LuanVan VuThiHien 201

I HC QUC GIA H NI
TRNG I HC KHOA HC T NHIN

V TH HIN
SU PHNG PHP GII CC

BI TON PH THNG
LUN VN THC S KHOA HC
H Ni - 2015
I HC QUC GIA H NI
TRNG I HC KHOA HC T NHIN

V TH HIN
SU PHNG PHP GII CC

BI TON PH THNG
Chuyn ngnh: Phng php ton s cp
M s : 60460113
LUN VN THC S KHOA HC
Ngi hng dn khoa hc: GS.TS. ng Huy Run
H Ni - 2015
Mc lc
M u 1
1 Phng php quy np 2

1.1 Nguyn l quy np . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Phng php chng minh bng quy np . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 C s quy np . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Quy np . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.3 Vn dng phng php quy np gii mt s bi ton . 4
2 Phng php chng minh phn chng 17

2.1 C s l thuyt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Ni dung ca phng php phn chng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Trnh by li gii ca phng php phn chng . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Mt s v d minh ha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 Phng php suy lun trc tip 28

3.1 Vi nt v phng php suy lun trc tip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2 Cc v d v vn dng phng php suy lun trc tip . . . . . . 29
4 Phng php th 35
4.1 Mt s khi nim v kt qu c bn ca l thuyt th . . . . . . 35
4.2 Phng php th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.2.1 Xy dng th m t cc quan h . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2.2 Da vo cc kt qu ca l thuyt th hoc l lun trc
tip suy ra p n ca bi ton D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.3 Mt s v d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5 Phng php bng 53

5.1 Gii thiu v phng php bng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
i
MC LC
5.2 Mt s v d minh ha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6 Phng php s 67
6.1 Cc bc thc hin phng php s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.1.1 Thit lp s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.1.2 Da vo cu trc ca s m t quan h v iu kin
cho trong bi ton m suy ra p n . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.2 Mt s v d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Kt lun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Ti liu tham kho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
ii
M u
Ton ph thng chng nhng nhiu v s lng, cn phong ph v chng

loi.
Mi chng loi i hi mt phng php gii thch hp. Bi vy c nhiu
phng php gii ton ph thng.
Vi khi lng c hn, lun vn ch xin php trnh by su trong nhng
phng php thng dng nht.
Lun vn gm phn m u v su chng:
Chng I trnh by v phng php quy np,
Chng II trnh by v phng php phn chng,
Chng III trnh by v phng php suy lun trc tip,
Chng IV trnh by v phng php th,
Chng V trnh by v phng php bng,
Chng V I trnh by v phng php s .
Mi phng php u c phn tm tt c s l thuyt v phn vn dng
phng php gii bi tp.
Lun vn c hon thnh di s hng dn tn tnh ca thy gio GS. TS
ng Huy Run. Em xin by t lng knh trng v bit n su sc n Thy.
Em xin trn trng cm n ban lnh o khoa Ton - C - Tin hc, khoa Sau
i hc, Trng i hc Khoa hc t nhin, i hc Quc Gia H Ni, cc
Thy, C gio trang b kin thc, to iu kin cho chng em trong thi gian
hc tp ti y. Ti cng xin gi li cm n n cc ng nghip ti trng
Ph Thng Hng c - H Ni, nhng ngi ng vin gip ti rt nhiu
trong qu trnh hon thnh lun vn ny.
Lun vn kh trnh khi hn ch v s xut. Rt mong c s ch bo ca
Qu thy c v Qu bn c lun vn c hon thin hn.
Ti xin chn thnh cm n!
1
Chng 1
Phng php quy np
Phng php quy np c vai tr v cng quan trng trong ton hc, khoa
hc v cuc sng. i vi nhiu bi ton trong chng trnh ton ph thng l
nhng bi ton logic, tc nhng bi ton khng mu mc phng php quy np
cho ta nhiu cch gii hu hiu.
Suy din l qu trnh t "tnh cht" ca tp th suy ra tnh cht ca c th,
nn lun lun ng, cn qu trnh ngc li, tc qu trnh quy np: i t "tnh
cht" ca mt s cc th suy ra "tnh cht" ca tp th th khng phi lc no
cng ng, m qu trnh ny ch ng khi n tha mn mt s iu kin no
, tc tha mn nguyn l quy np.
1.1 Nguyn l quy np

Nu khng nh S(n) tha mn hai iu kin sau:
a) ng vi n = k0 (s t nhin nh nht m S(n) xc nh).
b) T tnh ng n ca S(n) n n = t (hoc i vi mi gi tr ca n (k0
n t)) (t k0 ), ta cn chng minh tnh ng n ca S(n) i vi n = t + 1, th
khiS(n) ng vi mi n k0 .
1.2 Phng php chng minh bng quy np

Gi s khng nh S(n) xc nh vi mi n t0 . chng minh S(n) ng
n t0 bng quy np ta cn thc hin theo hai bc sau:
2
Chng 1. Phng php quy np
1.2.1 C s quy np
Thc hin bc ny tc l ta th xem s ng n ca S(n) vi n = t0 ngha
l xt S(t0 ) c ng hay khng?
1.2.2 Quy np
Gi s khng nh S(n) ng n n = t (hoc i vi mi n (t0 n t))
(t t0 ). Trn c s gi thit ny ta chng minh tnh ng n ca S(n) i vi
n = t + 1, tc S(t + 1) ng.
Nu c ba bc trn tha mn, th theo nguyn l quy np S(n) ng vi
n t0 .
Ch : Trong qu trnh quy np nu khng thc hin y c ba bc: C
s quy np, gi thit quy np v chng minh quy np, th c th dn n kt
qu sai lm, chng hn:
- Do b bc c s quy np, ta a ra kt lun khng ng: Mi s t nhin
u bng nhau! Bng cch quy np nh sau: Gi s cc s t nhin khng vt
qu k + 1 bng nhau. Khi ta c
k =k+1
Thm vo mi v ca ng thc trn mt n v ta c
k+1=k+1+1=k+2
C nh vy suy ra mi s t nhin khng nh hn k u bng nhau. Kt hp

vi gi thit quy np: Mi s t nhin khng vt qu k u bng nhau, i n
kt lun sai lm: Tt c cc s t nhin u bng nhau!
- Do b qua khu quy np nn nh ton hc Php P.Fermat (1601-1665)
cho rng cc s dng 22 + 1 u l s nguyn t.
n
P.Fermat xt 5 s u tin:
0
Vi n = 0 cho 22 + 1 = 21 + 1 = 3 l s nguyn t.
1
n = 1 cho 22 + 1 = 22 + 1 = 5 l s nguyn t.
2
n = 2 cho 22 + 1 = 24 + 1 = 17 l s nguyn t.
3
n = 3 cho 22 + 1 = 28 + 1 = 257 l s nguyn t.
4
n = 4 cho 22 + 1 = 216 + 1 = 65537 l s nguyn t.
3
Nhng vo th k 18 Euler pht hin vi n = 5 khng nh trn khng

ng, bi v:
5
22 + 1 = 4294967297 = 641 6700417
l hp s.
1.2.3 Vn dng phng php quy np gii mt s bi ton

Phng php quy np c s dng trong tnh ton, trong chng minh v
trong suy lun di nhiu dng khc nhau, nhng trong phn ny ch trnh by
vic vn dng phng php quy np gii cc bi ton logic, tc cc bi ton
"khng mu mc".
V d 1.2.1. Chng minh rng: Nu trong ti c mt s tin nguyn (nghn)

khng t hn 8000, th lun lun c th mua v s s loi 5000 v 3000.
Li gii: Ta s gii quyt bi ton ny bng phng php quy np.

1) C s quy np. Nu trong ti c s tin t nht, tc 8000, th ta mua mt
v s s loi 5000 v mt v s s loi 3000. Khi
1 5000 + 1 3000 = 8000
v ta tiu c ht s tin c trong ti.

2) Quy np. Gi s vi k(k 8000) nghn ng ta tiu ht bng cch mua
cc v s s loi 5000 v 3000. Nu c thm 1000 na ta cng c th mua
c bng cch sau y:
a) Nu trong cc v s s mua c t nht ba v loi 3000, th ta tr li
ba v loi 3000, a thm 1000 v ly v hai v loi 5000. Khi
3 3000 + 1000 = 2 5000.
b) Nu trong cc v s s mua c khng qu hai v loi 3000, th phi

c t nht mt v loi 5000. Bi v trong ti khng t hn 8000, m tiu
ht. Khi em tr li mt v loi 5000, a thm 1000 v ly v hai v loi
3000, ta c
1 5000 + 1000 = 2 3000
Nh vy trong mi trng hp t kt qu tiu k nghn u tin suy ra

c cch tiu nghn th k + 1, nn bi ton c gii quyt xong.
4
V d 1.2.2. Em An cm mt t giy v ly ko ct thnh 7 mnh. Sau nht

mt trong nhng mnh giy ct v li ct thnh 7 mnh. V em An c tip
tc ct giy nh vy. Sau mt hi em An thu tt c cc mu giy ct ra v
m c 122 mnh. Liu em An m ng hay sai?
Li gii:
1) Mi ln ct mnh giy thnh 7 mnh, tc l to ra thm 6 mnh giy,
nn cng thc tnh s mnh giy sau n bc thc hin mt mnh giy thnh 7
mnh c dng: S(n) = 6n + 1.
2) Tnh ng n ca cng thc S(n) c khng nh bng quy np theo n.
10 ) C s quy np. Vi n = 1, em An ct mnh giy c trong tay thnh 7
mnh, nn c
S(1) = 6.1 + 1 = 6 + 1 = 7
20 ) Quy np. Gi s sau k bc em An nhn c s mnh giy l
S(k) = 6k + 1
Sang bc k + 1 em An ly mt trong nhng mnh giy nhn c trong k

bc trc v ct thnh 7 mnh, tc em An ly i mt trong S(k) mnh v
thay vo 7 mnh c ct ra nn
S(k + 1) = S(k) 1 + 7 = 6k + 1 1 + 7 = 6k + 7
= 6k + 6 + 1 = 6(k + 1) + 1
Vy s mnh giy em An nhn c sau n bc ct giy l S(n).

3) Do S(n) = 6n + 1 1 (mod 6), nhng 122 = 6.20 + 2 2 (mod 6), nn em
An m khng ng.
V d 1.2.3. (Chng minh tnh cht bng quy np).

Cho x + x1 , x 6= 0 l mt s nguyn. Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn dng
n, s
1
T (n, x) = xn +
xn
cng l s nguyn.
Li gii: Khng nh c chng minh bng quy np.

1) C s quy np. Vi n = 1 c T (1, x) = x + x1 l s nguyn, theo gi thit.
2) Quy np. Gi s khng nh ng vi mi s nguyn k(n k 1) ngha
l
1
T (k, x) = xk +
xk
5
l s nguyn.
Vi n = k + 1 s
1
T (k + 1, x) = xk+1 + k+1
=
1
x 1
1

= x+ xk + xk1 +
x xk xk1
theo gi thit quy np, cc s x + x1 , xk1 + xk1
1
v xk + x1k u nguyn, nn
T (k + 1, x) l s nguyn v khng nh ng vi mi s nguyn dng n.
V d 1.2.4. Chng minh rng mi s nguyn ln hn 1 u c th vit di

dng tch ca cc tha s nguyn t.
Li gii: Ta chng minh khng nh bng quy np theo n.

1. C s quy np. Vi n = 2, ta c 2 = 2,
Vi n = 3, ta c 3 = 3, n = 4, ta c 4 = 2 2
Vy khng nh ng vi n = 2, 3, 4.
2. Quy np. Gi s vi mi s nguyn n u phn tch c thnh tch ca
cc tha s nguyn t. Ta chng minh n + 1 cng phn tch c thnh tch ca
cc tha s nguyn t.
Tht vy
Nu n + 1 l s nguyn t th n bng tch ca chnh n + 1.
Nu n + 1 l hp s th n + 1 = a.b vi 2 a, b < n.
Theo gi thit quy np, th a, b u phn tch c thnh tch cc tha s

nguyn t.
Suy ra, n + 1 cng phn tch c thnh tch cc tha s nguyn t.
Theo nguyn l quy np, mi s nguyn n > 1 u phn tch c thnh tch
cc tha s nguyn t.
V d 1.2.5. (Chng minh tnh chia ht bng quyh np). Chng minh rng vi
.
mi s nguyn dng n s 23 + 1 chia ht cho 3n+1 23 + 1 ..3n+1 v s 23 + 1
n n i n
.
khng chia ht cho 3n+2 23 + 1 6 ..3n+2 .
h n i
Li gii: Bi ton c gii quyt bng quy np. K hiu 23 + 1 = An .

n
1) C s quy np.
. .
Vi n = 1 ta c A1 = 23 + 1 = 23 + 1 = 8 + 1 = 9, nn A1 ..32 v A1 6 ..33 .
1
. .
Vi n = 2 ta c A2 = 23 + 1 = 513, nn A2 ..33 v A2 6 ..34 .
2
6
.
2) Quy np. Gi s khng nh ng vi n = k 2, ngha l Ak ..3k+1 v
.
Ak 6 ..3k+2 .
.
V Ak ..3k+1 , nn
.
M N (Ak = M.3k+1 v M 6 ..3) (1.1)
Xt n = k + 1
k+1 k
k
3 k
k
2 k

Ak+1 = 23 + 1 = 23 .3
+ 1 = 23 + 1 = 23 + 1 23 23 + 1
2
k+1 3k 3k k+1
h
k+1
2 3k
i
=3 .M. 2 +1 3.2 =3 .M. 3 .M 3.2
h k
i h k
i
= 3k+1 .M. 32k+2 .M 2 3.23 = 3k+2 .M. 32k+1 .M 2 23
. .
10 ) Khi Ak+1 ..3k+2 , nn vi mi s nguyn dng n u c 23 + 1..3n+1 .
n
.
20 ) Ak+1 6 ..3k+3 .
.
a) V M 6 ..3 (theo (1.1)), nn
.
3k+2 .M 6 ..3k+3 (1.2)
b) Do k 2, nn t N (k = t + 2) v 32k+1 .M 2 = 3k+3+t .M 2 .
Bi vy
.
32k+1 .M 2 ..3k+3 (1.3)
k. k.
Gi s 23 ..3k+3 . Khi 23 ..9, nhng 23 = 23 = 8k = 1 (mod 9), nn
k k
k .
23 6 ..3k+3 (1.4)
T cc quan h (1.3) v (1.4) ta suy ra

.
6 ..3k+3
k
32k+1 .M 2 23 (1.5)
.
T (1.2) v (1.5) suy ra: Ak+1 6 ..3k+3 , nn vi mi s nguyn dng n s An khng
chia ht cho 3n+2 .
V d 1.2.6. (Chng minh bt ng thc bng quy np)

Cho n(n 1) s dng x1 , x2 , , xn tha mn iu kin
x1 .x2 . xn1 .xn = 1
Chng minh rng

x1 + x2 + + xn1 + xn n
v du ng thc xy ra khi v ch khi x1 = x2 = = xn
7
Li gii: Bi ton c gii quyt bng quy np.

1) C s quy np. Vi n = 1 ta ch c s x1 . V x1 = 1, nn x1 tha mn bt
ng thc x1 1.
2) Quy np. Gi s khng nh ng vi k s dng ty c tch bng 1.
Xt k + 1 s dng ty x1 , x2 , , xk , xk+1 vi x1 .x2 . xk .xk+1 = 1. C hai kh
nng t ra:
a) Nu x1 = x2 = = xk = xk+1 , th xi = 1 (1 i k + 1). Khi
x1 + x2 + + xk + xk+1 = k + 1
v khng nh c chng minh.

b) Nu k + 1 s c xt x1 , x2 , , xk , xk+1 khng ng thi bng nhau, th do
tch ca chng bng 1 v cc s ny u dng, phi c t nht mt s ln hn
1 v t nht mt s nh hn 1. Khng gim tnh tng qut, gi s xk < 1 v
xk+1 > 1. Khi
1 xk > 0, xk+1 1 > 0 nn (1 xk ) (xk+1 1) > 0
Bi vy
xk + xk+1 > xk .xk+1 + 1 (1.6)
T ng thc: x1 .x2 . xk1 (xk xk+1 ) = x1 .x2 . .xk1 xk .xk+1 = 1 suy ra k s
dng x1 , x2 , , xk1 , (xk xk+1 ) c tch bng 1, nn theo gi thit quy np, c
x1 + x2 + + xk xk+1 k
Cng c hai v ca bt ng thc trn vi 1 ta c bt ng thc
x1 + x2 + + xk xk+1 + 1 k + 1 (1.7)
T bt ng thc (1.6) v (1.7) ta c
x1 + x2 + + xk + xk+1 x1 + x2 + + xk xk+1 + 1 k + 1
Khng nh c chng minh.

Vi n s dng ty x1 = x2 = = xn v x1 .x2 . xn = 1 suy ra xi = 1(1 i
n), nn x1 + x2 + + xn = n.
V d 1.2.7. (Tm ch s tn cng bng quy np)

k
Vi mi s nguyn dng k 2 hy tm ch s tn cng ca s Ak = 22 + 1.
8

1) C s quy np. Vi k = 2 s A2 = 22 + 1 = 24 + 1 = 17
2
2) Quy np. Gi s vi k = n 2 s An c tn cng l 7.

Xt s An+1 = 22 + 1.
n+1
Do An tn cng s 7, nn tn ti s nguyn dng m, An = 10m + 7. T

n
An 1 = 22 = 10m + 6.
n+1 n.2 n 2
An+1 = 22 + 1 = 22 + 1 = 22 +1
= (10m + 6)2 + 1 = 100m2 + 120m + 36 + 1
= 10 10m2 + 12m + 37 = 10 10m2 + 12m + 3 + 7

nn An+1 tn cng bng ch s 7.

Vy vi mi s k 2, s Ak tn cng bng ch s 7.
V d 1.2.8. Tnh tng sau
S(n) = 12 + 32 + + (2n + 1)2 ,
trong n l mt s t nhin.
Li gii: Ta s i d on cng thc tng S(n). Ta thy S(n) l tng ca cc

ly tha bc hai ca cc s 1, 3, , (2n + 1), nn ta d on S(n) phi l mt
a thc ca n c bc khng nh hn ba. Gi s S(n) = an3 + bn2 + cn + d. V
S(0) = 1 nn d = 1. Ln lt thay n = 1, n = 2, n = 3, ta c h

a+b+c=9
8a + 4b + 2c = 34

27a + 9b + 3c = 83
Gii h ny ta thu c a = 34 , b = 4, c = 3.
11
Khi ,
4 11 (n + 1) (2n + 1) (2n + 3)
S(n) = n3 + 4n2 + n + 1 = (1.8)
3 3 3
Ta s chng minh cng thc (1.8) bng quy np theo n.
1) C s quy np. Vi n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ta d dng kim tra c (1.8) ng.
2) Quy np. Gi s (1.8) ng vi n = k , ta chng minh (1.8) ng vi
n = k + 1.
Tht vy
S(k + 1) = 12 + 32 + + (2k + 1)2 + (2k + 3)2
= S(k) + (2k + 3)2 .
9
(k+1)(2k+1)(2k+3)
Theo gi thit quy np th S(k) = 3 .
Suy ra
(k + 1) (2k + 1) (2k + 3)
S(k + 1) = + (2k + 3)2
3
(k + 2) (2k + 3) (2k + 5)
=
3
Vy cng thc (1.8) ng vi n = k + 1, do theo nguyn l quy np (1.8) ng

vi mi n.
V d 1.2.9. Chng minh rng A(n) = 7n + 3n 1 chia ht cho 9 vi mi s t

nhin n.
Li gii: t A(n) = 7n + 3n 1. Ta s chng minh bi ton bng quy np.

1) C s quy np. Vi n = 0, ta c A(0) = 0 chia ht cho 9.
2) Quy np. Gi s A(k) chia ht cho 9 vi mi k N. Ta s chng minh
A(k + 1) cng chia ht cho 9.
Tht vy, ta c
A(k + 1) = 7k+1 + 3 (k + 1) 1
(1.9)
= 7A(k) 9. (2k 1) .
Theo gi thit quy np th A(k) chia ht cho 9. Do t (1.9) ta suy ra A(k + 1)

cng chia ht cho 9.
Vy A(n) chia ht cho 9 vi mi s t nhin n.
V d 1.2.10. Gi S(n) l tng tt c cc c s l ln nht ca cc s t nhin

t 1 n 2n . Chng minh rng 3S(n) = 4n + 2.
Li gii: Cc s t nhin t 1 n 2n bao gm cc s l t 1 n 2n v gp i

ca cc s t nhin t 1 n 2n1 . T ta c
S(n) = S(n 1) + 1 + 3 + + (2n 1)
hay
S(n) = S(n 1) + 4n1 (1.10)
Ta s chng minh bi ton cho bng quy np theo n.
1) C s quy np. Vi n = 1, ta c 3S(1) = 3(1 + 1) = 6 = 41 + 2, khng nh
ng vi n = 1
10
2) Quy np. Gi s khng nh ng vi n = k , tc l
3S(k) = 4k + 2 (1.11)
Ta cn ch ra khng nh ng vi n = k + 1 hay 3S(k + 1) = 4k+1 + 2.

Tht vy, theo (1.10) ta c
S(k + 1) = S(k) + 4k
3S(k + 1) = 3S(k) + 3.4k
(1.12)
= 4k + 2 + 3.4k
= 4k+1 + 2.
theo gi thit quy np. Vy khng nh cho ng vi mi n N .
V d 1.2.11. Tm bc cao nht k ca 2007 sao cho 2007k l c ca s:

2006 2008
20082007 + 20062007 .
Li gii: Ta chng minh hai b sau:
B 1.2.1. Vi s t nhin l a 3 v vi mi n nguyn dng khng chia

ht cho a, ta c:
n
(1 + a)a = 1 + Sn an+1 ,
trong Sn l s nguyn dng v khng chia ht cho a.
B 1.2.2. Vi s t nhin l b 3 v vi mi s n nguyn dng, ta c:

n
(b 1)b = 1 + tn bn+1 ,
trong tn l s nguyn khng chia ht cho b.
+, Chng minh b 1: Ta s chng minh b 1 bng quy np.

1. C s quy np. Vi n = 1, ta c
(1 + a)a = 1 + Ca1 a + Ca2 a2 + . . . + Caa aa =

= 1 + a2 1 + Ca2 + Ca3 a + . . . + aa2

= 1 + S1 a2 .
a(a1) .
V a l nn Ca2 = 2!(a2)!
a!
= 2 ..a.
Do vy, S1 = 1 + Ca2 + Ca3 a + . . . + aa2 khng chia ht cho a.
11
2. Quy np. Gi s khng nh trn ng vi n = k , tc l

k
(1 + a)a = 1 + Sk ak+1 ,
trong Sk l s nguyn dng v khng chia ht cho a.

Ta c
ak+1 ak .a k+1 a

(1 + a) = (1 + a) = 1 + Sk a
2 a
= 1 + Ca1 Sk ak+1 + Ca2 Sk ak+1 + . . . + Caa Sk ak+1
= 1 + ak+2 Sk + Ca2 Sk2 + . . . + Ska aak+ak2

= 1 + Sk+1 ak+2 .
V Sk khng chia ht cho a suy ra Sk+1 khng chia ht cho a.

Vy b c chng minh.
+, Chng minh b 2. B 2 c chng minh bng phng php quy
np bng cch l lun tng t nh chng minh b 1.
p dng hai b trn vi a = b = 2007, ta c
2006 2008
20082007 + 20062007 = S2006 20072007 + t2008 20072009
= S2006 + t2008 20072 20072007 .

V S2006 khng chia ht cho 2007 nn s k ln nht tha mn iu kin bi ton

l 2007.
V d 1.2.12. Dy s (un ) xc nh nh sau:

u0 = u1 = 1
un+1 = un1 un + 1; n = 1, 2, . . .
.
Chng minh rng: u2008 3..4.
Li gii: T cch xc nh dy s, ta c u2 = 2; u3 = 3; u4 = 7; u5 = 22; u6 =

155; . . . Nhn thy:
u2 2 (mod 4); u5 2 (mod 4).
u3 3 (mod 4); u4 3 (mod 4).
Ta d on:
nu n = 3k + 2, (k Z)

un 2 (mod 4)
(1.13)
un 3 (mod 4) nu n = 3k + 1 hoc n = 3k , (k Z).
12
Ta s chng minh quan h (1.13) bng quy np.

1. C s quy np. Vi n = 2, 3, 4, 5, ta c quan h (1.13) ng.
2. Quy np. Gi s (1.13) ng vi n = t. Ta cn chng minh (1.13) ng vi
n = t + 1.
+) Nu t = 3k , khi

t 1 = 3k 1 = 3(k 1) + 2
t + 1 = 3k + 1.
Do , theo gi thit quy np ta c
ut 3 (mod 4); ut1 2 (mod 4)
Suy ra
ut+1 3.2 + 1 3 (mod 4),
hay (1.13) ng.

+) Nu t = 3k + 1, suy ra

t 1 = 3k
t + 1 = 3k + 2 .
ut 3 (mod 4); ut1 3 (mod 4)
Suy ra
ut+1 3.3 + 1 2 (mod 4),
hay (1.13) ng.

+) Nu t = 3k + 2, suy ra

t 1 = 3k + 1
t + 1 = 3(k + 1) .
ut 2 (mod 4); ut1 3 (mod 4)
Suy ra
ut+1 3.2 + 1 3 (mod 4),
hay (1.13) ng. Vy (1.13) c chng minh. Do 2008 = 3.669 + 1, nn u2008 3

.
(mod 4), hay u2008 3..4.
13
V d 1.2.13. Chng minh rng s c thnh lp bi 3n ch s ging nhau th

chia ht cho 3n , trong n l mt s nguyn dng cho trc.
Li gii: Gi A(n) = aa . . . a, trong A(n) gm 3n ch s a v 1 a 9. Ta

chng minh khng nh bng quy np theo n.
1. C s quy np. Vi n = 1, ta c A(1) = aaa chia ht cho 31 = 3. Khng
nh ng vi n = 1.
2. Quy np. Gi s A(n) chia ht cho 3n , ta cn chng minh A(n + 1) chia
ht cho 3n+1 .
Tht vy, ta c
n n
A(n + 1) = A(n)A(n)A(n) = A.102.3 + A.103 + A
n n
= A 102.3 + 103 + 1 .

V 10 1 (mod 3) nn 102.3 + 103 + 1 0 (mod 3).

n n
Hn na, theo gi thit quy np, A(n) chia ht 3n .

Do , ta c A(n + 1) chia ht 3n .3 = 3n+1 , hay khng nh ng vi n + 1.
Theo nguyn l quy np, khng nh cho ng vi mi n Z+ .
V d 1.2.14. Mi u ca ng knh thuc ng trn tm 0 ghi s 1. Sau

ti trung im ca mi cung nhn c ghi s 2 (tng ca hai s c ghi
hai u ca mi cung) (Bc 2). Coi bn im ghi s l cc im chia ng
trn. Khi ng trn c chia thnh bn cung bng nhau. Gia mi cung
ny li ghi s 3 (tng ca hai s c ghi hai u ca cung tng ng) (Bc
3). C tip tc nh vy. Hi sau n bc tng cc s c ghi trn ng trn l
bao nhiu?
2
3 3
1 1
0
3 3
2
14
Li gii: Sau n bc tng cc s trn ng trn l Sn = 2.3n .

Ta s chng minh cng thc trn bng quy np theo n.
1. C s quy np. Sau Bc 1, trn ng trn c bn (22 ) s 1, 2, 1, 2. Khi
S1 = 1 + 2 + 1 + 2 = 6 = 2.31
2. Quy np. Gi s khng nh ng vi n = k(k 1), ngha l sau k bc
trn ng trn c 2k+1 s
s1 , s2 , . . . , s2k +1 , . . . , s2k+1 , (1.14)
vi tng l Sk = 2.3k .
2
3 3
1 1
3 3
2
Sang bc (k + 1), ta coi 2k+1 im ghi l cc im chia, nn ng trn

c thnh 2k+1 cung bng nhau. Do trung im ca mi cung ny li ghi tng
ca hai s ghi u ca mi cung, nn mi s thuc dy (1.14) c xut
hin ng hai ln trong cc tng mi (cc s c ghi ti bc k + 1). Do ,
tng cc s c ghi trn ng trn sau k + 1 bc l:
Sk+1 = tng cc s ghi sau bc k + tng cc s c ghi ti bc k+1
= Sk + 2Sk = 3Sk = 3.2.3k = 2.3k+1
V d 1.2.15. Chng minh rng trn mt phng n ng thng khc nhau cng
i qua mt im, chia mt phng thnh 2n phn khc nhau.

1) C s quy np. Vi n = 1, ta c mt ng thng. N chia mt phng
thnh hai phn, nn khng nh ng.
15
2) Quy np. Gi s vi n = k khng nh ng, ngha l k ng thng

ty cng i qua mt im M chia mt phng thnh 2k phn khc nhau.
Xt n = k + 1 ng thng khc nhau ty cng i qua mt im. K
hiu cc ng ny, mt cch tng ng bng 1 , 2 , , k , k+1 . Theo gi thit
quy np k ng thng 1 , 2 , , k chia mt phng thnh 2k phn khc nhau.
M
k+1
V cc ng thng u khc nhau v cng i qua im M , nn tn ti cc

ch s s, t (1 s, t k) k+1 l ng thng duy nht nm trong gc c
lp nn bi s v t . Khi k+1 chia hai phn mt phng c gii hn bi
s v t thnh bn phn. Bi vy k + 1 ng thng 1 , 2 , , k , k+1 chia mt
phng thnh
2k 2 + 4 = 2k + 2 = 2 (k + 1)
phn khc nhau. Khng nh c chng minh.
16
Chng 2
Phng php chng minh phn

chng
Chng minh l mt nt c trng ca ton hc, to ra s khc bit gia

ton hc vi cc mn khoa hc khc. Nm bt phng php v k thut chng
minh cng l yu cu bt buc i vi hc sinh ni chung. Cc phng php v
k thut chng minh rt phong ph: T chng minh trc tip n gin tip, t
chng minh bng quy np n chng minh bng phn chng, t v d n phn
v d, t xy dng n khng xy dng.
Trong bi lun vn ny xin c cp n php chng minh phn chng,
mt trong nhng phng php chng minh kinh in v quan trng nht ca
ton hc. Chng minh phn chng c th ni l mt trong nhng v kh quan
trng nht ca ton hc. N cho php chng ta chng minh s c th v khng
th ca mt tnh cht no . N cho php chng ta bin thun thnh o, bin
o thnh thun. N cho php chng ta l lun trn nhng i tng m khng
r l c tn ti hay khng.
2.1 C s l thuyt
C s l thuyt ca phng php phn chng l cc nh lut trong logic:
Gi p, q, r l cc mnh ton hc no , khi
nh l 2.1.1. (Cc nh lut c bn)

1. (Phi mu thun): p p = 0
2. (Bi trung):p p = 1
nh l 2.1.2. (Cc nh lut phn chng)

1. (Phn chng) (p q) (q p).
17
Chng 2. Phng php chng minh phn chng
2. (Phn chng suy rng):
(p q r) (p r q) (2.1)
3. (p q q) p.
4. (q 0) q .
Cc nh lut trn c th c chng minh chng hn bng phng php

lp bng chn l hoc phng php bin i tng ng. Chng hn, ta c th
chng minh (2.1) nh sau:
(p q r) p q hoc r (do aba hoc b)

p hoc q hoc r (do aba hoc b)
(p hoc r) hoc q (giao hon, kt hp v r r)
p r hoc q
(p r q) pcm.
2.2 Ni dung ca phng php phn chng

chng minh khng nh p q bng phng php phn chng ta gi s q
sai, tc l q l mnh ng. Nu t thu c mt iu v l (vl) th iu
chng t gi s ca ta l sai, tc l q ng. iu v l (vl) c th thuc mt
trong cc dng sau:
+) iu tri vi gi thit p (vl p)
+) iu tri vi mt trong cc kin thc bit (vl 0)
+) iu tri vi gi s phn chng (vl q).
Khi xy dng mnh phn chng q ta cn nh
1. p p.
2. p q p hoc q .
3. p q p q.
4. x, p(x) x, p(x).
5. x, p(x) x, p(x).
6. x, p(x) x, p(x).
7. x, p(x) x, p(x).
8. Nu p(x) := f (x)Rg(x), th p(x) l : f (x)Rg(x) trong , R v R c xc
nh nh sau:
18
R = 6= > <
R 6= = < >
Ngoi ra cn c:
nh l 2.2.1. (nh lut v m bn). Cho A l mt cng thc logic m trong

ch cha cc php ton: Ph nh, , hoc i vi cc mnh : p1 , p2 , , pn .
m bn ca A, k hiu l Ad l mt cng thc thu c t A bng cch thay
pj pj ; pj pj , ; . Khi :
A Ad
Phng php phn chng cn da trn nguyn l Dirichlet do nh ton hc

c ni ting Peter Dirichlet (1805-1859) xut, m dng n gin nht ca
nguyn l ny c pht biu nh sau: "Khng th nht 7 ch th vo 3 ci
lng sao cho mi lng khng c qu hai ch th". Ni cch khc "Nu nht 7
ch th vo 3 ci lng, th phi c t nht mt lng c khng t hn 3 ch th".
2.3 Trnh by li gii ca phng php phn chng

Bi ton: Chng minh p q
Li gii: Gi s ngc li, q sai, tc l q . M q vl. Vy gi s ca ta l
sai, tc l q ng.
Ngoi ra, ta s gii mt s bi ton bng phng php phn chng da trn
nguyn l Dirichlet.
2.4 Mt s v d minh ha
V d 2.4.1. Cho f (x) = ax2 + bx + c. Gi s
|a| + |b| + |c| > 17 (2.2)
Chng minh rng

x [0; 1], |f (x)| > 1 (2.3)
Li gii: Ta s chng minh bng phng php phn chng. Gi s (2.3) sai, tc
l
x [0; 1], |f (x)| 1 (2.4)
19
Chn x = 0; 21 ; 1, t (2.4) ta c |c| 1 v:

|a + b + c| 1

+ b + c 1
a
4 2
Suy ra
|a| + |b| + |c| 17
l iu v l (tri vi (2.2)). Vy gi s ca ta l sai, tc l (2.3) ng.
V d 2.4.2. Chng minh tp cc s nguyn t P l tp v hn.
Li gii: (phn chng). Gi s ngc li, tp P l hu hn. Gi s P =

{p1 , p2 , , pn }. Khi , tn ti s nguyn t ln nht. Gi l pn . Tc l:
pn P v p P, p pn .
Xt s x = p1 .p2 . . . . .pn + 1. Ta c, x N; x khng chia ht cho cc s p1 ; p2 ; . . . ; pn

. .
(v nu x..pj no th 1..pj : v l). Vy x P . M hin nhin, x > pn . l iu
v l (tri vi cch chn pn ).
Vy iu gi s ca ta l sai, tc l P l tp v hn.
V d 2.4.3. C th chia cc s t nhin t 1 n 21 thnh cc nhm i mt ri

nhau, sao cho trong mi nhm s ln nht bng tng cc s cn li hay khng?
Li gii:
Gi s chia c. Khi tng cc s mi nhm l mt s chn (bng hai
ln s ln nht). Vy tng ca 21 s cho l mt s chn (v cc nhm i
mt ri nhau v tng ca cc s chn l s chn).
Nhng tng ca 21 s l 21.11 = 231 l s l. iu v l ny chng t gi
s ca ta l sai, tc l khng chia c thnh cc nhm tha mn yu cu
bi.
V d 2.4.4. C th tm c hay khng 5 s nguyn, sao cho cc tng ca hai

s mt trong 5 s lp thnh 10 s nguyn lin tip?
Li gii:
Gi s tm c 5 s nh vy. Gi s l tng ca 5 s v n l gi tr nh
nht ca tng cc cp hai s. Khi 10 s nguyn lin tip ni trong bi l
n, n + 1, . . . , n + 9
20
Ta tnh tng ca 10 s theo hai cch khc nhau:

Mt mt, = n + (n + 1) + (n + 2) + . . . + (n + 9) = 5 (2n + 9)
Mt khc = 4s (do trong mi s cho c mt ng 4 ln). T suy ra
4s = 5 (2n + 9) l iu v l.
Vy gi s ban u l sai, tc l khng th chn c 5 s tha mn yu cu
bi ra.
V d 2.4.5. Cho ba im A, B, C phn bit trn mt phng. Chng minh rng

nu tn ti im G thuc mt phng tha mn:

GA + GB + GC = 0
th im G l duy nht.
Li gii: Ta chng minh bng phng php phn chng.

Gi s cn c im O 6= G tha mn yu cu bi ton, tc l

OA + OB + OC = 0
Ta c

GA + GB + GC = 0

GO + OA + GO + OB + GO + OC = 0

3GO + OA + OB + OC = 0

Do OA + OB + OC = 0 , suy ra

3GO = 0

GO = 0
GO
Vy G l duy nht.
V d 2.4.6. (IMO 1982) Cho phng trnh
x3 3xy 2 + y 3 = n, n N (2.5)
1) Chng minh rng nu (2.5) c nghim nguyn th n khng c nghim

nguyn duy nht.
2) Tm nghim nguyn ca (2.5) khi n = 2005.
21
Li gii:
1) D dng bin i
x3 3xy 2 + y 3 = (y x)3 3 (y x) x2 + (x)3

= (y)3 3 (y) (x y)2 + (x y)3
T ta c: Nu (x; y) l mt nghim ca (2.5) th (y x; x) , (y; x y) cng

l cc nghim ca (2.5). Ba nghim ny i mt khc nhau v nu c hai nghim
no bng nhau th ta c x = y = 0 l iu v l do n > 0.
Vy nu (2.5) c nghim, th n c t nht ba nghim phn bit, tc l (2.5)
khng th c nghim duy nht.
2) Vi n = 2005 gi s (2.5) c nghim (x; y) Z2 . Ta vit cc nghim theo

(mod 3), phng trnh cho tr thnh
x3 + y 3 = 1 (mod 3) x + y = 1 (mod 3).
Do vy ta c cc trng hp sau:
(i)x 0 (mod 3) v y 1 (mod 3); (2.6)

(ii)x 1 (mod 3) v y 1 (mod 3); (2.7)
(iii)x 1 (mod 3) v y 0 (mod 3). (2.8)
Trong trng hp (i) t x = 3m, y = 3n 1, thay vo phng trnh cho ta

c V T 1 (mod 3) cn V P = 2005 2 (mod 9) v l.
Trong trng hp (ii), do (y x; x) cng l nghim, m y x 0 (mod 3) v
x 1 (mod 3) nn ta cng thu c mt iu v l.
Tng t t trng hp (iii) ta cng thu c mt iu v l.
Vy vi n = 2005 phng trnh cho khng c nghim nguyn.
V d 2.4.7. (IMO 1983). Tm tt c nhng hm s f (x) : R+ R+ , l ton

nh v tha mn ng thi hai iu kin sau:
1) f (xf (y)) = yf (x), x, y R+ .
2) f (x) 0 khi x +.
Li gii: Do f (x) l ton nh v 1 R+ nn y0 R+ : f (y0 ) = 1. Trong 1) cho

x = 1, y = y0 ta c
f (1) = f (1.1) = f (1.f (y0)) = y0 f (1) y0 = 1(do f (1) > 0) y0 = 1 f (1) = 1.
22
Vy f (x) c mt im bt ng l x = 1. Ta s chng minh l im bt ng

duy nht.
Tht vy, gi s f (x) c hai im bt ng x, y phn bit, khi ta c:
(i) f (xy) = f (xf (y)) = yf (x) = yx = xy xy cng l im bt ng ca

f (x).
(ii) 1 = f (1) = f x1 f (x) = xf ( x1 ) x1 cng l im bt ng ca f (x).

Gi s cn c im bt ng x 6= 1, khi theo (ii), f (x) cn c im bt ng

x . Trong hai s phi c mt s ln hn 1. Gi s x > 1. Theo (i), f (x) s c
1
v s im bt ng xn = xn , n N . Ta c dy i s (xn ) + (do x > 1), do

dy hm (f (xn )) = (xn ) +. iu tri vi 2) : f (x) 0 khi x +.
Vy gi s ca ta l sai, tc l f (x) c duy nht mt im bt ng l x = 1.
Nhng trong (i) cho y = x ta c f (xf (x)) = xf (x), x R+ xf (x) cng l
im bt ng ca f (x). Vy ta phi c
1
x R+ : xf (x) = 1 f (x) = .
x
D tm thy hm s ny tha mn cc iu kin bi ra.
Vy f (x) = x1 l hm s cn tm.
V d 2.4.8. (IMO 1983) Cho cc s a, b, c N , i mt nguyn t cng nhau.
Chng minh rng phng trnh
xbc + yca + zab = 2abc ab bc ca (2.9)
khng c nghim t nhin.
.
Li gii: Gi s (2.9) c nghim (x; y; z) N3 . T (2.9) ta c (z + 1) ab..c. M
.
(a; c) = (b; c) = 1 z + 1..c, m z + 1 > 0 nn t c z + 1 c. Tng t, c
x + 1 a, y + 1 b. T cc nh gi ny ta c
V T (2.9) (a 1) bc + (b 1) ca + (c 1) ab
= 3abc ab bc ca
> 2abc ab bc ca = V P (2.9)
iu ny v l chng t gi s ca ta l sai, tc l phng trnh (2.9) khng c

nghim t nhin.
V d 2.4.9. (Putnam 1998) Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn a, b, c lun
tm c s nguyn dng n, sao cho s
f (n) = n3 + an2 + bn + c
23
khng phi l s chnh phng.

Li gii: Ta chng minh mnh sau:
(a; b; c) Z3 , n N : f (n) khng phi l s chnh phng. (2.10)
Nhn xt rng mi s chnh phng u 0 (mod 4) hoc 1 (mod 4). Gi s

(2.10) l mnh sai, tc l
(a; b; c) Z3 , n N : f (n) l s chnh phng. (2.11)
c bit, t ta c

f (1) = a + b + c + 1 l s chnh phng(i)
f (2) = 4a + 2b + c + 8 l s chnh phng(ii)

f (3) = 9a + 3b + c + 27 l s chnh phng(iii)
f (4) = 16a + 4b + c + 64 l s chnh phng(iv)

T (ii) v (iv) ta c f (4) f (2) = 2b (mod 4). M 2b l s chn, cn theo nhn

xt th f (4) f (2) ch c th 0, 1, 1 (mod 4) 2b 0 (mod 4).
T (i) v (iii) ta c f (3) f (1) (2b + 2) (mod 4).
Tng t trn ta cng c 2b + 2 0 (mod 4) 2 0 (mod 4) l iu v l.
Vy gi s ca ta l sai, tc l (2.10) l mnh ng.
V d 2.4.10. Cho a, b, c l cc s thc dng. Chng minh rng
a b c
+ + 1.
a2 + 8bc b2 + 8ca c2 + 8ab
Li gii: Ta s gii bi ton trn bng phng php phn chng nh sau: t
a b c
x= , y= , z=
a2 + 8bc b2 + 8ca c2 + 8ab
Khi , ta c
1 1
1

1 1 1 = 64
x2 y2 z2
v ta cn chng minh
x+y+z 1
Gi s ngc li, x + y + z < 1. Khi
(x + y + z)2 (x + y + z)2 (x + y + z)2

1
1

1

x2 1 y2 1 z2 1 > 1 1 1
x2 y2 z2
(2x + y + z) (y + z) (2y + x + z) (x + z) (2z + x + y) (x + y)
=
x2 y 2 z 2
(2.12)
24
p dng bt ng thc Cauchy cho cc du ngoc trong V P (2.12) ta c:

2x + y + z = x + x + y + z 4 4 x.x.y.z

2y + x + z = y + y + x + z 4 4 y.y.z.z

2z + x + y = z + z + x + y 4 4 z.z.x.y

y + z 2 y.z

x + z 2 x.z

x + y 2 x.y
Thay vo biu thc (2.12) ta c VP(2.12) > 192, m theo gi thit VT(2.12) =
64, do ta c (64 > 192) (mu thun).
Vy iu gi s ca ta l sai. Tc l bi ton c chng minh.
V d 2.4.11. Cho a, b, c l cc s thc sao cho a+b+c > 0, ab+bc+ca > 0, abc > 0.
Chng minh rng a, b, c > 0.
Li gii: (phn chng). Gi s mt trong cc s a, b, c < 0. V ta c abc > 0 nn

phi c hai s m, mt s dng. Khng mt tnh tng qut, gi s a, b < 0, c > 0.
Khi
ab + bc + ca = a(a + b + c) a2 + bc < 0
Mu thun vi iu kin ban u. Do gi s ca ta l sai.

Vy ta c iu phi chng minh.
V d 2.4.12. Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn dng k tn ti mt s

.
nguyn dng n > 1, sao cho: Cni 6 ..k(i = 1, n 1).
.
Li gii: (phn chng). Gi s Cni ..k . Do , ly k = 4, khi tn ti mt s
.
nguyn dng n > 1 C i ..4 (i = 1, n).
n
Suy ra
n1
X
= Cni 0 (mod 4).
i=1
Mt khc
n1
X
= Cni = 2n 2 2 (mod 4).
i=1
Do , ta c mu thun.
Vy iu gi s ca ta l sai. Ta c iu phi chng minh.
25
V d 2.4.13. Xt cc s gm 7 ch s phn bit c lp thnh t cc s

{1, 2, . . . , 7} .
Liu trong cc s c lp c ba s a, b, c m a + b = c.
.
Hi c hai s khc nhau a, b m a..b.
Li gii: 1. Ta c:
1 + 2 + . . . + 7 = 28 1 (mod 9).
Vy s bt k trong cc s ni trn khi chia cho 9 u d 1.

Gi s tn ti ba s a, b, c m a + b = c. Khi : a + b 2 (mod 9), cn c 1
(mod 9).
iu ny v l, nn khng tn ti ba s tha mn yu cu bi ton.
.
2. Gi s c hai s a, b m a..b, tc l n N : a = nb.
Do b.7 1234567.7 > 7654321 a, nn 7b nb n 7.
V a = nb, nn a n (mod 9)(1 < n 7).
Mt khc, a 1 (mod 9). iu ny v l, nn trong cc s c lp khng c
hai s no, m mt trong hai s chia ht cho s kia.
V d 2.4.14. Cho hai ng thng cho nhau. Chng minh rng c duy nht
mt mt phng cha ng thng ny v song song vi ng thng kia.
Li gii: Gi s ta c hai ng thng cho nhau a v b.

ly im M bt k thuc a. Qua M k ng thng b song song vi b. Gi ()
l mt phng xc nh bi a v b .
b
M
a

Ta c: b//b v b (), t suy ra b//().

Hn na () a nn () l mt phng cn tm.
Ta chng minh () l mt phng duy nht. Tht vy, gi s c mt mt phng
() khc (), cha a v song song vi b th khi (), () l hai mt phng phn
bit cng song song vi b nn giao tuyn ca chng l a, phi song song vi b.
26
iu ny mu thun vi gi thit a v b cho nhau.

Tng t, ta c th chng minh c duy nht mt mt phng cha b v song
song vi a.
Vy ta c iu phi chng minh.
V d 2.4.15. Chng minh rng nu mt phng () cha hai ng thng ct
nhau a, b v a, b cng song song vi mt phng () th () song song vi ()
Li gii: Gi M l giao im ca a v b. V () cha a m a song song vi ()
nn () v () l hai mt phng phn bit. Ta cn chng minh () song song
vi ().
Gi s () v () khng song song v ct nhau theo giao tuyn c.
M b

Ta c
a//()
() a

() () = c
c//a
v
b//()
() b

() () = c
c//b
.
Nh vy t M k c hai ng thng a, b cng song song vi c. Theo nh
l 1, 2 (SGK hnh hc 11), iu ny mu thun.
Vy () v () phi song song vi nhau.
27
Chng 3
Phng php suy lun trc tip
3.1 Vi nt v phng php suy lun trc tip

Cc bi ton logic hiu theo ngha tng i rng gm cc bi ton logic, cc
bi ton khng mu mc (khng c cch gii nht nh) thng c nhiu cch
gii khc nhau, trong c phng php suy lun trc tip.
Phng php suy lun logic c t xa xa v gii cc bi ton logic
ngi ta ch c duy nht phng php ny (sau ny mi c thm cc phng
php khc). Cc bi ton logic a dng v ti, phong ph v chng loi i
hi chng ta phi bit suy lun ng n, cht ch trn c s vn dng kin
thc c bn v kinh nghim sng ca mnh. V vy cn phi luyn tp c quan
st, cch lp lun, cch xem xt kh nng c th xy ra ca mt s kin v vn
dng nhng kin thc hc vo cc tnh hung mun hnh mun v trong cuc
sng hng ngy.
i khi gii nhng bi ton ny, ch cn nhng kin thc ton hc n
gin, nhng li i hi kh nng chn lc trng hp, suy lun cht ch, r rng.
S pht trin ca ton hc, chng hn gii tch t hp, phng php quy np,
phn chng, gp phn phong ph thm phng php suy lun logic trc tip.
Nhng bi ton trong chng ny l nhng v d khng qu phc tp gip
cho ngi c thy c nhng k nng c bn ca t duy logic. Thng qua li
gii gip ngi c bit cch din t bng ngn ng logic nhng bi ton cng
dng c th gp trong i sng thc tin v bng cch ngi c tm ra li
gii d dng nhanh gn hn. Mi bi ton l mt v d in hnh v c th c
nhiu bi ton khc tng t c din t di nhiu hnh thc khc nhau.
Nhng bi ton gii bng phng php suy lun trc tip rt c ch cho ngi
hc ton, dy ton v nhng ngi quan tm n logic ton. N l bc tip
28
Chng 3. Phng php suy lun trc tip
cn u tin n logic ton hc. N rn luyn t duy logic, kh nng phn x,

tr thng minh, l hnh thc th thao tr tu phc v cho ng o ngi c
c bit l la tui hc sinh nhiu cp hc khc nhau.
iu c bn ca phng php ny l thng qua vic phn tch cc iu kin
ca bi ton, cn tm ra mi quan h logic gia cc mnh .
3.2 Cc v d v vn dng phng php suy lun

trc tip
V d 3.2.1. C ba em chi tr i m. Em ch tr gi ba m , hai m xanh,
ri yu cu ba em ngi theo hng dc v khng nhn v pha sau, ri t pha sau
chp ln u mi em mt ci m cn hai ci ct i. Chng minh rng trong mi
cch i u c mt em nhn ra mu m ca mnh.
Li gii: Gi s em A ngi sau em B , em B ngi sau em C , r rng em A quan

st c m ca em B v C cn em B quan st c m ca em C .
- Trc ht do ch c hai m xanh nn nu B v C i m xanh th A on
c ngay m ca mnh l m .
- Nu A im lng, chng t trong B v C c mt em i m xanh, mt em
i m hoc c hai em i m . Khi B s phi suy ngh v quan st C .
Nu C i m xanh th B on ngay mnh i m . Nu B thy C i m
th B nh im lng v C s nhn bit ngay mnh i m .
Li gii ca bi ton trn c th tm tt theo s sau
A B C
X X
im X
Hnh 3.1
Nh vy, trong mi trng hp, u c t nht mt em i m . Du hiu

cc em d on c m ca mnh l s m xanh m mnh hoc bn mnh
quan st c. Em on ng mu m ca mnh s lun l em i m .
29
V d 3.2.2. (V s gi thng minh)

Mt vin quan nc L i sang x T, b vua T tuyn pht t hnh v b hnh
quyt hoc chm u hoc treo c. Trc khi hnh quyt nh vua cho s gi c
ni mt cu, nu ni ng th b chm u, nu ni sai th b treo c. S gi
mm ci ni mt cu, nh thot cht. Bn hy cho bit cu ni ca s
gi nh th no?
Li gii: V s gi ni rng "Ti s b treo c". Nh vy, nu nh vua em

treo c s gi th s gi ni ng. M theo iu lnh s pht ca nh vua
th phi a s gi i chm u (v ng ta ni ng). Nu nh vua chm u
th ng ta ni sai. Theo iu lnh s pht ca nh vua th phi em s gi
i treo c.
Thnh th nh vua khng th hnh quyt s gi bng chm u cng nh
treo c, nn s gi thot cht.
V d 3.2.3. Ngi bn s v tn thc dn

Trc vnh mng nga l ba ngi n ng, h l ngi bn s hoc tn thc
dn. Quan ta bit khi c hi ngi bn s bao gi cng ni tht, cn tn
thc dn bao gi cng ni di, nhng quan ta khng bit ai l ngi bn s, ai
l tn thc dn. Quan ta hi ngi th nht: "Anh l ai?". Nhng anh ta ni
ngng nn quan ta khng hiu cu tr li. Hy xc nh cu tr li ca ngi
th nht?
Li gii: Nu ngi c hi th nht l tn thc dn th theo bn cht ca

thc dn, anh ta s tr li "Ti l ngi bn s". Nu ngi l dn bn s
th theo bn cht ca ngi dn bn s anh ta cng tr li "Ti l ngi bn
s".
Nh vy cu tr li ca ngi th nht ch c th l: "Ti l ngi bn s".
V d 3.2.4. a. Trong mt cn phng c 10 ngi, bit rng gia ba ngi bt

k c hai ngi quen nhau. Chng minh rng, c th tm c bn ngi m hai
ngi bt k trong s u quen nhau.
b. Khng nh trn c cn ng na khng nu cu a s ngi trong phng l
9.
Li gii: a. Gi s bn ngi bt k c hai ngi khng quen nhau. Khi

A khng th c qu ba ngi khng quen. Nu A c bn ngi khng quen
th theo gi thit gia bn ngi ny c hai ngi khng quen v h cng vi
30
A hp thnh b ba i mt khng quen nhau. Vy A c khng nhiu hn ba

ngi khng quen, ngha l A c khng t hn su ngi quen. Gi s A quen
vi B1 , B2 , , B6 . Khi gia B1 , B2 , , B6 khng c b ba no i mt quen
nhau (Nu khc th b ba ny hp thnh vi A thnh b bn i mt quen
nhau- tri vi gi thit). Hn na c b ba m hai ngi khng quen nhau trong
s su ngi B1 , B2 , , B6 . Chng hn, nu B1 khng quen vi B2 , B3 , B4 th
B2 , B3 , B4 i mt quen nhau. V th B1 phi c t nht ba ngi quen trong
s B2 , B3 , , B6 . Khi trong s ba ngi ny khng tm c hai ngi quen
nhau, ngc li h to vi A v B1 thnh b bn ngi i mt quen nhau. Tri
vi gi thit, suy ra tn ti b bn m hai ngi bt k quen nhau.
b. Ta chng minh cho khng nh trn vn ng.
Nu ngi no quen vi tt c su ngi th chng minh s tng t phn
a. Nu mi ngi quen c ng nm ngi th tng s cc cp quen nhau s l
9.5/2 khng l s nguyn- iu ny khng th xy ra.
Cui cng nu tm c mt ngi no khng quen vi t nht bn ngi
th bn ngi ny phi i mt quen nhau (nu khc ta s tm c b ba i
mt khng quen nhau) c ngha l to thnh b bn cn tm- l iu phi
chng minh.
V d 3.2.5. Mi bn t gii my trong k thi v ch ton quc?

Ba bn Qun, Hng, Mnh va t gii nht, nh, ba trong k thi hc sinh
gii ton quc. Bit rng:
1. Khng c hc sinh trng chuyn no t gii cao hn Qun.
2. Nu Qun t gii thp hn mt bn no th Qun khng phi l hc
sinh trng chuyn.
3. Ch c duy nht mt bn khng hc trng chuyn.
4. Nu Hng hoc Mnh t gii nh, th Mnh t gii cao hn bn qu
Hi Phng.
Hy cho bit: Mi bn t c gii no? Bn no khng hc trng
chuyn v bn no qu Hi Phng?
Li gii: Ta nhn xt rng: Nu Qun t gii nh hoc ba, th theo (2) Qun
khng hc trng chuyn. Ta suy ra, theo (3) Hng v Mnh hc trng chuyn,
thnh th theo (1) Qun t gii nht. iu ny v l. Vy Qun phi t gii
nht. Trong hai bn Hng v Mnh mt ngi t gii nh v mt ngi t
gii ba. Mnh khng th t gii ba (v theo (4) Mnh cn t gii cao hn bn
qu Hi Phng).
31
Vy Mnh phi t gii nh, Hng t gii ba. ng thi ta cng suy ra
Qun khng hc trng chuyn v Hng qu Hi Phng.
V d 3.2.6. Ai ni a?
Nh trng c thy Nghim dn bn hc sinh L, Huy, Hong, Tin i thi
u in kinh. Kt qu ba em t gii nht, nh, ba v mt em khng t gii.
Khi v trng mi ngi hi kt qu cc em tr li nh sau:
L: Mnh t gii nh hoc ba.
Huy: Mnh t gii.
Hong: Mnh c gii nht.
Tin: Mnh khng c gii.
Nghe xong thy Nghim mm ci v ni: "Ch c ba bn ni tht cn mt
bn ni a "
Hy cho bit hc sinh no ni a v ai t gii nht, ai khng t gii?
Li gii:
1) Nu L ni a th ba bn Huy, Hong, Tin ni tht. Nh vy L v
Hong cng t gii nht. iu ny v l. Vy L phi ni tht.
2) Nu Huy ni a th Huy khng c gii v c ba bn cn li u ni
tht. Nh vy c Huy, Tin u khng t gii. iu ny tri vi gi thit ca
u bi. Vy Huy phi ni tht.
3) Nu Tin ni a th Tin t gii v c ba bn cn li u t gii. Nh
vy c bn bn u t gii. iu ny tri vi gi thit. Nh vy Tin ni tht.
Vy Hong ni a. C ngha l Hong t gii nh hoc ba cho nn
Huy t gii nht. Cn Tin khng t gii.
Kt lun: Huy t gii nht, Tin khng t gii v Hong ni a.
V d 3.2.7. iu mu thun u?
Trong mt ta nh ch c nhng cp v chng v nhng con nh cha lp gia
nh. Ban iu tra dn s yu cu bo co v s ngi sng trong ta nh, i
din l mt anh th thch a bo co nh sau:
Sng trong ta nh b m nhiu hn con ci. Mi con trai u c mt ch hay
em gi. S con trai nhiu hn s con gi. Mi cp v chng u c con.
Ngi ta khng th chp nhn c bo co (d l a vui) v trong c
mu thun. Hy ch ra iu mu thun trong bo co trn?
Li gii: V mi gia nh u c con, mi con trai u c mt ch gi hay em
gi, nn tt c cc gia nh u c con gi. Suy ra s con gi t nht bng s gia
nh.
32
Mt khc, s con trai nhiu hn s con gi, nn tng s con nhiu hn hai
ln s gia nh, hay nhiu hn s b m, iu ny cho ta thy mu thun trong
bo co ca anh th thch a cu u tin "b m nhiu hn con ci" vi
cc cu tip theo.
V d 3.2.8. Khi t chc ma ht tp th mt gio vin xp 20 n sinh v

mt s nam sinh thnh vng trn sao cho i din vi mt n sinh qua tm
vng trn l mt nam sinh. Hi trn vng trn ny c hai nam sinh no ng
k nhau hay khng?
Li gii: Gi s khng c hai nam sinh no ng k nhau, v vy cng khng

c hai n sinh no ng k nhau. Do cc bn nam sinh v n sinh c xp
xen k nhau trn vng trn, suy ra c tt c l 20 nam sinh.
Ly hai bn nam v n ng v tr i xng nhau qua tm vng trn. Bt
u t n sinh ny ta nh s cc bn ng trn mt na vng trn cho n
nam sinh i din. R rng bn n ny c nh s 1 v bn nam i din
nh s 21. Khi cc bn n ln lt c nh s 1, 3, 5, , 19, cn cc bn
nam c nh s 2, 4, 6, , 20. Do c hai bn nam sinh c nh s 20 v
21 ng k nhau. iu ny mu thun vi gi thit ban u.
Vy phi lun lun c hai nam sinh ng k nhau.
V d 3.2.9. Trong tm vin bi c b ngoi hon ton ging nhau c mt vin bi

nng hn. Bng hai ln cn trn a (khng c dng qu cn). Hy xc nh
vin bi nng ?
Li gii: u tin chia tm vin bi thnh ba ng theo s lng 3, 3, 2. Trong

ln cn th nht ta b mi bn a cn mt ng gm ba vin bi. C hai kh
nng xy ra:
a) Nu cn thng bng. Th vin bi nng nm trong ng hai vin bi.
Khi , ta tin hnh cn hai vin bi ng gm hai vin. Mi bn a b
mt vin bi ng hai vin bi. Vin bn chm chnh l vin bi nng hn.
b) Nu cn khng thng bng, th bn chm cha vin bi nng hn.
Khi ta tin hnh cn ln th hai. B mi a mt vin bi trong ba vin
bn chm.
Nu cn thng bng, th vin bi nng hn chnh l vin bi cn li nm trn
a chm.
Nu cn khng thng bng, th vin bi nng hn chnh l vin bi bn chm.
Vy ch bng hai ln cn ta xc nh c vin bi nng hn.
33
V d 3.2.10. Hc sinh lp 11 v 12 t chc thi u c vi nhau. S hc sinh

lp 11 tham gia gp 10 ln s hc sinh lp 12 tham gia thi u xong im hc
sinh lp 11 gp 4, 5 ln s im hc sinh lp 12.
Hy tnh xem c bao nhiu hc sinh tham gia u c. (Ni quy thi u l mi
ngi thi u mt ln vi tt c nhng ngi cn li, ngi thng ghi 1 im
ngi thua ghi 0 im). Bit rng tt c cc trn u khng c trn no ha.
Li gii: Gi s hc sinh lp 12 tham gia u c l x. Khi s hc sinh lp

11 tham gia u c l 10x v c tt c l 11x em tham gia u c.
S trn u c tt c l 11x(11x1)
2 trn v cng c chng y im thng.
S im thng ca hc sinh lp 11 t c l
4, 5 11x (11x 1)
= 4, 5x (11x 1)
5, 5 2
10x(101)
Cc em hc sinh lp 11 s thi u vi nhau 2 trn v s c s im l
5x (10x 1)
Hin nhin ta phi c
4, 5x(11x 1) 5x(10x 1)
99x2 9x 100x2 10x
x x2 .
iu ny ch xy ra khi x = 1. Vy c 11 em tham gia u c.
34
Chng 4
Phng php th
Rt nhiu bi ton c th gii bng cch a v bi ton trn th ri suy

ra p n.
4.1 Mt s khi nim v kt qu c bn ca l

thuyt th
Trn mt phng hay trong khng gian ly n im. Gia mt s cp im
c ni bng nhng on thng hay on cong c nh hng hoc khng.
Ngi ta gi hnh nhn c l dng biu din hnh hc ca th hay mt
th. Cc im chn c gi l nh ca th. Cc on thng hay on
cong ni c gi l cnh ca th.
Nu cnh a ni gia hai im A, B th A, B c gi l cc nh ca cnh a.
Cp nh x, y c gi l hai nh k nhau, nu chng khc nhau v l hai
u ca cng mt cnh.
Dy cc nh
x1 , x2 , , xi , xi+1 , , xm1 , xm
c gi l mt ng, nu vi mi ch s i(1 i m 1) u c xi v xi+1 l

hai nh k nhau. Cc nh x1 , xm c gi l cc nh u ca ng . Ngi
ta cn ni rng ng ni gia nh x1 v nh xm .
Chu trnh l mt ng c hai u trng nhau.
Chu trnh m n i qua mi nh khng qu mt ln c gi l chu trnh
s cp.
Chu trnh () c gi l chu trnh Hamilton, nu n i qua tt c cc nh
ca th v qua mi nh ng mt ln.
35
Chng 4. Phng php th
th G c gi l th lin thng, nu mi cp nh ca n u c ng
ni vi nhau.
th G c gi l th y nu mi cp nh ca n c ni vi
nhau bng ng mt cnh.
S cnh xut pht t nh x c gi l bc ca nh x.
Cy l th lin thng v khng c chu trnh.
Trong cy T tch ra mt nh c gi l nh gc, cn cc nh c bc bng
1 v khng phi gc c gi l l hay nh ngn.
nh l 4.1.1. th m trong tng bc ca hai nh ty u khng nh

hn s nh ca th, lin thng.
nh l 4.1.2. th m trong bc ca mi nh u khng nh hn 2, lun

lun c chu trnh s cp.
H qu 4.1.1. Nu trong th c ng 2 nh bc 1, cc nh khc c bc

khng nh hn 2, th trong G c ng ni gia hai nh bc 1.
nh l 4.1.3. th, m trong tng bc ca hai nh ty khng nh hn

s nh ca th, lun lun c chu trnh Hamilton.
nh l 4.1.4. Trong mt th ty s nh, m mi nh c bc l, lun

lun l mt s chn.
nh l 4.1.5. Cho dy s nguyn dng a1 = 2, a2 = 5, , an+1 = (n+ 1)an + 1.

Khi th y an+1 nh vi cc cnh c t bng n mu lun lun c
tam gic cng mu (chu trnh gm ba cnh cng mu).
nh l 4.1.6. Cho dy s nguyn b2 = 3, b3 = 6, bn+1 = (bn 1)n + 2. th y

G vi bn+1 1 nh (n 2) v cc cnh c t bng n mu, sao cho khng
c tam gic cng mu, th trong th G c hnh 5 cnh vi cc cnh cng mu
v cc ng cho c t cc mu khc.
4.2 Phng php th

gii bi ton T bng cch thng qua th, cn thc hin ln lt hai
bc sau
36
Chng 4. Phng php th
4.2.1 Xy dng th m t cc quan h

Ly cc im trn mt phng hoc trong khng gian tng ng vi cc i
tng cho trong bi ton. Dng ngay cc k hiu i tng ghi trn im
tng ng...
Cp im x, y c ni vi nhau bng mt cnh vi "c im t", khi v ch
khi cc i tng x, y c quan h (t) vi nhau. Khi bi ton T c chuyn
v bi ton D trn th.
4.2.2 Da vo cc kt qu ca l thuyt th hoc l lun

trc tip suy ra p n ca bi ton D
Nu p n ca bi ton D cn di dng "ngn ng th", th cn c vo
php t tng ng khi xy dng th m din t thnh p n bng ngn
ng thng thng (tc l p n ca bi ton T ).
4.3 Mt s v d
V d 4.3.1. Trong mt cuc thi u bng bn An v Bnh quy c vi nhau:
Ngi thng cuc l ngi u tin thng ba vn hoc thng hai vn lin tip.
Hy xc nh s kh nng c th xy ra?
Li gii: Dng A k hiu An thng, B k hiu Bnh thng. Dng cy

m t ton b hin trng c kh nng xy ra.
Xy dng cy: Xut pht t im S .
Vn u tin c hai kh nng xy ra: An thng hoc Bnh thng, nn ly hai
im sao cho hai im ny vi S khng thng hng. Mt trong hai im ny ghi
A, cn im kia ghi B . Ni S vi A bng mt on thng hoc mt on cong
biu th A thng. Tng t, biu th B thng ni S vi B bng mt on
thng hoc mt on cong.
Vn th hai li c hai kh nng: An thng hoc Bnh thng, nn xut pht
t A cng ly hai im mi v ghi cc k hiu tng ng A, B v t A k hai
on thng hoc hai on cong ti hai im mi thm. i vi im B cng
chn thm hai nh mi ghi A v B , ri t B k hai on thng hay hai on
cong ti hai im mi thm.
Tip theo thc hin ko di cc ng mt cch tng t, nhng do quy c
ca An v Bnh nhng ng m trn xut hin hoc hai nh lin tip ghi
37
Chng 4. Phng php th
cng bng mt k hiu hoc c ba nh c ghi bng cng mt k hiu u

khng c ko di.
A A
A
A A
B B
S
B
B B B
B B A
A A
A B
Hnh 4.1
V An v Bnh u vi nhau nm vn, th hoc c ngi thng hai vn lin

tip hoc c ngi thng ba vn. Do nhng ng xut pht t S u khng
c qu nm cnh. (Hnh 4.1)
Cy c 10 nh ngn nn c 10 kh nng xy ra.
V d 4.3.2. Trn o c mt s cm dn c. Mi cm dn c c hai ng

ln v ba ng mn i ra. Mi ng ln cng nh ng mn u dn ti
mt cm dn c khc. Hai cm dn c khc nhau bt k c ni lin bng hoc
ng ln hoc ng mn. Hi trn o ny c bao nhiu ng mn, bao nhiu
ng ln?
Li gii: Trc ht ta cn khng nh rng trn o c su cm dn c.

Tht vy, mi cm dn c ta biu din bng mt im. Hai cm dn c c
ng ln (ng mn) ni vi nhau, th hai cm tng ng c ni bng mt
ng nt lin (ng nt t). V xut pht t mi cm dn c c hai ng
38
Chng 4. Phng php th
ln v ba ng mn i ra, nn xut pht t mi im chn, chng hn A,

c hai ng nt lin v ba ng nt t. Bi vy mi im chn A c
ni vi cc im khc B, C, D, E, F bng mt ng nt lin hoc mt ng nt
t. Nh vy phi c t nht su cm dn c (6 im chn). Mt khc hai
cm dn c ty u phi c ng ni vi nhau, nn mi im u ch c th
ni ti vi nm im. Do khng cn im no ngoi su im A, B, C, D, E, F .
Bi vy, c su ng ln v chn ng nh.
Cn c vo yu cu ca bi ton ta c th a ra mt vi kh nng xy ra
cc ng ni gia cc cm dn c nh hnh 4.2.
D D
C C
E E
B B
F F
A Hnh 4.2 A
V d 4.3.3. Ti mt gii bng c bn i Anh, an Mch, H Lan, Thy

in vo bn kt. C my d on xp hng nh sau
1. an Mch v ch, Thy in nh.
2. an Mch nh, H Lan ba.
3. Anh nh, H Lan t.
Kt qu l mi d on ng c mt i. Hy cho bit kt qu xp hng
ca cc i?
Li gii: Dng xi k hiu i x c xp hng i(1 i 4). Ta v cy, hai

nhnh u tin ng vi d on th nht l D1 , T2 . T mi nhnh ny ta li c
hai nhnh tng ng vi d on th hai. Tip tc r nhnh vi d on th
ba.
Ta chn ng i t gc 0 ti cc im tha mn cc iu kin:
Mt i khng th c xp hai hng khc nhau.
Hai i khng th xp cng mt hng.
39
Chng 4. Phng php th
Suy ra ch c ng i D1 H3 A2 tha mn.
H4 A2 H4 H4 A2 H4
A2 A2
D2 H3 D2 H3
D1 T2
HnhO4.3
ng t m D1 H3 A2 tha mn iu kin mi d on ng c mt i
m th t ghi trn ng. Vy kt qu xp hng nh sau:
an Mch v ch.
Anh nh.
H Lan ba.
Cn li l Thy in th t.
V d 4.3.4. Cho 6 s nguyn dng ty . Chng minh rng lun c th chn
ra c 2 b 3 s m trong mi b, tng i mt u l nguyn t cng nhau
hoc u khng nguyn t cng nhau.
Li gii:
Bc 1: Chuyn bi ton sang bi ton v th mu G(X, E).
- nh: Cho tng ng mi s vi mt nh X = {A, B, C, D, E, F }
- Cnh: on ni gia hai nh tng ng vi hai s
Nguyn t cng nhau c t mu xanh (ng nt t).
Khng nguyn t cng nhau c t mu (ng nt lin).
Khi , ta c bi ton th mu: Trong th y G(X, E) c 6 nh

vi hai cnh mu, th lun lun c th tm c hai tam gic vi cnh cng
mu.
Gi s nh A l mt ca AB, AC, AD cng mu (ng nt lin) nh
hnh v di y
40
Chng 4. Phng php th
A C
D
Hnh 4.4
Ta xt tam gic c lp nn t ba nh i ca A l BCD. Trong tam gic

BCD hai kh nng c th xy ra:
1) C t nht mt cnh mu . Chng hn cnh BC mu , khi tam
gic ABC c cnh mu . (Hnh 4.5a)
2) Tam gic BCD khng c cnh no mu . Ngha l tam gic BCD c
cnh u l mu xanh. (Hnh 4.5b)
E
B
D
F
A C
C B
A D
Hnh 4.5a Hnh 4.5b
Vy vi mi trng hp, trong th G u c tam gic cng mu (theo
nh l (4.1.5))
Gi s rng trong G c tam gic mu , chng hn tam gic ABC mu .
Ta chng minh tip G cn c tam gic th hai na vi cc cnh cng mu.
Nu trong G, ta tm thi khng xt n mt nh ca tam gic ABC , chng
hn nh A cng tt c cc cnh thuc n. Ta c th con y G1 c 5
nh.
Nu trong G1 c tam gic cng mu, th bi ton c gii xong.
41
Chng 4. Phng php th
Ngc li, trong G1 khng c tam gic cng mu, th theo nh l (4.1.6) vi
n = 2, ta c th biu din G1 thnh mt hnh 5 cnh vi cc cnh mu v
ng cho mu xanh.
By gi, ta khi phc li nh th 6 A v cc cnh mu thuc n. Xt hai
cnh AD v AF nu chng u mu xanh th ta c tam gic mi ADF c mu
xanh. Nu AD hoc AF mu th ta c tam gic mu na c hnh thnh
l ABD hoc ACF . Vy ngoi tam gic ABC , ta c thm mt tam gic na c
cc cnh cng mu. Khng nh c chng minh.
E
E
F D
F D
C B
C B
Hnh 4.6 A
Bc 3: Thuyt minh li gii

Trong G lun tn ti hai tam gic vi cnh cng mu. Nu c hai tam gic
u mu , th ta c hai b ba s, m trong mi b chng i mt nguyn t
cng nhau. Nu ch c mt tam gic mu , th ta c mt b ba s i mt
nguyn t cng nhau, v mt b ba s i mt khng nguyn t cng nhau.
Nu c hai tam gic mu xanh, ngha l ta c hai b ba s, m trong mi b,
chng i mt khng nguyn t cng nhau.
V d 4.3.5. mng con t gii trong k thi ton quc t ln th 42, mt gia
nh d nh mi tic. Trong s khch mi:
a) Ngi chng mun c t nht ba ngi tng i mt quen nhau.
42
Chng 4. Phng php th
b) Ngi v li mun c t nht bn ngi tng i mt cha quen nhau.

Hi h phi mi t nht bao nhiu bn, mong mun ca chng ca v c
tha mn?
Li gii:
Bc 1: Xy dng th G(X, E) m t quan h ca cc i tng.
nh: Mi khch cho tng ng vi mt nh.
Cnh: on ni gia hai nh tng ng vi hai khch:
Quen nhau c t mu xanh (nt lin).

Khng quen nhau t mu (nt t).
Khi th G(X, E) m t quan h quen bit ca cc khch d kin mi.

Theo cch xy dng trn, thc hin yu cu ca ngi chng, th trong s
khch mi phi c 3 ngi quen nhau tng i mt, nn th G(X, E) phi
c t nht mt tam gic mu xanh, cn tha mn yu cu ca ngi v, th
trong s khch mi phi c t nht 4 ngi tng i mt khng quen bit nhau,
nn trong G(X, E) phi c t nht mt t gic m cc cnh v cc ng cho
ca n phi c mu . Do bi ton c dn v bi ton trn th: Tm
s nh t nht th y G(X, E) vi cc cnh mu xanh hoc m
a) Hoc c ba nh c ni vi nhau bi cnh mu xanh,
b) Hoc bn nh tng i mt c ni vi nhau bi cnh mu .
Bc 2: Gii bi ton th G
1) Nu G c 8 nh th c th xy ra trng hp m c (a) ln (b) khng tha
mn. Nh cch t mu G hnh 4.7, th khng c tam gic no xanh, hoc t
gic no vi cnh v ng cho cng mu .
43
Chng 4. Phng php th
x1
x8
x2
x7
x3
x6
x4
x5
Hnh 4.7
2) Xt G(X, E) y vi 9 nh, cc cnh c t bng hai mu xanh, .
X = {x1 , x2 , . . . , x8 , x9 }
Hai kh nng c th xy ra:

10 ) C 4 cnh mu xanh xut pht t mt nh.
Chng hn x1 c 4 cnh x1 x2 , x1 x3 , x1 x4 , x1 x5 mu xanh. Khi nu trong cc
cnh ni i mt gia 4 nh x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 c mt cnh xanh, gi s cnh x3 x4
xanh, th c tam gic x1 x3 x4 cnh xanh hnh 4.8 a c tha mn, nu khng
th t gic x2 x3 x4 x5 c cnh v cc ng cho mu hnh 4.8 b, (b) c tha
mn.
44
Chng 4. Phng php th
x2 x2
x1 x3 x1 x3
x4
x4
x5 x5
Hnh 4.8 a Hnh 4.8 b
C nhiu nht l 3 cnh mu xanh xut pht t mi nh.
20 )
Bi vy, phi c t nht mt nh, x1 chng hn, l u mt ca khng qu 2
cnh mu xanh (v nu mi nh l u mt ca ng 3 cnh mu xanh, th s
cnh mu xanh l 39 2 / N). Khi , ti x1 phi l u mt ca t nht 6 cnh
. Gi s 6 cnh l x1 x4 , x1 x5 , x1 x6 , x1 x7 , x1 x8 , x1 x9 .
Xt th con y G1 c 6 nh x4 , x5 , . . . , x9 vi 2 mu cnh. Theo nh
l (4.1.5) vi n = 2, trong G1 c tam gic cng mu. Nu l tam gic mu xanh,
th (a) c tha mn, nu l tam gic mu th 3 nh ny cng vi nh x1
to thnh th con y c 4 nh vi cc cnh u mu , (b) c tha
mn.
x2
x3
x4
x5
x1
x6
x7
x9 x8
Hnh 4.9
Bc 3: Chuyn v ngn ng xut pht.
45
Chng 4. Phng php th
th y vi 9 nh, cc cnh c t bng hai mu xanh, th lun

c hoc tam gic xanh hoc t gic m cc cnh v ng cho u mu ,
nhng vi 8 nh th tnh cht trn khng tn ti. Vy s nh ca th G phi
t nht bng 9, nn s khch t nht h phi mi l 9, th mong mun ca v
hoc chng c tha mn.
V d 4.3.6. Ly n(n 4) s nguyn dng khc nhau ty , sao cho c 4 s

bt k c t nht mt s c c chung vi 3 s cn li. Chng minh rng trong
cc s chn ra c t nht n 3 s, m mi s ny c c chung vi tt c cc
s chn ra.
Li gii:
Bc 1: Xy dng th m t cc quan h.
nh: Ly n im trn mt phng hay trong khng gian tng ng vi cc
s chn ra v ghi cc s ny ln cc im tng ng.
Cnh: Cp im x, y c ni bng mt on thng hay on cong khng i
qua cc im tng ng trung gian khc khi v ch khi cp x, y c c chung.
th G nhn c m t ton b quan h c c chung gia cc s chn
ra.
Bc 2: Chng minh trong th G c t nht n 3 nh c bc n 1
a) Nu trong G c hai cp nh khng k nhau, th chng phi c nh chung.
Tht vy, gi s trong G c hai cp nh khng k nhau, chng hn A, B v C, D
nhng chng khng c nh chung. Khi trong 4 nh ny khng c mt nh
no k vi 3 nh cn li. Ta i ti mu thun vi gi thit. Vy hai cp A, B v
C, D phi c mt nh chung chng hn B D .
b) Trong th G c khng t hn n 3 nh c bc n 1
- Nu trong G tt c cc nh u k nhau tng i mt, th c n nh ca
G u c bc n 1.
- Nu trong G c duy nht mt cp nh khng k nhau, th G c n 2 nh
bc n 1.
- Gi s G c hai cp nh khng k nhau, khi theo phn a) hai cp nh
ny phi c nh chung. Gi s cc nh l A, B, C . Nu s dng ng nt
t biu th tnh khng k nhau ca cc nh ta c hnh 4.10a.
Kt np nh E ty vo nhm A, B, C . Khi trong b 4: A, B, C, E phi
c t nht mt nh k vi 3 nh cn li. nh ny khng th l cc nh A, B, C
m phi l E . Vy E k vi c ba nh A, B, C . (Hnh 4.10b)
46
Chng 4. Phng php th
A B A B
C C
Hnh 4.10a Hnh 4.10b

Loi b mt trong ba nh A, B, C khi b 4, chng hn C v kt np nh
ty F . Khi trong b 4 mi A, B, E, F li c t nht mt nh k vi 3 nh
cn li. Nu F l nh k vi 3 nh cn li, th n phi k vi E , nn trong mi
trng hp E vn l nh k vi 3 nh cn li. (Hnh 4.11)
A B
E F
Hnh 4.11
V F l nh ty ca th G v khc vi cc nh A, B, C, E nn E k vi
tt c cc nh cn li ca G. Bi vy, bc ca E bng n 1.
nh E li c chn mt cch ty trong cc nh ca th G khc vi
A, B, C nn trong G ch c ba nh A, B, C bc nh hn n 1.
Bc 3: Thuyt minh li gii
Theo cch xc nh cnh ca th G cp nh x, y k nhau khi v ch khi
cp s x, y c c chung, m trong G l c t nht n 3 nh k vi tt c cc
nh cn li. Do trong n s chn ra c t nht n 3 s c c chung vi
tt c cc s cn li.
47
Chng 4. Phng php th
V d 4.3.7. Mt c quan cn tuyn ba ngi thnh lp mt nhm c

nng lc bin dch cc ti liu t su th ting: Anh, Php, Nga, c, Trung
Quc v B o Nha sang ting Vit. C by ngi n d tuyn, trong mi
ngi u bit hai v ch hai trong su th ting ni trn v bt c hai ngi no
cng bit nhiu nht mt th ting chung trong su th ting . Bit rng th
ting no cng c t nht hai ngi bit. Liu c th xy ra trng hp khng
tuyn chn c nh yu cu nu hay khng?
Li gii: Ta s chng minh khng nh ng, tc l c th tuyn chn c

nh yu cu nu.
1. Trc ht chng minh khng nh
Cho n th G c 6 nh v 7 cnh, bc ca mi nh ln hn hoc bng
2. Khi trong G lun tm c 3 cnh i mt khng k nhau.
a) th G lin thng.
Tht vy, nu G khng lin thng th do G gm 6 nh vi bc khng b hn
2, phi chia thnh 2 tam gic nn G ch c 6 cnh. Ta i ti mu thun vi iu
kin th gm 7 cnh.
b) th phi c chu trnh
Tht vy, nu G khng c chu trnh v G li lin thng nn G l mt cy.
Khi G c nh treo, tc l nh bc 1, nn mu thun vi iu kin bc ca
mi nh thuc G u khng b hn 2.
c) V 7 2 = 14 = 6 2 + 2, nn G phi c 2 nh bc 3 hoc 1 nh bc 4,
cc nh cn li bc 2.
Ta xt tng trng hp:
Trng hp a: G c mt nh bc 4 (chng hn nh A). Khng mt tnh
tng qut, ta gi s 4 cnh xut pht t A l AB, AD, AN, AT.
Lc nh P khng th k vi A, phi k vi 2 nh khc, chng hn P v
N v 2 nh cn li (B v D ) phi k nhau. Khi ba cnh khng k nhau tng
i mt l BD, NT, P A. (Hnh 4.12)
48
Chng 4. Phng php th
B
P
D
Hnh 4.12 N
Trng hp b: G c hai nh bc 3. Gi s A v P l hai nh bc 3. V G

lin thng, nn c t nht mt ng i t A n P . Ta tm b ng i
(vn gi nguyn cc nh A v P ). C th xy ra hai kh nng:
b1 ) G khng cn lin thng. Nh vy, ta c hai chu trnh s cp phn bit,
mi chu trnh gm 3 cnh. Suy ra ta chn cnh AP v hai cnh khng k vi n
l BT, ND. (Hnh 4.13)
T P
B
A Hnh 4.13
b2 ) G vn lin thng. Nh vy ta cn mt chu trnh s cp (v mi nh u

c bc 2). Ta c 3 ng i t A n P (mt ng tm b, hai ng theo
chu trnh), trong ng ngn c di 1 hoc di 2.
49
Chng 4. Phng php th
B
N B
N T
A P
A P
D
D
Hnh 4.14a Hnh 4.14b
- Khi AP c di 1, trn chu trnh s cp c di 6 ta lun chn c ba
cnh khng k nhau AD, P T, BN . (Hnh 4.14a)
- Khi AP c di 2, ch vic chn mt cnh thuc ng i ngn nht t
A n P v hai cnh khng k vi n trn chu trnh s cp cn li, chng hn
AD, T P, NB hoc DP, AT, NB . (Hnh 4.14b)
Vy trong mi trng hp ta u tm c ba cnh i mt khng k nhau.
2. Chuyn bi ton v dng th
Dng 6 im tng ng vi 6 ngoi ng ni trn. Dng ngay ch ci u ca
tn ngoi ng ghi tn cc im tng ng: A, P, N, D, T, B .
Mi ngi bit hai ngoi ng no c biu th bi mt cnh ni hai nh
tng ng vi hai ngoi ng .
th nhn c k hiu l G.
C 7 ngi tham gia d tuyn v mi ngi bit hai ngoi ng, do th
G c 7 cnh.
Bt k hai ngi d tuyn no cng ch cng bit ti a mt ngoi ng ni
trn, nn trong th G khng c mt cp nh no c ni bng hai cnh.
Vy G l mt th n gm 6 nh 7 cnh. Do , theo khng nh trn,
lun lun tm c ba cnh khng k nhau tng i mt. Khi ch vic chn
ba ngi c biu th bng 3 cnh ni trn, th mi ngi ny u bit hai
ngoi ng v khng c hai ngi no cng bit mt ngoi ng. Do nhm ba
ngi ny bit tt c su ngoi ng: Anh, Php, Nga, c, Trung Quc v B
o Nha.
50
Chng 4. Phng php th
V d 4.3.8. Mi by nh khoa hc n d hi ngh Quc t. Mi ngi trong

s h ch bit mt trong ba ngoi ng: Anh, Nga, Php. Chng minh rng c t
nht 3 nh khoa hc cng bit mt trong ba ngoi ng ni trn.
Li gii:
1. Xy dng th m t quan h.
-) nh: Ly 17 im trn mt phng hay trong khng gian tng ng vi 17
nh khoa hc. Dng ngay tn cc nh khoa hc ghi trn cc im tng ng.
-) Cnh t mu: Cp im x, y c ni bng on thng hay on cong t
Mu xanh khi v ch khi hai nh khoa hc tng ng cng bit ting Php.
Mu vng khi v ch khi hai nh khoa hc tng ng cng bit ting Anh.
Mu khi v ch khi hai nh khoa hc tng ng cng bit ting Nga.
th G nhn c m t ton b hin trng v ngoi ng ca cc nh khoa

hc n d hi ngh.
2. p n ca bi ton bng ngn ng th
th G gm 17 nh, y v cc cnh c t bng ba mu, nn theo
nh l 4.1.5, vi n = 3, c tam gic cng mu, khi ba nh khoa hc tng
ng vi cc nh ca tam gic cng bit mt trong ba ngoi ng: Anh, Php,
Nga.
V d 4.3.9. Mt qun o c 2n(n 1) hn o. Mi hn o c ng ngm

ni trc tip vi t nht n hn o khc. Chng minh rng t mt hn o bt
k thuc qun o u c th i ti bt k hn o no khc thuc qun o ny
bng ng ngm.
Li gii:
1. Xy dng th m t cc quan h
nh: Ly 2n im tng ng vi 2n hn o. Dng ngay tn cc hn o

ghi cc im tng ng.
Cnh: Cp im x, y c ni bng mt on thng hoc mt on cong

khng i qua cc im chung gian khc khi v ch khi hai hn o tng
ng c ng ngm ni vi nhau.
51
Chng 4. Phng php th
th nhn c k hiu bng G. N m t ton b mi lin h bng ng

ngm ca qun o.
2. p n ca bi ton bng "ngn ng th"
i vi mi nh x ca th G s cnh xut pht t n bng ng s ng
ngm xut pht t hn o tng ng. Bi vy bc ca mi nh khng nh
hn n, nn tng bc ca hai nh ty khng nh hn s nh ca th (2n).
Khi , theo nh l (4.1.1), th G lin thng. Do hai nh ty x, y ca
th G c ng ni vi nhau. Mt khc, mi cnh ca ng ny biu th
mt ng ngm ni trc tip gia hai hn o, nn ng ni gia hai nh
x, y biu th ng ngm ni gia hai hn o tng ng vi x v y . Do t
hn o bt k u c th i bng ng ngm ti cc hn o cn li ca qun
o.
52
Chng 5
Phng php bng
5.1 Gii thiu v phng php bng

Nhiu bi ton ph thng c th gii bng cch lp bng m t mi quan h
gia cc i tng c cho trong bi ton.
i vi mt s bi ton ph thng trong xut hin hai hay nhiu i
tng v cc cp phn t ni ln mi quan h gia cc tp ngi ta c th thit
lp mt hay nhiu bng, m t mi quan h gia cc tp.
Mi bng ny c hng trn cng ghi cc phn t ca mt tp, cn ct tn
cng bn tri ghi cc phn t thuc tp kia v cc v tr trong bng ghi m s
quan h gia cc phn t thuc cc tp.
Cn c vo cc iu kin cho trong bi ton gch b i nhng cp phn
t khng thch hp t i n li gii ca bi ton.
5.2 Mt s v d minh ha
V d 5.2.1. Trong bui hc n cng ba bn Cc, o, Hng lm ba bng hoa:
cc, o, hng. Bn lm hoa hng ni vi bn Cc "Th l trong chng ta khng
c ai lm loi hoa trng vi tn mnh". Hy xc nh tn hoa m mi bn
lm?
Li gii:
Bi ton ny c hai tp i tng. Tp th nht gm cc bn lm hoa, tp
th hai gm cc bng hoa c lm. Ta c th gii bng phng php bng nh
sau
1. Lp bng
53
Chng 5. Phng php bng
Bng cn lp gm 4 hng v 4 ct. Hng u, t ct th hai ghi ln lt tn

cc bng hoa c lm vit tt l cc ch ci u, cn trn ct tn cng bn
tri t hng hai ghi ln lt tn cc bn tham gia lm hoa vit tt l ch ci
u vit hoa.
2. in m s quan h vo cc v tr ca bng
a) Cn c vo gi thit: Mi bn u khng lm hoa trng vi tn mnh, m
in m "k" vo cc nm trn ng cho chnh.
hoa
c d h
Nguoi
k
C k
D k
H k
Bng 5.1
b) Cn c vo cu "Bn lm hoa hng ni vi bn Cc" suy ra bn Cc

khng phi lm hoa hng, m ghi m "k" vo nm hng Cc, ct hng.
3. Loi b v tr khng tha mn quan h nhn c li gii
Trong bng trn ct cui v tr 1 v 3 b gch b, nn v tr duy nht cn li
l v tr th hai phi tha mn quan h gia ngi lm hoa v hoa c lm.
Do bn o lm hoa hng.
V trn hng 2 o c v tr tha mn quan h nn ton b hng ny b
loi ra khi din xt. Bi vy ct Cc ch cn v tr cui cng trong din xt.
Bi vy n phi tha mn quan h gia ngi lm hoa v hoa c lm, nn
bn Hng lm hoa cc.
T suy ra ngi cn li bn Cc phi lm hoa o.
Vy Bn Cc lm hoa o, Bn o lm hoa hng, Bn Hng lm hoa cc.
V d 5.2.2. Ba bn Long, Hoan, Lan u l hc sinh gii ton. C gio thng

cho ba bn th chi l: Bp b, t v con quay in. Bit rng bn Long
khng thch chi bp b, bn Hoan khng nhn bp b v cng khng thch t.
Hi c gio thng cho ai chi g?
Li gii: Bi ton gm hai nhm i tng:
54
Nhm th nht gm cc bn: Long, Hoan, Lan.
Nhm th hai l cc chi m c gio thng cho cc bn: Bp b, t,

con quay.
Ta lp mt bng c hng trn l tn cc bn, v ct bn tri l cc chi.
Long Hoan Lan
Bp b 0 0
t 0
Con quay
Bng 5.2
Nhn vo bng, ta suy lun v c kt qu sau:
Lan c thng con bp b.
Long c thng t.
Hoan c thng con quay.
V d 5.2.3. C su em hc sinh: An, Bnh, Nam, Long, Trang, Minh tham

gia cuc thi leo ni. C hai em v c ch, p li cu hi ai v ti ch, c
nm cu tr li:
1. An v Nam.
2. Long v Trang.
3. Minh v Long.
4. An v Minh.
5. An v Linh.
Tht ra trong nm cu tr li trn c 4 cu m mi cu ch ng mt na

(ng mt tn), cn sai mt na, cn mt cu sai c hai tn. Hi ai v ti
ch ca cuc thi?
Li gii: Da vo nm cu tr li, ta lp bng sau:
55
An Long Nam Linh Trang Minh

1 1 1
2 1 1
3 1 1
4 1 1
5 1 1
Bng 5.3
Da vo Bng 5.3 suy lun ra p n:
Dng s 1 ch khng nh: "i tng v c ch". Bi vy trong Bng
5.3 ti v tr giao ca ct i tng v c ch v hng tng ng vi cu tr
li c tn i tng ny u c ghi s 1.
Theo gi thit, c 4 cu, m mi cu c 1 ng, nn bn hng tng ng
vi 4 cu ny u c ng mt s 1. Mt cu tr li sai c hai , nn hng tng
ng vi cu ny khng c s 1.
Nh vy, p n l cp i tng m trn Bng 5.3 sau ghi s 1 ch i tng
v ch c bn hng ghi mt s 1, mt hng khng c s 1 no.
Ta suy lun xut pht t cc i tng theo th t t tri sang phi, ng
thi kt hp thnh cp cng ln lt theo th t t tri sang phi.
1) Nu An v c ch, th ti ct 1 ca cc hng 1, 4, 5 c ghi s 1.
a) Nu Long v ti ch cng vi An, th thm ct 2 ca hng 2 v hng

3 c ghi s 1.
Nh vy, c 5 hng u c s 1, nn Long khng th kt hp vi An
v ti ch, hay Long b loi.
b) Nu Nam v ti ch cng vi An, th ct 3 ca hng 1 c ghi s 1.
Nh vy hng 1 c hai s 1, nn Nam b loi.
c) Nu Linh v ti ch cng vi An, th ti ct 3 ca hng 5 c ghi s
1.
Nh vy, hng 5 s c hai s 1, nn Linh b loi.
d) Nu Trang v ti ch cng vi An, thi ti ct 5 hng 2 c ghi s 1.
Nh vy, bn hng 1, 2, 4, 5 u c mt s 1, cn hng 3 khng c s 1
no, nn Trang c chp nhn v ti ch cng vi An.
e) Nu Minh v ti ch cng vi An, th ti ct 6 ca hng 4, hng 5 c
ghi s 1.
56
Nh vy, hng 4 c hai s 1, nn Minh b loi.
2) Nu Long v ti ch, th ti ct 2 hng 2 v hng 3 c ghi s 1.
a) Nu Nam v ti ch cng vi Long, th thm ct 3 hng 1 c ghi s

1. Nh vy, ti hng 1 c hai s 1, nn Nam b loi.
b) Nu Linh v ti ch cng vi Long, th thm ct 4 hng 5 c ghi s
1. Nh vy, ti hng 5 c hai s 1, nn Linh b loi.
c) Nu Trang v ti ch cng vi Long, th thm ct 6 hng 2 c ghi
s 1. Nh vy, ti hng 2 c hai s 1, nn Trang b loi.
d) Nu Minh v ti ch cng vi Long, th thm ct 7 hng 3 v hng 4
c ghi s 1. Nh vy, hng 1 v hng 5 khng c s 1, nn Minh b
loi.
Nh vy, nu Long v ti ch, th ch c mt ngi v ti ch, nn
Long b loi.
3) Nu Nam v ti ch, th ti ct 3 hng 1 ghi s 1.
a) Nu Linh v ti ch cng vi Nam, th thm ct 4 hng 5 c ghi s

1. Nh vy, ba hng 2, 3, 4 khng c s 1 nn Linh b loi.
b) Nu Trang v ti ch cng vi Nam, th thm ct 5 hng 2 c ghi
s 1. Nh vy, ba hng 3, 4, 5 khng c s 1, nn Trang b loi.
c) Nu Minh v ti ch cng vi Nam, th thm ct 6 hng 3, 4 c ghi
s 1. Nh vy, hng 2, 5 khng c s 1, nn Minh b loi.
Nh vy, nu Nam v ti ch, th ch v mt mnh, nn Nam b loi.
4) Nu Linh v ti ch, th ct 4 hng 5 c ghi s 1.
a) Nu Trang v ti ch cng vi Linh, th thm ct 5 hng 2 c ghi s

1. Nh vy, ba hng 1, 4, 5 khng c s 1, nn Trang b loi.
b) Nu Minh v ti ch cn vi Linh, th thm ct 6 hng 3, 4 c ghi
s 1. Nh vy, hai hng 1 v hng 5 khng c s 1, nn Minh b loi.
Nu Linh v ti ch, th ch v mt mnh, nn Linh b loi.
5) Nu Trang v ti ch, th ti ct 5 hng 2 c ghi s 1.

Nu Minh v ti ch cng vi Trang, th thm ct 6 hng 3, 4 c ghi s
1. Nh vy, hai hng 1, 5 khng c s 1, nn Minh b loi.
Ti phn 1, Trang kt hp c vi An v ch.
57
6) Nu Minh v ti ch, th ch v mt mnh, nn Minh b loi.
T qu trnh l lun trn, suy ra cp i tng duy nht v ti ch.

l em An v em Trang.
V d 5.2.4. Bn bn Thu, Hoa, Hoan, Trang nhn c im ca bi kim tra

cui hc k. Bn Lan cng lp mun bit im ca tng ngi. Khi Lan hi th
c cc bn p m tr li nh sau:
Thu ni: "Bn Trang c 7, Hoa c 8, Hoan c 9"
Hoa ni: "Bn Trang c 10, Hoan c 8, Thu c 9"
Hoan ni: "C ba bn u c 7"
Trang ni: "C ba bn u c 8"
Bit rng khng c bn no c ba bn ni cng ng vi s im ca mnh
v mi cu tr li trn ch ni ng s im ca mt ngi m thi. Hy tm
im ca mi ngi?
Li gii: Ta ghi im ca tng ngi trong cc cu tr li vo trong bng sau.

Mi hng l cu tr li ca bn. Mi ct l im ca mt bn m cc bn tr
li.
Thu Hoa Hoan Trang

Thu 8 9 7
Hoa 9 8 10
Hoan 7 7 7
Trang 8 8 8
Bng 5.4
Da vo bng 5.4 ng thi cn c vo iu kin: Khng c bn no c
hai bn ni ng im ca mnh ta suy ra:
Hoa khng c im 8.
Hoan khng c im 8.
Trang khng c im 7
Cn c vo iu kin: Mi cu tr li ch ng vi s im ca mt ngi ta
suy ra: Thu c 8, Hoa c 7, Hoan c 9 v Trang c 10.
V d 5.2.5. Lp em c 35 hc sinh, trong c 20 bn trai. Ch nht va qua

c 8 bn gi i xem phim v c 11 bn trai khng i xem. Hi c bao nhiu
bn khng i xem phim?
58
Li gii:
Trong bi ton ny ta xy dng hai nhm i tng l:
Nhm 1: Nam, N, Tt c.
Nhm 2: C xem phim, Khng xem phim, Tt c.
Ta lp mt bng c hng trn cng l nhm 1 v ct bn tri l nhm 2 nh
sau:
Nam N Tt c
C xem phim 9 8 17
Khng xem phim 11 7 18
Tt c 20 15 35
Bng 5.5
Da vo bng trn, ta c:
S bn nam c i xem l:
20 11 = 9(bn)
Suy ra: in 9 vo (C - Nam).

S bn i xem phim l:
9 + 8 = 17(bn)
Suy ra: in 17 vo (C - Tt c)
S bn khng i xem l:
35 17 = 18(bn)
Suy ra: in 18 vo (Khng - Tt c)

Vy c 18 bn khng i xem phim.
V d 5.2.6. Trong mt bung trn toa tu c 6 hnh khch A, B, V, G, D, E t

6 thnh ph M, L, K, T, X, O . Dc ng h pht hin ra:
1) A v mt ngi t M l bc s, D v mt ngi t L l gio vin, V v
mt ngi t T l k s.
2) B, E v mt ngi t K l cu chin binh, cn ngi t T cha nhp ng
bao gi.
59
3) Ngi t X gi hn A, ngi t O gi hn V , cn E l ngi tr nht hi.

4) B v ngi t M i K , cn V v ngi t X i O .
Hy xc nh xem ai l ngi thnh ph no v ngh nghip ca tng ngi?
Li gii:
Trc tin ta phi xc nh xem ai l ngi thnh ph no bng cch lp
bng hai chiu: chiu thng ng ghi tn ngi, chiu ngang ghi tn thnh ph.
Bng ny cha tt c cc kh nng c th kt hp tn ngi vi tn
thnh ph. Tc l mt tch cc ca hai tp: H = {A, B, V, G, D, E}; P =
{M, L, K, T, X, O}.
Quy c rng b gch b theo iu kin i s ghi s i trn (1 i 4).
Trong bi c ni A v ngi t M l bc s A khng l ngi t M
(A, M) trong bng phi b gch b (ta s ghi s 1 vo ny.)
Tip tc iu kin 1 ngi t L l gio vin, t T l k s suy ra A khng th
l ngi t L, T (v A: bc s) gch nt (A, L), (A, T ).
Hon ton tng t vi D ta thy anh ta khng phi t L, t M , t
T v V khng t T, L, M nn trong bng cc (D, M), (D, L), (D, T ) v
(V, M), (V, L), (V, T ) phi nh s 1 (Bng 5.6).
M L K T X O M L K T X O
A 1 1 1 A 1 1 1
B B 2 2
V 1 1 1 V 1 1 1
G G
D 1 1 1 D 1 1 1
E E 2 2
Bng 5.6 Bng 5.7

T iu kin s 2 suy ra B v E khng phi t T , nn cc (B, T ), (E, T )
phi ghi s 2. Ngoi ra B v E cng khng t K nn (B, K) v (E, K) cng phi
ghi s 2 (Bng 5.7).
60
Trn Bng 5.7 ta nhn thy ct T ch cn mt trng (G, T ) tc l G l

ngi t T . Bi vy ti (G, T ) t du v gch b nhng cn li ca hng
G (Bng 5.8).
A 1 1 1 A 1 1 1 3
B 2 2 B 4 2 2 4
V 1 1 1 V 1 1 1 4 3
G G
D 1 1 1 D 1 1 1
E 2 2 E 2 2 3 3
Bng 5.8 Bng 5.9

T iu kin 3 suy ra A v E khng t X , nn nh s 3 vo cc (E, X) v
(A, X), tng t cc (V, O) v (E, O) cng c ghi s 3 (Bng 5.9).
T iu kin 4 suy ra B khng t M v X , cn V cng khng t X . Bi vy
cn gch b (B, X), (B, M), (V, X) (ghi s 4 vo cc ny) (Bng 5.9).
Trong hng V cng nh trong cc ct M, X u cn duy nht mt , nn V
l ngi t K , E l ngi t M , D l ngi t X . Bi vy ta t du vo cc
(V, K), (E, M) v (O, X) ng thi gch nhng cn li, trn ct qua (V, K),
trn cc hng qua (D, X) v (E, M) (Bng 5.10).
Trong Bng 5.10 hng A ch cn duy nht (A, O) l trng, nn A l ngi
t O . Bi vy ti (A, O) t v gch trng cn li trn ct O l (B, O).
Khi trn hng B cn duy nht mt trng l (B, L), nn B l ngi t L v
(B, L) c ghi (Bng 5.11).
61
A 1 1 1 3 A 1 1 1 3
B 4 2 2 4 B 4 2 2 4
V 1 1 1 4 3 V 1 1 1 4 3
G G
D 1 1 1 D 1 1 1
E 2 2 3 3 E 2 2 3 3
Bng 5.10 Bng 5.11

Cn c vo iu kin cho t Bng 5.11 suy ra ngh nghip ca tng ngi
nh sau: A v E l bc s, D v B l gio vin, V v G l k s. V kt lun
c: Bc s A ngi O , gio vin B ngi L, gio vin D ngi X , bc s
E ngi M , k s G ngi T v k s V ngi K .
V d 5.2.7. C ba em b t Quy Nhn, Ninh Bnh v Hu ti d tri h. Chng

khc tui nhau v cng thch th thao. Ch c Long v em b t Quy Nhn chi
tennis, Loan v em b t Ninh Bnh chi bng, Dung chi c tng v ln hn
em b t Ninh Bnh. Cc em b chi tennis khng chi c. Em b chi c ln
nht.
Hi em b no n t thnh ph no v thch mn th thao no? Ai ln hn
ai?
Li gii: Trc tin ta xc nh xem ai l ngi thnh ph no? Thch mn th

thao no?
Ta lp bng hai chiu: Chiu thng ng ghi tn mn th thao v thnh ph,
chiu ngang ghi tn cc em b v thnh ph. Bng ny cha tt c cc kh nng
c th kt hp tn ngi v tn mn th thao a thch, tn ngi vi tn
thnh ph, tc l nhng tch cc ca hai tp hp: A X v A Y vi
A = {Long, Loan, Dung}
X = {T, B, C}
Y = {Q, N, H}
T gi thit ta c:
62
Do Long v em n t Q chi tennis, suy ra Long khng Q, v vy

(Q, Long) ghi 0.
Do Loan v em n t N chi bng , suy ra Loan khng N, v vy
(N, Loan) ghi 0
Suy ra Dung khng Q v em b t Q chi Tennis (m chi tennis th khng
chi c), do Dung H, v vy (H, Dung) nh du .
Suy ra cc cn li dng H gch b v cc (Q, Dung), (N, Dung) cng
gch b.
Dng Q cn li duy nht (Q, Loan) trng, nn ny nh du .
Dng N cn li duy nht (N, Long) trng, nn ny ghi du .
Cng t gi thit ta c:
cc (T, Long); (T, Q) ghi du
cc (B, Loan); (B, N) ghi du
(C, Dung) ghi du .
Vy: Long chi tennis v n t Ninh Bnh.
Loan chi bng v n t Quy Nhn.
Dung chi c v n t Hu.
Long Loan Dung Q N H
C
Q 0 0
N 0 0
H 0 0
Bng 5.12
63
T B C Q N H
Long
Loan
Dung
Bng 5.13
V d 5.2.8. Trong mt nhm 4 sinh vin c tn l B, V, N, P vi h l O, K, Z, H

v hc ti 4 kha 1, 2, 3, 4 cng trng. Hy xc nh h v tn nm hc ca tng
sinh vin bit rng:
(i) B l sinh vin c hc bng ton phn.
(ii) V h ti phi i thc tp, cn sinh vin c h H c ngh h v thm gia

nh.
(iii) N hc trc P mt kha.
(iv) B v sinh vin c h O l ngi cng qu.
(v) Sinh vin h K nm ngoi tt nghip ph thng trung hc v thi vo

khoa m sinh vin c h Z ang hc.
(vi) B i khi s dng v ghi nm ngoi ca V .
Li gii: Lp bng hai chiu. Chiu thng ng ghi tn sinh vin v 4 kha
hc: B, V, N, P, I, II, III, IV . Chiu nm ngang ghi h sinh vin v 4 kha hc:
O, K, Z, H, I, II, III, IV . Bng ny th hin y tt c cc quan h c th c
gia tn v h, tn v nm hc, h v nm hc.
64
O K Z H I II III IV
B 4 * 4 1 *
V 2
* *
N * *
P * *
I *
II *
III *
IV *
Bng 5.14
V hc bng ton phn khng bao gi cp cho sinh vin nm th nht, nn

t iu kin 1 suy ra B khng hc nm th nht, nn (B, I) ghi s 1.
V N hc hn P mt kha v V c v c (iu kin 6), nn ch P l sinh vin
nm th nht. bng ta ghi (P, I) bng mt du .
V B dng v nm ngoi ca V , nn B hc nm th III v V hc nm th
IV . Bi vy cc (B, III) v (V, IV ) c ghi du . Theo iu kin 5, sinh vin
h K hc nm th nht, nn (I, K) c ghi du . Nhng ta bit P hc
nm th nht nn P c h K , v vy (P, K) c ghi du . Do ta gch b
nhng cn li ca hng P v ct K .
T iu kin 2 suy ra V khng mang h H , nn ti (V, H) t s 2.
T iu kin 4 suy ra B khng mang h O , nn ti (B, O) t s 4.
Kt hp iu kin 2 v iu kin 4 suy ra B khng mang h H v B cng
qu vi sinh vin c h O , cn sinh vin h H v qu thm gia nh, nn ti
(B, H) t s 4.
Nhn thy hng B ch cn duy nht mt trng l (B, Z) suy ra sinh vin
B mang h Z , ta ghi vo (B, Z) du . Trn ct H ch cn (N, H) trng nn
N mang h H , ta ghi du vo (N, H). Trn hng N ta gch b nhng cn
li. Trn ct Z ta gch b nhng cn li. Nhn vo hng V ch cn duy nht
mt trng l (V, O), nn V mang h O v ghi vo (V, O) du .
Kt lun: Sinh vin B c h Z hc nm th III .
65
Sinh vin V c h O hc nm th IV .
Sinh vin N c h H hc nm th II .
Sinh vin P c h K hc nm th I .
66
Chng 6
Phng php s
y l phng php gn tng t nh phng php bng, song phng php

ny li th hn khi gii quyt cc bi ton m s tp ln hn 2.
6.1 Cc bc thc hin phng php s

6.1.1 Thit lp s
Ly cc nhm im trn mt phng hay trong khng gian tng ng vi cc
tp. Dng ngay k hiu cc i tng ghi trn cc im tng ng.
Mi cp im tng ng vi hai i tng c mt quan h no cho
trong bi ton c ni vi nhau bng mt on thng hoc mt on cong c
trng cho quan h m n biu th v khng i qua cc im tng ng chung
gian khc. Ta gi s nhn c l s m t quan h.
6.1.2 Da vo cu trc ca s m t quan h v iu kin

cho trong bi ton m suy ra p n
6.2 Mt s v d
V d 6.2.1. Trong bui hc n cng ba bn Cc, o, Hng lm ba bng hoa:
Cc, o, hng. Bn lm hoa hng ni vi bn Cc "Th l trong chng ta khng
c ai lm loi hoa trng vi tn mnh". Hy xc nh tn hoa m mi bn
lm?
Bi ton ny c trnh by bng phng php bng. Di y trnh by

qu trnh gii bi ton trn bng phng php s .
Li gii:
67
Chng 6. Phng php s
1. Lp s
Trong bi ton c hai nhm i tng:
Nhm 1 gm ba bn Cc, o, Hng k hiu bng ba im C, D, H .
Nhm 2 gm ba bng hoa cc, o, hng k hiu bng ba im c, d, h.
Mi quan h ca hai nhm i tng ny c k hiu bng:
Nt t nu quan h gia chng l sai.
Nt lin nu quan h gia chng l ng.
C c
D d
H h
Hnh 6.1:
Theo gi thit bn lm hoa hng ni vi bn Cc suy ra Cc khng lm hoa

hng, nn C h c ni nt t.
Theo gi thit "chng c ai lm loi hoa trng tn vi mnh" suy ra C
c, D d, H h c ni bng nt t. Ta thy C c, C h ni nt t suy ra
C d ni nt lin. C h, H h ni nt t, do D h v H c ni nt lin.
Kt lun: Bn Cc lm hoa o.
Bn o lm hoa hng.
Bn Hng lm hoa cc.
V d 6.2.2. Ba bn Thy, nh, Hng mc ba mu o: Trng, xanh, hng v

c ba dy buc tc cng mu y. Bit rng ch c Thy l c mu o v mu dy
buc tc trng nhau, cn o v dy buc tc ca nh u khng l mu trng.
Hng c dy buc tc mu xanh. Hy xc nh mu o v mu dy buc tc
ca tng bn?
68
Chng 6. Phng php s
Li gii: Trong bi ton ny c ba nhm i tng:

Nhm 1 gm ba bn: Thy, nh, Hng. Ta k hiu bng ba im T, A, H .
Nhm 2 gm ba mu o: Trng, xanh, hng. Ta k hiu bng ba im t0 , x0 , h0 .
Nhm 3 gm ba dy buc tc mu: Trng, xanh, hng. Ta k hiu bng ba
im t, x, h.
Mi quan h gia cc i tng ca ba nhm ny c k hiu bng:
Nt t nu quan h gia chng l sai.
Nt lin nu quan h ca chng l ng.
T A H
t0 t
x0 x
h0 h
Hnh 6.2
Theo gi thit, o v dy buc tc ca nh u khng phi mu trng, nn

A t0 v A t c ni bng nt t. Cn Hng c dy buc tc mu xanh,
nn H x c ni bng nt lin. Suy ra ch cn T t ni bng nt lin. V Thy
c mu o v dy buc tc trng mu nhau, nn T t0 cng c ni bng nt
lin. Hn na, theo gi thit th nh v Hng u c o v dy buc tc khc
mu, m A h c ni bng nt lin, th A x0 cng phi ni nt lin. Cui
cng H h0 cng c ni bng nt lin.
Vy: Thy mc o trng v dy buc tc trng.
69
Chng 6. Phng php s
nh mc o xanh v dy buc tc hng.

Hng mc o hng v dy buc tc xanh.
V d 6.2.3. Trong mt trng ph thng c s Bnh nh c ba thy gio

l Minh, Bnh, Vinh dy cc mn Sinh vt, L, Ton, Ha, ting Anh v ting
Php. Mi thy dy hai mn. Ngi ta bit v cc thy nh sau:
Thy dy L v thy dy ting Php l lng ging ca nhau.
Thy Minh tr nht trong ba thy.
Thy Bnh, thy dy Sinh vt v thy dy ting Php thng i vi nhau

trn ng v.
Thy dy Sinh vt nhiu tui hn thy dy mn Ton.
Thy dy ting Anh, thy dy Ton v thy Minh khi rnh ri thng hay
nh qun vt vi mt thy th t.
Hy xc nh xem mi thy dy hai mn no?
Li gii: Bi ton trn c hai nhm i tng
Nhm th nht gm ba thy gio: Minh, Bnh, Vinh.
Nhm th hai gm su mn hc ting Anh, ting Php, Ton, Sinh vt,

L, Ha.
Ta ly ch ci u ca mi nhm i tng trn k hiu cho cc im

tng ng.
T cc iu kin ca bi ton ta c s sau:
70
Chng 6. Phng php s
M A
S
B
P
L
V
H
Hnh 6.3
Ta c Minh - Ton c ni bng nt t, ngha l thy Minh khng dy

mn Ton. V Bnh - Sinh vt c ni bng nt t, ngha l thy Bnh khng
dy mn Sinh vt. T (2) v (4) suy ra thy Minh khng dy Sinh vt.
Cn t cc iu kin khc trc tip cho ta cc ng nt t theo s .
Theo s trn, ta thy thy Minh ch c th dy hai trong ba mn Php,
L, Ha. Nhng thy dy Php v thy dy L l khc nhau nn thy Minh
hoc l dy Php - Ha, hoc l dy L - Ha. Nu thy Minh dy L - Ho,
suy ra thy Bnh phi dy Ton - Anh, nhng iu khng th c v thy dy
Ton v thy dy Anh l hai thy khc nhau. Vy thy Minh dy Php - Ha.
Tip theo thy Bnh ch c th dy hai trong ba mn L, Ton, Anh nhng
Ton, Anh khng th do mt ngi dy, nn thy Bnh hoc l dy L - Ton
hoc l dy L - Anh. Nu thy Bnh dy L - Anh suy ra thy Vinh dy Ton
- Sinh vt. iu ny khng tha mn v thy dy Ton v thy dy Sinh vt l
hai thy khc nhau. Vy thy Bnh dy L - Ton, suy ra thy Vinh dy Sinh
vt - Anh.
Vy: Thy Minh dy hai mn Php - Ha.
Thy Bnh dy hai mn L - Ton.
Thy Vinh dy hai mn Sinh vt - Anh.
V d 6.2.4. Bn bn Dung, Anh, Linh, Trang nhn c im bi kim tra
mn ton. Bn Nam cng lp mun bit im ca tng ngi. Khi Nam hi th
c cc bn tr li p m nh sau:
71
Chng 6. Phng php s
Dung ni: "Bn Anh 7 im, bn Linh 9 im, bn Trang 8 im."

Anh ni: "Bn Trang 10 im, bn Dung 8 v bn Linh 7".
Linh ni: "C ba bn u c 8".
Trang ni: "C ba bn u c 7".
Hy xc nh im ca tng ngi? Bit rng khng c bn no c hai bn
cng ni ng im ca mnh.
Li gii: Lp s : Ly hai nhm im tng ng vi hai nhm i tng: Cc

bn hc sinh v im s.
im x c ni vi im y bng t on thng song song khi v ch khi c t
bn ni im ca bn x bng s y .
Nh vy, ta c s sau:
Dung 10
Anh 9
Linh 8
T rang
7
Hnh 6.4
Cn c vo iu kin cho trong bi ton, cp nh c ni bng t 2

on thng tr ln u b loi
Do Trang c im 10, Linh c 9, Anh c 8 v Dung c 7.
V d 6.2.5. Cho ba ngi nh, mt ci ging, mt ci ln v mt ci hm cha

c. Cn phi vch t mi ngi nh mt con ng ti ging, mt con ng
ti ln v mt con ng ti hm cha c, sao cho khng c mt con ng
no trong chn con ng ct mt con ng khc. Bn hy chng minh rng
khng th lm c vic .
Li gii: K hiu ba ngi nh ln lt bng A, B, C . Ci ging bng G, ci ln

bng H v hm cha bng N . Ta ni ngi nh u tin vi ci ging G, ci
ln H v hm cha N , ko di cc ng i ny theo cc ng i ti ngi
nh th hai. Ta thu c ba ng ni gia hai ngi nh .
72
Chng 6. Phng php s
A B
I
G
II
III
Hnh 6.5
Cc ng chia mt phng thnh ba min: I, II, III . Ngi nh th ba m

ta b qua, nm mt ch no ca mt trong cc min y
Nu ngi nh nm trong min I th n s ngoi ng cong ng kn

bao quanh ln H .
Nu ngi nh thuc min II th n s nm ngoi min III . Khi n

b bao quanh bi ng cong ng kn m ci hm cha nm ngoi.
Nu ngi nh thuc min III th n s nm ngoi min I . Khi n b

bao quanh bi ng cong ng kn m ci ging nm ngoi.
Trong trng hp th nht khng c ng i t ngi nh ti ci ln H . V

khng thuc min II , nn khng th c ng t ngi nh th ba ti ln H m
khng ct ng t ngi nh A hoc ngi nh B ti ln H .
Trong trng hp th hai khng c ng i ti hm cha N . V khng
thuc min III , nn khng th c ng t ngi nh th ba ti hm cha
N , m khng ct ng t A hoc t B ti hm cha N .
Trong trng hp th ba khng c ng i ti ging G. V nm ngoi min
I , nn tt c cc ng i ti ging G u hoc ct ng i ti ging G xut
pht t ngi nh A hoc ngi nh B .
73
Chng 6. Phng php s
Vy khng th c ng i t ba ngi nh A, B, C n ging, n ln, n

hm cha , m khng ct nhau.
Nh vy ta c iu phi chng minh.
V d 6.2.6. Trong mt lp mi hc sinh nam u tham gia vo nhng nhm

s thch: Bng , cu, cu lng. Qua tm hiu thy rng c 7 em tham gia
bng , 6 em tham gia cu, 5 em tham gia cu lng, trong c: Mt em
tham gia c ba mn, hai em tham gia va cu va bng , ba em tham gia
va cu lng va bng , bn em tham gia va cu va bng .
Hy xc nh s hc sinh nam ca lp?
Ta v ba vng trn giao nhau, mi vng trn biu th mt nhm s thch:

Bng (B ), cu lng (C ), cu (D).
C mt em tham gia c ba nhm, ta in 1 vo phn chung ca c ba vng
trn. C hai em tham gia va cu v cu lng nhng c 1 em tham gia
c ba nhm, vy ch c 1 em tham gia ng 2 nhm s thch va nu. Ta in
1 vo phn chung ca vng trn C v vng trn D (nm ngoi phn chung ca
ba vng trn).
Lp lun tng t, ta c 3 em tham gia ng hai s thch bng v cu,
2 em tham gia ng hai s thch bng v cu lng, ch c mt em tham gia
cu lng. Ta in cc s ny vo phn tng t nh hnh v. T , ta xc nh
c s cc em nam ca lp l 10.
1 2
1
1 3 1
D
B
Hnh 6.6
V d 6.2.7. Nm ngi bn l Nam, Thin, Lim, Khng, Bnh c ngh
74
Chng 6. Phng php s
nghip l ha s, th may, th mc, a th v ct tc. H sng trong cng mt

thnh ph nn c iu kin gp nhau thng xuyn.
Nam v Khng hay cng n hiu may ni ngi th may lm vic. Thin
v Bnh sng cng khu tp th vi ngi a th. Lin va ng vai tr ch hn
cho m ci ca Thin ly con gi ngi th ct tc. Nam vi Thin ch nht
thng i chi c vi ngi ha s v ngi th mc. Khng v Bnh ti th
by hay n chi nh ngi th ct tc. Ngi a th thch nht l t ct tc
cho mnh. Bnh v Khng cha bao gi cm bt v. Hy xc nh ngh nghip
ca mi ngi?
Li gii: Bi ton gm c hai nhm i tng:
Nhm th nht gm cc bn: Nam, Thin, Lim, Khng v Bnh.
Nhm th hai gm cc ngh: Ha s, th may, th mc, a th v ct tc.
Ly mt nhm 5 im ghi tn 5 bn c tn trn bng cc ch ci u ca

tn, nhm i din ghi tn 5 ngh m h lm k hiu nh sau: 1: ha s, 2: th
may, 3: th mc, 4: a th, 5: ct tc.
im tn ngi v im tn ngh c ni bng nt lin, nu ngi lm
ng ngh c tn c ni, trng hp ngc li c ni bng nt t.
1) Xc nh cc ng nt t.
u tin a vo cc iu kin v quan h cho xc nh cc ng nt
t. Sau da vo cc ng nt t suy ra cc ng nt lin. Cui cng
da vo suy ra p n.
- Theo bi ra ta c Nam v Khng hay cng n hiu may ni ngi th
may lm vic suy ra Nam v Khng khng lm th may, nn hai cp im
(Nam, th may) v (Khng, th may) c ni bng nt t.
- Thin v Bnh sng cng tp th vi ngi a th, chng t Thin v Bnh
khng lm ngh a th, nn cc cp im (Thin, a th) v (Bnh, a th)
cng c ni bng on nt t.
- Lin va lm ch hn cho m ci ca Thin ly con gi ngi ct tc.
Chng t Lin v Thin khng lm ngh ct tc, nn cc cp im (Lin, ct
tc) v (Thin, ct tc) c ni bng nt t.
- Nam vi Thin ch nht thng i chi c vi ngi ha s v ngi th
mc, chng t Nam va Thin khng lm ha s cng khng lm th mc. Do
cc cp im (Nam, ha s), (Nam, th mc), (Thin, ha s), (Thin, th mc),
u c ni bng nt t.
75
Chng 6. Phng php s
- Bnh v Khng cha bao gi cm bt v, chng t Bnh v Khng u

khng l ha s. Bi vy, cc cp im (Bnh, ha s), (Khng, ha s) u c
ni bng nt t.
Khi ta c s sau:
N 1
T 2
L 3
K 4
B 5
2) Xc nh cc ng nt lin.
Da vo s gm cc ng nt t suy ra cc ng nt lin.
V mi ngi lm t nht mt ngh v mi ngh c t nht mt ngi lm,
nn mi im u phi xut pht t nht mt ng nt lin, tc xut pht ti
a bn ng nt t, nn da vo s cc ng nt t ta suy ra cc ng
nt lin:
im 1 c bn ng nt t ni vi cc im N, T, K, B , nn ng nt
lin ca im ny phi ni vi im L.
im 5 c bn ng nt t ni vi cc im T, L, K, B , nn ng nt
lin ca im ny phi ni vi im N .
im T c bn ng nt t ni vi cc im 1, 3, 4, 5, nn ng nt
lin ca im ny phi ni vi im 2.
im B cha c ng nt t ni vi cc im 2, 3, nhng im 2 c
ng nt lin ni vi im T , nn ng nt lin ca im B phi c ni vi
76
Chng 6. Phng php s
im 3.
im 4 khng c ng nt t ni i cc im N, L, K , nhng im N
c ng nt lin ni vi im 5, im L c ng nt lin ni vi im 1,
nn ng nt lin ca im 4 phi ni vi im K .
Vy ta c s hon chnh cc ng nt lin. Da vo s ny ta suy
ra p n: Thin lm ngh th may, Nam lm ngh ct tc, Lim lm ha s,
Bnh lm ngh th mc v Khng lm ngh a th.
77
Kt lun
Lun vn nghin cu v su phng php ph bin nht gii cc bi

ton ph thng. Mi phng php u trnh by tm tt c s l thuyt v vn
dng cc phng php vo gii mt s bi ton trong chng trnh trung hc
ph thng.
Khi bin son lun vn, tc gi c gng bm st vo nhng dng thi
hc sinh gii. Hy vng lun vn c th l mt tp ti liu tham kho c ch cho
hc sinh v gio vin cc trng trung hc ph thng.
78
Ti liu tham kho
[1] B Gio Dc v o To - Hi Ton hc Vit Nam (1997), Tuyn tp 30

nm tp ch Ton hc v tui tr, NXB Gio Dc.
[2] B Gio Dc v o To (2013), Hnh Hc 11, NXB Gio Dc Vit Nam.
[3] Nguyn Vn Mu (2007), Ton ri rc v mt s vn lin quan.
[4] Nguyn Vn Mu, Trn Nam Dng, ng Huy Run, V nh Ha, ng

Hng Thng (2007), Chuyn chn lc t hp v ton ri rc, NXB Gio
Dc.
[5] Nguyn Vn Nho (1989 - 2002), Olympic Ton hc Chu Thi Bnh
Dng, NXB Gio Dc.
[6] Phm Minh Phng v nhm gio vin chuyn ton i hc s phm H
Ni (2006), Cc chuyn s hc bi dng hc sinh gii trung hc c s,
NXB Gio Dc.
[7] Nguyn Mnh Trinh (1983), Tuyn tp cc bi thi v ch Ton, NXB Gio
Dc.
[8] ng Huy Run (2002), By phng php gii cc bi ton logic, NXB Khoa
hc v k thut.
79

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I HC QUC GIA H NI

TRNG I HC KHOA HC T NHIN

SU PHNG PHP GII CC

LUN VN THC S KHOA HC

SU PHNG PHP GII CC

Chuyn ngnh: Phng php ton s cp

LUN VN THC S KHOA HC

Ngi hng dn khoa hc: GS.TS. ng Huy Run

1 Phng php quy np 2

2 Phng php chng minh phn chng 17

3 Phng php suy lun trc tip 28

5 Phng php bng 53

Ton ph thng chng nhng nhiu v s lng, cn phong ph v chng

Phng php quy np

1.1 Nguyn l quy np

1.2 Phng php chng minh bng quy np

Thm vo mi v ca ng thc trn mt n v ta c

C nh vy suy ra mi s t nhin khng nh hn k u bng nhau. Kt hp

Nhng vo th k 18 Euler pht hin vi n = 5 khng nh trn khng

1.2.3 Vn dng phng php quy np gii mt s bi ton

V d 1.2.1. Chng minh rng: Nu trong ti c mt s tin nguyn (nghn)

Li gii: Ta s gii quyt bi ton ny bng phng php quy np.

1 5000 + 1 3000 = 8000

v ta tiu c ht s tin c trong ti.

3 3000 + 1000 = 2 5000.

b) Nu trong cc v s s mua c khng qu hai v loi 3000, th phi

Nh vy trong mi trng hp t kt qu tiu k nghn u tin suy ra

V d 1.2.2. Em An cm mt t giy v ly ko ct thnh 7 mnh. Sau nht

Sang bc k + 1 em An ly mt trong nhng mnh giy nhn c trong k

Vy s mnh giy em An nhn c sau n bc ct giy l S(n).

V d 1.2.3. (Chng minh tnh cht bng quy np).

Li gii: Khng nh c chng minh bng quy np.

V d 1.2.4. Chng minh rng mi s nguyn ln hn 1 u c th vit di

Li gii: Ta chng minh khng nh bng quy np theo n.

Nu n + 1 l s nguyn t th n bng tch ca chnh n + 1.

Theo gi thit quy np, th a, b u phn tch c thnh tch cc tha s

Li gii: Bi ton c gii quyt bng quy np. K hiu 23 + 1 = An .

T cc quan h (1.3) v (1.4) ta suy ra

V d 1.2.6. (Chng minh bt ng thc bng quy np)

x1 .x2 . xn1 .xn = 1

Chng minh rng

Li gii: Bi ton c gii quyt bng quy np.

v khng nh c chng minh.

1 xk > 0, xk+1 1 > 0 nn (1 xk ) (xk+1 1) > 0

Cng c hai v ca bt ng thc trn vi 1 ta c bt ng thc

T bt ng thc (1.6) v (1.7) ta c

Khng nh c chng minh.

V d 1.2.7. (Tm ch s tn cng bng quy np)

Li gii: Bi ton c gii quyt bng quy np.

2) Quy np. Gi s vi k = n 2 s An c tn cng l 7.

Do An tn cng s 7, nn tn ti s nguyn dng m, An = 10m + 7. T

nn An+1 tn cng bng ch s 7.

V d 1.2.8. Tnh tng sau

S(n) = 12 + 32 + + (2n + 1)2 ,

Li gii: Ta s i d on cng thc tng S(n). Ta thy S(n) l tng ca cc

Vy cng thc (1.8) ng vi n = k + 1, do theo nguyn l quy np (1.8) ng

V d 1.2.9. Chng minh rng A(n) = 7n + 3n 1 chia ht cho 9 vi mi s t

Li gii: t A(n) = 7n + 3n 1. Ta s chng minh bi ton bng quy np.

Theo gi thit quy np th A(k) chia ht cho 9. Do t (1.9) ta suy ra A(k + 1)

V d 1.2.10. Gi S(n) l tng tt c cc c s l ln nht ca cc s t nhin

Li gii: Cc s t nhin t 1 n 2n bao gm cc s l t 1 n 2n v gp i

S(n) = S(n 1) + 1 + 3 + + (2n 1)

2) Quy np. Gi s khng nh ng vi n = k , tc l