SC Rene Vek 1S tn, p 245-277 Chapter 7 Exploration for Epithermal Gold Deposits Jerrney W. Hepexquistt 99 Fifth Avenue, Suite $20, Otexsa, Onterio KIS 3P3, Canada Axtosso Azsmys R., 2np Fuiseo Gonzate7-Usirx Placer Dome Exploration, 240 Seuth Rock Boulevard, Suite 117, Rena, Nevada $9502 Abstract ‘The successful exploration geologist uses knowledge of geologic relationships andl ore-deposit styles, ‘empered by cpesiencr to interpreta! information saab from a gven prospect in es to deelop an undensaanding of its mineral potential In the case of exploration for epithermal gold deposts this understanding can be augmented by familiariey with active bydsotbermal sjsicms, their presearcay ana logue Juit as geological sills and exploration experience are the defining elements of a philosophy of exploration, the needs of a company determine, as much 2s the funding and skils avallable, wich level Df exploration #t parsbes and where gratsroot, cariestage or ackcanced targets Fpithermal goid depots Se er ene tate peri cnet eee te et ety Here apes Wali Litres te) the pedi eronmet ar being: i depth, nplealy hostng depos of An, Ag, and hase metals pha Fig, Sb, 8, tint, sumite, and si ven before dis, Ramorne recogaleed two dant sles of sich precouwinetal epost leading the onetsion thatthe evo enchmctaber spon form in environments aaalogons 10 geothermal sings io volcanic fumaroten, which are dominased by eloced, newuabptl vers exe, ace Hut, re ‘pactnely The terms we war are low and high-daton to refer tO depots formed i tse respective Giviroaments The toms are xed on the sulidaton sate ofthe sullde ascrbage. Endeaciate for ‘sitdaden depose contin ppitepyetiotiearsencprrte and high Fe whaler, conta © prc “urgistronsteconcline ping ighauiSdason depo. Anta helio cts a er ‘Sedinesllidation sate stembloge of prteterscdrke tennant chalcopyrite and low Fe phalee [lnermedine suite sate depen ae Ag snd te mcualaich compared co inc Awcich cocimember lowest deposit mon Hel sein salinity sarssions. “There are chareierilemincral textures and acmbages swocined with epidermal deposits and, coupled with id inchnion dat, they indicate that mort lowsulhdation and highulfidation depos fran in atanperature range of about 160" to 210°C. This temperatare interval correspon to = depth below the palsounter able of about 80 to 700m, reapectney. gnen the common eddence for boing ‘schin epidermal ore zones, Boling ste process tac mest ors precipion of bmilige-complexed ‘salesich gold Tok proces an the concomicant rail coling sk result any teat featres Shs angela poo of quar wih clin ete, aula td nde cain ome Sifadon depen andthe formation of sam-heate water that create akanced argc alteration ‘ibnten in both loweaulidation and highulSdation depose. Eplthermal dopo are exwemclyeatable fm form, wd toch of thie warily is cad by rong Aiderences inthe nearsurtxe enionnent reag Tom Sarecerl and bps Gilead eeteok: LocedBdnden depose, gpialy ery rom vel reegh stcbwort wo dimcmicaed forma. Goldore inkowaulldacon depen scommnoaly holed with quar and ada, plus acc or ‘ice, athe major gangue minerat The alteration halo othe sone af re, parol inven deposi. leche a rig oftemperaturcsensive coy minerals du can help onic loeadns of plead Bow. ‘The areal extent of sich clay alteration niay he twa orders of magnitice larger than the acital ore deposi In conus, a silicic core of leached, residual silica is the principal hos of hi sion ore. Outward From this commonly woggy quavtz core is a Qpically uprardflaring advanced argilie zone consisting of ‘quartralunite and kaolin minerals, in places wth prrophylle, disspore, or zunyite. The deposit ‘form aries from disseminations or replacements to veins, stockworks, and hyerothermal brecciz ‘nla escneat of prospect def: glist deexnive if tis epidnesnal and so, se. lowaulttacon or highauléaadon, ‘determinations are: (1) the origin of advanced argllic 245,246 HEDENQUST ET AL. alteration. (ie. hypogene. steanvheated. or supergene). (2) the origin of silicic alteration (e.g. sesidual silica or sliification), and (9) the Ekely controls on grade (i, the potential form af the arebod}), be ‘cause this is one of the most basic characteristics of any deposit These determinations will define in part the questions to be asked, such asthe relationship besweea alteration zoning and the potential ore zone, and Will guide further exploration and eventual drilling, if warranted, Observations in the field must focus on the geslagic seting and simsctoral controls, alteration mineralogy and textures, geochemical anomalies, et. Erosion and weathering must aso be considered, the latter masking are in places but potentially improving the ore quality through oxidation. As infermation is compiled, reconstnaction of the topography and, hence, hydrauile gradient during hydrothermal activiy, combined with identifica- tion ef the zones ef paleailwid flow will help to idensfy ore targets. Ceophysical date, when interpreted ‘carefully inthe appropriate geological and geochemical context, may provide valuable information to 3i¢ dsiling by identifing, for example, resistive and/or chargeable areas ‘The potential for a variety o! Yelaed depesis in cpithermal districts has exploration implications. For ample, there i dear evidence fora spas, and in some cues genetic relationship bemeen highsilidaton ccpithermal depositsand underhing oradjacent porplary deposits. Similarly, herels Increasing recognition of the potential for economic intermediate sulication sate base metal + AwAg veins adjrent to high: sulfdation deposits. By contras,, end-nember lowsulfidation deposis appear 1 for in a geologic ca -nment incompatible with porphyry tr highsultdation dapenite of any eeonomne significanes. The exp nation for these empirical metilogenic zeladonships may be found in the characterisirs of the magma eg, ovidation potential) and of the magnate fie genetically aeacited with the epithermal cepost. For effective exploration it i esential wo maximise the time in dhe field of wellirained and expert enced geologists using tried and tested methods. Understanding the characteristics of the depesit sule being sought facilitates the construction of multiple working hypotacses fora given prospect, which leads ‘oeficiently testing each model generated for the prospect. using the tools appropriate forthe sinusion. Govlogists who urtderstand oveorming processes and are creative thinkers, and who spend sauch of their time working in the field within a supportive corporate structure, will be best prepared to fing the cepithermal deporits that remain hidden. Introduction Mieka EXPLOKAMON, or more appropriately, mineral covery, star with exploration gealogists walking over rocks and making observations. The successful explorationist tases knowledge of geologic relationships and ore-deposit srjles, vempered by experience, to interpret ll information available from a given prospect; hese interpretations lead to action. Insight into how the characteristics ofan ore style may be affected by various geologic settings can be bol- stered by an understanding of how the provesses of ore for- ‘mation are manifested as hydrothermal products such 38 patterns of alteration and ore minerals. In the case of exploration fer epithermal gold deposits, this understand: ing can be augmented by familiznity with active hydrother nal stems, Uielr present-day analogues ‘Although finding an attractive prospect in the first place is hard work, a majority of exploration budgets these days is. spent on astessment. Therefore, we focus on the explo- ration of epithermal deposits from the perspective of an explorationist assessing a prospect or submission. The job of the explorationist includes building the information base thar ieneceseary to develop multiple working hypotheses for prospect, and establishing valid tests of each hypothesis, wacther Uusis a mental test or a deill hole. During assessment ofa prospect, it is estential to know the geologic and economic objectives of a company, and wo Eeep there in mind during each step. Regardless of how good a prospect looks, if the geologic controls indicate a tonnage that is insufficient to meet the company’s economic requirements, or if the mineralized zone is likely to be either low grade or refractory, the answer should be to stop farther expenditure. hough no one withes to walk aay from an orcbody wang De foune, careful consierauon economic factors at each sep of te aseamment ofa pro Jes cuenta to prevent sxcessve tnirrented expendi= Ture. Aldhough the adage tha mines ate made, not Uscor- credsiscomimonly tmeyno amount ofinveroneat ean make $mne from an orbody thar knot there "We begin our dscusion wih some comment on explore sion ptiRcoply avd fs conmevton 0h genase ood er ration model Following ths, we define dhe epiteral cant ronment and rated terminology discuss the byérothermal roseses that re important in the ephermnal ensronmen End review the characteristics of epitnernl depons, nee ing thet tops bottom, ancstdes inthis contest the Be goal diving the akeeument of a prospect sto determine Wits cpitcimal, anda, is sycpan ns ll determine ia par tbe {uestions o be asked, The Bela geslogit can then Sees the geological seting and the various features of the hyaro- dermal ten, These featares provide the Rameworeto dem ty the locadom ofthe paleothad Row channels and todeter™ tne whether or not Dete sore potenal Thera vaiey of tools hat ca anit thee effort and these are reviewed Telos Wefinish with aconsderation ofthe eatses of Fegional veriadons among lantepithermal deposi, Exploration Philosophy. An exploration philosophy is more a sct of belief than an, organized system af thought, although it requires some of the later to be useful. Te resides usually wih those respoas ble for leading a company’s exploration efforts, and at ite bes, is undessicod and supported by the corporate leaders. Tacse beliefs, coupled with the corporate needs andEXPLORATION FOR EPITHERUAL GOLD DEPOSITS resources, largely determine the mos fundamental choices sade ia constructing an exploration plan, strategic oro: Cerwise, and the organization that will znplement ‘The elements of this philosophy can Tange from experi encedriven abstract concepis such as oddvof discovery ia general or 2s is Lnown for a given deposit ype, to the cong ence (orbelie) in spore scientific theories (genetic moc fh). Teako inchides pragmatic busines: notions such a rel lie Finding costs versus time to discovery, oF ciscovery costs per ounce versus sage of exploration. “Mast expleration geologiss are arguably driven more by the desire to succeed, 1 discover an economic deposi. than bya wish to prove a particular theory. Consequently, the tei dency cto rely on exploration philosophies that are a mix of pragmatic and scientific beieis. An example of an enc member philosophy that has nonetheless formed the basis of lange, longelived corporate exploration efforts is that of Using the best metallogenic science and the best geologists, snd being consistent and persistent ia the imost favorable renllegenic provinces, There isa strongly contrasting phi- lasoplty, ao often applied, based on the argument that the ciscovery of a significant ovebody is statistically highly improbable by any single company. Thi leads to the policy that the more eficctive approach is to examine the best prospects developed by othereand acquire them al an opt num moment in theit exploration process Tn exaluating prospects, cpithermal gold occurseaces ia particular—given their relative abundance and similaris, ither of the end-member philosophies outlined above, oF any combination ofthe two, require a slid bass of diagoe echaracteristics These are derived from genetic ane exple- ration (descriptive) models, and must be applicable to Prospects ranging from unexplored to thave in the advanced. grid-trilling stage. Accurate evaluation, however, when based on « complex and extensive model, requires time and resources Tt has taken almost a century to develop a systematic, albeit still imperfect, understanding of epithermal ore Geposits, To expect such an understanding to be transla able during a brief exploration review in the field, intended to accurately define whether the prospect is eplihermal, and its syle size potential, and grade, is unrealistic. Fur: thermore, the acquisition, compilation, and analjsis of su cient data to make informed decisions on whether oF not to pursue a cersin prospect, assuming there are few explo- ration data available (0 start with, is not possiDle for all prospects. Thus, it becomes necessary to reduce the aur ec of prospects tothe few that can be addressed sstemat cally. To accomplish such a reduetion, some basic philo- ophical framework must Brat exist, which uses economic, social, logistical, and in-company resource parameters £0 select prospects inespectve of thelr genetic affiliation A fundamental Srst step is recognition and application of company assets, If these include a strong geological. fice oriented exploration group, even though funding may be comparatively low, the search for virgin or early-stage prospects asa sound basis. A good understanding at the conporate level of company’s exploration capabilidcs, and 247 of the exploration process is essential to continued support and eventual success. For this reason, buying good explo- ration capabilities in the absence of aa in-house geological tradition rarely ass and seldom succeeds. “Jus: as geological sills and exploration experience are the ofining elements ofa philosophy of explortioa, the neds ofthe company determine, much asthe funding and skills sailable, which level of exploration it pursues and where: fgrasst0ot, early stage, or advanced targets, and targets nest ‘company-owned ofe bodies of in far-flung locatons. These ‘needs inclade consideration ofexsting reserves and the pro- {uction goals ofa company, and the tining for additions to for replacement of reerves, Given the impracticalityof exam ining every prospect, the aed to reduce the number of prospects will benelit from an analyesof the economic and logistic charactesistics of different ypes of depasits of the paricular metal being sought. This asuumes that the compo. fate time horizon allows the search to begin with singin dis ‘cis or superficially explored prospects. Epithermal gold deposits have size, goornetny oro pe,and sgrade vanabons that éan he broadly organized around some genctic classes and, therefore, influence the exploration sppreach or philosophy: For exnple, the economic related characteristics of some disseminated high-suifidation deposits (eg, Yanacocha, Pend and PascusLama, Chile-Argentina) andlawmilfidation deposits (Round Mountain, Nevada) sit large, relatively low eapita-cost open-pit operations. Con- versely, structurally controlled lowesulfidation yeinype ceposis (eg, Hishikars, japan an Midas, Nevada) are mone likely to be high-grade underground operations, with con- ‘tasting capital requirements, development schedules, and environmental impact In addivion, the medismgrade high- suldation deposits (e.g., Pueblo Viejo, Dominican Republic, and Chelopech, Bulgaria), waless oxidized, tend not to be economically viable because of their complex metallurgy and high arsenic content. Keeping in mind such varied economic considerations and their effec: on exploration philoso, wo next excunine the geologic features of these epithermal gold seposit [Nature of the Epithermal Environment Why is there an cpithermal environment of oe deposition? A rigorous definition of the muchwsed erm epithermal i difficult (Henley, 1991). Lindgren (1928) firet defined the epithermal environment as being shallow in depth, wy cally hosting deposits of Au, Ag, and base metals (Table 1). Epithermal systems have also been exploited for a wide range of metalsand minerals, including Hg, Sb, S, kaolinite, alunite, and silica, Lindgren’s estimate for maxiuium depth ‘of formation was 3,000 feet (about 1,000 m), based on geo" logic reconstruction. The estimate of the upper pressure limit was 100 atmospheres, which corresponds to that of fom salinity, low-gas water that is boiling 2t ~1,000-m depth. Lindgren deduced a temperature range of 30” t0 200°C from the perceived stability limits of various minerals, and similarities of vem textures with those of hot spring deposits, die lauter formed at less tan 100°C.248 HREDENQUSTET AL, “ThILe 1. Akematve Nomenclature Used forthe Tro Main Epithermal Emranments and (Correspondence to Understanding of Gemma Acti Genter (ominsted by neatal pH and reduced hypogene Dud) (owviated by ears acc and ouidied inpegene Paid) Reference Rawomne, 1908, Beuike, 1554 Goldie ope Aan ee Atratunie Lindgren, 1922, 1885 ‘Aga, Ag, AbTe, and abSe veins, ‘Base moval veins woth Avs Ag (Geanaber sini yee ge Ashley. 1908 Hocepring (Ger and Notion, 1982 Adularacericke Acid cule Heald etal, 1987 Low afer Highsutier Borer, 1086 Lew mfidaton High slidasen Hedenguit 1087 Adslarseericte Alunitedaolnite Reger and Henley 1959 Intermesise easton Thissmdy Barren quartealeniteBthowap ioe, L005a; thie ea We now know that deposits with testures and mineral assemblages characteristic of the epithermal environment have minerals and fluid indusions that record a maximum tempemiure of about 300°C, although most deposits form in a temperature range of about 160° to 270°C. The maxi- iusa temperature at a given depi under hydrostatic pres are is limited by the vapor pressure of boiling water. Az there is abundant evidence that boiling is common within cpithennal ore zoncs, this temperature interval corresponds toa depth range beloar che palecwater table of about 50 t0 7700 m, respectively. Few deposits with epithermal character- istics have Formed below 1,000 m depth (Hedenquist et al, 1996; Silitoe, 1999), Lindgren (1985, p. 452) concluded that ore deposition ‘eccurs because focused, rapidly ascending Muids quickly change composition within a kilometer or s0 of the surface. ‘We now know that this change is caused by boiling, the process that most favors precip tation of bisulfide-complexed metals such as gold. Boiling and the concomitant rapid coo ing also result in many related features, such as ganguc~ mineral deposition of quartz with a colloform textire, adi larfa and bladed calcite, and the formation of steam-heated “waters that create advanced argillic and argillic (Table 2) alteration blankets and halos. In addition, sharp depressur- ization follows hydraulic fraceuring, and this alo focuses the flow of vigorously boiling fluid. For these reasons there is an epithermal environment of ore deposition, Enit-menber syes of tydrothermel system Two contrasting sples of hydrothermal systems exist within the epithermal environment, and both are well known from the study of active examples (eg, Henley and Flis, 1983). ‘The ovo epithermal deposit styles of contrasting alteration and ore assemblages form within these distinctly different systems in somewhat contrasting volcanic settings (Fig. |). Avone exueme are geothermal sysiems with a nearsieutral pH and reduced deep fluid that is essentially in equilibriun ith the altered host racks oxsing ta ite relatively slow ascent resulting in 2 rockominated sjstem (Giggenbach, 19922), ‘The liquid sppically is low salinity ess than 1 to 2 we percent NaCl equivalent, and may be gatich, with CO, and HS the dominant gases. Where this liquid discharges at the surface, boiling, neutral_pH springs deposit sa Berwin deposits secant for tan cevstons (rom thes ene ralieation Genetic Framework Epithermal fluids and proceses Diilling nto mamerows geothermal systems around the world has provided abundant information on temperatine= depit relationships (Henley etal, 1984), The principal lupdlow in most systems has a thermal gradient indicating biting conditions, in some cases adjusted forthe garvich rare of the Hud (Fig 4a). High ges contents conuibute to the rapor pressure this puchinga piven isotherm to greater depths. For comple, high concentrations of CO} in solabon Gan cause 4 300°C liquid to star to boll as deep as 1500 an Gepth, instead of 1,000 m for pure water (Henley etal, 1984). Im contrast the resistance to flow in a fracture Spr Sally ronllsin pod jute preaeares 10 percent great than hyronads (Hedenquit and Henley, 1085). Tn sore cases mineral deposition may resultin the flow becoming resticted, causing the pressure to inerease to a8 much a8 nice that ofthe hydrostatic profile (eg, 2¢ Sulphur Bank and McLaughlin, California; Moore eta, 2000). This will xcsult in the bothers being compressed closer to the sur fice. The higher pressure wil also contribute to the kel hood of hyraulferacturing, hydrothermal brecclaion, an posable Bydrethermal enaprion, uch as has occurred in the Seothermal stems of Yellowstone, Wyoming, and Waiotapn and Waimangu, New Zealand (Hedenquist and Henley, 19856). Conversely, high salinity decreases the depth to given boiling temperature, but this effect is limited at she Tow salinities that are characteristic of Aurich epithermral ulds (Hedenquist and Henley, 1985a). Boiling and mixing are the two principal processes that occur in geothermal systems (Giggenbach and Stewart, 1982), together with vapor condensation near the surface In high-flus hydrothermal systems, fluid ascent is suf ently rapid diac che liquid wail incersect its boiling-poine fordepth curve. Becaue a high flsid end metal susie & Fequitement for the formation of a hydrothermal ore deposit (Henley, 1985), icfollows dhat boiling should be ‘common in the upflow soner of an ore deposit Deep fluid ‘ppically mixes with shallow water on the margins cf the s- tem, either cool ground water or its steamheated equivae Tent.and this invariably quenches beiling (Fig. fa)- In geothermal systems and their lowsulfidation ana Togucs, the prineipel control on Muid plT isthe concentre- on of CO, in solution, together with the salinity (Henley tal, 1984). Thus, boiling and loss of CO, to the vapor results in au increase in the pHT (eg. 1). Ia turn, this causes shift from illite to adularta stability (eq, 2). The lose of CO, also leads to the deposition of calcite (eq. 3). This ‘explains the common occurrence of adularia and bladed calcite as gangue minerals in low-sulidation ore veins.