APSS1A02 Introduction to Western Theories of Human Nature

Lecture Three
Classical Greek Theories (2): Aristotle
 Aristotle: Life and works
• Born in 384BC in Macedon.
• Student and tutor in Plato’s Academy.
• Founder of Lyceum.
• Tutor of Alexander the Great.
• Major works:
• Physics,
• Metaphysics,
• Nicomachean Ethics,
• Politics,
• De Anima,
• Poetics.
 Aristotle’s criticisms of Plato

• Plato emphasized too much on the abstract forms,

but paid little attention to the development of the
concrete things.
• Plato failed to explain how the intelligible world is
related to the sensible world.
Teacher, are you saying
that observation and
experience is not
important in philosophy?
Differences between Plato and Aristotle
Plato Aristotle

Paradigm of science Logic & Biology

(epistemology) mathematics

Nature of reality Abstract forms Unity of forms and

(metaphysics) (universals) matters in the
individuals
(substances)
Ethical theory Rationalism Naturalism

Political theory Rule by the elite Rule by the middle

class
 The theory of substance
• The theory of substance:
• Reality is built up of substances—the things that exist through changes.
• A substance has two components:
• Form:
• the universal essence that a thing shares with things of the same type or species.
E.g. the quality of being a person, a dog, a house...etc.
• Matter:
• The physical stuff of a particular substance.
• A substance is a unity of its form and matter.
• Example:
• A house has its identity in virtue of (1) its abstract function of being a house,
and (2) the materials out of which it is built.
 The four causes

A. The material cause

B. The formal cause
C. The efficient cause
D. The final cause
HOUSE
 What does the theory of substance
tell us about the human life?
• A human being = a unity of its biology (matter) and telos
(form).
• To become a full human being, there need be a process
of realizing the potentialities of the human organism.
• (Question: Why is a fetus not yet a full human being?)
 Human nature and the virtuous
life
• Virtues are necessary for a
person’s leading a good life.
• It is because man, as a rational
being, has a particular
functional role to play in nature.
• And man can serve his role only
if he exercises his true
potentialities: virtues.
• Analogy: What makes a horse a
good one? Can a human being
be good for the same reason?
 What virtues are necessary for
the good human life?
• Benevolence • Industriousness
• Civility • Justice
• Compassion • Loyalty
• Conscientiousness • Moderation
• Cooperativeness • Tactfulness
• Courage • Thoughtfulness
• Courteousness • Reasonableness
• Dependability • Self-reliance
• Fairness • Self-confidence
• Friendliness • Self-control
• Generosity • Self-discipline
• Honesty • Tolerance
 Why was Plato wrong about the
nature of ethics?
• Virtues are developed out of habitual ways of
dealing with problems in daily life; they are not to
be learnt out of reflection alone.
• The development of virtues is partly dependent on
luck, and is closely connected with psychological
and sociological explanations.
 Why would people go against
their nature and do bad things?
1. Corrupted education
2. Inborn intellectual incapacities
3. The confusion between the means to gaining
happiness (e.g. money, career, social status etc.)
and the true happiness (eudaimonia) itself.
 Politics: Rule by the middle
class men
• Virtue is a mean between the extremes of excess and
deficiency; and so good political arrangements need be
moderate too.
• To attain a good society, we need to examine how laws and
institutions actually work; we should not be idealistic.
• Aristotle’s political view:
• we must avoid the problems of oligarchy (rule by a few) and
democracy (rule by the mob) by endorsing to a system of polity,
under which the state is ruled by a majority class with properties.