Biology of Eggs

04/09/2013

Biology of Eggs

Objectives
After completing this module, participants will be able to do the following:

1. Describe the parts of an egg and its biological importance.

2. List defense mechanism in eggs.
3. Identify the pathogens of concern in eggs and egg products.
4. List the factors that can inactivate or control the microbial pathogens in the
final egg products.

References
1. USDA/AMS, Egg-Grading Manual, Agricultural Handbook Number 75,
Revised July 2000.
2. Federal Register [Docket No. 97N-0322]: Salmonella Enteritidis in Eggs.
Vol. 63, No. 96, Tuesday, May 19, 1998.
3. Federal Register [Docket No. 04-034N]: Salmonella Enteritidis in Shell
Eggs and Salmonella ssp. in Liquid Eggs Products Risk Assessments
Technical Meetings. Vol. 69, No. 192, Tuesday, October 5, 2004.
4. USDA/FSIS, 2005 Regulations and Policies, Federal Register
Publications & Documents: Related Documents for Docket 04-034N
Draft Risk Assessments of Salmonella Enteritidis in Shell Eggs and
Salmonella spp. in Egg Products
5. Egg Science and Technology, Fourth Edition, W.J. Stadelman and O.J.
Cotterill, editors. Haworth Food & Agricultural Products Press, 1995.
6. Virtual Chicken DVD to request the DVD, the URL for Virtual Chicken is:
http://www.virtualchicken.org/

Egg Composition
The chicken egg is a complex biological structure. It is one of the most nutritious
and versatile of human foods. It consists of approximately 10% shell, 58% white,
and 32% yolk. Neither the color of the shell nor that of the yolk affects the eggs
nutritive value. An average egg weighs approximately 57 grams (2 ounces) and
the nutritive content of a large egg (~50 g of edible egg) includes:

6.3 g of protein
0.6 g of carbohydrates
5.0 g of fat (including 0.21 g of cholesterol)

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Egg protein is of high quality and easily digestible. Almost all of the fat in the egg
is found in the yolk and is easily digested.

Anatomy of an Egg
The egg is composed of many parts, namely:

Yolk
Albumen or egg white
Shell membranes
Shell

The following figure provides a better understanding of its physical structure.

The Exploratorium, www.exploratorium.edu

The Shell

The shell is the egg's outer covering, accounting for about 9 to 12% of its total
weight depending on egg size. The shell is the egg's first line of defense against

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bacterial contamination. This bumpy and grainy outer covering has approximately
17,000 tiny pores and is made almost entirely of calcium carbonate. It is semi-
permeable, which means that air and moisture can pass through its pores.

However, the shell also has a thin outermost protective coating called a cuticle.
By blocking the pores, the cuticle helps to preserve freshness and prevent
microbial contamination of the contents.

The Shell Membranes

Lying between the eggshell and albumen, these two transparent protein
membranes provide efficient defense against bacterial invasion. These tough
membranes are made partly of keratin, a protein also found in human hair.

Air Cell

An air space forms when the contents of the egg cool and contract after the egg
is laid. The air cell usually rests between the outer and inner membranes at the
eggs larger end, and it accounts for the crater you often see at the end of a hard-
cooked egg. The air cell grows larger as an egg ages.

Albumen

The egg white is known as the albumen, which comes from albus, the Latin word
for white. Albumen accounts for most of an egg's liquid weight, about 67%. It
contains more than half the egg's total protein, niacin, riboflavin, chlorine,
magnesium, potassium, sodium and sulfur. Four alternating layers of thick and
thin albumen contain approximately 40 different proteins, the main components
of the egg white in addition to water. The pH of the albumen as the egg ages
increases from a neutral pH, which support bacterial growth, to a pH of ~10 that
cannot support bacterial growth.

However, there are very functional proteins in the albumen that are important to
food quality and food safety. In the food safety aspect, the albumen provides
both a chemical and physical defense against microbial infection of the yolk.
Very little can grow in the albumen; the albumen has both bacteriostatic and
bacteriocidal proteins. There are proteins with bacteriostatic (prevents bacterial
growth) properties, such as ovotransferrin, avidin, and others. In addition,
lysozyme has proven to have bacteriocidal (destroy bacterial cells) properties.
All of these things combined make the albumen a great antimicrobial defense
mechanism.

When referring to functionality, ovalbumin (foam formation) and ovamucin (foam

stability ability to retain shape and hold air during heating) are the two most
important proteins.

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Chalazae

Opaque ropes of egg white, the chalazae hold the yolk in the center of the egg.
Like little anchors, they attach the yolks casing to the membrane lining the
eggshell. The more prominent they are, the fresher the egg.

Vitelline Membrane

This clear casing encloses the yolk. Its strength protects the yolk from breaking.
The vitelline membrane tends to become more fragile as the egg ages.

Yolk

Yolk color ranges from just a hint of yellow to a magnificent deep orange,
according to the feed and breed of the hen. The yolk has important nutritional
and functional qualities. From the nutritional perspective, the yolk contains less
water and more fat, a little less than half of the protein than the whites, and most
of the vitamins and minerals of the egg. These include iron, vitamin A, vitamin D,
phosphorus, calcium, thiamine, and riboflavin. The most important functionality
of phospholipids (lecithin) in the yolk is the emulsion formation. An emulsion is a
stable mixture of two immiscible liquids, like oil and water. An emulsion occurs
when one liquid is dispersed in another.

Since the yolk is the major source of nutrients in the egg, it can serve as an ideal
culture media for microorganism. Once microbes enter the yolk, they grow and
cause spoilage, fermentation, or they may not produce any quality problems (like
Salmonella), but if contaminated eggs are consumed they will cause illness.

Steps in Egg Formation

A hen requires roughly 24 to 26 hours producing an egg. The hens reproductive
system is divided into two main parts:

Ovary is the organ where the egg develops.

Oviduct is a long, tube-like organ along the hens backbone and
attached loosely between the ovary and the tail. There are areas along
the way that performs certain functions in completing the formation of the
egg (white; shell membrane and shell are secreted).

The fully formed egg moves into the vagina, enters the cloaca and the vent
where the egg is laid. The time from ovulation to laying is usually 26 hours.
Thereafter, in about half hour after the hen has laid an egg, she releases another
yolk (ovulation), where it will travel the length of the oviduct as described above.

The hen, unlike most animals, has only one functional ovary, the left one,

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situated in the body cavity near the backbone. At the time of hatching, the
female chick has up to 4,000 tiny ova (reproductive cells), from some of which
full-sized yolks may develop when the hen matures.

Each yolk (ovum) is enclosed in a thin-walled sac or follicle, attached to the ovary
(see figure below). The follicle is richly supplies with blood vessels, which carry
nourishment to the developing yolk. The vitelline membrane then forms around
the yolk prior to ovulation.

The mature yolk is released when the sac ruptures and is received by the funnel
of the left oviduct. The left oviduct is a coiled or folded tube about 80 cm in
length.

Note: The rupture of a blood vessel on the yolk surface causes blood spots
during formation of the egg or by a similar accident in the wall of the oviduct.
Either meat spots have been demonstrated to be blood spots, which have
changed in color due to chemical action, or tissue sloughed off from the
reproductive organs of the hen, although most meat spots are from
sources other than blood spots. Less than 1% of all eggs produced have blood
spots.

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Reproductive Organ of the Hen

The oviduct is divided into five distinct sections, each with a specific function:

Infundibulum (funnel) a membrane that capture the yolk when it is

released. This is where fertilization, if it occurred, would take place
(commercially produced eggs are not fertilized).
Magnum after about 15 minutes, the yolk passes along to the magnum.
The albumen (white) proteins are secreted and layered around the yolk (in
approximately 3 hours). As the albumen is formed, the yolk rotates,
twisting the albumenous fibers to form the chalazae.
Isthmus is where the inner and outer shell membranes are added (in 1
1.25 hrs), as are some water and mineral salts.
Uterus (shell gland) initially some water is added, making the outer white
thinner. Then the shell material (mainly calcium carbonate) is added.
Depending on the hen breed, pigments may also be added to make the
shell brown. The egg stays in the uterus the longest (~21 hours) because
of the layering that occurs with the deposition of the shell.

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Vagina/cloacae after a few minutes pause in the vagina, the uterus

inverts through the vagina, the cloaca (the junction of the digestive, urinary
and reproductive systems) and the vent to release the egg outside the
hen's body. Laying of the egg is known as oviposition.

Worth mentioning is the fact that during the formation of the egg shell in the
oviduct, pores are formed through the spongy layer connecting some space
between the knob-like mammilla with the surface. When the egg is laid the pores
are filled by the matrix material and covered by the cuticle (the chemical
composition is similar to the shell membrane) sealing the pores when it dries.

As mentioned previously, the purpose of the cuticle is to keep dust and bacteria
out. Bacteria penetrate the shell through the pores (trans-shell contamination).

Inedible Eggs

A freshly laid egg is usually free of bacteria on the inside and is well protected
from bacteria by the shell, shell membranes, and several chemical substances in
the egg white. However, if the eggs are subjected to warm temperatures or
moisture, or both, bacteria are able to penetrate the egg and overcome the eggs
defense.

When bacteria grow inside the egg, they may form byproducts or cause the
contents of the egg to decompose, or both, resulting in the characteristic colors,
appearance, or odors that make the egg unfit for human consumption, also called
inedible. The most common microbial contaminants of the inedible or rotten eggs
are the genera Alcaligenes, Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, Serratia, Cloacae,
Hafnia, Citrobacter, Proteus, and Aeromonas. It is important to emphasize that
these organism are associated with shell eggs and egg products. For more
detail on inedible eggs, refer to the module on Egg Products Plant Operations.

Pathogen of Concern

Although an eggs biological structure provides good defense against bacterial

contamination, it is still possible for bacteria to pass through the shell into the
eggs content (trans-shell contamination). The primary food safety concern
associated with eggs and egg products is the consumption of those foods when
contaminated with the Salmonella species (spp.) bacteria.

Many serotypes of Salmonella, as well as other bacteria, have been isolated from
laying flocks. Salmonella can be found in the intestinal tracts of animals,
including chickens. Contact with feces, nesting material, dust, feedstuffs,
shipping and storage containers, human beings, and so on contribute to the
likelihood of shell contamination. The likelihood of spoilage increases with the
duration of contact with contaminated material. This is especially true during

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storage and while in the production environment.

In addition to contamination caused externally, other routes of infection where

bacteria can be inside an uncracked whole egg are:

Transovarian the yolk is infected while attached to the ovary. If the hen
is contaminated with Salmonella, it will then deposit the bacteria in the
yolk during development. Since the yolk is a nutrient rich environment for
the pathogen, it is able to survive and grow.
Oviductal the vitelline membrane and/or albumen are contaminated as
they pass along the oviduct. Even though there are some defense
mechanism that are found in the albumen of the egg, these defense
mechanisms are not 100% bacteriocidal or bacteriostatic and Salmonella
can still grow.

Salmonella enteritidis (SE) is one of the few pathogenic Salmonella serotypes

known to colonize the reproductive tissues of hens and, consequently, the eggs
they lay. For an egg to be contaminated with SE, three conditions must exist: SE
must be present on the farm, SE must infect one or more hens, and SE-infected
hens must be susceptible to producing SE-contaminated eggs. Multiplication and
growth of this pathogen inside the egg depends primarily on time and the
temperature of the egg during storage. Once inside the egg, SE survives
cleaning and disinfecting of the shell surface and can multiply within the egg
depending on how the egg is handled during processing.

The USDA periodically samples pasteurized egg products and has occasionally
found evidence of Salmonella contamination in these samples, which suggests
that the processing practices have not been completely effective at eliminating
Salmonella spp. from all egg products.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has found that human
salmonellosis is one of the most commonly reported bacterial infections of any
kind in the United States and is the second most prevalent food-borne disease.

Salmonella usually causes an intestinal infection accompanied by diarrhea, fever,

abdominal cramps, vomiting, headache, and nausea, starting 6 to 72 hours after
ingesting contaminated food. These symptoms can last up to a week.

Factors that influence the number and severity of salmonellosis cases are the
pathogenicity and virulence of the organism, the dose level, and the susceptibility
of the people exposed. Generally, the higher the dose of the organism in the
food, the greater the chance the person ingesting it will become ill.
Infants, young children, older adults, pregnant women, and people with
weakened immune systems are particularly vulnerable to SE infections. In severe
cases, the infection can spread to the bloodstream and then to other areas of the
body, leading to a severe and occasionally fatal illness unless treated promptly

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with antibiotics. Furthermore, about 2% of affected persons may later develop

joint pains and arthritis.

Pathogen Controls in Eggs

An important component of food safety is preventing or eliminating the presence

of pathogenic organisms in the final product. Since contamination from
pathogens can come from many sources, is the plants responsibility to minimize
pathogen contamination and growth in the final egg products.

In addition to the shell eggs natural antimicrobial properties, some factors can
control the microbial pathogens that are most likely to cause food safety
concerns during egg processing, egg products handling, and packaging.

Prevent contamination production and processing conditions of shell

eggs to prevent initial loads of pathogens.
Temperature control temperature must be strictly controlled during
processing, storage, and heat treatment. Proper pasteurization and heat
treatments are great microbial destruction mechanisms; they do not
sterilize product, but they can reduce the number of microorganism
significantly to ensure a safer product.
Good sanitation is extremely important during egg processing and
packaging.
Preventing cross contamination this is accomplished through good
employee hygiene, strict sanitation, and other good manufacturing
practices,

External contamination is more prevalent and it is important to keep the

microorganisms out of the egg during processing. It is important to know that SE
growth is inhibited at temperatures below 40F, but not many bacteria grow at
temperatures below 45F. The FDA has requirements for shell eggs at 45F
while USDA has requirements of refrigerated egg products at 40F (9 CFR
590.530). Notably, SE is destroyed during pasteurization. We will discuss more
about egg products food safety requirements throughout this training.

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Egg Anatomy Exercise

Label the parts of the egg. Attempt to do so without looking back at the diagram
on page 2.

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