Prediction of Freezing and Thawing Times of Foods Using a
Numerical Method Based on Enthalpy Formulation
JATAL D. MANNAPPERUMA
ABSTRACT
Au explicit numerical method, involving enthalpy formulation, to pre-
dict temperature distribution in foods during freezing and thawing was
developed. The accuracy of the proposed method was validated using
published experimental data obtained for freezing and thawing of Ty-
lose. The enthalpy formulation avoids the problems of strong discon-
tinuity experiencedwhen the apparent specific heat formulation is used
in predicting temperatures for situations involving phase change. The
proposed method predicts temperatures in good agreement with ex-
perimental data. The computer code can be easily programmed on a
desk-top computer for use in teaching and researchon predicting freezing
and thawing rates in foods.
INTRODUCTION
PREDICTIONof freezingand thawing time of foods is nec-
essarywhendesigningandevaluatingfreezingequipment.The
methodsavailablefor suchpredictionsrangefrom simplesemi-
theoreticalequationsto sophisticated
computerprogramsbased
on finite differenceandfinite elementtechniques.Thesemath-
ematicalprocedureshave their inherentadvantagesand dis-
advantages.Cleland(1985) presentedan extensivesummary
of a large numberof thesemethodsand provided a critical
evaluationof a selectedfew.
Dussinberre(1949, 1962)proposedthe useof enthalpyfor-
mulationfor phasechangeproblems.Numericalmethodsbased
on this formulationwere reportedby Rose (1960), Albasiny
(1956), Crowley (1978), and Voller and Cross(1981, 1985).
Thesenumericalmethodsdealt with the phasechangeat a
singletemperatureand phasechangeover a finite temperature
range.The objectiveof this studywas to proposea new com-
puter aided predictionmethodwhich is simple yet quite ac-
curate. The proposedmethodusesthe approachof enthalpy
formulation to solve the heat conductionproblem involving
gradualphasechangeunderconvectiveand fixed temperature
boundaryconditionsfor simplegeometricalshapes.
This study extendsthe applicationof enthalpyformulation
to freezing and thawing of foods where phasechangetakes
placeover an extendedtemperaturerange.
THEORY
FREEZING AND THAWING processinside a food material
can be treatedas heatconductionwith phasechange.The ac-
tual phasechangetakesplaceover a wide rangeof tempera-
tures and the food propertieschangeconsiderablyover this
temperaturerange.This gradualphasechangecan be incor-
poratedin the heat conductionprocessin many ways. Two
possiblemethodsare apparentspecific heat formulationand
enthalpyformulation.
Apparent specific heat formulation
The apparentspecificheatformulationincorporates the phase
changeenthalpywithin a suitably definedapparentspecific
heatcapacity.This procedureallowsthe useof the samegov-
erningequationfor both phasesby implicitly incorporatingthe
moving boundarycondition in the governingequation.The
governingequationbasedon this formulationis a quasilinear
626-JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE-Volume 53, No. 2, 1988
and R. PAUL SINGH
parabolicequationwritten in vector notationas:
C(T) ; = V . {k(T) VT)
However,thermalpropertiesbecometemperature dependent
whenallowedto spanthe phasechange.Thesedependences are
nonlinearand exhibit discontinuitiesat the initial freezingpoint
which preventan analyticalsolutionof the governingequation.
The numericalsolutionusingexplicitfinite differencescheme
is straightforwardbut its useis limited by the stability criteria
which restrict the time incrementand the oscillationscaused
by the sharp peak of apparentspecific heat function at the
initial phasechangetemperature.Fully implicit and Crank-
Nicholsontype finite differenceschemesresultin setsof non-
linear equationswhich requiretime consumingiterativemeth-
ods of solution.
Lees(1966)proposeda linear threetime level finite differ-
ence schemeof the following form to overcomethesediffi-
culties.
_ kp,-g
2
[Tii-Ti;-ll
Ax
wherepi = 5 [q +l + Fi + p,-l]; i = nodalpoint; j = time
1 (2)
increment.
This schemeresultsin a linear systemof equationsfor the
unknowntemperaturesat the j + lth time level which can be
solved using a standard elimination procedure.
Bonacinaand Comini (1971)usedthe Lees(1966)scheme
to simulatethe freezingprocessof a slab of tylose for com-
parisonwith an experiment.They useda smoothened version
of the apparentspecificheatcurve to preventpeakjumping.
The applicationof Lees(1966) schemeunder convective
boundaryconditionswas reportedby ClelandandEarle(1977).
They derivedthe equationfor the boundarynodeby extending
the slab by half an elementand writing the heat balancefor
the extendedboundaryelement.They observedoscillationsin
usingthe schemewhen the temperaturedifferenceswere large
and remediedthis situationby modifying the temperatureup-
datingschemefrom
1+Ir-l
q+lyto$ T)++Tj+l-p
(3)
[
ClelandandEarle(1977)claimedsatisfactoryagreement be-
tweenexperimentsandthe predictedresultsobtainedby using
the Leesschemewith abovemodifications.
Enthalpy formulation
The formulationof the problemusing enthalpyas the pri-
mary dependent variableandtemperatureas the secondaryde-
pendentvariable also allows one governingequationto be
applicablefor both phases.A one to one relationshouldexist
betweenenthalpyand temperatureto make this formulation
meaningful.This conceptwas proposedby Dussinberre(1949,
1962)in a qualitativemanner.
 Rose (1960) provided a formal proof that certain finite dif-
ferenceschemesof this formulation convergeto the solution
of the conventionalformulation and derivedthe conditionsre-
quired for such convergence.Solomon (1966) defined both
temperatureand thermal conductivity as functions of enthalpy
and presenteda proof that this formulation yields the same
solution as Neumannsfor that particular case.Atthey (1974)
extendedthe enthalpy formulation to include a temperature
dependentheatsource/sinkterm and phasechangeover a range
of temperature.
Albasiny (1956) used the integralsof thermal conductivity
and volumetric specific heat with respect to temperatureto
replacetemperaturein the governingequationthus reducingit
to a much simpler form similar to the parabolicequation.He
usedan explicit finite differenceschemefor the solutionof the
problem. Crowley (1978) used the enthalpyformulation suc-
cessfully to solve the problem of inward solidification of an
infinite rod of squarecross section through an explicit finite
differencescheme.The solutionwas comparedfavorablywith
analytical solutionsobtainedby perturbationmethodsfor ex-
treme cases.
Voller and Cross(1981) presentedan implicit algorithmfor
the enthalpyformulationof the one and two dimensionalprob-
lems and extendedit to include the phasechangeover a range
of temperatures. In a morerecentpaper,Voller andCross(1985)
introducedthe controlvolumeenthalpyformulationfor improve-
ment in casesof complicatedboundaryconditionsand flow pat-
terns. This referencecontainsapplicationsof this method for
multidimensionalrectangularsystemsand cylindricalsystems.
Development of the method
The mathematicalstatementof the enthalpyformulation of
the phase changeprocessconsistsof a governing equation,
initial andboundaryconditionsand propertiesof the food. The
governing equationis obtainedby performing a heat balance
over a small elementof the food and its form dependsonly on
the coordinatesystem.The boundaryconditionsat the exposed
surfacescommonly encounteredin freezing and thawing of
foods are fixed temperatureand convectivetypes. In one di-
mensionalcaseswith symmetry, zero heat flux at the center
analyticalequationsare not usually availablefor expressingT
and k explicitly in termsof H. Therefore,interpolationstables
were used in this work.
Finite difference scheme
This problem can be formulated in finite difference form
either by replacing the derivativesin the above euqationsby
equivalentfinite differenceforms or by writing heat balance
equationsfor the nodesof a finite elementgrid of the object.
The latter method gives a more accuraterepresentation,par-
ticularly in cylindrical and spherical geometriesand of the
surfacenodes under convectiveboundary conditions. There-
fore, it is usedin this work.
The finite differenceequationsare derived in a generalized
mannerto accommodaterectangular,cylindrical and spherical
coordinatesystems.A representativeregionof the body which
is a unit cross section, unit length and the whole spherein
three respectivecoordinatesystemsis selected.
The spacebetweenthe surfaceand the centerof this region
is divided into n-l full interior elementsand two part elements
(at the surfaceand at the center)by useof n + 1 nodesasshown
in Fig. 1.
The heat balancefor an elementof unit cross section area
at the interior node i between time levels j to j+ 1 can be
written as;
This equationcanbe rearrangedandvolume and areafactors
(which exclude terms common to both area and volume) in-
troducedin place of areasand volumes as;
fl+l = HI + - At
vi[Ar12 a,,!.
2 &+A
2 [2+1 - 21
- ai-; k,-:
Similar treatmentof part elementat node 0 yields the fol-
2 2
[V-ILlI
1 (8)

of symmetryis usedas an additionalboundarycondition. The lowing differenceequation.

common initial condition is a known temperaturedistribution
throughoutthe food. The completeproblem statementcan be I+,+ = I+, + --& [a: k: IT, - pO]] (9)
written as; 0 2 2

Governingequation When the surfaceboundaryc&&ion specifiesthe surface

temperature,heat balanceof the part elementat node n is re-

Boundaryconditions;
aH
-=--
at
la
c 1
rm ar
aT
rm kz (4
quired. With convectivetype boundaryconditionthis heatbal-
anceis written and rearrangedto yield the following equation.
Hi+
II = Hjxl + -
At
%h Ar [Pa - Tjj]
vnD12
at the surfacek z = h (T. - T,) convective

T = Ts fixed temperature
- an-;&-A2 PI - G-,1 1 (10)
-I

at the centerk z = 0 ::::::: m

-
::::y
::::::: * :.:.:.:
:.:.:.: i .:.:.:.
::::::: : !I$$
Initial condition T = T, ::::::: ;
.:.:.:. : ; .:.:.::
:.:.:.: : : :.:.:.:
m = 0, 1, and 2 for rectangular,cylindrical and spherical .......
..... I
:j:;:;: j
i;g;
i :;:i:;:
coordinatesystemsrespectively. ~
0 L!;::::::i
:::::::i @ii Q
The temperaturedependenceof enthalpyand thermal con- a
G ::::.: .
.:.,A: I.:.>:.
; :.:.:.:
;.:.:.:. 3
ductivity areexpressedasenthalpydependences of temperature u :.:.::::

1I
:::::::i I:.:.:.: n
.:.:.:.: :.:.:.:.
and thermal conductivity in order to use enthalpy as the pri- :.:.:.: :
.:.:.:. 1
$:.:.:.:
i:k::i:
mary dependentvariable. :.:.:.::
.:.:.:.;
y.:.:;
1;gi:
.:.:.:.; i :::::::
T = T(H) (5) . .. . .. . .
::::::: j
* .. . .. ..
::.:.:.:
: .>:.:.
k = k(H)
:.:.:.::
- I t::::::
(6) 0 n
Thesetwo functional relationscould be in the form of an- i l lf n-4
alytical expressionsor interpolationtables.However, accurate Fig. 1 -Nodal representation of the food.

Volume 53, No. 2, 1988-JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE-627

 PREDICTING FREEZINGITHAWING TIMES OF FOOD. .
Three equations,(8), (9), and (10) constitutethe enthalpy written as;
updating schemewhich forms the basis of the enthalpy for-
mulation. Theseequationsexpressthe nodal enthalpiesat j + 1 (13)
time level in terms of known parametersat the j th time level.
Once the nodal enthalpiesare updatedusing theseequations, This equationcan be rewritten as:
temperatureand thermal conductivity at the nodesare calcu-
lated using functional relations5 and 6. Thermal conductivity
at half nodesis calculatedby linear interpolationof values at
the two nodeson either side. where
This completesthe updatingprocedurewhich could then be
repeated.The volume and areafactors appearingin the above aI = --1 vi geometryfactor
equationsdiffer in three coordinatesystems.Table 1 contains 2 ai
appropriateexpressionsfor theseparameters.

Stability criteria %=ki apparentthermal diffusivity.

The stability criteria for enthalpyformulation are the same ci

as for the apparentspecific heat formulation. However, these
criteria have to be satisfiedat every node at every time incre-
ment to ensureoverall stability due to temperaturedependence
of thermal properties. The presenceof two area factors and
two thermal conductivitieson the right hand side of difference
equation 8, complicate the expressionof stability criteria of
interior nodes.For studyingthis stability criteria only, the two
values of k and a on the right hand side of equation 8 are
averagedto obtain the following form.
Hj,+ = Hi + -
Inequality 14 expressesthe upperlimit of stability parameter
on the right hand side as the ratio of two factors, one of which
dependsonly on geometry,while the other is a propertyof the
food. Stability criteria for the centernode and the surfacenode
are derivedin the samemanner.However, thesedo not require
averagingof the areafactors and thermal conductivities.Fol-
lowing expressionsfor the geometry factor and the apparent
thermal diffusivity when used in equation14 furnish the sta-
bility criteria for thesetwo nodes.
k!

where
[Ti,-, - Tj] - [Tj - Tj+J
1 (11) centernode a0 = 3
ai
2
010= -2
co

VII k- h Ar
surfacenode u, = 01, = - where B = -
ai = i [ai-:2 + a,+11
and kr = i [kimi + k-i] B a, + a,,-! C* k 1
2 2 -1
Again, for the derivation of stability criteria only, the en- Table 2 is a summaryof the expressionsfor the geometry
thalpy terms in the above equationare expressedin terms of factors in three coordinatesystems.
apparentspecific heat and then rearrangedas Eq. (12): It can be easily shown that the geometry factor assumes
minimum value at eitherthe surfacenodeor at the centernode.
$ Tj+ = s Tj+1 + (1 - 2s) Tj + s Tji-, (12) The apparentthermal diffusivity has its maximumvalue at the
1 lowest or the highest temperaturewhich occurs again at the
surfacenode or at the centernode for both freezing and thaw-
where ing processes.Therefore,it is generallyadequateto satisfy the
ai ki At stability criteria at the surfaceand centernodesto ensuresta-
s= bility at all nodes.
Vi C{ [Ar]
The stability is maintainedif the coefficient of the middle Computer program
term on the right hand side is always positive. Thesestability The procedureoutlined above was implementedusing a
criteria are based on the thermodynamicargument that the computerprogramwritten in BASIC languageon IBM PC AT
currenttemperatureof a body cannothavea negativeinfluence and on MacintoshPlus. This programwas designedto handle
on its temperaturein the future. Although sophisticatedanaly- one dimensionalformulations of both freezing and thawing
sis could leadto lessstringentstabilitycriteria(Chapman,1974), processesin all three coordinatesystems.
the criteria above,which alwaysensurea stableprocedure,are The programrequiresvolumetric enthalpyand thermalcon-
used in this study. The stability criteria for Eq. (12) can be ductivity of the food over applicabletemperaturerange as an
input. A tableof temperatureand thermalconductivity at equal
Table 1 -Volume and area factors in the three coordinate systems
incrementsof enthalpywas used for this purpose.The initial
Rectangular Cylindrical Spherical
freezing-pointwas includedin this table as the origin to ensure
accuracynear the discontinuity. This procedureallowed inter-
1 1 1
0 polation for temperatureand thermal conductivity at a given
2 i zi
enthalpy without sequentialscanningof the table by use of
iZ+ 1 standardfeaturesof BASIC language.
Vi
12 The other inputs required to simulate a given processare:
1 (1) Type of process:freezing or thawing; (2) Geometry;rec-
1
$ - $, -j (n* - i + -$) tangular, cylindrical, or spherical; (3) Major dimension; (4)
Boundary condition: medium temperatureand heat transfer
al 1 1 coefficient; (5) Initial temperature;(6) Final temperatureat the
2 ;i center; and (7) Time interval for print output.
1 The largest possible time increment that satisfies the sta-
(i -c -)z
2 tiblity criterion is calculatedat regular intervals. This proce-
dure helps to minimize the computationtime while ensuring
a. 1 nz the stability.

628-JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE-Volume 53, No. 2, 1988

 Table 2-Geometry factor q in three coordinate systems
Rectangular Cylindrical Spherical
node 0 1 1 1
2 i i

node i 1 1
1 2

node n 211 1+B) 2n(l+B) 1 - 1 [ 1

n-i 1

The advancedgraphiccapabilitiesof the Macintoshcom- thawing times, predictedby the computerprogramand the
puterwereutilized within the programto producegraphicim- experimentalresults,wasdoneby definingthepercentage error
agesof temperaturehistoryin a solid food when subjectedto of predictionas;
desiredfreezingenvironment.Figure2 is a plot of temperature Predictedtime - Experimentaltime x 1oo %
distributionin a sphere,of diameter1.5 cm, madeof Tylose,
when subjectedto - 40Cconvectiveboundaryconditionwith Experimentaltime
a surfaceheat transfercoefficientof 300 W/m*C. The tem- Table 3 is a summaryof statisticsof this parameterfor all
peratureprofiles are plottedat 5 set intervals.The prediction the simulatedexperiments.The overallheatbalanceevaluated
piogramwas run from an initial temperatureof 15Cuntil the by comparingthe total heat exchangeat the surfacewith the
temperatureat the centerreacheda value below -20C. The net enthalpydifferenceduringthe processaveraged0.23%for
programis usefulfor researchapplicationsaswell as in teach- the 207 simulations.
ing studentsimportantconceptsrelatedto freezing,The corn- The averagecomputationtime when the compiledprogram
puter programsmay be obtainedfrom the secondauthorby without intermediateoutputswas run on an IBMPC-AT was
sendingan appropriatefloppy disk (IBM or Macintosh,ap- 27 set for freezingtrials and 18 set for thawingtrials.
proximatesize of programis 8 k). Furtherdetails of the developmentof the enthalpyformu-
lation, computerprogramandthe comparisons of experimental
and predictedresultscan be found in Mannapperuma (1987).
RESULTS

CLELAND (1977) reportedresultsof 103 freezing experi-

mentsconductedunder carefully controlledconditionsusing
slabs, infinite cylindersand spheresof tylose. A parallel set
of 104 thawingexperiments were reportedby Cleland(1985).
In theseexperimentsthe convectivesurfaceheattransfercon-
ditions were imposed artificially by placing varying numbers
of rubberinsulationsheetsbetweenthe surfaceof tylose and
the surroundingmedium held at constanttemperature.This
arrangement simulatestheconvective boundaryconditionwithout
actuallyplacingthe objectin an air duct, thus eliminatingthe
complicationsdue to masstransferand radiationheattransfer
at the boundary.
The computerprogrampresentedin this paperwas tested
by simulatingall the experimentsreportedby Cleland(1977, -20
1985).The propertiesof tylose requiredby the programwere
I
alsoobtainedfrom the samesources.Figure3 is a comparison 0.0 1 .o 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
betweenthe predictedand experimentallyobservedtime tem-
peratureprofilesfor onethawingtrial reportedby Cleland(1985). TIME HR
A more quantitativecomparisonbetweenthe freezingand Fig. 3-Experimental temperature history in thawing of a slab
of Tylose (Run no. T24) reported by Cleland (1985) compared
with the predictions of the explicit enthalpy method.
6 File Edit
$-TEMP~~ATU~EH~STOAYDURINGFREEZING~
: SHAPE --- SPHERE
trlt-lll.7sEC
Table 3-Comparison of predicted freezing and thawing times with ex-
perimental values
1sc
Percentage error of prediction
smROuNoMG Number Std. Max Min
Al-lsENT AT of trials Avg. DSV.
-4~c
Freezing Slab 43 0.1 5.7 0.3 -13.9
Cylinder 30 -4.6 4.4 1.6 - 14.0
-20 Sphere 30 -2.3 3.7 6.0 -10.0
All 103 -1.9 (E, (ii, - 14.0
(-1.4) (- 14.6)
Thawing Slab 35 -3.9 3.7 4.5 -9.3
DIAIIETER 1.5 cm Cylinder 34 -4.3 2.4 0.9 -6.3
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT 300 (W/Sam C) Sphere 35 -2.4 5.7 7.3 -11.5
All 104 -3.5 ::A, (iti, -11.5
(-1.3) (-9.5)
fig. 2-Temperature history during freezing of a 1.5 cm diam- a Figures within parenthesis refer to the corresponding values reported by C&land
I eter sphere of Tylose as viewed on a Macintosh@ screen. (1985) using the predictions by Leesscheme.

Volume 53, No. 2, 1988-JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE-629

PREDICTING FREEZING/THAWING TIMES OF FOOD. . .
J Fig. 4-the
0 0
Temperature
C TemperatureC
DISCUSSION
THE COMPARISONSshown in Fig. 3 and Table 3 indicate
that the explicit enthalpyschemepresentedin this paperpre-
dicted the experimental time-temperatureprofiles and the
freezing and thawing times reasonablywell. The accuracyof
the prediction comparedfavorably with the accuracyof other
methodsused in the past.
This method did not require adjustmentsto the grid, to the
updating schemeor smootheningof propertiescontrary to the
apparentspecific heat method. This is a result of the intrinsic
differencesbetweenthe temperaturedependenceof apparent
specific heat and enthalpyof foods. As shown in Fig. 4, the
apparentspecific heat function has a strong discontinuity at
the initial freezing point where both the function and its gra-
dient undergoabruptchanges.The correspondingdiscontinuity
of the enthalpyfunction is a much weakerone where the func-
tion continues while its gradient alone changes abruptly.
Therefore,the enthalpyformulationminimizesphenomenasuch
as peak jumpingand stable oscillationswhich are common
with the apparentspecific heat formulation.
The use of heat balancesto obtain the differenceequations
at all the nodes,with proper allowancesfor curvatures,forces
this formulation to maintain an almost exact heat balance
throughoutthe simulation process.
The inherentdisadvantages of the explicit enthalpymethodare
the small time incrementdueto the explicitnessandthe excessive
interpolationloaddueto the useof two dependent variables.Both
thesefactorscontributetowardsincreasingthe computationtime.
Regularadjustmentof the time incrementand the efficient inter-
polationprocedureusedin the programmore than compensated
for the disadvantages of the method.This is evidentby the rel-
atively small computationtimes quotedearlier.
In summary, the explicit enthalpyformulation methodwas
found to be a simple approachto model freezing and thawing
of foods. With properselectionof time increments,the method
provideda fast computationalprocedurefor predictingfreezing
times as well as temperaturedistribution in a food during the
freezing process.
NOMENCLATURE
Symbols
areafactor (dimensionless)
i -area
- of heat transferfor elements(mZ)
B - Biot numberfor the surfacenode (dimensionless)
- volumetric specific heat (J/mK)
; - surfaceheat transfercoefficient (W/m* K)
- volumetric specific enthalpy(J/m)
kH - thermal conductivity (W/m K)
m - index decidedby the coordinatesystem
630-JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE-Volume 53, No. 2, 1988
strong discontinuity expe-
rienced in the apparent specific heat
function (a) is not present when the
enthalpy function is plotted (b) as a
function of temperature.
(b)
- numberof spaceelements
- distancein radial direction (m)
- a stability parameter(dimensionless)
- time (set)
-temperature (K)
- volume factor (dimensionless)
- volume of elements(m)
- apparentthermal diffusivity (m/s)
- geometryfactor (dimensionless)
Subscript/Superscript
a - ambient
- ilh node
J - jlh time level
n - nnode
surface
s, 1 centernode
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