Methods of

Scientific
Thinking
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Universitas Airlangga
Hana, Daniel, Tarshan
Reasoning
Reasoning is a highly specialized thinking which helps an
individual to explore mentally the cause and effect relationship
of an event or solution of a problem by adopting some well-
organized systematic steps based on previous experience
combined with present observation.
 i. Conditioned reasoning: It is the reasoning tied down by some
specific condition such as the following. For example, if there is a

Types of solar eclipse, the street will be dork. There is a solar eclipse -> The
streets are dark

Reasoning ii. Categorical reasoning: This type of reasoning is based on some

categorical statements. For example, all Robins are birds.All birds
lay eggs ->All Robins lay eggs.

iii. Linear reasoning: This type of reasoning involves straight

forward relationships among elements. For example, If Ram is
taller than Mohan and Mohan is taller than Sohan, Ram is the
tallest.
SYLLOGISM
In a form, defined by
Syllogism is an instance of a form of reasoning in
Aristotle, from the
which a conclusion is drawn (whether validly or
combination of a general
not) from two given or assumed propositions statement and a specific
(premises), each of which shares a term with the statement , a conclusion is
conclusion, and shares a common or middle term deduced.
not present in the conclusion (e.g., all dogs are
animals; all animals have four legs; therefore all
dogs have four legs ).
SYLLOGISM: CATEGORICAL AND
HYPOTHETICAL
>Categorical syllogism: An argument consisting of
exactly three categorical propositions (two premises
and a conclusion) in which there appear a total of
exactly three categorical terms, each of which is
used exactly twice

>Hypothetical syllogism: A valid argument form

which is a syllogism having a conditional statement
for one or both of its premises
 Definition

A complete understanding of a term that includes all the elements that are
the main features of the term 4 terms definition: The properties described
cannot be too broad / narrow, for example:
A chair is a seat made of wood
There is no meaningful repetition of words, for example: Freedom is a
free state.
Do not use explanations that actually deny, for example: Life is a struggle
Not using negative words, for example: Poor is a state of not being rich
 ►Demonstrative definition
►Definition of equality
►Definition of painting
►Definition of description

Types of In science, ordinary definitions are

Definitions given synonyms, limits or explanations.

Called an explanation because it gives
information so that a term can be clear.
Called a limitation because it gives the
limits of the meaning of the term to be
explained
 An analogy is something that shows how two
things are alike, but with the ultimate goal of
Analogy making a point about this comparison.The
purpose of an analogy is not merely to show, but
also to explain.

For this reason, an analogy is more complex than

a simile or a metaphor, which aim only to show
without explaining. (Similes and metaphors can
be used to make an analogy, but usually analogies
have additional information to get their point
across.)
 Type 1
Analogies that identify identical relationships.
These analogies take the form “A is to B as C is
to D.” An example of an analogy that identifies
an identical relationship is “Black is to white as
on is to off.”

Type 2
Types of Analogies that identify shared abstraction.
This type of analogy compares two things that
Analogy are technically unrelated, in order to draw
comparisons between an attribute or pattern
they share.
Thank
You
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