ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH

V o l . I V , N o . 4 , M a r c h / A p r i l 1977

ANOMIE, EGO-ENHANCEMENT AND TOURISM

G r a h a m M.S. D a n n ,~
The University of the West Indies
Barbados, West Indies

ABSTRACT

Dann, Graham M.S., "Anomie, Ego-Enhancement and Tourism,"

Annals o f Tourism Re~arch, Vol. IV, No. 4, March/April, 1977, pp. 184-194 --
The present paper attempts to provide an answer to the much neglected
sociological treatment of tourist motivation, with specific reference to the
question, "What makes tourists travel?" A theoretical case is suggested
for concentration on "push" factors, and, in particular, those stemming
from "anomie" and "ego-enhancement" in the tourist himself. It is
further argued that the presence of such factors is conducive to the
creation of a fantasy world, one to which he plans a periodic escape.
At the empirical level, the study evaluates the above two concepts in
the light of a recent investigation of visitors' attitudes to Barbados. The
components of the typology are also briefly examined.

* D r . D a n n . b o r n in E d i n b u r g h , S c o t l a n d , 1941, g r a d u a t e d in s o c i a l s c i e n c e s in R o m e , I t a l y .
w h e r e h e c o l l a b o r a t e d in several p r o j e c t s w i t h t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C e n t e r f o r S o c i a l R e s e a x c h .
On returning to Britain. he presented his doctoral dissertation at the University of Surrey,
E n g l a n d , 1975. S i n c e t h e n h e h a s b e e n l e c t u r i n g in S o c i o l o g y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f t h e W e s t
Indies, B a r b a d o s , t h e c e n t e r f r o m w h i c h t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y w a s c o n d u c t e d .

184 A N N A L S O F T O U R I S M R E S E A R C H , Mar/Apr '77

 GRAHAM M.S. DANN

RESUME

Dann Graham, M. S., "L'Anomie, le rehaussement du moi et le tourisme,"

Annals of Tourisrn Research, Vol. IV, No. 4, mars/avril, 1977, pp. 184-194 --
On a fair tres peu d'attention a l'examination sociologique de la motivation
des touristes. Le present article pose la question nettement: "Pourquoi
voyagent les touristes?" Sur le plan theorique, on propose une concen-
tration stir tes "'facteurs de poussee" et, en particulier, sur ceux qui
naissent de l'anomie et du rehaussement du moi du touriste meme.
On soutient de plus que la presences de tels facteurs mene a la creation
d'un monde de reve auquel ie touriste projette de fuir periodiquement.
Sur le plan empirique, l'article contient une evaluation des deux concepts
mentionnes ci-dessus a la lumiere d'u~. investigation ccente de~ attitudes
des visiteurs a Barbados. On examine aussi tes composants d'une typologie.

INTRODUCTION

It was Lundberg 6 who complained about the lack of adequate research concerning
tourist motivation. There exists a variety of perspectives on how a tourist behaves
at a given destination, but few investigations begin with the question, "What makes
tourists travel?" In seeking to remedy this "lacuna" at the sociological level, an
attempt to answer this question was made by a supervised team of methodology
students from the Cave Hill Campus of the University of the West Indies. After a
pre-test and pilot inquiry, a further 422 interviews were conducted of winter tourists
in Barbados during the peak season months of January and February, 1976. Visitors
were stratified by country of residence, age, sex and socio-economic status, with
immigration statistics acting as the basis for proportional representation of the above
variables. A summary of the pertinent aspects of this research is presented here.

WHAT MAKES TOURISTS TRAVEL?

A review of the literature related to tourist motivation quickly reveals that much
of what is said in answer to "what makes tourists travel?" can be seen to border on
sociological assertion. One encounters statements such as:
'The greatest reason for travel can be summed up in one word, "Escape":
escape from the dull, daily routine; escape from the familiar, the common-
place, the ordinary; escape from the job, the boss, the customer, the commut-
ing, thehouse, the lawn, the leaky faucets. 5
Now while the above may well be pinpointing "the greatest reason for travel," there
is no empirical evidence to demonstrate this; nor is one told about the type of tourist
where such a reason for travel predominates. Consequently, in designing the Barbados
research, the need was felt for a theoretical frame of reference which could be tested
at the level of hypothesis.

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 ANOMIE, E G O - E N H A N C E M E N T AND TOURISM

A further familiarization with past surveys also indicated that the distinction
between "push" and "pull" factors in tourism had generally been accepted. ("Pull"
factors are those which attract the tourist to a given resort (eg. sunshine, sea, etc.),
and whose value is seen to reside in the object of travel. "Push" factors, on the other
hand, refer to the tourist as subject and deal with those factors predisposing him
to travel (eg. escape, nostalgia, etc.). Moreover, it was seen that a preference had
been displayed towards "pull" factors in seeking to explain why tourists travelled.
As a result, "push" factors had either been placed in abeyance or were given a minimal
treatment. Here again such a manoeuvre was questioned, and this for the following
reasons First, while a specific resort may hold a number of attractions for the
potential tourist, his actual decision to visit such a destination is consequent on his
prior need for travel. An examination of "push" factors is thus logically, and often
temporally, antecedent to that of "pull" factors. Seconcl, and by corollary, the
question "what makes tourists travel" can only relate to the "push" factors asit is
devoid of destination or value content, requirements of the "pull" factors Finally,
by examining ''what makes tourists travel," one is looking at a more elementary (and
by implicaiton, causally prior) need than a specific reason for choice of resort (of
secondary causal nature). Consequently, if one is to go beyond the level of description
an investigation of "push" factors is indicated. It was further maintained that if
these could be understood at the physiological and psychological levels then the
theoretical framework of the research should reflect this. Consequently, it was hypo-
thesised that motive for travel lay in the twin concepts of "anomie" and "ego-enhance-
ment." A word about each is necessary.

ANOMIE

SociologicallY4this term has received treatment from many since Durkheim's

work on suicide. Strictly speaking, anomie refers to a society10 whose norms govern-

ing interaction have lost their integrative force and where lawlessness and meaningless-
ness prevail. 2 Its derivative, anomia, however, applies to the individual, who clearly
is affected by the social situation in which he finds himself. 9 Nor is anomie a concept
merely descriptive of nineteenth century Europe in the aftermath of the French and
Industrial Revolutions, where increasing division of labor and its concomitant indivi-
dualism had highlighted the tension of the individual in mass society. It appears to
be equally applicable today, where there is conflict in wars, strikes, football hooligan-
ism, muggings, highjackings and guerrilla violence. Economic instability too is
often seen as being indicative of anomie, where competition demands that each indi-
vidual fend for himself and the weakest go to the wall. Victims of inflation rarely see
their aspirations fulfilled A crisis of allegiance can be detected in decfining religious
affiliation, in increased divorce, and in the breakdown of democracy, where, in the
majority of countries today, either there is sufficient lack of confidence in political
leadership as to render them virtually ungovernable, or else power is held only through
torture or the force of arms Other indicators of anomie are the suicide rate and the
numbers receiving psychiatric treatment. Anomie is therefore a term useful for its
applicability.
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 GRAHAM M.S. DANN

However, to the best of one's knowledge, anomie has not been associated with
tourism. Now, given that the potential tourist lives in an anomic society along with
everyone else, it is strange that the connection between his home situation and his
leisure patterns has not been thoroughly investigated. A sensing of the connection
between "what makes tourists travel" and the anomic society from which they come
thus acts as a hallmark for the current theoretical perspective. It is claimed that a
possible "push" factor for travel lies in the desire to transcend the feeling of isolation
obtained in everyday life, where the tourist simply wishes to "get away from it all."
Underlying the hypothesis is the need that man has for love and affection and the
desire to communicate to his fellow man. However, if he lives in a large town or city,
this possibility is often denied him. His commuting and his work account for most
of the day, and what little remaining time he has at home is often spent in front of
the television. His exhaustion permits only limited conversation with his wife and
children, let alone friends and neighbors or relations. Yet the need for social inter-
action is still present. Hence it can only be fulfilled away from the home environment,
i.e., when he is on holiday. A situation of anomie can thus be considered as predispos-
ing him for travel. However anomie is not just present in cities. The habitant of a
village may suffer from it, albeit for a different reason, namely over-personal contact
and lack of privacy. In an attempt to avoid the prying and gossiping, he may isolate
himself, where once more the need for social interaction manifests itself. Anomie
can induce a travel-response in rural tourists too.

EGO-ENHANCEMENT

Like anomie, ego-enhancement derives from the level of personality needs. (6' P" 118)
Just as there is a need for social interaction, so too does man require to be recognized.
Analogous to the desire for a bodily tune-up is the need to have one's ego enhanced
or boosted from time to time. In sociological parlance, the desire for such recognition
by others is often described in terms of "status." Where ambition is a cultural
maxim, then there will also be the theoretical tendency for man to desire higher
status, by means of which he will feel superior to those below him on the ladder of
success. However, in the potential tourist's home situation, he has already been
assigned a social position by his contemporaries, a position from which it is difficult
to advance rapidly. And yet man's ego requires that such advancement be made.
Consequently, alternative strategies are employed to enhance the ego than that
traditionally based on socio-economic status. One such strategy is that of travel.
A tourist can go to a place where his social position is unknown and where he can
feel superior by dint of this lack of knowledge. Additionally, on his return a further
boost can be given to his ego in the recounting of his holiday experiences--trip dropping
(6, p. 124). If he goes to a prestige resort then he can assume greater status by
paying a great deal or by mixing with an exclusive set. If he goes to a corner of
the world relatively poorer than his own then he may obtain satisfaction of his need
in lording it over the host community. Only travel provides such an opportunity for
self recognition.

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 ANOMIE, EGO--ENHANCEMENT AND TOURISM

ANOMIE, EGO-ENHANCEMENT, AND FANTASY

From the above descriptions of anomie and ego-enhancement, it should be clear

that not only does travel represent the fulf'lllment of certain basic needs in the potential
tourist, but that in so doing it offers him an alternative world to that in which he
daily lives. It can be argued, for instance, that in the monotomy of suburbia, the
faceless city or the public village, life only becomes tolerable with the thought that
there are chances of periodic escape from such an existence, and that travel provides
the ideal outles. Additionally, however, travel has the advantage of permitting the
traveller to behave in a manner normally circumvented by the dictates of convention.
When on holiday the tourist can overstep the bounds of fashion, tell a few stories
normally deemed improper or inappropriate, wear flashy clothes, eat exotic food,
get drunk, become more sexually permissive, alter his timetable, stay up half the
night, listen to loud local music, etc., in short, indulge in those kinds of behavior
generally frowned upon in his home environment. The possibility of actually doing
what he wishes in his world of travel, surely underlies that essentially such a world is
one of fantasy, for fantasy is a wish or desire, expressive of a need, which cannot be
fulfilled in terms of current role expectations, but which is capable of defining situa-
tions once these role expectations, or the circumstances in which they are found, have
been modified or removed. Related to anomie, the fantasy world of travel seeks to
overcome the humdrum, the normlessness and meaninglessness of life, with more satisfying
experiences. As regards ego-enhancement, travel presents the tourist with the opportu-
nity to boost his ego in acting out an alien personality. Just what sub-types of fantasy
are associated with anomie and ego-enhancement has been treated elsewhere. 3

ANOMIE AND EGO-ENHANCEMENT PUT TO THE EMPIRICAL TEST

Interspersed throughout the interview schedule were several items, which, when
clustered, formed two scales, one indicative of anomie, the other of ego-enhancement.
In the analysis of the data, a correlation matrix for each scale was computed and the
following points noted: First, in each scale there was strong positive association among
all items, Application of an F-test revealed all correlations to be significant at the
0.001 level. Second,further intercorrelation between anomie and ego-enhancement
items either yielded weak or negative coefficients, thereby indicating the independence
of the two sets of items. Third, calculation of the mean inter-item correlation for each
item in the two scales demostrated no significant weakness of any one item. Consequent-
ly there was no need for item deletion. Finally, the mean inter-item, correlation for
each scale was computed and from these two figures alpha coefficients 8 of reliability
calculated. The anomie scale yielded an alpha value of 0.86. For the ego-enhancement
scale an alpha value of 0.804 was recorded. A degree of confidence in the two scales
concerning their inherent reliability was therefore obtained. For a discussion of theoreti-
cal validity, however, it is necessary to examine each of the items separately.

188 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH, Mar/Apr '77

 GRAHAM M.S. DANN

ANOMIE SCALE

The first item in the anomie scale concerned the touiist's need for a break from
work. It was felt that not only would man be alienated in the work situation
(cf. the Marxian hypothesis in this regard?), but that such alienation would in itself
be conducive to anomie, in turn disposing the potential tourist to travel Although the
above reasoning was not supplied in these terms by the interviewees, nevertheless,
from comments received, it was clear that in many cases work produced monotomy,
loneliness and lack of genuine social interaction, situations not corresponding to the
personality needs of affection and communication. The needs still outstanding, they
therefore had to be fulfilled elsewhere, i.e. not in the work situation, but when on
holiday.

Respondents were also asked if they felt more (or less) relaxed now that they were
on holiday. From the replies to this question, it was clear that the anomics viewed
their vacation primarily in terms of relaxation and that such pre-trip expectations had
become prophetically self-fulfilled. For them tile "pull" factor of sunshine was consid-
ered of secondary importance.

It was further hypothesised that as the anomic had little social interaction in their
home environment (this was subsequently tested and found to be the case), then
with the need for such interaction still remaining unfulfilled, there would be a tendency
for this category of tourist to interact to a much greater degree when in the holiday
situation. In point of fact this hypothesis was borne out at the levels of both tourist
and host community. Not only was above average interaction recorded vis-a-vis
fellow visitors, hotel management, hotel staff, taxi drivers and resident Badaadians,
but also a high degree of friendly reciprocity noted for each category. One also
observed the tendency among the anomic tourists to discuss topics not related to
t h e i r o w n home environment with the above groups. In other words, it was presum-
ably felt that discussion of their own anomic situation would tend to resurrect
those very sentiments from which they wished to escape. Instead it was found that
the anomic preferred to talk about the life and culture of the people with whom they
came into contact, in this way, replacing their own dull world with the more exciting
world of the other.

This desire for social interaction was further evidenced in two more items of the
scale. Such tourists claimed that they liked m&ing with those o f a arieW o f
backgrounds, and even with those o f different race, precisely because they enjoyed
meeting people. At this point the connection between anomie and the need for
social interaction became even more convinving.

]t was also interesting to note the association between anomic motivation and
fantasy. When such a respondent indicated that his specific choice of Barbados had
a great deal to do with the "old worldy charm" and "romance" of the place, further

ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH, Mar/Apr '77 189

 ANOMIE, EGO-ENHANCEMENT AND TOURISM

questioning, and subsequent content analysis, revealed that for them the destination
was very much a second world, incapable of being captured in their home environment:
but made possible through periodic escape. Feelings of nostalgia for the "good old
days" were revived by quaint old buildings, narrow streets, donkey carts, sugar mills
and the leisurely pace of the host community, and heavily contrasted with the concrete
and polluted metropolis from which two thirds of the tourists came. For them the
impossibility of turning the colck back to the days of service, smiles and neighborliness,
was a fact of life. Thus their desire for these human conditions had to be fulfilled else-
where, and what better than a Third World country which had not succumed to the
"folly" of so-called "progress." When questioned about their meaning of romance,
these same tourists gave a variety of descriptions, ranging from the beauties of nature
(sunsets, moonlit waters, palm trees, etc.) to the possibility of getting to know for the
first time the person to whom they had been married for some years. A common theme
running through all these replies, however, was that here at least one could fulfil those
needs and desires denied them back home. For them Barbados was very much a
dream come true.

EGO-ENHANCEMENT SCALE

From the inquiry it became evident that much of the holiday enjoyment had been
acticipated at the pre-trip stage. In fact when interviewees were asked to compare t h e i r
motives for travel at both the pre-trip and on-trip stages of their holiday, their replies
indicated that very little change had taken place. A 0.91 correlation between both
sets of answers was confirmation of this finding. Moreover, it was discovered that
original expectations and anticipations of the holiday were rarely altered by temporary
inconveniences or discomfort on vacation, again lending weight to the importance
of pre-trip attitudes among tourists. It was therefore considered useful to ask respon-
dents to recall those people to whom the holiday was mentioned prior to departure,
and where reference was made to particular categories of persons, the type o f
discussion that took place. The reason for this last manoeuvre lay in the hypothesis
that those who had ego-enhancement in their motivational orientation would be
quick to point out the prestige aspects of their holiday to their contemporaries.

Response to the question 'why did you mention your holiday to...?" were treated
by content analysis and seen to fall into three major categories. In the first instance
there was ego-enhancement itself. There was an actual need to "trip drop," to
create envy and to engage in status battles with others. Tile purpose of naming the
prestige destination was that it was considered a status resort, and as such the means to
boosting the tourist's ego. The second reason could be described in terms of utility
value. A colleague, for example, would be informed of holiday plans so that a satisfac~-
tory work schedule could be arranged. A neighbor might be asked to keep an eye on
the house or to mind the dog. Finally, it was possible to categorize a number of reasons
hot falling into either of the above two classifications, but which tended to emphasize
the naturalness of the remarks, many of which contained a string courtesy element.

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 GRAHAM M.S. D A N N

Clearly in looking at ego-enhancement one was concerned with the first of these
three sets of replies. The scale itself was formed when this set was applied to different
groups to whom the holiday was mentioned, i.e., fellow workers, friends, neighbors,
relations and club members.

THE ANOM1C TOURIST

However, it still remained to be seen just what sort of tourist was anomically
inclined and what type was more ego-enhancement orientated in his motivational
patterns. To obtain an answer to this question the independent variables were clustered
into two principa! sets in a fashion analogous to the scale formation of the dependent
variables. It was fu,thcr seen that Set One became associated with the anomie scale and
that Set Two became aligned with the ego-enhancement scale. A variable by variable
analysis of Set One thus presented one with a picture of the anomic tourist.

The most satisfactory predictor variable of anomie was found to be rnarita/status

Possibly a reason why modern day marriage is more conducive to anomie than in the past,
is that its present companionship'form places a greater strain on a more intense relation-
ship between two people than the traditional or extended form. In this way it could
inhibit relationships with others, a hallmark of the anomic tourist, as has previously
been noted. (Nevertheless, obviously this is an area which requires further investigation).

It was also discovered that there was an association between the various dependent
variables on the anomie sea le and above average socio-econornic status, as measured
by occupation, class of travel and type of accommodation on the island. As such status
had been achieved through occupation, its reflection in more expensive tastes tended
to reinforce social position and saw to it that status was maintained even in the holiday
situation. The actual achievement of status through work, however, presumably must
have entailed a certain amount of sacrifice in the area of social interaction. Wnh
men in higher status positions than women (in this sample of tourists), it therefore came
as no surprise fo find males more anomically oriented. Similarly the young, who rated
more highly on occupation than the elderly,displayed more of a tendency towards anomie
in their attitudes. Contrary to expectation, however, was the discovery that those
from small t o w n s and rural areas were more anomically inclined than those from large
cities. Perhaps this should cause one to reflect the aforementioned feeling that
privacy had been invaded in the smaller community, forcing retirement of those who
nevertheless still required communication with their fellow man. Thus, it would appear
that anomie is not dependent on size of surrounding population but on the type of
contact established with that population. Over-interaction in a rural setting can be
just as conducive to anomie, or more so, as lack of interaction in a city environment.
However, one realizes that this is another area which required further examination, with
particular reference to additional types of urban/rural existence, eg., the urban emi-
grant, the urban immigrant, the inner city dweller, the isolated farmer, etc.

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 ANOMIE, EGO--ENHANCEMENT AND TOURISM

Repeaters (those who had visited Barbados on at least one previous occasion) and
those with above average knowledge of the island tended to.fall into the anomie cate-
gory. Upon reflection, the reason for this is fairly clear. The potential tourist suffering
from anomie knows that life can become more bearable once there is a place to which
he can escape. If such a location fits all his other requirements (and no better alterna-
tive offers itself), then it is logical for him to continue frequenting it, to the extent
that he becomes categorised as a repeater. Naturally for such a choice to be made
a certain amount of knowledge about the place is necessary.

Finally, it was possible to measure degree of anomie by crosstabulation of replies

with country ofreddence (this being a nominal variable). Of the five major national
groups comprising Barbades's tourists, those from the Caribbean, the United States
and Europe, appeared to be the most anomic in their orientation. Just why this was
the case can possibly be explained in terms of a predominance of rural characteristics
and above average socio-economic status, particularly if one is correct in hypothesising
a rural mentality even in West Indian metropolitan centers. No doubt other explanations
are available, but, with absesce of further independent data from the survey, it was
felt that additional conclusions would border on the use of stereotype.

THE EGO-ENHANCEMENT TOURIST

This type of tourist was found to be the mirror image of the former, in that an
association with ego-enhancement was established with the opposite end of the dicho-
tomy of independent variables correlating with anomie. Only the strength, or
predominance, of the relationship varied.

In this instance socio-economic status was the key variable, only this time income
played a more important role than the category of accommodation. The tendency
was observed for those of lower paid occupations who had travelled by charter oF
packaged arrangements to have mentioned the holiday to various sets of people for
ego-enhancement reasons. Clearly this finding upheld the hypothesis that there would
be a propensity towards "trip dropping" and other forms of ego-enhancement where
accepted forms of status achievement were unavailable.

From this it was but one stage in the argument to anticipate a higher proportion of
elderly and f~nale respondents to be found in this category. That this was the case
can be explained in terms of socio-economic status, where both categories of potential
tourist .could be seen in a state of relative deprivation in contrast to their young male
counterparts. As far as the elderly are concerned, it is also worth mentioning in the
above connection that the aging process itself is one of increasing loss of status
culminating in retirement. In this instance the alternative strategy to reminiscence
would be that of status achievement through travel.

There was also a higher proportion of first-timers (and those with scanty knowledge

192 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH, Mar/Apr '77

 GRAHAM M.S. DANN

of Barbados) among the ego-enhancement orientated. Given the nature of ego-enhance-

ment itself, and the need to impress by the mention of a status resort, presumably such
a need is better satisfied in inverse proportion to the number of times of visiting the
prestige location. After all, it is the nature of a good story tlmt it be not subject
to repetition.

Further associations with ego-enhancement were detected among the single and
those from large cities, although tile strength of the relationship was diminished in
comparison with the predictive qualities of the polar opposites of these variables in
connection with anomie. It is likely that the association of the above variables with
ego-enhancement was due to their interdependence with socio-economic status, i.e.
a greater preponderance of unemployment and lower paid positions in these two
categories in comparison with their polar opposites.

Finally, it was noted that those visitors from Canada, and to a lesser extent those
from United Kingdom, were more ego-enhancement in their orientation than those
from other locales. The data at hand do not provide sufficient explanation for this
phenomenon.

AN AREA OF FURTHER INVESTIGATION

It has been mentioned already that independent variables varied in strength as

well as direction, in their association with the two scales of anomie and ego-enhancement,
For this reason some had more satisfactory predictive value than others. At present,
analysis is being undertaken to provide a system of weighting for each variable, whereby
a continuum has been constructed with anomie and ego-enhancement as its polar
coordinates, allowing for intervening stages between the two (ideal) types. The weighting
of variables thus should provide a fairly reliable indication of where any given tourist
can be placed along the continuum. The results of this investigation should be available
in the near future, together with a fuller account of the theoretical and empirical impfi-
cations of the study.

CONCLUSION

The question was asked, "What makes tourists travel?," and it has been seen that
by focusing on "push" factors one is able to tackle more easily the problem of moti-
vation. Further discussion has shown that two basic types of tourist orientation were
evidenced by the inquiry--those of anomie and ego-enhancement, and that these in
turn both had a strong fantasy component. The various items of the above attitude
scales were then briefly examined. Finally, by looking at the independent variables,
it was possible to observe the type of tourist aligned to the respective orientations.
As such, therefore, it is claimed, a contribution has been made towards the sociological
understanding of the tourist. ~ ~

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 ANOMIE, EGO--ENHANCEMENT AND TOURISM

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks first of all should go to those visitors to Barbados who so generously respond-
ed to the calls made upon their time in giving the actual interviews. Gratitude should
also be expressed to Joyce Cole in the department of Sociology at the University of
the West Indies, not only for her advice, but also for preparing the undergraduates
in research methodology. Naturally one is particularly indebted to the above students
for conducting the interviews of this study.

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194 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH, Mar/Apr '77