COMBINED 8609

Unit # 1
Introduction to Philosophy

Dr. Sonia Iram

AIOU Islamabad
Objectives
• After reading this unit, you will be able to:
1. Define philosophy
2. Describe the scope of philosophy
3. Discuss the branches of philosophy
4. Analyze the relationship of education and philosophy
5. Evaluate the role of philosophy in educational policy and practice
Philosophy
• The term philosophy has been derived from the two Greek words,

• Philosophy = Philos + Sophia

• Philos means “Love for”

• Sophia means “Wisdom or knowledge”

• So, philosophy means “love for wisdom”

Cont…

• A search for the wisdom of life

• An attempt to understand the universe as a whole

• An examination of our moral responsibility and our social obligations

• The way we perceive the world around us

• How we define what is important to us?

Definitions of Philosophy

• According to Greek Philosopher Plato,

• “Philosophy aims at a knowledge of the eternal nature of things”

• According to Aristotle,
• Philosophy is a science which investigates the nature of being as it is in itself.

• Herbert Spencer said

• "Philosophy is concerned with everything as a universal science."
Cont…

• According to George F. Kneller,

• “Philosophy is the attempt to think in the most general and systematic way
about everything in the universe, about the whole of reality”.

• Kant said,
• Philosophy is the science and criticism of cognition.

• Philosophy is the science of all sciences.

Meaning of Education
• The word Education has been derived from the Latin words ‘educare’ meaning to
bring up‟; ‘educere’ meaning draw out and ‘education’ meaning the act of
teaching or training.

• According to Aristotle, Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body.

• According to Islamic point of view:

“Education is the process of preparing individuals as vicegerent to Allah (SWT) in
society on earth.”
Philosophy of Education

• Philosophy of Education is concerned with the aims of education and

the basic philosophical problems arising in the field of education.

• It may be defined as the application of philosophy in the field of

education to solve various educational issues.
Cont…
• Educational philosophy provides answers of educational
issues,
• Why to educate (aim)
• Whom to educate (child)
• Who to educate (teacher)
• What to educate (curriculum)
• How to educate (methods) etc.
 Field of Philosophy
(1) Field of Philosophical Sciences
• The scope of philosophy includes different philosophical sciences such as;
• Metaphysics, epistemology, logic, philosophy of science, axiology, aesthetics, ethics,
• Philosophy of Religion, Philosophy of Education, Philosophy of History etc.
(2) Field of Philosophy as Comprehensive Science
• Philosophy is the science of sciences, the mother of all sciences.
• Its scope includes the criticism and synthesis of the hypothesises and conclusions of the
physical and social sciences.
(3) Subject Matter of Philosophy
• The scope of philosophy clarifies its subject matter.
• Its subject matter includes the conclusions and postulates of all the physical and social
sciences besides their general problems.
Scope of Philosophy
• Nature of the Universe
• Standard of justice and conduct of life
• Validity of knowledge
• Concrete application of reason
• Criteria of beauty
• Relationship between languages and thought
 Branches of Philosophy
Branch Description Key Questions
Metaphysics An attempt to • What is the meaning of life?
determine what is • Does life have a purpose?
real • Are people born good or evil?
• Does the universe have a design or purpose?
Epistemology Questions about • What are the limits of knowledge?
knowledge and • Where do we find the sources of knowledge?
knowing • How do we acquire knowledge?
• Are there ways of determining the validity of knowledge?
• What is the truth?
Axiology Seeking wisdom Ethical:
about the nature of • What are values and why are they important?
ethical and • How should we live our lives? What is right and what is wrong?
aesthetic values
Aesthetic:
• How do we judge what we see, touch and hear?
• What is beauty?
Metaphysics
• Term metaphysics mean “comprehensive thinking about the nature of
things.”
• It means, usually, the study or theory of reality.
• Metaphysics (study of existence)
(i) Cosmogony (study of creation)
(ii) Cosmology (study of cosmos)
(iii) Ontology (study of ultimate reality)
(iv) Philosophy of self (philosophical analysis of self)
Epistemology
• Branch of philosophy that studies;
 Concept of Knowledge
 Sources of Knowledge
 An Authentic source of Knowledge
 Validity of Knowledge
 Limits of Knowledge
 Nature of Knowledge
Axiology

• This branch of philosophy philosophically studies value.

• It has been divided into the following three branches:

1. Ethics. discusses the criteria of right and good.
2. Aesthetics. discusses the nature and criteria of beauty.
Relationship of Education and Philosophy
• Philosophy plays an important role in;
• Providing direction to education
• Providing a theory of knowledge for education
• According to Soltis (1988) has three dimensions:
1. Personal dimension: having a set of personal beliefs about what is good,
right, and worthwhile in education.
2. Public dimension: aimed at guiding and directing the practice of many
3. Professional dimension: Provides specific guidelines for the practice of
teaching
Cont…
• Philosophy and Education are closely interrelated.
• It is the application of philosophy to study of the problems of
education that is known as philosophy of education.
• According to Ross,
• “Philosophy and education are like the two sides of a coin”.
• This indicates the fact that plant of education draws its nourishment
from the soil of philosophy.
• Philosophy answers all the ultimate questions of Education.
 Role of Philosophy in Educational Policy and
Practice
• Both philosophy and education are interdependent.

• All great philosophers have employed education to translate

their philosophical ideas into practice.

• Education is the Dynamic Side of Philosophy

• Education is a Means to Achieve the Goals

Scope of Philosophy of Education
• Philosophy and Aims of Education
• Philosophy and Curriculum
• Philosophy and Text Books
• Philosophy and Methods of Teaching
• Philosophy and Discipline
• Philosophy and Teacher
• Philosophy and Evaluation
 General Philosophies
At the metaphysical level, there are four broad philosophical schools of
thought that apply to education today.

1) Idealism
2) Realism
3) Pragmatism
4) Existentialism
Idealism
• Father of Idealism great Greece philosopher Plato (Teacher of
Mathematics)
• His famous book, The Republic
• Idealism is reflection of ideas of mind because “Mind is absolute
reality”
• World is eternal, permanent, and universal
• The soul is fully formed prior to birth and is perfect
Realism
• Father of Realism great Greece philosopher and Physician Aristotle
(student of Plato)

• The ultimate reality is the world of physical objects, focus is on the

body.

• Believe in logic, reasoning and rational thoughts.

• The Realist curriculum emphasizes the subjects of the physical world,

particularly science mathematics and medical sciences.
Pragmatism
• Word “Pragma” means action and practice
• Late 19th centaury American philosophy also known as
Experimentalism, Instrumentalism.
• Focuses on the reality of experience and constant change.
• Charles Peirce (1839-1914) and John Dewey (1859-1952) are famous
Pragmatists.
• Teaching methods hands-on problem solving, experimenting,
projects and students work in groups.
Existentialism
• A life centered philosophy
• Reality is subjective and lies within the individual because every
person is unique in this world.
• The focus is on freedom, the development of authentic individuals.
• Existence comes before any definition of what we are,
• Because there is nothing before the birth and will be nothing after the
death.
• Existentialists suggest classrooms should be a matter of personal
choice.
• They start with the student, rather than curriculum content
 Educational Philosophies
These educational philosophical approaches are currently used in
classrooms the world over.

1) Perennialism
2) Essentialism
3) Progressivism
4) Reconstructionism
Perennialism
• Perennial means “principle”
• Life is set of some basic unchangeable and unchallengeable
everlasting principles.
• Humans are rational beings, and their minds need to be developed.
• Curriculum focuses on cultural literacy, stressing students' growth in
enduring disciplines.
• Study of “Great Books” by Robert Maynard Hutchins is mandatory.
 Cont…
• In PERENNIALISM, it is believed that one should teach the things that one deems to be
of everlasting importance to all people everywhere.
• Since details of fact change constantly, these cannot be the most important.
• Therefore, one should teach principles, not facts.
• Since people are human, one should teach first about humans, not machines or techniques.
• Since people are people first, and workers second if at all, one should teach liberal topics
first, not vocational topics.
• Suggests that the focus of education should be the ideas that have lasted over centuries.
• They believe the ideas are as relevant and meaningful today as when they were written.
• They recommend that students learn from reading and analyzing the works by history's
finest thinkers and writers.
 Cont…
• Students acquire understandings about the great ideas
• The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are
constant, not changing
• Aim of education is to ensure students
• Humans are rational beings, and their minds need to be developed, acquire specific
knowledge
• Stresses arts and sciences
• Learn about laws of motion rather than build a model
• Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest priority in a worthwhile education
• Focuses on significant works created rather than real world events or student interest
truth as constant (or perennial)
Essentialism
• Study of essential knowledge, skills and values
• Promotes Core Curriculum
• Teacher and subject centered education
• Training students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and
logically
• Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and
discipline
 Cont…
• Believes in a core of common knowledge to be transmitted in a disciplined manner
• The emphasis in this conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that
schools should teach
• The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor
• Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable members of
society
• Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and discipline.
• This approach was in reaction to progressivism approaches prevalent in the 1920s and
30s
• Focuses on the basics
• Schooling should be practical, focus on order
• Schools should NOT try to challenge social policies
• Little possibility of change
 Cont…

• Perennialism may appear similar to essentialism, perennialism focuses

first on personal development, while essentialism focuses first on
essential skills.
• Essentialist curricula thus tend to be much more vocational and fact-
based, and far less liberal and principle-based.
Progressivism
• John Dewey s’ Child centered educational philosophy

• Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child,

rather than on the content or the teacher.

• Learner s’ Individual experiences in the physical and cultural context.

• Believe in learning by doing

 Cont…
• Progressivism Education focuses on the child, not the subject
• John Dewey (1920’s and 30’s) father of progressive education,
“Learning is doing”
• Content derived from students’ interests
• Integrating thinking, feeling, and doing
• Learning is active, not passive
• Solve problems by reflecting on own experiences
 Cont…
• Teachers begin where students are
• Teacher serves as a guide, a facilitator
• School should improve the way of life of our citizens through
experiencing freedom and democracy in schools.
• Shared decision making, planning of teachers with students,
student-selected topics are all aspects.
• Books are tools, rather than authority.
 Reconstructionism
• The potential for either human annihilation through technology and
human cruelty or the capacity to create a beneficent society using
technology
• Emphasis is on addressing of social questions and a quest to create a
better society and worldwide democracy
• Curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of education
• Education and literacy as the vehicle for social change
• Systems must be changed to overcome oppression and improve human
conditions
• Schools should take the lead to reconstruct society primary
Cont…
• Philosophy of educational and Social Reforms
• Focuses on change, future and democracy
• Critical thinking and use of technology
• A revolutionary theory
• Curriculum focuses on student experience and taking social action on
real problems
• Community-based learning and bringing the world into the classroom
are also strategies (Cohn, 1999)
 Cont…
• Ties to progressive philosophy
• Believe in bringing the community into the classroom
• Learning experiences involve opportunities to interact with people beyond
the four walls (field trips, community-based projects)
• teaching and learning as a process of inquiry in which the child must invent
and reinvent the world.
• Critical pedagogy (Paulo Freire) – students must question and challenge
‘common’ beliefs & practices
 Unit # 2
Classical and Modern Philosophical
Perspectives on Education-I
Online Workshop for B.Ed. (1.5) 2020
Presented by Sonia Iram
AIOU Islamabad
 Objectives
• After reading this unit, you will be able
to:
1. Define Idealism and Realism.
2. Compare Idealism and Realism.
3. Analyze curriculum on the basis of Idealism
and Realism.
4. Discuss the main tenets of Idealism and
Realism.
5. Evaluate the Role of Realism in the History
of Education.
Idealism
PRINCIPLES OF IDEALISM
1. Presence of universal mind.
Plato- father of Idealism
2. Regards man as a spiritual being.
3. The world of ideas and values are superior than the
materialistic world.
4. The Real knowledge is perceived in mind.
Chief Characteristics of Idealism
• Universe exists within the spirit or mind.
• Mechanistic explanation of universe is inadequate.
• Teleological explanation of universe.
• Synthesis between Man and Nature.
• Man is central to the universe.
• Special attention to the normative and social sciences.
• Evaluative explanation of the universe.
• Conceptualists.
• Universe is knowledge.
• Emphasis on the mental or spiritual aspect of universe.
Idealism in Education

• Prepare for adulthood

• Conform to Super force

Aims and Ideals of Education
1. Self-realization
2. Exaltation of personality through self-realization
3. Universal education
4. Development of inventive and creative powers
5.Conservation, promotion and transmission of cultural heritages
6. Bringing out or the enrichment of the cultural environment
7. Development of moral sense
8. Cultivation of spiritual values.
9. Prepare for adulthood
Idealism and Curriculum
• Liberal arts Humanities
• The trivium
• Cognitive Knowledge
• Skills with words
• Structured
• Rigid curriculum
• Pre-existent reality
• Finite (Fixed)
• Revealed
Idealism and the Educator
• Model of morality and scholarship Mentor
• Charismatic
• Traditional
• Adults know, children do not Exemplar of the ideal
• High teacher control
• Teacher-centered
Idealism and Educational Methods
• Lecture
• Recitation
• Essays
• Word dependent
Idealism and Discipline
• Obedience
• Mental discipline Rules
• Punishments
• Extrinsic
• Discipline models
• “Spare the rod, spoil the child”
• Reward/punishment
• “Tough love” Corporal punishment
Idealism in Contemporary Education
• Wider and higher aims.
• The ideal teacher.
• Integrated and multisided curriculum.
• Moral education.
• Self-discipline.
• Psychological methods.
Realism

• Modified By Gemore, Russel, John Wild.

• Things we see and perceive are real and knowledge
acquired through senses only is true. Aristotle- father of Realism

Definition
• In J.S. Ross's opinion, "the doctrine of realism asserts that
there is a real world of things behind and corresponding
to the objects of our perception".
• According to Butter, "realism is the reinforcement of our
common acceptance of this world as it appears to us".
The Chief Tenets of Realism
• Existence of objects is independent of knowledge.
• Qualities are inherent in known objects.
• Knowledge does not affect the object or its qualities.
• Knowledge of objects is direct.
• Objects are common.
• Relation between object and thought.
Realism in Education
• Prepare for adulthood
• Conform to nature
 Comparison of Idealism and Realism
Topic Idealism Realism
Purpose of education Prepare for adulthood Prepare for adulthood
Conform to Super force Conform to nature
Curriculum Liberal arts Humanities Science, math, social science
The trivium The quadrivium
Curricular Emphasis Cognitive Knowledge Cognitive Knowledge
Skills with words Skills with science
Approach to subject Structured Structured
matter Rigid curriculum Pre- Rigid curriculum External
existent reality reality
Subject matter and Finite Objective
knowledge Known to Super force Natural Science/observation
Revealed
 Cont…
Topic Idealism Realism
Role of the teacher Model of morality and scholarship Model of science and scholarship
Mentor Mentor
Charismatic Conduit
Methods of instruction Lecture, Recitation Lecture, Recitation Labs/audio-
Essays, Word dependent visual, Words and things
Agent of change Learn time-tested Preserve status Test and verify Evolution in nature
quo, Traditions is slow, Order
Permanence and change Absolute-ism Permanence Tradition Absolute-ism
Natural evolution Tested
Teacher’s power roles Traditional Traditional Authoritarian Exemplar
Adults know, children do not of nature
Exemplar of the ideal
School rules Traditional Traditional
Time-tested Norm-tested
Learner expectation Obedience Scholarship Conformity Obedience Scholarship Conforming
 Cont…
Topic Idealism Realism
Discipline models “Spare the rod, spoil the Behavior-modification
child” Reward/punishment Reinforcement-schedule
“Tough love” Corporal Assertive discipline Skinner,
punishment James Dobson Canter
Special student needs Academic talent Academic talent
All must meet “the Tracking in the basic
standards” curriculum
Push bright kids Some special-education
Preferred student role Traditional, Passive Natural, Reactive
Obedient, Receiver Obedient, Responder
Individual difference No individualization Tracking,
Students conform to Students conform to norms
expectations
 Cont…
Topic
Individual rights
Discipline expectations
Type of thinking prized
Who has knowledge
Who is in charge of the learning High teacher control
space
Classroom center
Idealism
Traditional defined
Super force first
Obedience
Mental discipline Rules/
punishments Extrinsic/adults
Rote memory Traditional
Convergent Inductive Aristotelian
logic
Books, Schools
Teachers Adults
Low student control
Curriculum centered Teacher-
centered
Realism
Social norms for definitions
Part of nature
Behaviorism Modification
Reinforcement Extrinsic/adults
Memorization of principles
Divergent, Scientific,
Deductive
Books, Schools
Teachers Adults
High teacher control
Low student control
Curriculum centered Teacher-
centered
Cont…
Topic Idealism Realism
Accountability To excellence To excellence
To academics Traditional To society Statistics/norms
Liberal arts model Standardized testing
Teaching art or science? Teaching, especially lecturing, Scientific
is an art form Organized Technical
Objectives Classical/ traditional Adult- Objective/ scientific Adult-
selected Board teacher goals selected Specific
Behavioral
Back to basics Tool subjects Humanities Tool subjects
Liberal arts Math, science Social sciences
Higher standards Higher standards
Examinations and testing Essays Objective Standardized
Teacher-judged Formal Lab performance External
External standards standards
Cont…
Topic Idealism Realism
School as a social Spiritual necessity Cultural Natural necessity Group life
institution birth is preserved
Man needs culture Respect nature
School climate Contemplative Formal Businesslike Organized
Studious Inspirational Sequenced
Classroom design Central focus-teacher Central focus-demonstration
stations table, lectern
Recitation stage Traditional Media usage Observation
seating One-way
Sources of motivation Curriculum Curriculum
Teacher personality Teacher organization
Rewards/punishments Reinforcement
 Cont…
Topic Idealism Realism
Value education Imposed Moral development Social
Moral training training Reinforcement
Indoctrination
Rewards/punishments
Leadership training Elitist Elitist
Social class Intellect
Intellect
School buildings Traditional Enclosed Largely traditional Enclosed
spaces Single teacher spaces Single teacher Media
Inflexible One-way applicable Passive students
School activities Traditional Teacher- Subject clubs Teacher
controlled Support controlled Academic
academics Build character orientation Cost-effective
 Unit # 2 and 3
Classical and Modern Philosophical
Perspectives on Education-I & II

“One touch of
nature makes the
whole world kin.”
William
Shakespeare
 Objectives
• After reading this unit, you will be able to:
1. Define Idealism and Realism.
2. Compare Idealism and Realism.
3. Analyze curriculum on the basis of Idealism and Realism.
4. Discuss the main tenets of Idealism and Realism.
5. Evaluate the Role of Realism in the History of Education.
6. define naturalism, pragmatism and existentialism.
7. Identify similarities and differences among naturalism, pragmatism and
existentialism.
8. Analyse teaching learning process to the basis of naturalism, pragmatism
and existentialism.
9. Discuss the main tents of naturalism, pragmatism and existentialism.
10. Evaluate the role of modern philosophies in education
Idealism

PRINCIPLES OF IDEALISM
1. Presence of universal mind.
2. Regards man as a spiritual being. Plato- father of Idealism
3. The world of ideas and values are superior than the materialistic world.
4. The Real knowledge is perceived in mind.
Chief Characteristics of Idealism
• Universe exists within the spirit or mind.
• Mechanistic explanation of universe is inadequate.
• Teleological explanation of universe.
• Synthesis between Man and Nature.
• Man is central to the universe.
• Special attention to the normative and social sciences.
• Evaluative explanation of the universe.
• Conceptualists.
• Universe is knowledge.
• Emphasis on the mental or spiritual aspect of universe.
Idealism in Education

• Prepare for adulthood

• Conform to Super force

Aims and Ideals of Education
1. Self-realization
2. Exaltation of personality through self-realization

3. Universal education
4. Development of inventive and creative powers
5.Conservation, promotion and transmission of cultural heritages

6. Bringing out or the enrichment of the cultural environment

7. Development of moral sense
8. Cultivation of spiritual values.

9. Prepare for adulthood

Idealism and Curriculum
• Liberal arts Humanities
• The trivium
• Cognitive Knowledge
• Skills with words
• Structured
• Rigid curriculum
• Pre-existent reality
• Finite (Fixed)
• Revealed
Idealism and the Educator
• Model of morality and scholarship Mentor
• Charismatic
• Traditional
• Adults know, children do not Exemplar of the ideal
• High teacher control
• Teacher-centered
Idealism and Educational Methods

• Lecture
• Recitation
• Essays
• Word dependent
Idealism and Discipline
• Obedience
• Mental discipline Rules
• Punishments
• Extrinsic
• Discipline models
• “Spare the rod, spoil the child”
• Reward/punishment
• “Tough love” Corporal punishment
Idealism in Contemporary Education
• Wider and higher aims.
• The ideal teacher.
• Integrated and multisided curriculum.
• Moral education.
• Self-discipline.
• Psychological methods.
Realism

• Modified By Gemore, Russel, John Wild.

• Things we see and perceive are real and knowledge
acquired through senses only is true.
Aristotle- father of Realism
Definition
• In J.S. Ross's opinion, "the doctrine of realism
asserts that there is a real world of things behind
and corresponding to the objects of our perception".
• According to Butter, "realism is the reinforcement
of our common acceptance of this world as it
appears to us".
Realism and Aims of Education

• (a) Prepare the child for a real life.

• (b) Prepare the child for a happy and successful life.
• (c) Fosters mental and physical powers of child.
• (d) Developing and training of senses.
• (e) Providing vocational education.
• (f) Make the child familiar with the nature and social
environment
The Chief Tenets of Realism

• Existence of objects is independent of knowledge.

• Qualities are inherent in known objects.
• Knowledge does not affect the object or its qualities.
• Knowledge of objects is direct.
• Objects are common.
• Relation between object and thought.
 Realism in Education
• Prepare for adulthood
• Conform to nature
Aims of Education
1. Activities concerned with language
2. Activities concerned with hygiene
3. Citizenship activities
4. Ordinary social activities
5. Leisure activities
6. Activities of mental health
7. Religious activities
8. Activities concerning race-preservation
9. Vocational behaviour activities,
10. Vocational activities.
 Curriculum
• The child should be allowed to choose subjects according to his ability from
detailed curriculum.
• He should be taught what is useful in his life.
• Learning according to one's abilities.
• Subjects should be planned according to the needs of the society.
• Education should enable the student to adjust to changing social
circumstances.
• The curriculum should have utility.
• The curriculum should lay emphasis upon science subjects—physics,
chemistry, biology, astrology, etc.
 Methods of Teaching

• Lecture
• Recitation Labs/audio-visual
• Words and things
 Contribution of Realism to
Education
• Like other systems of philosophy of education realism has its advantages
and disadvantages.
• Its impact can be seen everywhere.
• The realist philosophers influence practical education.
• In seventeenth century academies for the teaching of natural sciences
developed everywhere in Europe and later on in America in eighteenth
century.
• Technical and vocational education has become a common feature of
education everywhere.
• Thus, the following may be considered to be the contribution of realism to
education.
 Cont…
• Education in Technical and Vocational Subject
• Practical Bias
• Practical Aims.
• Widening of Scope
• Scientific Teaching Methods
• Objective Attitude
• Sense Training
• Realistic School Organization
• Too Much Emphasis on Objectivity
• Too Much Emphasis on Facts
• Positivism and Meliorism
 Comparison of Idealism and Realism
Topic Idealism Realism
Purpose of education Prepare for adulthood Prepare for adulthood
Conform to Super force Conform to nature
Curriculum Liberal arts Humanities Science, math, social
The trivium science
The quadrivium
Curricular Emphasis Cognitive Knowledge Cognitive Knowledge
Skills with words Skills with science
Approach to subject Structured Structured
matter Rigid curriculum Rigid curriculum
Pre-existent reality External reality
Subject matter and Finite Objective
knowledge Known to Super force Natural
Revealed Science/observation
 Topic Idealism Realism
Role of the teacher Model of morality and Model of science and
scholarship Mentor scholarship
Charismatic Mentor, Conduit
Methods of instruction Lecture, Recitation Lecture, Recitation
Essays, Word dependent Labs/audio-visual,
Words and things
Agent of change Learn time-tested Test and verify Evolution
Preserve status quo, in nature is slow, Order
Traditions
Permanence and change Absolute-ism Permanence Absolute-ism
Tradition Natural evolution Tested
Teacher’s power roles Traditional Traditional Authoritarian
Adults know, children do Exemplar of nature
not Exemplar of the ideal
School rules Traditional Traditional
Time-tested Norm-tested
Learner expectation Obedience Scholarship Obedience Scholarship
Conformity Conforming
 Topic Idealism Realism
Discipline models “Spare the rod, spoilBehavior-
the child” modification
Reward/punishment Reinforcement-
“Tough love” schedule
Corporal punishment Assertive discipline
James Dobson Skinner, Canter
Special student Academic talent Academic talent
needs All must meet “the Tracking in the basic
standards” curriculum
Push bright kids Some special-
education
Preferred student Traditional, Passive Natural, Reactive
role Obedient, Receiver Obedient, Responder
Individual No individualization Tracking,
difference Students conform to Students conform to
expectations norms
 Topic Idealism Realism
Individual rights Traditional defined Social norms for
Super force first definitions
Part of nature
Discipline expectations Obedience Behaviorism Modification
Mental discipline Rules/ Reinforcement
punishments Extrinsic/adults
Extrinsic/adults
Type of thinking prized Rote memory. Traditional Memorization of principles
Convergent Inductive Divergent, Scientific,
Aristotelian logic Deductive
Who has knowledge Books, Schools Books, Schools
Teachers Adults Teachers Adults
Who is in charge of the High teacher control High teacher control
learning space Low student control Low student control
Classroom center Curriculum centered Curriculum centered
Teacher-centered Teacher-centered
 Topic Idealism Realism
Accountability To excellence To excellence
To academics To society
Traditional Statistics/norms
Liberal arts model Standardized testing
Teaching art or science?Teaching, especially Scientific
lecturing, is an art form Organized, Technical
Objectives Classical/ traditional Objective/ scientific
Adult-selected Board Adult-selected Specific
teacher goals Behavioral
Back to basics Tool subjects Humanities Tool subjects
Liberal arts Math, science,
Higher standards Social sciences
Higher standards
Examinations and Essays Objective Standardized
testing Teacher-judged Formal Lab performance
External standards External standards
 Topic Idealism Realism
School as a social Spiritual necessity Cultural Natural necessity Group life
institution birth is preserved
Man needs culture Respect nature

School climate Contemplative, Formal Business like,

Studious. Inspirational Organized,
Sequenced
Classroom design Central focus-teacher Central focus-
stations demonstration table,
Recitation stage Traditional lectern
seating Media usage Observation
One-way

Sources of motivation Curriculum Curriculum

Teacher personality Teacher organization
Rewards/punishments Reinforcement
 Topic Idealism Realism
Value education Imposed Moral development
Moral training Social training
Indoctrination Reinforcement
Rewards/punishments
Leadership training Elitist Elitist
Social class Intellect
Intellect
School buildings Traditional Largely traditional
Enclosed spaces Enclosed spaces
Single teacher Single teacher,
Inflexible, One-way Media applicable
Passive students
School activities Traditional Subject clubs
Teacher-controlled Support Teacher controlled
academics Academic orientation
Build character Cost-effective
 Naturalism
• Naturalism denies the existence of truly supernatural
realities.
According to Naturalism there are two types of nature
that is
• (i) Physical Nature and
• (ii) Psychology of the Child. They believes that when
psychology of the child corresponds with physical
nature than only learning happens.
• According to Ross,
“Education is merely the fostering of natural
development and true education takes place when the
nature, power and inclinations of the child are allowed
 Naturalism
• Naturalism is the philosophy that separates nature from God,
• Subordinates spirit to matter and set up unchangeable laws as
supreme.
• In naturalism efforts are made to develop personality of a child in
order to make him a natural man.
• According to naturalism, the personality of the child disintegrates in
the attempt for making it cultured and civilized.
• It is like destroying the useful elements of food in the attempt of
making it delicious.
Naturalism
• Rousseau, in his book ‘Emile’, advises to follow the nature.
• According to him , the teaching process should not be difficult ,
rather it should be made easy as far as possible and children
should get opportunities for contact with nature, experience
reality directly and discover the process of learning themselves,
instead of making them dependent on written word.
 Principles of Naturalism
• Nature is the ultimate reality. So the child should be
encouraged to learn with the nature.
• It gives full freedom to the child so that they can learn
whatever they want.
• According to this philosophy senses are the gateway of
knowledge.
• They encourages negative education and discourages
traditional teachings.
• In addition they believe in child centered education and
opposes bookish knowledge.
• They supports science education and has no faith on soul.
 Aim of Education in Naturalism
• Education should aim at perfect development of individuality.
• It serves as a mean to attain present as well as future happiness.
• Indeed education should enable a child to adapt with their
environment.
• In particular education prepares the child for future struggles of life.
• To enhance self expression of the child.
• It should aims at natural development of the child.
 Curriculum Framing Principles of
Naturalism
• Principle of child centered education that means curriculum
should be framed according to the needs, interest, aptitude
of students.
• Principle of flexibility that seeks a flexible curriculum
according to the need.
• The principle of activity and play or activity based
curriculum.
• Principle of life centeredness that means curriculum should
relate with the life of the people.
 Curriculum Framing Principles of
Naturalism

• The principle of scientific study.

• Principle of broad based curriculum with equal
emphasis on past, present and future.
• Moreover, gives importance to the subjects like
Nature study, Agriculture, Gardening, Art,
Craft, Botany, Geology, Geography etc.
 Method of Teaching in
Naturalism
• Learning by doing method in order to
ensure active involvement of students in the
teaching learning process.
• Play way method.
• Learning by experience or activity method.
• Self government and self effort of students to
learn by themselves.
 Method of Teaching in
Naturalism
• Observation method where students observes their
surrounding environment, peoples, things and learn
from his observation.
• They follow different methods of teaching according
to the interests, capacities and aptitude of the child.
• OTHERS: Apart from this method naturalists adopt
Dalton Plan, Kindergarten, Excursion method,
Montessori method, Experimentation method etc.
 Role of Teachers in Naturalism
• Teacher must be a friend of the child.
• Also teacher should behave sympathetically and
affectionately towards the children.
• Particularly, nature is the Supreme teacher.
• He/she should understand about the child, his needs,
interests etc.
• He/she is called to be a stage setter who gives the stage to
students to learn by themselves.
• He/she should create and facilitate learning situations or
environment so that students learns themselves.
• As a director of activity, the teacher should not overdo his
role or overact his role.
 Discipline in Naturalism
• Naturalist gives full freedom to the child to perform as well as learn
whatever he likes.
• There is full freedom, free society as well as no punishment.
• Moreover, naturalists assumes that the child has no knowledge of good
and bad, but he suffers pain when he makes a mistake, and pleasure
when he does something right.
• Thus he gets reward or punishment for his actions.
 Merits of Naturalism
• It gives the child a very important place in the
educational process.
• It treats a child as child, and not as a adult. The
child is good and pure at the time of birth.
• Further, it considers nature as the best teacher in
whose company the child learns better because
society is full of evils.
 Merits of Naturalism
• It considers individual interests, aptitudes, inclination, needs
and capacities while structuring the curriculum.
• It prepares and encourages the child to engage in
experimentation, discoveries and inventions.
• It motivates the child to acquire more knowledge in natural
environment.
 Demerits of Naturalism
• Nature centered study makes the child
unsocial with no feeling of social service.
• Naturalism ignores the spiritual world and
considers the material world only.
• Naturalism lays stress on solution for the
present needs and problems and neglects
his future needs and problems.
 Demerits of Naturalism
• As a result it has failed to prepare the child for future life.
• Naturalism advocates unrestricted freedom for the child which is
undesirable and harmful for the child.
• It minimizes the role of the teacher in the educative process.
• Therefore the teacher is merely an observer, sympathetic guide and
helps in structuring experience for the child.
b
 Unit # 4 & 5
Sources of Knowledge
&
Greek Philosophers’
Perspective on Education
AIOU Islamabad
OBJECTIVES

• After reading this unit, you will be able to:

1. Describe significance of different sources of knowledge
2. Differentiate between different sources of knowledge
3. Identify the reliable source of knowledge
 Revealed

Empirical Intuition

Sources

Rational Authority
 Revealed
• This sort of knowledge is based upon revelation from some supernatural
celestial beings
• Something to relate with religion
• Basis for phenomenal properties, as well as the belief in God
• Knowledge that exists independent of human conception
• A knowledge that God has disclosed to man
• God inspired certain man to write down the truth that He revealed to
them
• External knowledge
• Who profess this knowledge totally surrendered oneself to the source of
such revelation
• Supernatural being, is eternally superior and cannot be said to lie or make
a mistake
Cont…
• In the Islamic tradition, the Quran is held to be an
authoritative and revealed source of knowledge.
• In the Christian fold dreams, visions and even the Bible have
come to be accepted as forms of revealed knowledge
• Revealed knowledge is associated with interpretation of
messages
• It is not suitable for classroom situations as teacher cannot
impact objectives knowledge based on revelation.
Cont…
• There is a metaphysical aspect and a physical in revealed
knowledge.
• The metaphysical teaches the nature of the Divine Unity.
• The physical provides a code of behaviour.
• Revealed knowledge comes from a supernatural entity.
• According to Islamic belief, Allah created man and provided
him with the tools for acquiring knowledge, namely hearing,
sight, and wisdom. Allah says:
• “And Allah has brought you out from the wombs of your mothers
while you know nothing. And He gave you hearing, sight, and hearts
that you might give thanks (to Allâh)
[al-Nahl 16:78]
Intuition
• “Acquiring knowledge that is based on subjective feelings,
• Interpreting random events as non-random events, or
believing in magical events
• For example, you may have heard someone say “Bad things
happen in threes.”
• Where does this idea come from?
• Intuitive Knowledge is the ability to utilize and acquire
knowledge without the use of reason.
• It is the most personal way of knowing.
• It is immediate cognition or sharp insight.
Cont…
• Intuitive knowledge is based on intuition, faith, beliefs etc.
• Human feelings plays greater role in intuitive knowledge compared
to reliance on facts.
• Intuitive knowledge involves direct and immediate recognition of
the agreement or disagreement.
• It yields perfect certainty, but is only rarely available to us.
• Intuition as a mode of knowledge develops on the basis of
immediate apprehension.
Cont…
• Bertrand Russel (1912) claimed that all our knowledge of
truth depends upon our intuitive knowledge.
• According to Ezewu
• “This simply means that intuition is a way of knowing something
that one cannot really explain because it transcends ordinary sense
experience or reason. Intuition may occur as a sudden arrival of
solution to one’s problem or puzzle, having worked for some hours
or days without arriving at such solution.”
• Intuitive knowledge cannot be verified by the senses or the
intellect.
• The true knowledge that comes from beyond the intellect
and that is the intuitive knowledge.
Authority
• Authoritarian knowledge relies on information that has been
obtained from books, research papers, experts, supreme
powers etc.
• Authoritative knowledge comes from the experts.
• It is only as valid as the assumptions on which it stands
• A source of information have limitations
 Rational
• Rationalists believe that knowledge can be
arrived at through the use of reason or
deductive reasoning.
• The view that reasoning or logic is the central
factor in knowledge is known as rationalism.
• Reason plays a role in observation, and so that
the mind is more fundamental than the senses
in the process of knowledge-acquisition.
Cont…
• Someone who views the world through the lens of revealed knowledge
has a belief, and then attempts to force all of the evidence to support
the conclusion.
• If it does not support the conclusion, is it either discounted or
discarded.
• Someone who views the world through the lens of rational knowledge
would look at the evidence and either admits he didn’t know
Cont…
• Theorize on the most probable likelihood, accepting the
possibility that he might be incorrect.
• Rational Knowledge = Evidence in search of a conclusion
• Rationalists proposed an active mind that acts on information
from the senses and gives it meaning
• For rationalists, there are rational reasons some acts or
thoughts are more desirable than others
• Rationalists emphasize reasons for behavior
Empirical
• The empirical knowledge is an attempt to discover a basis for our
knowledge in sense experience.
• It finds recourse or confirmed by the evidence of sensory
experience.
• It is thus derived from the use of five senses.
• It is the evidence of the senses that gives meaning to empirical
knowledge.
• There can be no knowledge outside sense experience.
• It is fundamentally rooted on sense experience.
• It stands to reason that observation and experimentation will also
be basic to empirical knowledge.
Cont….
• Empirical evidence—rooted in objective reality and
gathered directly or indirectly through the senses rather
than through personal beliefs or hunches
• Empiricists describe a somewhat passive mind which
acts in mechanical way
• Empiricists proposed that experience, memory,
associations, and hedonism determine not only how a
person thinks and acts but also his or her morality.
• Empiricists emphasize mechanical causes of behaviour.
 Summary
• Revealed knowledge is the basis for
qualia/phenomenal properties, as well as the belief
in God.
• Revealed Knowledge, or Revelation, is that body of
knowledge that exists independent of human
conception.
• Revealed Knowledge described as a knowledge that
God has disclosed to man.
• In the Islamic tradition, the Quran is held to be an
authoritative and revealed source of knowledge.
 Cont…
• Intuitive Knowledge is the ability to utilize and
acquire knowledge without the use of reason.
• Intuitive knowledge involves direct and immediate
recognition of the agreement or disagreement of two
ideas. It yields perfect certainty.
• Intuition is a way of knowing something that one
cannot really explain because it transcends ordinary
sense experience or reason.
• Intuitive knowledge is supposed to be greater, finer,
higher, than the mere exercise of reason; but we are
not clearly told why?
 Cont…
• Authoritative knowledge is derived from the written works,
documentation and reports of others
• Authoritative knowledge comes from the experts
• Rationalists believe that knowledge can be arrived at through
the use of reason or deductive reasoning
• As a product of reflective thinking, rational knowledge is
based on the three laws of rationality.
• The empirical knowledge is an attempt to discover a basis for
our knowledge in sense experience
• Empirical knowledge is knowledge of such facts as one may
meet in experience
Positivist school developed under the auspices of this
empirical tendency.
 UNIT # 5
GREEK PHILOSOPHERS’
PERSPECTIVE ON EDUCATION
OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
1. Explain the dialectical method of Socrates.
2. Describe the fundamental principles of Socratic wisdom.
3. Critically evaluate Plato's idea of education according to
classes.
4. Evaluate Plato's theory of education and point out its
contribution to the field of education.
5. Discuss Aristotle’ aim of education
6. Analyze Aristotle’ curriculum of education
 PHILOSOPHERS
Socrates, 469-399
Believed that one arrives at the truth by questioning the
assumptions on which all things are based
Plato, 428-347
Student of Socrates
Aristotle, 384-322
Student of Plato
 Greek Philosophy & Its Origins
Philosophy =love of wisdom
Egyptians contemplated how the
natural world around them
worked
Early Greeks used mythological
stories to explain the natural
world
7th Century BCE –Greeks looked
for new, more practical
explanations
 Socrates (469-399 BCE)
What little we know comes from his student, Plato and
his enemy, Aristophanes
Humble birth
Wrote nothing down
Founded no formal school
Believed material things would not bring happiness
Died for his principles
 So Many Questions…
What should we do? (i.e. how should webehave)
What is the meaning of life?
What is the meaning of happiness?
Is perfection possible?
What constitutes the good or justlife?
What is virtue?
How should a man best conduct his life?
 Socratic Method
Method of rigorous questioning technique

Designed to “sting” people into realizing their own

ignorance
Provoke genuine intellectual curiosity
True knowledge gained only by constantly
questioning assumptions that underly all we do
To achieve truth is to engage in a permanent state of
critical thinking
 THE DIALECTICAL METHOD
• Socrates did not wish to convince others about the
validity and correctness of his views.
• Rather he wanted that everybody should be;
• His own philosopher
• Should be critical and think for himself
• He was convinced that every person had in him the
germ for rational thought
• He wanted to draw attention of others to the crucial
significance of philosophy for the life
• The approach of Socrates is summed up in two
words—Dialectical Method.
 Cont…
• According to Socrates, “Knowledge is virtue".
• Knowledge is vision of universal truths.
• To discover this knowledge Socrates used dialectical method.
• He has nowhere given a systematic description of this method.
• His style of developing philosophical ideas was unique.
• He would direct the course of conversation.
• This method was dialectical because to all proposed meanings
and definitions of concepts, Socrates would bring out the defects
in people and thus persuade his debater to modify his definition
to rectify the defects pointed.
• At the end a really satisfactory definition was found.
 SALIENT FEATURES OF
DIALECTICAL METHOD
• Dialectical method as employed by Socrates
clearly displays the characteristics of
1. Methodological doubt;
2. Intellectual dialogue;
3. Deductive and inductive determination of truth
4. Theory of knowledge
5. Theory of concepts
6. Reason and definition in knowledge
7. Knowledge and virtue
 Fundamental Principles of
Socratic Education

1. Knowledge is the Goal of Life.

2. Virtue can be taught.

3. Virtue is one.

4. Virtue is Bliss.
Legacy
Socrates used the claim of wisdom as his moral basis
Chief goodness consists in the caring of the soul
concerned with moral truth and understanding
“Wealth does not bring goodness, but goodness brings
wealth and every other blessing, both to the individual and
to the state”
“Life without examination (dialogue) is not worth
living”
“I am a citizen of the world”
“I know nothing except the fact of my ignorance”
He would want you to evaluate society and your own life
regularly!
 Plato (429-347 BCE)
The “idealist” or “dreamer”
Born into a wealthy family

Name means “high forehead”

Student of Socrates
Left Athens when Socrates died but
returned to open a school called the
Academy in 385 BCE
Wrote 20 books, many in the dialectic
style (a story which attempts to teach a
specific concept) with Socrates as the
main character
Plato’s Ideas
Idealist, believes in order and harmony, morality and self-
denial
Immortality of the soul
Virtue as knowledge
Theory of Forms –the highest function of the human soul
is to achieve the vision of the form of thegood
 Aim of Education
• According to Plato, man's mind is always active.
• Man is attracted towards the things all around.
• The educator should take advantage of this
tendency in the child and educate him.
• He should pay attention to the objects which
surround the child.
• The process of education advances through this
constant interaction.
• Human individual requires positive environment
not only in infancy but through his entire life.
 Cont…
• According to Plato, the process of education is never
complete.
• Plato has laid the greatest stress on mental
development in education.
• Education aims not merely at providing information
but at training the individual in his duties and rights as
a citizen.
• In Plato's opinion, the aim of education is human
perfection
• He suggests a curriculum which comprehends all
subjects.
Curriculum of Education
1. Bodily Development.

2. Educational Impressions.

3. Training in Music.
 Role of Educator
• Educator is like the torch bearer who leads a man.
• His task is to bring the educand out of the darkness
of the cave into the light of the day.
• Plato believes that the child learns a great deal
through imitation.
• He will acquire the behaviour of the people among
whom he is make to live.
• Keeping in mind the status of the child, he should
be made to live among people from whom he can
learn good habits and avoid bad ones.
 Education According to Classes
• Plato does not envisage uniform education for one
and all.
• He accepted the concept of social stratification
• He believes in individual differences
• Plato suggested various kinds of tests to be
conducted at different age levels.
• The successful individual will occupy the highest
position in the land, his word will be the law of the
land.
• It is evident that Plato granted the highest place to
philosophy in his educational scheme.
 Aristotle (384-322 BCE)
• Born in BC 384
• Joined the famous ‘ACADEMY’ of the
greatest philosopher Plato at the age of
17 year.
• In BC 347 left ACADEMY.
• In BC 342 became the tutor of
Alexander the Great.
• In BC 335 ESTABLISHED
‘LYCEUM’.
• Died in BC 322
ARISTOTLES’S PHILOSOPHY

1. Direct observation of Nature

2. Gave importance to Historical Consciousness.

 AIM OF EDUCATION
• “The aim of education was not only the attainment of
knowledge but also the attainment of happiness or
goodness in life’’

• “The aim of education was the welfare of the

individual. so as to bring happiness in their lives’’.

• Education is essential for the complete realization of

man.
 ARISTOTLE’S SCHEME OF
EDUCATION
• The early education is the responsibility of
parents.

• Further education is the responsibility of the state.

• At the same time parents are responsible for the

moral development.
ARISTOTLE’S CURRICULUM

• GYMNASTICS :

• To develop sportsman spirit and to develop good

habits for the control of passions and appetites.

• Music and Literature for the moral and intellectual

development.

• Recommends Mathematics for higher education.

 ARISTOTLE’S THEORY OF
EDUCATION
• Aristotle agrees with Plato on the division of Greek education
into stages corresponding with level and years of schooling .
• He disapproves with Plato’s communism in education .
• In the communism system every individual is moulded in a
single pattern .
• Aristotle is of the opinion that any individual in the state ,
should be given opportunity to develop his talents to the full ,
without any impediment to his progress without censorship on
the type of books he reads or the opinion he holds.
• Aristotle believed that since state is an organic unit and since
the state is to be ruled by men who have been brought ,
through education to a vision of the true form of highest
goodness.
 ARISTOTLE’S METHOD OF
TEACHING

• Aristotle suggested two types of method

1. Deductive Method

2. Inductive Method
 Legacy of Greek Philosophers
Taught us how to think
Provided a great deal of insight into the natural world
Provided many of the most profound and meaningful
answers to the great philosophical questions that have
befuddled humans since the dawn of civilization
Provided a comprehensive, valid, and reliable method
by which we could test whether or not a given idea is
true
Reflect
Reflect on Aristotle’s view on education
and apply it to the 21st century and what
education’s role in our society today.
 Unit # 6
Western Philosophers’ Perspective on
Education

Online Workshop for B.Ed.

AIOU Islamabad
 Objectives
• After reading this unit, you will be able to:
• 1. Describe John Lock’ theory of knowledge
• 2. Discuss the role of parents in education of children
• 3. Evaluate John Dewey’ philosophy of education
• 4. Describe principles of curriculum formation
• 5. Describe the impact of John Dewey’ philosophy on modern
education
• 6. Analyse Herbart's theory of ideas
• 7. Discuss the Herbart's process of instruction
 John Locke

John Locke was born on 29 August 1632 in the south-west of England.

His father was a lawyer and small landowner.
Little is known about John Locke’s early education.
Locke’s studies at were centred upon the classical languages of Latin
and Greek, and he also began to study Hebrew.
He was a hardworking boy and elected to a King’s scholarship.
He also got two major scholarships at both Oxford and Cambridge.
Locke’s formal course at Oxford would have included
classics, rhetoric, logic, morals and geometry, and he
completed his Bachelor of Arts in 1656.
This was followed by further with Master of Arts in June
1658.
Other subjects of concern:
Mathematics, Astronomy, History, Hebrew, Arabic, Natural
Philosophy, Botany, Chemistry and Medicine.
All Locke’s published works, including those that had been
issued anonymously, were equeathed to the Bodleian Library,
Oxford.
Work in the Field of Education

1. Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)

2. Two Treatises Of Government (1690)
3. Some Thoughts Concerning Education
 Theory of Knowledge

For Locke, all knowledge comes exclusively through

experience.
He argues that at birth the mind is a blank slate,
Humans fill with ideas as they experience the world through
the five senses.
He began by rejecting the doctrine of innate ideas, associated
with Plato.
 Cont…

Differences in the ideas of people not because of individual differences

and their abilities to perceive, but the differences in their experiences.
The question is:
How then was knowledge acquired?
How might men come to universal agreement?
Answer to this question, in one word, from Experience.
But experience itself, gained via the senses, was not sufficient of itself
for knowledge.
That also required the active agency of the mind upon such experience.
 Cont…
He acknowledged the possible existence of certain eternal verities
—God, morality, the laws of nature
—Whose essence might be confirmed, rather than discovered by
experience.
He also admitted the existence of some innate powers or qualities
In spite of these qualifications, Locke inclined towards nurture rather
than nature.
Categorized as the Founder of Empiricism.
From the body Locke turned to the mind.
He believed that parents should personally exercise firm and close
authority over their children from an early age.
 Parents and Children

Believed in the importance of observing children

Tailoring education to children needs and capacities
Food for children:
should be plain and wholesome, with sugar, salt and spices
favor of fruit—apples, pears, strawberries, cherries, gooseberries
less keen on melons, peaches, plums and grapes
Clothes should not be too tight, neither for boys nor girls
 Cont…

Beds should not be excessively comfortable

Mealtimes not necessarily regular
Advised parents and tutors to study their children and to note their
dispositions and dislikes
Toys should be simple and strong, rather than expensive and fragile
A good tutor, or indeed a good parent, would be able to
encourage and to satisfy the questions of children
 Pedagogical theory
EDUCATION MAKES THEMAN
 Locke posits an "empty" mind—a blank slate— that
is "filled" by experience.
 Locke's emphasis on the role of experience in the
formation of the mind
 His concern with false associations of ideas has led
that one to passive rather than active nourishment of
mind.
 Body and mind

 Locke advises parents to carefully nurture their

children's physical "habits" before pursuing their
academic education.
 This seemingly simple generic innovation has proven to be
one of Locke's most enduring legacies.
 Virtue and reason

 He defines virtue as a combination of self-denial and

rationality:
 "that a man is able to deny himself his own desires, cross his
own inclinations, and purely follow what reason directs as
best, though the appetite lean the other way“
 Locke was convinced that children could reason early in life
and that parents should address them as reasoning beings.
 Academic curriculum
 Education is about instilling virtue and what Western educators
would now call critical-thinking skills.
 Locke maintains that parents or teachers must first teach children
how to learn and to enjoy learning
 Locke's curricular recommendations reflect the break from scholastic
humanism and the emergence of a new kind of education—
 One emphasising not only science but also practical professional
training.
 Philosophy
 Locke examines the nature of the human mind and
the process by which it knows the world.
 Rejecting the traditional doctrine of innate ideas,
Locke believed that the mind is born blank, a 'tabula
rasa' upon which the world describes itself through
the experience of the five senses.
 Priorities in Education
Locke’s hierarchy of values in the education of a gentleman’s son was contained in
four elements: virtue, wisdom, breeding and learning.
Virtue was placed first in the education of a gentleman by Locke as ‘absolutely
requisite to make him valued and beloved by others, acceptable or tolerable to himself’
Wisdom was to be of a practical kind: ‘a man’s managing his business ably and with
foresight in this world’. It did not mean being crafty or cunning, but rather to be open,
fair and wise.
Good breeding was a subject upon which Locke had much to say. A well-bred person
would exhibit goodwill and regard for all people and forgo the habits of roughness,
contempt, criticize and contradiction. Not that children should be encouraged.
Finally, Locke came to learning. Locke wanted all sons of gentlemen to acquire the
basics of learning—to read, to write, to express themselves clearly and to count.
John Dewey
Herbart
Johann Friedrich Herbart (4 May 1776 – 14 August 1841) was
a German philosopher, psychologist and founder of pedagogy as
an academic discipline.
Early education of Herbart was accomplished by his mother.
He began to write about spiritual subjects from his early
childhood.
For higher education, he joined the Jena University where he was
powerfully influenced by the ‘ideology of neohumanism’.
He inclined that only through education that spiritual values
could be inculcated in the human beings.
 Herbart's Theory of Ideas
Man has certain mental sensations if he confronts certain objects.
He becomes conscious of them and acts in the most appropriate way towards them.
These simple elements of consciousness are ideas.
When man resists in face of destructive forces, ideas take root in his mind.
These ideas do not disappear easily. They struggle to be uppermost in the
consciousness.
All communication of new knowledge should be a development of previous
knowledge
 Cont…
• Herbart classifies ideas in three divisions:
Similar
Disparate
Contrary
Each new idea is accepted, modified or rejected according to its being similar,
dissimilar or contrary.
The fate of every new idea depends upon the harmony or conflict with the previously
existing idea.
This mental phenomenon goes on whenever something is presented to our
consciousness.
The accepting, rejecting or modifying of ideas in our minds is called apperception.
 Cont….
Absorption and Assimilation
Formal Steps of Herbart
• Absorptions into clearness and association
• Assimilation into system and method
 Herbart's Psychology of Education

First person who combined Ethics with Psychology and gave rise
to a new educational science
With the help of Ethics, he formulated the aims of education
With the aid of Psychology; he laid stress upon the methods of
teaching
Mind is made up of three parts:
Knowing
Feeling
Willing
 Herbart's Pedagogical Method
Herbart's pedagogical method was divided into discrete steps:
• Preparation,
• Presentation,
• Association,
• Generalization,
• Application.
In preparation, teachers introduce new material in relation to the
students' existing knowledge or interests, so as to instill an interest in the
new material.
 Aims of Education
He desires that the pupils must be so educated as to possess strong moral
character
Teacher can successfully help his pupils to form high ideals according
to his theory of ideas
Virtue
Inner Freedom
Creation of interest
 Curriculum According to Herbart
• Historical
• History
• Language
• Literature
• Scientific
• Physical Sciences
• Arithmetic together with industrial
• vocational subjects
 Discipline
Herbart laid stress upon both, freedom and discipline
He was against harsh and rigid discipline
In favour of freedom of child in learning
He preferred training on discipline
Contemporary Philosophies and
Curriculum Development
Online Workshop for B.Ed.
AIOU Islamabad
 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
1. Discuss Imam Al-Ghazali’s views about
teaching
2. Describe Ibn-e-Khaldun’s view about education
of young children
3. Elaborate Ibn-e-Miskawayh’s contributions to
the moral development of learner
4. Explain reasons of Al Farabi’s emphasis on the
scientific disciplines
5. Appreciate Allama Muhammad Iqbal’s
educational philosophy for the Muslims
 INTRODUCTION
There are enormous contributions of Muslim philosophers in the field of
education
Muslim philosophers emphasized on logic, reality, freedom of will,
sources of knowledge and many more.
Muslim Philosophers tried to answer the enduring questions of
philosophy
The nature of reality, the functions, and limits of the human reason,
truth, freedom, ethics and in essence,
How we should live are fundamental questions that have never left the
stage of philosophy.
IMAM GHAZALI (1058-1111)
One of the most important scholars of Islamic thought
A philosopher, a legal scholar, a theologian and a mystical thinker
Expert in the field of fiqh al-Syafii’
Imam Ghazali was a teacher at University of Nidzamiyah, Baghdad
Based upon Islamic perspective on education
Aims of Education
To nurture human beings so that they abide by the teachings of
religion and henceforward will be rewarded in the life hereafter.
Children learn from society and the surrounding environment
Development of their behaviors and personality
Responsibility for children's education rests on the parents shared by
the teachers
Character building
Thoughts about education
It is necessary to understand the significant
characteristics of the children so that children can be
dealt in a sound and effective manner
Emphasized on early childhood education
Parents should observe their children’s education
since birth
Children are the responsibilities of their parents
Recitation of Quran, understand Hadith, and listen to
the stories and life history of pious
People so that children could take them as examples
Cont…
Emphasized to reward children
At elementary stage, children must be trained to be
obedient to their parents, teachers and elders
They should be prohibited from boasting to their
peers about their clothes, the economic status of their
parents the food they eat and accessories they have.
Should be taught generosity, modesty and civility
Learning is only effective when it is put into practice
Cont…
Attention must also be paid on their company as it
affects their character
Stressed that education is not limited to train or
fill the mind, instead it involves all aspects of
learner such as religious, intellectual, physical and
moral
Teachers must concentrate on the religious education
Teachers should consider the differences in ability and
character among students, and deal with everyone
appropriately
The teachers should not force the students beyond their
capability
Cont…
Criticize rote memorization
Before moving to next, teacher must ensure that the students have
mastered the first subject matter
Early introduction to the fundamentals of religion through
memorization, inculcation and repetition
In the subsequent stage understanding, explanation and conscious
practice must be carried out
 Classifications of Sciences

Al-Ghazali has described following classifications of sciences

according to ‘nature’:
Theoretical (Religious and Theological)

Practical (Politics, Home Economics and Ethics)
Cont…
Classification according to their ‘origin’:

Revealed Sciences, taken from the prophets (exegesis, unity of God, customs,
rites, morality)

Rational Sciences, produced by human thinking and reason (natural sciences,

mathematics, theology, etc.)
For Al-Ghazali the revealed and the rational sciences complement
each other.
Cont…
Classification according to their “purpose or aim”:
Science of transaction (governing the behavior and actions of human beings
— the sciences of customs and rites)

Science of unveiling (essence of things and pertaining to the apprehension of

the reality)
 Cont…

Al-Ghazali divides the philosophical sciences into six categories:

i. logic
ii. Mathematics,
iii. Natural sciences,
iv. Politics
v. Metaphysics, and
vi. Ethics.
IBNE-KHALDUN (1332-1406 AD)
Ibne Khaldun was a philosopher of history and the first social scientist
Three most significant contributions to social sciences
Keenly interested in tradition, grammar, poetry, language and law
He also studied Philosophy, theology, logic, and other Islamic
subjects
Ibn e Khaldun was an expert in fiqh, nahu, hadith, rhetoric, poetry and
philosophy
 Educational Thoughts
Ibne Khaldun had described the educational process in the
perspective of the development of society
Focused his attention on the education from a religious and
ethical point of view
Views on the aspects of state, society and education
Attainment of knowledge was the natural urge of human
beings because of their reasoning and thinking abilities
Reality should be known by revelation instead of intellectual
effort as believed by philosophers
First condition for knowing the reality is the Quran and the
Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H)
Cont…
Thinking ability is special gift of God
Reflective thinking is the source of knowledge
It distinguishes man from animals
It is of three types:
Discerning/sharp intelligence
It enables man to understand the order of things
Experimental intelligence
It enables man to be receptive to opinions and teaches him
rules of conduct
Speculative/rough intelligence
It gives insight about the general idea of things existing
according to species, classes and their primary and
secondary causes
 Aims of Education
To make Muslims firm believers in God through the study of Quran
and religious sciences
Knowledge of God and faith in Islamic laws will make Muslims
know the reality
Lead to good action
Possession of good character
 Curriculum

Ulum Naqliyyai-e
The Quran, interpretations of Quran, tradition, jurisprudence
and speculative theology
Emphasized on Ulum Aqliyyai-e philosophy and physical sciences
 Method of teaching

Drill Method and teaching aids must be used to make children learn
Concepts must be taught from the easiest to the most difficult in
stages
Children must not burden with things beyond their capability
Discussed the concepts of motivation, learning willingness and
reinforcement
 AHMAD IBN MUHAMMAD IBNYA`QUB -
IBNMISKAWAYH (C.940-1030)

He is recognized as well-known theistic thinkers, historian, moralists

and historians of Persia
Three important books of Miskawayh on ethics are;
Tartib al-Sa`adah (‫)ترتیب السعاۃ‬
Tahdhib al-Akhlaq (‫)تهذيب األخالق‬
Jawidan Khirad (‫)جاويدان خرد‬
Objectives and theory of education were based on Aristotelian
theory
Specified intellectual, moral and physical education
Cont…
Produce good human beings from the social point of view
Attaining eternal happiness and self realization
Believed that education is linked to state craft
Physical education must lead the intellectual and spiritual education
Goal of life was to combine human will with the Divine Will
Unique from others due to his concern for ethics
First ethical thinker among the Muslims
Notable contributions to history, chemistry, literature and other subjects
Cont…
Miskawayh divided philosophy into two parts:

Theoretical part
Practical part

According to Miskawayh , each part complete the other. He

distinguished between philosophy and religion. He also
distinguished between reason and faith.
Cont…
Described some methods for the training of soul
Miskawayh determined seven types of wisdom:
Acuteness/depth of intelligence
Quickness of intellect
Clearness of understanding
Facility of acquirement
Precision of discrimination
Retention
Recollection
Methods for the Training of Soul

Praise the body for the good things

Encouragement
Generous characteristics
Punishment
 AL- FARABI
One of the greatest philosophers of the world
Contributed to mathematics, philosophy, metaphysics
and music
In the history of Islamic philosophical thought, Al-Farabi
was the true first founder of epistemology which depend
on demonstration and ‘universal reason‘
Established logic within Islamic culture
 Aims of Education
oFirst aim of knowledge was knowledge of God and his
attributes
oKnowledge which has a deep effect on the moral conduct
of human beings
oHelps human beings in finding the way to the ultimate
aim of their existence
oAttainment of Wisdom
oUnity of society
oUnity of wisdom, thought, and religion
oProduce good leaders
oProficiency in the arts
 Educational Thoughts
oReligion and philosophy were simply two expressions of a
single truth
oPhilosophy explains religion
oEducation is one of the most important social phenomena
oPrepared to become a member of society
oPerfect human being is the one who has acquired
theoretical virtue
oComplete his/her intellectual knowledge
oAttainment of practical moral virtues—
oBecoming perfect in his/her moral behaviour
Cont…
oCombine learning with practical action
oIt is the duty of a state to assign a budget for education,
taking a portion from the donations tax (zakat) and land
tax
oUsed various technical terms to describe the concept
of education
o correction/assessment
o Discipline
o Guidance
o Training
o exercise or learning
o instruction
o upbringing or education
Cont…
oAl-Farabi gave fundamental place to sensory perception
oInstructional method must be according to the level of the learners
oTeaching theoretical intellectual virtues is carried out by
demonstration
oEducation should be available to all
oTeacher should neither be too harsh nor extremely tolerant
Cont…
oAl-Farabi described two methods:
o Method of argument
o Method of discourse
oThere are two aspects of instruction
o Way of learning based on speech
o Way of imitation which is based on observing other people's actions
oMaking something understood by establishing its meaning in the mind
oRepetitive method is appropriate for teaching ethics and practical arts
Cont…
oAnother method: “learning by heart “
o learning words and expressions
o Write the meanings of these expressions in the listener's soul
oAccording to Al-Farabi, the student should possess the following
qualities:
o Able to grasp concepts and understand their meaning
o Accept the existence of what he has grasped or understood
o Able to describe what he has grasped and accepted
Cont…
oFarabi divides mathematics into seven parts:
o Numbers (arithmetic)
o Geometry
o Science of perspectives
o Scientific astronomy (contrasted with astrology)
o Music
o Dynamics
o Science of machines
ALLAMA MUHAMMAD IQBAL (1877-1938)
oAllamaIqbal, was a poet, philosopher, and politician, as well as
an academic, barrister and scholar
o"Spiritual father of Pakistan“
oIqbal emphasized much on the education and educational system
oEducation is the only way through which nations can be successful
oIndividuality, and “Khudi” are the most important
Cont…
oAim of education should be to Strengthen the
Individuality of Persons so that they may realize their
full Potentials and Possibilities
oFreedom is also essential for the development of
individuality and creativity
oChildren should be allowed to gain First Hand
Experiences by experimenting with their environment
oEmphasize on Awakening & Cultivation of Intelligence
oSchools must provide Exploration Opportunities to
students
Cont…
oIqbal put emphasis on Experimental Method
oKnowledge of truth is obtained initially through the senses and then
through direct realization
oIt is necessary for every educational system to Determine its
Philosophy
oThree qualities which should be cultivated by education:
o Courage
o Tolerance
o Faqr
Cont…
o Iqbal has formulated eleven principles of psychology to be kept
in view while imparting education:
o A child is keen for activity
o Children cannot attend to a thing for long
o Children take interest in observing and touching things
o Children are attracted to bright colors
o Children imitate elders
o The power of imagination and thinking
o Habit of being sympathetic
o Children have wonderful memory
o Low judgment and discrimination power
o Power of logic is not very strong
o Given them comparative situation
o Teacher should create situations of morality in the activities
 Principles for a Purposeful Curriculum

oText books should be a combination of ancient and modern contentions of

thought
oNovel experiences
oNew changes and experiences in language
oText book material should be genuine
oPreparing the student to confront each and every challenge of life
oMorality is the true essence of ideal life
oDevelop genuine patriotism
oDevelop academic interest
 Unit#8
Contemporary Philosophies and Curriculum
Development
 OBJECTIVES
 After reading this unit, students will be able to:
 1. Explain role of contemporary philosophies in education
 2. Identify the suitable philosophy for a particular
curriculum
 3. Compare different philosophies for curriculum
development
 4. Develop their own philosophy for particular discipline
What is Philosophy and Curriculum?

 Curriculum is “what” is taught each day in classrooms, and the

reasons why it is done.
 Curriculum is a roadmap and a journey towards a destination
 However, philosophy is the driving force behind curriculum
 Philosophy give more importance to “how” rather than “what”
 Philosophy is also what educators believe about themselves, either
positively or negatively
 They bring these beliefs into the classrooms leads towards outcomes
 The U.S. Educational System influenced by Four Major
Philosophies
 Two Traditional Philosophies: Idealism and Realism
 Two Contemporary Philosophies: Pragmatism and Existentialism
 Educational Philosophies
 Four major philosophies
 Educational philosophies
 Perennialism
 Essentialism
 Progressivism
 Deconstructionism
 Reconstructionism
 Each of these philosophies is birthed from one of
the major philosophies
 What is Perennialism?

 Credited to Socrates
 • Prominent from colonial period to 1990’s
 • Based in Realism, Oldest and conservative
philosophy, Traditional values are important
 • Builds character and morality
 • Esteems virtues such as truth and human nature,
Focuses on subject content such as Literature, Math
and Science
Teacher Centered Philosophy

Focus on
curriculum

Sample
Educational
classroom
leaders
activity

Goals for
Role of teacher
students
Curriculum
• Literature
• Philosophy
• Theology
• History
•Social Sciences
• Mathematics
• Music
 Essentialism
Based in Idealism and Realism
Founded in Western Philosophy
Supports individual growth and maturity,
Promotes mastery of the basic core subjects such
as the three R’s (Reading, Riting, and Rithmetic)
Classic Example: No Child Left Behind Act ,
Teacher is influenced by traditional values
 Curriculum

Basic skills in elementary schools

Disciplined knowledge and scholastic achievement in secondary
schools.
There should be a common core curriculum that is taught to all
students.
English, Math, Science, History, Foreign languages.
Focus on content rather then process
 Role of Teacher

The teacher teaches disciple and hard work

The teacher is an expert of content knowledge
The teacher is accountable for student learning
Use verified instructional strategies such as: Lecture method
and Memorization
 Progressivism

John Dewey(1920) is the most notable philosopher of progressivism.

 Emphasize of learning by doing
 Promotes student interest
 Focuses on social democracy
 Curriculum
Focuses on Relevant and Humanistic
Curriculum
Group work is emphasized
Assessment by evaluation of child’s projects
and productions
Students should test ideas by Active
Experimentation
Experimentation should done under the
supervision of Teacher
 Role of Teacher

Teachers are facilitators of learning

Encourage students to use a wide variety of activities to
learn
Progressive teachers encourage students to learn by
discovery
 Pragmatism

Credited to Dewey
 Also called experimentalism
Based upon change, process and relativity within one’s environment
Based upon critical thinking
 Focuses on problem-solving
Focuses more on exploration than explanation
 Curriculum

Pragmatic curriculum deals with the integration of subjects and

activities.
Pragmatists want to construct flexible, dynamic and integrated
curriculum
Develop child according to the changing needs and demands of
society
 Role of Teacher
Teacher is a friend, philosopher and guide for students.
Have knowledge of students interest
Provide them social environment.
Believe in democratic values
 Existentialism
Credited to Greene, Kneller and Morris
Based on self-choice
Based upon individual perception
Focuses on the human condition Freedom to choose
even it is wrong. it
Opposes standard norms and order is basic human right
Adheres to the freedom of personal options
 Curriculum

Primary aim of the curriculum is to help learners

Develop their own values and understand themselves within their own
cultural context
Existential curriculum includes activities that will help learners
explore and express their own values and identities.
 Role of Teacher
The teacher provides opportunity for the student
for self-directed learning
Important role of the teacher is to draw out the
personal definitions of the students to aid them in
making their own choices

Free Free
Student
will choice
Cont…
• In other words, deconstruction aims at revealing the differences in
concepts.
• An effort to crack open the nut, to go beyond the boundary, to disrupt
the presence and allow the other as difference to come about.
 Curriculum
• Aim to create new 'spaces' for meaning and understanding through
phenomenological or post structural investigations
• Make the text clearer and easier to understand to reveal internal
arbitrary hierarchies and presuppositions.
• Deconstruction of tangible artifacts or about the public deconstruction
of a concept
• Deconstructionist texts can easily be deconstructed
 Role of Teacher
• Engages students in discussing the main ideas of a text.
• How the writer organizes these ideas systematically through
different stages in order to achieve the main communicative
purpose.
• The focus is on guiding students to notice the global genre
structure of the text and to see how the academic content
unfolds through the different stages of genre.
• Teacher jointly reads the text with the students
• He/she does the “Deconstruction” or analysis of the text
together with the students
• Draw student’s attention to these global genre stages of the text
 Reconstructionism
• Based in Pragmatism
• Prominent in the late 19th and early 20th century ,
Popular during the Great Depression
• Focuses on social reform of both present and future ,
Teachers support change and equality
• Students have global awareness of social problems,
Schools should be the primary place to work on the
reconstruction of society
• Emphasizes the addressing of social questions
 Curriculum
 Focuses on student experience and taking social action on real
problems, such as violence, hunger, international terrorism, inflation,
and inequality.
 Reflect democratic ideals and emphasize civic education
 Opportunity for students to study real social problems and
controversial issues
 Role of Teacher
oTeacher role is facilitator and focus on:
oCooperative learning, problem solving, critical thinking
oFocus on active learning and activities outside of school
 Unit # 9
Thinkers in Education
Dr. Sonia Iram
AIOU Islamabad
MARIA MONTESSORI
(1870-1952)
• Maria Montessori’s name is famous all over the world as an originator
of a new system of pre primary education for young children.
(Montessori method)
• She believed that children should be free to find out things for
themselves and to develop through individual activity.
The Montessori Method
• It is a child centered alternative educational system developed by Maria
Montessori.
• The Montessori method is based on the fact that children learn directly
from their environment & relatively little from listening to a teacher
talking to a class.
• The Montessori method provide a stimulating child oriented environment
in which children can explore, touch and learn without fear.
 Prepared Environment
The adult environment is not suitable for children,
their should be an environment specially prepared
for them.
Six Principles of the Montessori Prepared
Environment:
1. Freedom
2. Structure and Order
3. Beauty
Cont…
1. Nature and Reality
2. Social Environment
3. Intellectual Environment
i. Areas of Curriculum
ii. Practical Life, Sensorial, Language, Mathematics, and Cultural subjects
Freedom in the Montessori Environment

Freedom of Choice
• Fundamental to the Montessori approach
• Choice allows children to discover their needs,
interests and abilities.
Freedom of Time
• Allows children to work with the same material
for as long as they like
Cont…
Freedom to Repeat
• The three-hour work cycle gives students the opportunity to work with
materials and achieve success through practice. .
Freedom to Communicate
• Montessori encourages communication in the classroom. Children
learn to discuss activities, solve problems and develop their social
skills.
 Cont…
Freedom to Make Mistakes
• Encourages children to discover the outcome of the
activity by themselves.
• Each material is designed with a visual control of error.
• This guides the child to understand the outcome of the
activity through hands-on learning experiences.
Froebel's Kindergarten System

• Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) The German

educator, psychologist and best known founder
of the kindergarten system.
• Froebel’s first kindergarten was started in 1837
in Blakenburg, Germany.
Cont…
WORKS OF FROBEL
• Froebel is author of many books.
1)Autobiography
2)Education of Development
3)The Education of Man
4)Mother play
5)Pedagogies of Kindergarten
PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS OF FROBEL

• Law of Unity
• Froebel was a spiritual idealist. For him all things
of the world have originated from God.
• All the objects, though appear different, are
essentially the same.
• This law of Unity is operating in the whole
Universe.
Cont…
• Law of Development
• The second characteristic of his philosophy is the Law of
Development.
• According to him this Law of Development is applicable of both, the
spiritual as well as the physical world in the same way.
FROEBEL'S EDUCATIONAL
PRINCIPALS
• The Aim of Education: Enable the child to realize the Unity
Principles
• The Method of Education: Self- activity
• The Method of Play: The play way: Education to Children
• Principle of Freedom: Free and Natural Development Of Children
• Principle of Social Atmosphere: Should be developed through self-
activity in a social atmosphere
• Purpose of Education: Unfold the innate powers of children to
order to them to attain spiritual union with God.
CURRICULUM ACCORDING TO FROEBEL

Should give importance to:

• Religious instruction
• Nature study
• Arithmetic
• Language
• Arts
• Handicrafts
Cont…
METHOD OF TEACHING ACCORDING TO FROEBEL
1. Principles of Self- Activity
2. Principle of hearing by Play
3. Principle of Sociability
4. Principle of Freedom
THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF KINDERGARTEN

• The kindergarten is like a miniature, society, where the

children discover their individualities in relation to others.
• The social aspect of development is given emphasis in these
schools.
• There will be an atmosphere of freedom and lot of scope for
self- expression in the form of songs, movements and
construction.
MERITS OF FROEBEL'S KINDERGARTEN
• Froebel laid emphasis on pre-school or necessary education.
• Froebel stressed the necessity of the study of child's nature, his
instincts and impulses.
PERMANENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION

• Inner self- activity directs the development.

• Early education should be organized around play.
CONCLUSION
• Froebel was the first educational evolutionist.
• Education to him was the process by which the race and the individual evolves to
higher and higher levels.
 Helen Parkhurst
(Dalton-plan)
It is an educational concept created by Helen Parkhurst (1887-
1973)
• Was introduced in 1914 in New York City.
• Name – School in Dalton, Massachusets, the USA.
• The idea was to give pupils the freedom and opportunity.
• To develop initiative and self-reliance
• Based on individual clearing
How does it work???
Is it a method of education by which pupils work at their own pace
* Students are encouraged to help each other with their work
* Students receive individual help from the teacher when necessary
* Students draw up timetables and are responsible for finishing the work
Two Principles of the Dalton Plan

1. Principle of Freedom
• Fosters independence and creativity
• This fosters the ability to think and act by oneself
• Heightens interest and concern
2. Principle of Cooperation
• Enables children to master social skills and collaboration through
exchanges with a variety of people
• Instills optimal attitudes from a social standpoint.
• Nourishes the quality of consideration.
• Fosters collectivity and cooperativeness.
 Paula Freire (1921-1997)
Critical Pedagogy

FREIRE’S PHILOSOPHY

• Friere’s philosophy which he prefers to be known as ‘Scientific

Revolutionary Humanism’.
“Leaders who work for the people are not
leaders, but who work with the people as their
servants”
• Philosophy involving techniques of adult and non formal education,
though the message is applicable to any form of education.
Cont…

The following are the important constructs

of Friere’s Educational views:
• Education is a cultural tool for liberation
from oppression.
• Education is a tool for the learners to be
creators of their own reality
 Cont…
• Knowledge is not a set commodity that is passed from the
teachers to the students
• Learning begins with action, a process where knowledge is
presented to learner
• Teachers should know that students have life experiences that
is key in shaping their education and learning.
• Education is a phenomenon in which educator and educatee
educate each other through the act of education.
Cont…
• Education is a critical understanding of reality.
• The method of education must starts from the situation and reality
of people.
• Educational practice is not an extension but a communication
• Communication involves mutual dialogue whereas extension
involves transplanting knowledge
 FREIRE’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO
EDUCATION

• Freire viewed education as a deep political project

towards the transformation of society.
• His work has exercised considerable influence
among progressive educators all over the world,
especially in critical pedagogy and social
constructivism.
• Education should promote love
Cont…

• Freire’s pedagogy allowed intellectuals to make

useful contribution to the people’s who struggle
for social change.
• Freire proposed dialogue and horizontal
relationship between teachers and learners, and
Encouraged Active Learning
• Liberating Education, that involves a process of
humanizing people who have been oppressed.
 CRITICAL PEDAGOGY

• Critical pedagogy is an educational approach for developing critical

consciousness or critical awareness in the learner.
• Critical consciousness is ability to Critically perceive the causes of
social, political and economic oppression and to take Action Against
the Oppressive elements of society.
• Critical pedagogy enables student to question and Challenge
Domination
• Critical pedagogy takes as a central concern the issue of power in
the teaching and learning context.