure force, F = p XA. ‘The units of pressure are : (i) kgf/m? and kgf/cm? in MKS units, (ii) Newton/m? or N/m? and N/mm? in SI units. N/m? is known as Pascal and is represented by Pa. Other commonly used units of pressure are : kilo pascal = 1000 N/m? 00 kPa = 10° N/m’, >» 2.2 PASCAL'S LAW It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point or ina static fluid is equal in all directions, This is provedas: Px" dv*1/@ ee The fluid element is of very small dimensions ie., dx, dy dy mage , | = 2. «CO Consider an arbitrary fluid element of wedge shape in a z fluid mass at rest as shown in Fig, 2.1. Let the width of the pyraeet element perpendicular to the plane of paper is unity and, Fig. 2.1 Forces oma fluid element, 34p, and p, are the pressures or intensity of pressure acting on the face AB, AC and BC respectively. Let ZABC = 6. Then the forces acting on the element are : 1. Pressure forces normal to the surfaces. 2. Weight of element in the vertical direction. The forces on the faces are = Force on the face AB =p, x Area of face AB Similarly force on the face A Force on the face BC p,xdsx1 Weight of element (Mass of element) x g ‘AB Xx At = Wolume xp) xe = (424° 51) xpXe, where p= density of fluid, Resolving the forces in x-direction, we have p.xdy x 1 ~p (ds x 1) sin (90° - 6) =0 or p,x dy x1 —p, ds x 1 008 8 =0. But from Fig. 2.1, ds cos @ = AB = dy ee PX dyX1—p,xdyX 1 =0 or Py =P: v2.1) Similarly, resolving the forces in y-direction, we get py Xd x 1 = p, x ds x 1 60s (90° - 6) — ane xIxpxg=0 or 9.x ér—p,dssin 6-82 xp xg=0. But ds sin @ = dx and also the clement is very small and hence weight is negligible. pydx —p.xdx=0 or P= Pe (2.2) From equations (2.1) and (2.2), we have Px Py =P: (2.3) ‘The above equation shows that the pressure at any point in x, y and z directions is equal. Since the choice of fluid element was completely arbitrary, which means the pressure at any point is the same in all directions. >» 2.3 PRESSURE VARIATION IN A FLUID AT REST The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by the Hydro- static Law which states that the rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward direction must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at that point. This is proved as : Consider a small fluid element as shown in Fig. 2.2 Let AA = Cross-sectional area of element AZ = Height of fluid element p= Pressure on face AB Z = Distance of fluid element from free surface. The forces acting on the fluid element are ; FREE SURFACE OF FLUID Fig. 2.2 Forces on a fluid element.1. Pressure force on AB = p x AA and acting perpendicular to face AB in the downward direction. 2. Pressure force on CD + pt #02) x AA, acting perpendicular to face CD, vertically upward direction. 3. Weight of fluid element = Density x g x Volume = p x g x (AA x AZ). 4. Pressure forces on surfaces BC and AD are equal and opposite. For equilibrium of fluid element, we have ras~ (n+ Sanz) a4 = pr gr Adx AZ) =0 or par par azaas px ex aaxZ . Bross sspcepsnmsersn az Oe Bazan px x anaz or 2% =p xg leanclling AAAZ on bth sides B-pxe=w pxg=w) 2.4) where w = Weight density of fluid. Equation (2.4) states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to weight density of the fluid at that point. This is Hydrostatic Law. By integrating the above equation (2.4) for liquids, we get Jdp=Ipgz or p= pez (2.5) where p is the pressure above atmospherig pressure and Z is the height of the point from free surfaces. From equation (2.5), we have Z= — (2.6) Here Z is called pressure head. Problem 2.1 hydraulic press has a ram of 30 cm diameter and a plunger of 4.5 cm diameter. Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic press when the force applied at the plunger is 500 N. Solution. Given : Dia. of ram, Dia. of plunger, Force on plunger, Find weight lifted Area of ram, : 7 (0.3)? = 0.07068 m? Area of plunger, 7 e= = (0.045)? = .00159 m?Pressure and its Measurement 37 Pressure intensity due to plunger F = Forceon plunger _F _ 300 2 w Area of plunger a = .00159 /RAM [az PLUNGER Due to Pascal’s law, the intensity of pressure will be + | equally transmitted in all directions. Hence the pressure peeccleeyes | intensity at the ram . m y 0 Fig. 2.3 —_ = 314465.4 Nim? 00159 ers Weight WW 2 But pressure intensity at ram sae Ee NI pressing ian Areaof ram ~ A ~ .07068 WY - 3144654 07068 Weight = 314465.4 x.07068 = 22222 N = 22.222 kN, Ans. Problem 2.2 A hydraulic press has a ram of 20 cm diameter and a plunger of 3 cm diameter. It is used for lifting a weight of 30 kN. Find the force required at the plunger. Solution. Given : Dia. of ram, D=20em=0.2m Area of ram, (2)? = 0.0314 m? Dia. of plunger d=3cm=0.03m Area of plunger, a= %(.03) = 7.068 x 10-4 m? Weight lifted, W = 30 kN = 30 x 1000 N = 30000 N. See Fig, 2.3. “ Force ae Pressure intensity developed due to plunger = ==. Area a By Pascal’s Law, this pressure is transmitted equally in all directions F F Hence pressure transmitted at the ram = — a Force acting on ram = Pressure intensity x Area of ram Foy Fx.0314 a 7.068 x 10 But force acting on ram = Weight lifted = 30000 N 3oan0 = P0314 7.068 x 10 4 F = 20000 x7.068 x10" | 675.2.N. Ans. 0314 Problem 2.3 Calculate the pressure due to a column of 0.3 of (a) water, (b) an oil of sp. gr. 0.8, and (c) mercury of sp. gr. 13.6. Take density of water, p= 1000 kg/m*. Solution. Given : Height of liquid column, Z=03 m.The pressure at any point in a liquid is given by equation (2.5) as P= paz 000 kg/m? gZ = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.3 = 2943 N/m? = aay N/em? = 0.2943 Nlem?. Ans, (a) For water, (®) For oil of sp. gr. 0.8, From equation (1.14), we know that the density of a fluid is equal to specific gravity of fluid multiplied by density of water. Density of oil, p. gr. of oil x Density of water (= Density of oil) 1.8 x p = 0.8 x 1000 = 800 kg/m* Now pressure, P=poX@xZ = 800 x 9.81 x 0.3 = 2354.4 N 2584 N . = 0.2384 oe Ans. (c) For mercury, sp. gr. = 13.6 From equation (1.1A) we know that the density of a fluid is equal to specific gravity of fluid multiplied by density of water +. Density of mercury, P.= Specific gravity of mercury x Density of water = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m? P=P—sxBxZ = 13600 x 981 x 03 = 40025 = — = 4,002 a Ans Problem 2.4 The pressure intensity at a point in a fluid is given 3.924 Nicm?. Find the corre- sponding height of fluid when the fluid is : (a) water, and (b) oil of sp. gr. 0.9. Solution, Given : N Pressure intensity, p= 3.924 SN. =3.924x 10°, cm’ m The corresponding height. Z. of the fluid is given by equation (2.6) as. ze xe (a) For water, p = 1000 kg/m? “ = PL = 3924X10" _ 4 m of water. Ans. pxg 1000x981 (b) For oil, sp. gr. =0.9 . Density of oil Po = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m? p___ 3924x104 Poxg 900x981 z= = 4.44 m of oil. Ans.Problem 2.5 An oil of sp. gr. 0.9 is contained in a vessel. At a point the height of oil is 40 m. Find the corresponding height of water at the point. Solution. Given : Sp. gr. of oil, $y = 0.9 Height of oil, Z= 40m Density of oil, Po = Sp. gr. of oil x Density of water = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m? Intensity of pressure, P= 0X BX Zy=900 x 9.81 x 40 N m % fe \ding height of water = ———_?>___ oneepeniee ee Density of water x g = SOX 281%A0 0.9 x 40 = 36 m of water. Ans, Problem 2.6 An open tank contains water upto a depth of 2 m and above it an oil of sp. gr. 0.9 for a depth of | m. Find the pressure intensity (i) at the interface of the two liquids, and (ii) at the bottom of the tank. Solution, Given : Height of water, Z=2m i | Height of oil, Z=1m Sp. gr. of oil, 5) = 0.9 Density of water, Pp; = 1000 kg/m? Density of oil, D2 = Sp. gr. of oil x Density of water 20 (0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m? ile Pressure intensity at any point is given by P =pxgxZ. Fig. 24 (i) At interface, i.e, at A p=p.xex1o = 900 x 9.81 x 1.0 = 8829 SN. = 5822 _ 0.8829 Niem®, Ans. m’ 10’ (ii) At the bottom, i.e, at B = py X gZy + PX BX Z; = 900 x 9.81 x 1.0 + 1000 x 9.81 x 2.0 = 8829 + 19620 = 28449 Nim? = ae Niem? = 2.8449 N/em?, Ans. Problem 2.7 The diameters of a small piston and a large piston of a hydraulic jack ate 3 cm and 10 em respectively. A force of 80 N is applied on the small piston, Find the load lifted by the large piston when : (a) the pistons are at the same level. (b) small piston is 40 cm above the large piston. The density of the liquid in the jack is given as 1000 kg/m’. Solution. Given : Dia. of small piston, d=30m Area of small piston, a=i¢ = x (3)? = 7.068 cm?40 Fluid Mechanics Dia. of large piston, D= 10m Area of larger piston, A= 4 x (10)? = 78.54 cm? Force on small piston, F=80N Let the load lifted =W. (a) When the pistons are at the same level Pressure intensity on small piston F 80 2 £2 Neem? a 7.068 ‘This is transmitted equally on the large piston Pressure intensity on the large piston __%0 7.068 Force on the large piston = Pressure x Area 80, = ——— x 78.54 N = 888.96 N. Ans. 7.068 (6) When the small piston is 40 em above the large piston Pressure intensity on the small piston Pressure intensity at section A ~ A == 4 Pressure intensity due to height of 40 cm of liquid. a But pressure intensity due to 40 cm of liquid = px gx h= 1000 x 9.81 x 0.4 Nim? Z| eee Nem? = 0.3924 Nlem? Pressure intensity at section 80 A-A=—— + 0.3924 7.068 * = 11.32 + 0.3924 = 11.71 Niem* Pressure intensity transmitted to the large piston = 11.71 N/em? Force on the large piston = Pressure x Area of the large piston SILI x A= 1171 x 78.54 = 919.7 N. » 2.4 ABSOLUTE, GAUGE, ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM PRESSURES The pressure on a fluid is measured in two different systems In one system, it is measured above the absolute zero or complete vacuum and it is called the absolute pressure and in other system, pressure is measured above the atmospheric pressure and it is called gauge pressure. Thus : 1. Absolute pressure is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to absolute vacuum pressure. 2. Gauge pressure is defined as the pressure which is measured with the help of a pressure measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric pres- sure on the scale is marked as zero.Pressure and its Measurement 41 3. Vacuum pressure is defined as the pres- sure below the atmospheric pressure. = PRE IRE The relationship between the absolute pres- 3 | 7 GAUGE PRESSURE aTMoserERiCc sure, gauge pressure and vacuum pressure are & x shown in Fig. 2.7. See cswure Mathematically : Raselute (i) Absolute pressure PRESSURE~,) B = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure or Pap = Pain * Page ‘ABSOLUTE ZERO PRESSURE (ii) Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure - Absolute pressure. Note. (i) The atmospheric pressure at sea level at 15°C is 101.3 kNim? or 10.13 N/cm? in ST unit. In case of MKS units, it is equal to 1.033 kgficm’. (ii) The atmospheric pressure head is 760 mm of mercury or 10.33 m of water. Problem 2.8 What are the gauge pressure and absolute pressure at a point 3 m below the free surface of a liquid having a density of 1.53 x 10° kg/n’ if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 750 mm of mercury ? The specific gravity of mercury is 13.5 and density of water = 1000 kg/m’. (A.ML.LE., Summer 1986) Fig.2.7 Relationship between pressures. Solution. Given : Depth of liquid, Z,=3m Density of liquid, Py = 1.53 x 10° kg/m? Atmospheric pressure head, Zy = 750 mm of Hg 8 sos m of Hg 1000 Atmospheric pressure, Pam = Py X 8 X Zp where py = Density of Hg = Sp. gr. of mercury x Density of water = 13.6 x 1000 kgm? and Z) = Pressure head in terms of mercury. : Pam = (13.6 X 1000) X 9.81 0.75 Nim? ( Zy = 0.75) = 100062 N/m* Pressure at a point, which is at a depth of 3 m from the free surface of the liquid is given by, P=PiXBXZ = (1.53 x 1000) x 9.81 x 3 = 45028 N/m? Gauge pressure, p = 45028 N/m?. Ans Now absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure = 45028 + 100062 = 145090 Nim?, Ans. > 2.5 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE The pressure of a fluid is measured by the following devices : 1. Manometers 2. Mechanical Gauges. 2.5.1 Mamometers. Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at 4 point in a fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of the fluid. They are classified as :(a) Simple Manometers, (b) Differential Manometers. 2.5.2 Mechanical Gauges. Mechanical gauges are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure by balancing the fluid column by the spring or dead weight. The commonly used me- chanical pressure gauges are (a) Diaphragm pressure gauge, (b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge, (c) Dead-weight pressure gauge, and (d) Bellows pressure gauge. >2.6 SIMPLE MANOMETERS A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends connected to a point where pressure is 10 be measured and other end remains open to atmosphere. Common types of simple manometers are : 1, Piezometer,~ 2. U-tube Manometer, and 3. Single Column Manometer, 2.6.1 Piezometer. It is the simplest form of manometer used for measuring gauge pressures. One end of this manometer is con- nected to the point where pressure is to be measured and other end is open to the atmosphere as shown in Fig. 2.8. The rise of liquid gives the pressure head at that point. If at a point A, the height of liquid say water is h in piezometer tube, then pressure at A apspxn ee PSOne Fig. 2.8 Piezometer. 2.6.2 U-tube Manometer. It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is connected to a point at which pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to the atmosphere as shown in Fig, 2.9. The tube generally contains mercury or any other liquid whose specific gravity is greater than the specific gravity of the liquid whose pressure is to be measured. (a) For gauge pressure (b) For vacuum pressure Fig.2.9 U-tube Manometer. (a) For Gauge Pressure. Let B is the point at which pressure is to be measured, whose value is p. The datum line is A-A. Let +h, = Height of light liquid above the datum line jeight of heavy liquid above the datum line p. gr. of light liquid = Density of light liquid = 1000 x 5, p. gr. of heavy liquid 2 = Density of heavy liquid = 1000 x 5,As the pressure is the same for the horizontal surface. Hence pressure above the horizontal datum, jine A-A in the left column and in the right column of U-tube manometer should be same. Pressure above A-A in the left column =p+pyxexh, Pressure above A-A in the right column =p) xg xy Hence equating the two pressures p + Pgh, = Pagh; a P= (P2ghz - Pi X BX hy). (2.7) (b) For Vacuum Pressure. For measuring vacuum pressure, the level of the heavy liquid in the manometer will be as shown in Fig. 2.9 (b). Then Pressure above A-A in the left column = Pagh, + Pgh, +P Pressure head in the right column above = A-A=0 Pash, + Pigh; + p=0 P= (Prghy + Pigh)- met 8) Problem 2.9 The right limb of a simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is open to the atmosphere while the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of sp. gr. 0.9 is flowing. The centre of the pipe is 12 cm below the level of mercury in the right limb, Find the pressure of fluid in the pipe if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 20 cm. Solution. Given ; Sp. gr. of fluid, 5, =09 Density of fluid, P1 = 5S; x 1000 = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m? Sp. gr. of mercury, 5S) =.13.6 fT Density of mercury, P2 = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m? 20m Difference of mercury level h, = 20 em =0.2m | Height of fluid from A-A, hy = 20-12 = 8cm=0.08m a Let p = Pressure of fluid in pipe Equating the pressure above A-A, we get P+ Pi8hy = Prgh, or p +900 x 9.81 x 0.08 = 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x .2 mean = 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x 2-900 x 9.81 x 0.08 = 26683 — 706 = 25977 N/m? = 2.597 N/em?. Ans. Problem 2.10 A simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of sp. gr.0.8 and having vacuum pressure is flowing. The other end of the manometer is open to atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in pipe, if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 40 cm and the height of fluid in the left from the centre of pipe és 15 cm below. Solution. Given : Sp. gr. of fluid, S$, =08 Sp. gr. of mercury, Sy = 13.6 Density of fluid, p, = 800 Density of mercury, 2 = 13.6 x 1000 Difference of mercury level, ty = 40 cm = 0.4 m. Height of liquid in left limb, h = 15 cm =0.15 m, Let the pressure in pipe = p. Equating pressure above datum. line A-A, we get Fig. 2.11 Prgh> + Pigh +p=0P=—[ 28h, + Pighy) = ~ [13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x 0.4 + 800 x 9.81 x 0.15] = - [53366.4 + 1177.2] = - 54543.6 N/m? = 5.454 N/em?. Ans. Problem 2.11 A U-Tube manomeier is used to measure the pressure of water ina pipe line, which is in excess of atmospheric pressure. The right limb of the manometer contains mercury and is open to atmosphere. The contact between water and mercury is in the left limb. Determine the pressure of water in the main line, if the difference in level of mercury in the limbs of U-tube is 10 cm and the (free surface of mercury is in level with the cenure of the pipe. If the pressure of water in pipe line is reduced to 9810 N/m*, calculate the new difference in the level of mercury. Sketch the arrangements in both cases. (A.MLLE., Winter 1989) Solution. Given : Difference of mercury =10cm=0.1m ‘The arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.11 (a) Let p, = (pressure of water in pipe line (ie., at point A) The points B and C lie on the same horizontal line. Hence pressure at B should be equal to pressure at C. But pressure at B = Pressure at A + Pressure due to 10 cm (or 0.1 m) | of water RIGHT LIMB—_| =Pytpxexh | where p = 1000 kg/m? and h = 0.1. m =p, + 1000 x 9.81 x 0.1 = pa + 981 Nim? wi) Pressure at C = Pressure at D + Pressure due to 10 cm of mercury =0+pypxgxhy where py for mercury = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m* and ig = 10 cm = 0.1. m Pressure at C= 0 + (13.6 x 1000) x 9.81 x 0.1 3341.6 N wii) But pressure at B is equal to pressure at C. Hence equating the equa- tions (/) and (ii), we get Pa +981 = 133416 Fig. 2.11 @ Pq = 13341.6 - 981 = 12360.6 SJ . Ans. mm Ind Part Given, p, = 9810 N/m? Find new difference of mercury level. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.11 (b). In this case the pressure at A is 9810 N/m? which is less than the 12360.6 N/m?. Hence mercury in left limb will rise. The rise of mercury in left limb will be equal to the fall of mercury in right limb as the total volume of mercury remains same. Let x= Rise of mercury in left limb in cm Then fall of mercury in right limb = x em The points B, C and D show the initial conditions whereas points B*, C* and D* show the final conditions.The pressure at B* = Pressure at C* or Pressure at A + Pressure due to (10 — x) cm of water = Pressure at D* + Pressure due to (10 = 2x) cm of mercury OF Pat PL XB XM, =Pp* + P2X 8X My 10 or 1910+ 1000x981 x ) 100 iene = 0 + (13.6 x 1000) x 9.81 x | ——— #1136 % 1000) x ( 100 Dividing by 9.81, we get or 1000 + 100 - 10x = 1360 - 272x or 272x - 10x = 1360 - 1100 or 262x = 260 P io 260, = 0,992 cm 262 0 - 2x em =10- 2 x 0.992 Rig. 2400) .016 cm. Ans. Problem 2.12 Fig. 2.12 shows a conical vessel having its outlet at A to which a U-tube manometer is connected. The reading of the manometer given in the figure shows when the vessel is empty. Find the reading of the manometer when the vessel is completely filled with water. (A.M.LE., Winter 1975) Solution, Vessel is empty. Given : New difference of mercury Difference of mercury level hy = 20cm Let hy = Height of water above X-X Sp. gr. of mercury, Sy = 13.6 Sp. gr. of water, S\= 10 Density of mercury, P= 13.6 x 1000 Density of water, p, = 1000 Equating the pressure above datum line X-X, we have 2X 9x hy or 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x0.2= +h, = 2.72 m of water. Vessel is full of water. When vessel is full of water, the Fig, 2.12 pressure in the right limb will increase and mercury level in the right limb will go down. Let the distance through which mercury goes down in the right limb be, y cm as shown in Fig. 2.13. The mercury will rise in the left by a distance of y cm. Now the datum line is Z-Z. Equating the pressure above the datum line Z-Z. Pressure in left limb = Pressure in right limb 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x (0,2 + 2y/100) = 1000 x 981 x (3 +h, + y/100)or 13.6 x (0.2 + 2y/100) = 3 +2.72 + y/100) (hy = 2.72 cm) or 2.72 + 27.2y/100 + 2.72 + y/100 or (27.2y - yyi100 = 3.0 i or 26.2y = 3 x 100 = 300 300 ye = 11.45 cm 26.2 The difference of mercury level in two limbs t = (20 + 2y) cm of mercury < if 20 +2 x 11.45 = 20 + 22.90 = 42.90 cm of mercury Reading of manometer = 42.90 em. Ans. Fig. 2.13 Problem 2.13 A pressure gauge consists of two cylindrical bulbs B and C each of 10 sq. cm cross- sectional area, which are connected by a U-tube with vertical limbs each of 0.25 sq. cm cross- sectional area. A red liquid of specific gravity 0.9 is filled into C and clear water is filled into B, the surface of separation being in the limb attached to C. Find the displacement of the surface of separation when the pressure on the surface in C is greater than that in B by an amount equal to | cm head of water. (AMLE, Summer, 1978) Solution. Given : Area of each bulb Band C, = A= 10cm? Area of each vertical limb, a= 0.25 cm* Sp. gr. of red liquid 09 Its density = 900 kg/m? Let Initial separation level Height of red liquid above X-X hg = Height of water above X-X Pressure above X-X in the left limb = 1000 x 9.81 x hy Pressure above X-X in the right limb = 900 x 9.81 x hc Equating the two pressure, we get 1000 x 9.81 hy = 900 x98 Xhe * = 09 he a) 40 2140 When the eae head over the surface in C is increased by 1 cm of water, let the separation level, falls by an amount equal to Z, Then ¥-¥ becomes the final separation level. he Now fall in surface level of C multiplied by cross- sectional area of bulb C must be equal to the fall in seoeetion level multiplied by cross-sectional area of, x 7 eaves SEPARATION .. Fall in surface level of C LEVEL ___ Fall in separation level x @ ——— Fig. 2.14Also fall in surface level of C = Rise in surface level of B _z “20 The pressure of 1 cm (or 0.01 m) of water = pgh = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.01= 98.1 N/m? Consider final separation level ¥-Y Pressure above Y-¥ in the left limb = 1000 x 9.81 (2+ hy +2) Pressure above Y-¥ in the right limb = 900 x 9.81( 2+ he -Z) + 98.1 Equating the two pressure, we get : Zz z) 1000 x 9.81 | Z+h, +—| =| Z ca 900 x 9.81 + 98.1 x (z+ +2) (z+n-2 x981+ Dividing by 9.81, we get Zz Zz 1000 | Z+ hy +— | =900 | Z -— 10 ( ad 7) ( the a) % Zz Zz Dividing by 1000, we get Z+ hy +—~ =0.9[Z+he -—] +0.01 ividing by 1000, we get ar ( he z) But from equation (i), hy = 0.9 he 240.9 ies & = 3% x09 409 het 001 40 40 or 2 = 3 x 9Z+.01 or 2(B-2%2) 0 or 2(4 3s ) 01 40 40 40 z= 40X00! _ 0.9678 m = 6.78 cm. Ans. 2.6.3 Single Column Manometer. Single column manomter is a modified form of a U-tube manometer in which a reservoir, having a large cross-sectional area (about 100 times) as compared to the area of the tube is connected to one of the limbs (say left limb) of the manometer as shown in Fig. 2.15. Due to large cross-sectional area of the reservoir, for any variation in pressure, the change in the liquid level in the reservoir will be very small which may be neglected and hence the pressure is given by the height of liquid in the other limb. The other limb may be vertical or inclined. Thus there are two types of single column manometer as : 1, Vertical Single Column Manometer. 2. Inclined Single Column Manometer. 1, Vertical Single Column Manometer Fig. 2.15 shows the vertical single column manometer. Let X-X be the datum line in the reservoir and in the right limb of the manometer, when it is not connected to the pipe. When the manometer isconnected to the pipe, due to high pressure at A, the heavy liquid in the reservoir will be pushed downward and will rise in the right limb. Let Ah = Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir hy = Rise of heavy liquid in right limb h, = Height of centre of pipe above X-X Pa = Pressure at A, which is to be measured A = Cross-sectional area of the reservoir a = Cross-sectional area of the right limb 5, = Sp. gr. of liquid in pipe S. Sp. gr. of heavy liquid in reservoir and right limb Pp, = Density of liquid in pipe Fig. 2.18 Vertical single column 2 = Density of liquid in reservoir ee Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir will cause a rise of heavy liquid level in the right limb. Ax Ah=axXhy An=4 o od) Now consider the datum line ¥-¥ as shown in Fig. 2.15. Then pressure in the right limb above ¥-¥. =p2% gx (Ah+ hy) Pressure in the left limb above ¥-Y¥ =p, x gx (Ah + hy) +py Equating these pressures, we have 2X gx (Ah + hy) =p, X gx (Ah + hy) + Py or Py = Pog (Ah + hy) pyg(Ah + hy) = Ahlp2g — P18] + hapa — hiPis But from equation (i), Ah= wh, xh; Px =" Lpag ~ pis + haP2s — Mnpis (2-9) As the area A is very large as compared to a, hence ratio 4 becomes very small and can be neglected. Then p, = hypog — h,pig (2.10) From equation (2.10), it is clear that as hy is known and hence by knowing h, or rise of heavy liquid in the right limb, the pressure at A can be calculated. 2. Inclined Single Column Manometer Fig. 2.16 shows the inclined single column manom- eter. This manometer is more sensitive. Due to inclina- tion the distance moved by the heavy liquid in the right Fig. 2.16 Inclined single column limb will be more. manometer.ength of heavy liquid moved in right limb from X-X @ = Inclination of right limb with horizontal hy = Vertical rise of heavy liquid in right limb from X-X = L x sin 8 From equation (2.10), the pressure at A is Pa = hyp 28 — hyp. Substituting the value of h,, we get Pa=sin OX prg — hypig. w(211) Problem 2.14 A single column manometer is connected to a pipe containing a liquid of sp. gr. 0.9 as shown in Fig. 2.17. Find the pressure in the pipe if the area of the reservoir is 100 times the area of the tube for the manometer reading shown in Fig. 2.17. The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6. Solution. Given : Sp. gr. of liquid in pipe, S,=09 Density P, = 900 kg/m? Sp. gr. of heavy liquid, S)= 13.6 Density, p2= 13.6 x 1000 = Area of reseevole _ A = 100 Lt Areaof right limb a Height of liquid, hy = 20 em = 0.2 m Rise of mercury in right limb, hy = 40 cm = 0.4m Lat Pa = Pressure in pipe Using equation (2.9), we get a x= halos ~ Pig + hap 28 — hips = w x 0.4(13.6.x 1000 x 9.81 - 900 x 9.81] + 0.4 x 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 - 0.2 x 900 x 9.81 a4 [133416 — 8829] + 53366.4 - 1765.8 = 533.664 + 53366.4 — 1765.8 N/m? = 52134 N/ .21 Niem’. Ans, > 2.7 DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS Differential manometers are the devices used for measuring the difference of pressures between two points in a pipe or in two different pipes. A differential manometer consists of a U-tube, contain- ing a heavy liquid, whose two ends are connected to the points, whose difference of pressure is to be measured. Most commonly types of differential manometers are : 1. U-tube differential manometer and 2. Inverted U-tube differential manometer. 2.7.1 U-tube Differential Manometer. Fig. 2.18 shows the differential manometers of U- tube type.(ayTwo pipes ataitferent levels (©) Aand 8 are at the same level Fig.2.18 U-tube differential manometers. Fig. 2.18 (a). Let the two points A and B are at different level and also contains liquids of different sp. gr. These points are connected to the U-tube differential manometer. Let the pressure at A and B are p, and pp. Let h= y ifference of mercury level in the U-tube. stance of the centre of B, from the mercury level in the right limb. + = Distance of the centre of A, from the mercury level in the right limb. p, = Density of liquid at A. P) = Density of liquid at B. p, = Density of heavy liquid or mercury. Taking datum line at X-X. Pressure above X-X in the left limb = p,g(h + x) + Py where p, = pressure at A. Pressure above X-X in the right limb = p, x @Xh+p2% @XY+Pp where pp = Pressure at B. Equating the two pressure, we have Pigth +x) + Py =PeX 8X A+ Prgy + Pp Pa~Pa=PyX BXh+ Prgy— pigth +x) =h X B(P,—P1) + Prey — Pisx +o(2,12) Difference of pressure at A and B = h x g(P,~P,) + P2gy — Pigt Fig. 2.18 (b), A and B are at the same level and contains the same liquid of density p,. Then Pressure above X-X in right limb = p,XgXh+P,XgXx+Pp_ Pressure above X-Xin left limb =p, xg x(h+x) + Pq Equating the two pressure PpX 8X it + Pigx + Py=PiXBX(h +x) + Pg Pam Pa = Py XX H+ Pgx ~ pyg(h +x) = gx h(p,— pp» o(2.13) Problem 2.15 4 pipe contains an oil of sp. gr. 0.9. A differential manometer connected at the two points A and B shows a difference in mercury level as 15 cm. Find the difference of pressure at the two points.Solution, Given : Sp. gr. of oil, S,=0.9 + Density, p; = 0:9 x 1000 = 900 kg/in® Difference in mercury level, 15 cm =0.15 m Sp. gr. of mercury, $,=13.6 Density, p, = 13.6 x 1000 ke/m? The difference of pressure is given by equation (2.13) or Pa-Pp=8X W(Pe— Pi) 9.81 x 0.15 (13600 - 900) = 18688 N/m”. Ans. 16 A differential manometer is connected at the two points A and B of two pipes as 2.19. The pipe A contains a liquid of sp. gr. = 1.5 while pipe B contains a liquid of sp. gr. = 0.9. The pressures at A and B are I kgficm’ and 1.80 kgficm’ respectively. Find the difference in mercury level in the differential manometer. Solution. Given : Problem 2 Sp. er. of liquid at A, S, = 1.5 p, = 1500 Sp. gr. of liquid at B, S, = 0.9 P= 900 1 Spuae08. Pressure at A, Pa = 1 kgtlem? = 1 x 10* kgf/m? = 104 9.81 N/m? (+2 1 kgf = 9.81 N) Pressure at B, Pp = 1.8 kgflem? q Pas TB ket om? = 18 x 10! kgf/m? e = 18 x 10° 9.81 Nim? (+ 1 kgf =9.81 N) * Density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m? Taking X-X as datum line. Pressure above X-X in the left limb meas = 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x + 1500 x 9.81 x (2+ 3) + D4 = 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x h +7500 x 9.81 + 9.81 x 104 Pressure above X-X in the right limb = 900 x 9.81 x (h +2) + py = 900 x 9.81 x (h +2) +18 x 108x981 Equating the two pressure, we get 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81h + 7500 x 9.81 + 9.81 x 10* = 900 x 9.81 x (h +2) + 1.8 x 10*x 9.81 ing by 1000 x 9.81, we get 13.6h + 7.5 +10 = (h + 2.0) x 9 +18 or 13.6h + 17.5 = 09h +184 18=0.9h + 19.8 or (13.6 = 0.9)h = 19.8 = 17.5 oF 12.7h = 2.3 n= 23 £0181 m= 18.1 em, Ans. 17 Problem 2.17 A differential manometer is connected at the two points A and B as shown in Fig. 2.20. At B air pressure is 9.81 N/em? (abs), find the absolute pressure at A. Solution. Given : Air pressure at B=9,.81 Nicm® or Py =9.81 X 10° Nim?9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m’ Density of oil 3.6 x 1000 kg/m? Density of mercury Let the pressure at A is py Taking datum line at X-X Pressure above X-X in the right limb 1000 x 9.81 x 0.6 + py = 5886 + 98100 = 103986 Pressure above X-X in the left limb = 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x 0.1 + 900 x 981 x02 + py = 13341.6 + 1765.8 + py Equating the two pressure head 103986 = 13341.6 +.1765.8 + py Se a= 103986 - 15107.4 = 8876.8 Fig. 2.20 > 88876.8N N a= 9886.8 Nim? = TOOTS = 8887 Absolute pressure at A = 8.887 N/cm’. Ans. 2.7.2. Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer. It consists of an inverted U-tube, contain- ing a light liquid. The two ends of the tube are connected to the points whose difference of pressure is to be measured. It is used for measuring difference of low pressures. Fig. 2.21 shows an inverted U- tube differential manometer connected to the two points A and B, Let the pressure at A is more than the pressure at B = Height of liquid in left limb below the datum line X-X yy = Height of liquid in right limb h = Difference of light liquid p, = Density of liquid at A > = Density of liquid at B 1p, = Density of light liquid Da = Pressure at A Dp = Pressure at B. Taking X-X as datum line. Then pressure in the left limb below X-X =P,-P1 XB hy. Fig. 2.21 Pressure in the right limb below XX = Pp-P2X8XIn—P.X Exh Equating the two pressure Pa~ Pr X8 X ht = Pp~P2X BX Iy~ PX BXH or Pa~Pp=PiX8 Xhy— py X gx hy-p,X Exh. (2.14) Problem 2.18 Water is flowing through two different pipes to which an inverted differential ‘manometer having an oil of sp. gr. 0.8 is connected. The pressure head in the pipe A is 2 m of water, find the pressure in the pipe B for the manometer readings as shown in Fig. 2.22. Solution. Given : Pressure head at 4 =2 m of water pg Px=PXgX2= 1000 x 9.81 x 2 = 19620 N/m? Fig. 2.22 shows the arrangement. Taking X-X as datum line. Pressure below X-X in the left limb =p, - p; x g x My= 19620 - 1000 x 9.81 x 0.3 = 16677 N/m? Pressure below X-X in the right limb = py — 1000 x 9.81 x 0.1 — 800 x 9.81 x 0.12 = py - 981 — 941.76 = py - 1922.76 Equating the two pressure, we get 16677 = py ~ 1922.76 or Py = 16677 + 1922.76 = 18599.76 N/m? or Pp = 1.8599 N/em?. Ans. Problem 2.19 In Fig. 2.23, an inverted differential manometer is connected 10 two pipes A and B which convey water. The fluid in manometer is oil of sp. gr. 0.8. For the manometer readings shown in the figure, find the pressure difference between A and B. Solution. Given : Sp. gr. of oil =0.8 « p,= 800 kg/m? Difference of oil in the two limbs Fig. 2.22 = (30 + 20) - 30 = 20cm Taking datum line at X-X Pressure in the left limb below X-X Pa ~ 1000 x 9.81 x 0 Pa ~ 2943 Pressure in the right limb below X-X = Pp - 1000 x 9.81 x 0.3 ~ 800 x 9.81 x 0.2 = Py ~ 2943 — 1569.6 = py — 4512.6 Bauating the two pressure p,~ 2943 =p, - 4512.6 Pa — Ps = 4512.6 — 2943 = 1569.6 N/m?. Ans. Problem 2.20 Find ou the di ifferential reading ‘h’ of an inverted U-tube manometer containing oil of specific gravity 0.7 as the manometric fluid when connected across pipes A and B as shgun in Fig. 224 below, conveying liquids of specific gravities 1.2 and 1.0 and immiscible with manometric fluid. Pipes A and B are located at the same level and assume the pressures at A and B to be equal. (AMLLE., Winter 1985) Solution. Given : Fig. 2.24 shows the arrangement. Taking X-X as datum line. Let Pa = Pressure at A p= Pressure at B Density of liquid in pipe A = Sp. gr. x 1000 = 1.2 x 1000 = 1200'kg/m? Density of liquid in pipe B = 1 x 1000 = 1000 kg/m? Density of oil = 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m*‘Now pressure below X-X in the left limb . = pa - 1200 x 9.81 x 0.3 - 700 x 9.81 xh Pressure below X-X in the right limb = pg 1000 x 9.81 x (h + 0.3) Equating the two pressure, we get Pa— 1200 x 9.81 x 0.3 — 700 x 9.81 x h = pp - 1000 x 9.81 (h + 0.3) But Pa= Pp (given) — 1200 x 9.81 x 0,3 - 700 x 9,81 x h = - 1000 x 9.81 (h + 0.3) Dividing by 1000 x 9.81 ~ 1.2 x 0.3 -0.7h =- (h +0.3) or 0.3 X 1.2 +0.7h =h + 0.3 or 0.36 - 0.3 = h -0.7h = 0.3h 0.36 -0.30 _ 0.06 h=——_—— = —_m 0.30 030 = 4 m= 1x 100= 20cm, Ans. yes Problem 2.21 Am inverted U-tube manometer is connected to two horizontal pipes A and B through which water is flowing. The vertical distance between the axes of these pipes is 30 cm. When aan oil of specific gravity 0.8 is used as a gauge fluid, the vertical heights of water columns in the two limbs of the inverted manometer (when measured from tthe respective centre lines of the pipes) are {found to be same and equal 10 35 cm. Determine the difference of pressure between the pipes. (A.M.LE., Summer 1990) Solution, Given : Specific gravity of measuring liquid = 0.8 The arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.24 (a). Let —_p, = pressure at A Pp pressure at B. The points C and D lie on the same horizontal line. Hence pressure at C should be equal to pressure at D. But pressure at C =pPy-pgh 14 — 1000 x 9.81 x (0.35) And pressure at D = py ~ Pgh; ~ P2ghy = Py — 1000 x 9.81 x (0.35) - 800 x 9.81 x 0.3 But pressure at C = pressure at D a 1000 x 9.81 x .35 19 ~ 1000 x 9.81 x 0.35 ~ 800 x 9.81 x 0.3 or 800 x 9.81 x 0.3 =p5—Ps WATER or Pp Pa = 800 X 981 X03 = 23544 ans. ™