Chapter 1: Philosophy of Analogical Reasoning I. Philosophy: 1.1 Philosophy of Analogy

ANALOGICAL REASONING
Form - Structure - Function
Chapter 1: Philosophy of Analogical Reasoning

I. PHILOSOPHY:
1.1 Philosophy of Analogy
Reasoning, thinking, and coming to a perception is between two entities (source or base, and
a target) where reaching a level and dealing with a target as the base or source. Hofstadter (1995)
considered Analogy as a kind of high-level perception, where one situation is perceived as (in
terms of) another one.
Definition:
The New Oxford Dictionary of English (2001) defines analogy as follows:
A comparison between one thing and another, typically for the purpose of explanation or
clarification
A correspondence or partial similarity.
A thing which is or is represented as being comparable to something else in significant
respects.
A process of arguing from similarity in known respects to similarity in other respects.
The Cambridge International Dictionary of English (1995) stated that to compare is to
Examine Differences and at the same time Consider Similarities in analogy still talking of
similarities but not ignoring the differences which will control how deep is the relationship
between the target and source and thus identifying the strength of the analogy.
Gentner D. (1983) in Whaley B. B., and Holloway R. L. (1996) defined analogy as an
assertion that a relational structure that normally applies in one domain can be applied in another.
Gentner D. (1989) also stated that Analogy making is a highly sophisticated cognitive process in
which two conceptualizations - a source and a target - are analyzed for common structural
patterns
Higgins and James M, (1994) agreed that an analogy or drawing analogies or
analogical reasoning is a comparison of two things that are essentially dissimilar but are shown
through the analogy to have some similarity
A Dictionary of Philosophy (1979) called analogy as:
The establishment of similarity in certain aspects, properties and relations between dissimilar
objects, conclusions by A. are made on the basis of such similarities. The usual scheme of
conclusion by analogy is the following. Object B possesses the properties a, b, c, d, e, object C
possesses properties b, c, d, e; it is therefore, possible that object C also possesses the properties
a.
A. is the great value in research work. At the early stages of the development of society A.
takes the place of observation and experiment and conclusions are drawn from external and
secondary aspects. Most of the natural philosophical constructions of the ancients were formed in
this way. In its further development, A. lost its significance as a mean of explanation.
It still retains, however, its role as a guide to the solution of problems
Christian Huygens, when he discovered an A. in the behavior of light and sound, got the idea
of the wave theory of light; James Maxwell extended the idea to the characteristics of the
magnetic field.
Samar.allam@gmail.com
Viewed in isolation, A. is not proof, because the conclusions are mere probability. It has to
be used jointly with other forms of cognition. To increase the probability of a conclusion by A.
the following are required:
1. A. must be based on essential features and on the greatest possible number of common
properties in the objects being compared
2. There must be the greatest possible connection between the property on which a
conclusion is being formed and the properties common to the object
3. A. must be used to establish the similarity of objects; it only points to differenced, and
must be supplemented by their investigation. In modern science A. is widely applied in the
theory of similarity and is also used in analogue simulations
Podolefsky N. S and Finkelstein N. D. (2007) defined it as a mapping from a base domain
(Source; e.g. the solar system) to a target domain (target; e.g. the atom) akin to mathematical
isomorphism.
Salu Y. (2005) added that analogy is a mapping between elements of a source domain, and a
target domain. Analogy becomes useful in some context when a reasoner is familiar with the
source, and can map familiar elements or relations from the source into unfamiliar (or unknown)
elements or relations in the target. Mapping elements are analogical inferences
Example:
Fig. (1-1) Prototypical Analogy

Source: Itkonen E., 2005, Analogy as Structure and Process: Approaches in Linguistic,
Cognitive, John Benjamins publishing company
This figure represents structural ~ functional analogy example. Drawing the structure of each
the source and target; bird and fish while mapping the function of different elements of both
structures. E.g. the function of the wings-fins for locomotive and that for lungs-gills provides
oxygen, while feather-scales used for protection.
Fig. (1-2) Analogy as tree diagram

Fig. (1-3) Formal Analogy

Analogy is to deal with a target in correspondence to a source (base) accordingly to the

similarities between them while considering the differences at the same time.
1.2 Analogical Reasoning

Back to the Source/Target notion of analogy, Luger and Stubblefield (1998) suggested that
AR in general assumes that if two situations or objects are known to be similar in some aspects,
it is likely that they will be similar in others .While Holyoak explained it as a relational reasoning
among terms depending on understanding these terms. It determined how terms and the relation
between terms are related together.
AR is thinking about two entities (a source or a base and a target) through analogy between
them by finding similarities, to deal with one (target) in respect with the way you deal with
another (source or base)
1.3 AR as a problem solving technique

Mcfarland T. D., Parker R. (1990) mentioned that problems may be solved by three systems
of reasoning deductive, inductive and analogical reasoning.
AR is one of the strategies used to solve complex problems. Analogical problem solving
takes a solution from the source, and transfers it to the target (problem). Using analogy in solving
problems enables the solver to connect the familiar; known (a previously used method, strategy,
or context) to the unfamiliar; unknown (a new problem).
Fig. (1-4) a-b Analogy uses; Explain to others-Problem solving- Problem Identifying
Source: Schunn Ch. (University of Pittsburgh), Christensen Bo T. (Copenhagen Business
School), The Effect of Artifacts on Analogy in Innovative Design, Retrieved: August 12, 2009,
from: www.lrdc.pitt.edu/schunn/innov2006/talks/Schunn.ppt
Schunn and Christensen agreed that AR was mainly used for three purposes:
1. Solve Problems AR has been used more for this purpose with 40%
2. Explain to others AR has been used secondly for this purpose 32%
3. Identify Problem AR has been used with least for this purpose 28%
As analogy takes place between two items, these items might belong to the same domain
(Within-Domain) or different domains (Between-Domain). Between-Domain Analogy has been
evoked to explain a problem or situation more that to solve or identify a problem.
1.4 Categories of Metaphor

There is a big resemblance between the categories of Metaphor and those of Analogy. Both
words somehow are related together. So, many got confused of using both words to refer to the
same notion. Antoniades A. C. (1992) identifies three board categories for metaphor
1. Tangible
2. Intangible
3. Combined
1.4.1 Tangible Metaphors
In which the metaphorical departure stems strictly from some visual or material character (a
house as a castle, the roof of a temple as the sky)
This one is more close to visual analogy (chapter two), in which the source of the analogy is
whether another building, forms from nature, or paintings.
Tangible Metaphors resembles so much the category of analogy based on source nature, as
calling the tangible metaphor with Iconic Analogy ( will be studied in chapter two, it depends
on tangible sources whether natural or unnatural)
1.4.2 Intangible Metaphors
In which the metaphorical departure for the creation is a concept, an idea, a human condition:
or a particular quality (Individuality, naturalness, Community, Tradition, and Culture)
Example
Sustainability in architecture borrowed the idea of closed-cycle in order to achieve ecosystem
balance.
1.4.3 Combined Metaphors
It is the conceptual and the visual overlap as ingredients of the point of departure. The visual
is excuse to detect the virtues, the qualities, and the fundamentals of the particular visual
container
Example
Computer Beehive.
Both being boxes relevant proportions ----- Visual
Yet having the qualities of discipline, organization, cooperation ----- Conceptual
II. WHY ANALOGY:

1.5 Analogy and Creativity
Analogical reasoning may play a critical role in scientific thinking stated by Klein G. A.
(1987). Gentner (1980) in Klein G. A. (1987) examined the structure of analogical models in
science, and Hoffman (1980) presented arguments for viewing analogical and metaphorical
process as central to the development of scientific discovery. Hesse (1966) in Klein G. A. (1987)
also presented reasons for believing that new hypothesis in science are generated through
analogical reasoning.
Daugherty J., Mentzer N. (2008) added that analogical reasoning is one of the techniques
used for problem solving, to provide creative reasoning, looking for great flexibility in the
retrieval and mapping phase. Valid analogies cannot be ensured. Thus, a validation phase must
be considered after mapping. In order to guarantee a creative analogy, the LTM (long term
memory) must be imposed. As long as analogy depends on similarities/referents or constraints, a

successful retrieval of such elements will affect the analogy process. Here come the LTM, where
the background knowledge matters in case of bringing similarities as well as differences.
Boden (1990) and Koestler (1964) in Maher M.L. and Gero J. (1995) discussed three main
aspects of creativity:
1. Combining ideas from different domains
2. Use visual imagination, metaphor, and analogy
3. Expanding and varying the search space of alternatives
Metaphor, Analogy, and imagination assimilate the first point of combining ideas from
different domains (Inter-Domain/Between Domain Analogy Chapter two). Looking for
alternatives and expanding the search will bring more parameters to the analogy process. Hence,
comparing between them will lead to a good evaluation and a creative analogy.
Conveying Hadamard Stages of creativity and relating them to the Analogy process
component will help us conceive how creativity embodies analogy. This correspondence has
been used as a guide for generating a computational model for creative reasoning.
1. Preparation
2. Incubation
2. Retrieval
3. Illumination
3. Mapping
4. Verification
4. Validation
Hadamard Four Stages of Creativity
Analogy Phases
Fig. (1-5) Hadamard Four stages of creativity-correspondent to-Analogy Phases

Source: Researcher
Maher M.L. and Gero J.S. (2006) emphasized the previous correspondence considering
computer-aided design. They agreed that in order to make use of analogy and mutation to
support creativity in CAD, they must consider three principles:
1. Representation of design experience------------------------Retrieval
2. Identification and application of mutation operators-----Mapping
3. Development and application of analogical reasoning---Validation
(Mutation is deliberate action to change features or attributes of an object or concept in an
unconventional manner.)
Fig. (1-6) State Space of routine and creative designs

Source: Maher M.L., Gero J. S., 2006,"Mutation and Analogy to support Creativity in Computeraided design", Design Computing Unit, University of Sydney, Sydney
Assuming the light grey area is the area representing the space of a routine designs. The
space of usual designs is included in the area of routine designs. In order to have a creative
design, thinking out of the routine designs area is a must, extending this area away from the
usual ideas and designs. Creativity is about brining unusual juxtaposed ideas.
1.6 Analogy and Artificial Intelligence

Analogy has been used in many fields to accomplish Artificial intelligence. Neural Networks
and Genetic Algorithms were oriented by Analogy to obtain artificial intelligence and thus
solving many problems through several fields.
Analogy as a problem solving technique found a great interest in all fields to reach creativity.
Many systems have been developed recently using analogical reasoning to reach solution.
EUREKA is a system that enhances analogical reasoning to solve problems. It depends on
the retrieval of analogies, at the expense of problem-solving ability or sophisticated analogical
elaboration techniques. Randolf M. Jones (1993, University of Michigan) has developed its
computational details, while Pat Langley and Allen (1991, Stanford University) adopted a
reasoning formulation called flexible means-ends analysis.
1.6.1 Genetic Algorithm

Evolutionary process or genetic algorithm was developed in the 1970s, when using biological
evolutions as models for software design as Baker R. (1993) stated. Its aim is to reach a better
solution each time, mimicking biological world.
Fig. (1-7) Tree of Fractal Mutations (1991)

Source: Baker R., 1993, Designing the future: the computer transformation of reality, Thames
and Hudson, Hong Kong
This fractal Mutation are generated by a Mutator software by Branch Ribs (1991) which
provides a series of nine images that resembles each other using Genetic Algorithms. The user
selects one of these nine series the most artistically pleasing form. The selected form will be the
'parent' of the succeeding generation.
Genetic Algorithms have been used to generate an object-oriented model to help optimizing
energy use in green buildings by Wang W.,Rivard H., Zmeureanu R.(2005). It is more like a
simulation program that experience tests to assess building performance in terms of
- Energy efficiency
- Indoor air quality
- Lighting
- Acoustics and so on
1.6.1 Architecture Education

Metaphor/Analogy has been used for education all through several ages and many fields. It
has been used to expand children learning abilities. Anthony C. Antoniades (1992) suggests that
metaphor can be more useful to architecture instructors. Thus many instructors used it especially
through the recent years. They use exercises that depend on metaphoric departures, so it is
possible to test and to develop students fantasy and imagination.(Fantasy Chapter two)
Horden R. encourages students at the Institute for Architecture and Product Design, Faculty
for Architecture, Technical University of Munich to develop their design from an object or living
thing (Source of analogical reasoning technique) that demonstrates beauty and a link to the topic
of the design (looking for similarity to infer Analogy).
Here are examples from students taught by Professor Richard Horden at the institute
depending on living things as a source of their analogy.
Project
Bridge (Munich 2002)
Students Georg Glas Julian Hildebrand
Location Barcelona
Teaching Prof. Richard Horden Burkhard Franke
Team
Fig. (1-8) a-b-c Bridge (Munich 2002)

Source: Horden R., Fuchs U.,Franke B.,2008, Micro Architecture : with 680 Illustrations,
Thames and Hudson Ltd., London , UK
These students were inspired by the shape of the wing tip of a seabird seems to caress the
water as it makes a turn. This form provided them with a flexible form ,while considering
structural issues.
Project
Habitation (Munich 2007)
Students Karin Wouters Na Shen
Location African Steppe
Teaching Prof. Richard Horden Burkhard Franke
Team
Fig. (1-9) a-b Habitation (Munich 2007)
Source: Horden R., Fuchs U., and Franke B., 2008, Micro Architecture: with 680 Illustrations,
Thames and Hudson Ltd., London, UK
Fig. (1-10) c-d-e Habitation Munich 2007

Source: Horden R., Fuchs U., and Franke B., 2008, Micro Architecture: with 680 Illustrations,
Thames and Hudson Ltd., London, UK
They were inspired by the desert lizard in their design. It is a good example for Micro
architecture where it is inspired by natural forms. This fascinating position exposed to the hot
desert with its mouth open. It suggests a natural convection/thermal cooling movement from the
lower back to the top of the head, while naturally photovoltaic cells on the upward sloping back.
Richard Horden kept reminding his students while designing that nature is an exhaustible
reservoir for inspiration. He agreed that there are two main aspects to learn from forms in nature:
1. Creating beautiful forms
2. Intelligent solutions for meeting the demands of their surrounding
These two main aspects were proved, as for architects generating new forms based on nature
or things, while their main concern is form and its beauty (Venustas chapter six).
Other architects were so much influenced by nature, as they generated new Structures.
(firmitas chapter six). Buckminster Fuller Expo 67 will never be forgotten. While Santiago
Calatrava is manipulating his anatomy studies introducing creative forms and structures as well.
Chapter 2: Analogical Reasoning Types in Architecture

2.1 Based on Similarity Nature
Broadbent G. (1973) considers analogical design as the most powerful source of creative
ideas in the architectural design. He distinguished 3 categories of Analogy:
1. Visual analogies
2. Structural
3. Philosophical.
Together with Philip Steadman (2008) who defined two distinct kinds of interpretation to
analogy, both are related
1. Visual (Appearance - Composition)
2. Functional
2.1.1 Visual analogies

In such analogy, designers refer to existing buildings, forms from the nature, paintings
Broadbent G. (1973). They borrow and refer to what they visually see around them whether it is
other buildings or nature or even paintings, anything their eye sees and their mind visualizes it
and imagine it in a building.
"Architects are visually oriented and are taught to think
graphically "(McKim 1972; Laseau 1980)
This AR Type concerned about the visual orientation of designers, and how the
metaphoric and analogical graphical and conceptual thinking affects the design. The role of
symbols and semiotics in the visual referenced analogical ideas in design has been emphasized.
2.1.1.1 Symbolic Analogies
Inferring from its title what it implies to, It resonates symbolism among the AR process.
Symbolic Analogy is mainly Visual Analogy, as a relationship between the symbol and the main
element to be symbolized. But this Symbol might not relate visually to the main element like in
mathematic symbols.
2.1.1.2 Proportional Analogies (Aristotle)
The most widely known theories of analogy introduced by Aristotle, in Which analogies are
represented in terms of proportions A: B:: C:D , or " A is to B as C to D " in plain English
This diagram has been explained by Hersey (1976) assuming the side of the square ES
represent the width of a room and then draw the "double square" of base EP. Next the semicircle
is drawn on EP and the diagonals QP and SM. It is then claimed that the distance RT is
approximately 1/5 of SM and also approximately 1/7 of EP. It is now GS = 5TR that is taken as
the height of the room. The module TR is also used to generate the length of the room
2.1.2 Structural analogies

Predicting from its title, the similarities drawn in this analogy is based on structure. As
Broadbent stated, where powers of tension and compression in the human body are referred to
Sometimes referring to it as how deep is the analogy between the source and the target, or
the nature of the similarities taken in the analogy process, how deep are these similarities relating
to the source and the target as well.
2.1.2.1 Personal /Component analogies
It is when you see yourself as personally involved in the problem you are trying to solve
2.1.2.2 Surface Analogy
Casakin H. (2002) defined it to relate to easily accessible and superficial concepts of object
properties .While Gentner and Toupin, (1986); Medin and Ortony, (1989); Ross, (1989); Smith
10
E. E. (1989) saw it as a perceptual or surface similarity is relatively salient and easy to

recognize. As a result, it is often a useful index of deeper conceptual or structural similarities and
can provide access to more complex relations.
Example
A rectangle is to a square as an oval is to a circle
2.1.2.3 Structural Analogy
Gentner (1989) and Keane (1988) argued that although these surface types of analogies are
easy to create, under normal circumstances they could not guarantee the transfer of structural
relations between source and target.
This deep or structural analogy is of a higher level, higher order relations based on deep
properties, which no doubt considering an issue more deeply led always to better results, that is
better solution among the target and source
2.1.3 Philosophical analogies

It the type of analogy that depends on philosophies or as Broadbent (1980) stated it with
references to principles of physics, biology .etc
Accordingly Organic analogy based on zoology and science of plants is considered
philosophical analogy as well.
2.1.4 Functional analogies

It concerns functional purposes during the AR process, as being correspondent to the fitness
of animals and plants for their environment. It is related to the performance resulted from AR
process.
2.2 Based on Knowledge Nature

Based on the nature of the knowledge transferred from previous experience to the new
problem, the analogical reasoning approach was classified by Carbonell (1982,1983, 1986) in
Maher M.L. and Gero J. S. (2006) into two categories: transformational analogy and
derivational analogy
2.2.1 Transformational Analogy

It adapts the solutions to the past problems for the new problem. It transforms the solution of
the past problem in a way to fit the new problem.
2.2.2 Derivational Analogy

It applies the past problem solving processes or methods to solve the new problem.
Derivational analogy is a reconstructive method by which lines of reasoning are transferred
and adapted to the new problem Carbonell (1986)
When the base of the analogy is the problem solution of an old problem, or the derivation of
that solution
2.3 Based on Source Nature (Literal Analogy)

Broadbent (1973) in Rowe P. G. (1998) classified literal Analogy into two types, depending
on the source or the base of the analogy that one can distinguish between
11
2.3.1 Iconic (natural Unnatural) Analogy

Iconic Analogy is broad, where the source is concrete object that might emerge from fields
outside architectural design; they are often objects from natural world, Broadbent (1973) in Peng
C. (2001). But, the source can also be imagery from scene, Painterly concept or narrative account
of real or imagined circumstances, Analogy present symbolic and iconographic meaning to
design Rowe P. (1987-82) in Peng C. (2001).
2.3.2 Canonic Analogy

Canonic Analogy based on proportional systems or formal geometric properties, it manifests
abstract geometrical patterns or shapes like Cartesian grids or Platonic shapes, which solved
many of the design problems Rowe P.G. (1998)
2.4 Based on Distance between Domains

Analogy exists between a target and source there is a distance between them that might be
large or small. Distance here means how many similarities exist between both. It also depend on
the strength of these similarities (superficial, or resulting in more structural analogy)
Similarities can be referred to by domain as well, fewer similarities might lead us to another
domain of the source or target
Christensen B. T. and Christian D. Schunn, 2005 added that Analogy served three functions
in relation to novel design concepts:
1. Identify problems,
2. Solve problems or
3. Explain concepts.
Problem identifying analogies were mainly within-domain; explanatory analogies were mainly
between-domain; while problem solving analogies were a mixture of within- and between
domain analogies
2.4.1 Between-Domain (Distant analogies/ Cross Domain)

An analogy can be established between two different domains, each of which embrace
dissimilar knowledge, but with a common shared correlation based on similar structural aspects
as Casakin H. (2002) illustrated.
It means the source belongs to a different domain than the target, or they have fewer
similarities.
Distant analogy handles less superficial similarities. Its logical to find similarities between 2
entities (target and source) belonging to different domain, to look more deeper in order to follow
a true and reliable analogy
This type of analogy lead to more original design, as it seeks for deeper similarities between
a source and a target of different domains. So, it is very common in design, and more
Referred to also with: Between-Domain analogy, Cross-Domain analogy, Inter-Domain
analogy
2.4.2 Within- Domain (Local analogies)

Source and target are embedded in the same or very close domain (Caskin)
The level of difficulty in accessing and transferring an analogy is largely dependent on how
remote or close the distance between target and source is (Johnson-Laird 1989)
12
Understanding the distant analogy, Local analogy is about a source and a target of the same
domain. Hence, more similarities and logically easier
Since target and source belong to the same domain, more superficial similarities can come
up. This does not mean that there is no structural analogy here. Both local and distant analogies
involves structural analogy
Referring to this type with: Within-Domain analogy, Local analogy and Intra-Domain
analogy
Local analogies involve greater superficial similarity between source and target, compared to
lesser amounts of superficial similarity in distant analogies. This increase in superficial similarity
may make local analogies easier to access (e.g., Gentner,
Rattermann, and Forbus, 1993; Holyoak and Koh, 1987). Both local and distant analogies
involve structural similarity. (Christensen B. T. and Christian D. Schunn, 2005)
Casakin H. (2002) found that both novices and experts produced more between-domain than
within-domain Analogies
According to Saha (1988) in Daugherty J. and Mentzer N. (2008) who stated a way to
distinguish between the two is to categorize metaphors as items compared from the same
category and analogies as items compared from different categories.
There by Within-analogy can be called metaphor.
2.5 Based on Source Type
Wayne O. Attoe (1979) listed many types of analogies found through the 19 th and the 20th
century that was mentioned in Routi P. (2007) paper about thematic theories of architecture.
These types are named after their source type.
The list of Wayne O. Attoe is:
1. Mathematical Analogies - Geometrical shapes - proportions
2. Biological Analogies
- Organic shapes Vigorous style of construction
3. Linguistic Analogies
- Architecture = words + Grammar
- Expressionism and symbolism
4. Mechanical Analogies - Building as a machine
5. Ad-hoc Analogies
- Building is a combination of material which found on site
6. Stage Analogies
- Building is a stage of life
2.5.1 Mathematical Analogy

Mathematical analogies are the one related to geometric shapes like a cone or a balletc and
proportions. This type is more similar to the proportional analogies .Proportional analogy can be
considered as a part of the Mathematical Analogy.
2.5.2 Biological Analogy

Charles Jencks could be the first who predicted that biology would become the major
metaphor for the 1990s and the source for significant architectural movement this century i.e.
biomorphic school. (See Jencks C., Architecture 2000: predictions and methods, Studio Vista
1971).. Evolutionary architecture by Frazer
Biological Analogy then listed in Wayne O. A. (1979) which has been developed later by
Steadman P. (2008). Other types have been added that can be referred to as biological analogy as
well, like branches representing different biological analogies.
13
AR in Architecture
1
Organic Analogy
2
3
Anatomical Analogy
Ecological Analogy
Darwinian ( Evolutionary )
Analogy
Meaning
where by building types are categorized according to methods taken from
botany and zoology
Engineering structure of buildings is compared with the skeleton of the animal
Views the appropriateness of designed objects for their functional purposes as
being equivalent of the fitness of animals and plants for their environment
Explains the design of useful objects and buildings in terms of repeated
copyings in which variations are made at each stage , and are then put to the test
Table (2-3) Biological AR types in architecture by Philip Steadman

Source: Researcher
2.5.3 Linguistic Analogy

It deals with architecture through words expressing symbolism and using expression
describing architecture. Nesbitt K. (1996) mentioned that Agrest D. and Gandelsonas M. in
'Semiotics and Architecture: Ideological Consumption or theoretical Work ', explained Linguistic
Analogy as the idea that architecture could be seen as a visual language
Architecture == Words + Grammar
Expressionism and symbolism played a great role in this type of analogy. Even Agrest D. and
Gandelsonas M. emphasized it through semiology or semiotics (the science of the different
systems of linguistic signs), although there is difference between sign and symbol.
From Chapter one, after studying the Philosophy of Metaphor and verifying the meaning of
its different and various definitions. Linguistic analogy is a metaphor. There by Linguistic
analogy can be classified with metaphor types:
1. Tangible - Visual, material character of both entities
2. Intangible - Concepts, ideas, human conditions, particular quality
3. Combined - Visual + Conceptual, the visual is excuse to detect virtues and
2.5.4 Mechanical Analogy

Mechanics has been used as a source of inspiration to draw this analogy. No one can deny the
words of Le Corbusier 'A Machine for living'. It handles the building as a machine.
2.5.5 Ad-hoc Analogy

Building is a combination of material which found on site. Vernacular architecture played a
great role through this type of analogy, as it is based on utilizing local and natural materials
found in its surroundings.
2.5.6 Stage Analogy

Building as a stage of life, draw us to the lifecycle achieving balanced ecosystem through its
lifecycle obtaining sustainability. A natural life cycle is a closed one; dealing with a building
through this principle will lead us to call for sustainable and green architecture.
2.6 Based on Source Multiple

2.6.1 Single Analogy
Shelley C.(1999) differentiates between single analogy and multiple analogies. A Single
analogy is an analogy constructed with exactly one source or model in mind. Lloyd 1966 in
Shelley C. (1999) stated that most of not all of the analogy since antiquity treat single analogy.
14
Most common analogy representing single analogy is Proportional Analogy which is introduced
by Aristotle.
A:B::C:D that is A is to B as C is to D .
Example
A rectangle is to a square as an oval is to a circle
2.6.2 Multiple Analogies

A multiple analogy is one that contains more than one source analogy. It depends on
retrieving many sources to solve a problem of one target drawing many analogies at the same
time.
2.7 Based on Purpose (Rebuttal Analogy)

2.7.1 Explanatory Analogies
This type of analogy is characterized by Features that aid in explanation. It high in and it
main purpose is to specify, clarify, and systematicity, but not considered a rich analogy.
2.7.2 Expressive Analogies

Generally opposite to Explanatory Analogy, it tends to have rich, thick, and relationally
Idiosyncratic or behavioral characteristics. Expressive Analogy is used for sensory or evocative
purposes than the explanatory. It gives a minor explicative Function , as its main purpose is to
stimulates feelings, vehemence, and passion.
D. Aha, D. Kibler, and M. Albert (1991) in Gust H. , Krumnack U. , Kuhnberger K. ,
Schwering A. (2006) Classified Analogy into three types:
1. Proportional Analogy
2. Predictive Analogy
3. Analogical Problem Solving
Proportional Analogy
It has been studied earlier. It has a general form (A : B) :: (C : X) in which A,B,C are
expressions from the same domain. A and B has a relation representing the source, while C and
X the target. The concept of A and B can be applied to C and X to get the result X.
Example
Mammals: lungs: fish: X
X = Gills
2.7.3 Predictive Analogy

Gust H. , Krumnack U. , Kuhnberger K. , Schwering A. (2006) agreed that it describe a new
domain (target) not only by specifying structural commonalities with a given domain (source),
but also by transferring information and explanation from the source to the target.
Daugherty J., Mentzer N. (2008) called it generative Analogy as well. Explaining it as the
type of analogies that provide the ability to make inferences from the base domain to the target
domain, this inference is based on more than the surface features of each. Also the structure of
15
each domain is similar enough conceptually to generate inferences from the base domain. Such
analogies allow us to go beyond the familiar and reason about the unfamiliar bringing
predictions.
2.7.4 Analogical Problem Solving

Analogy here is brought mainly to transfer a solution from source to target. Case-based
reasoning is a typical formalization to Analogical problem solving.
2.8 Analogy and Fallacy / Fantasy
Fig. (2-22) The Concepts of Fantasy and Imagination in relation to the concept of reality
Source: Anthony C. Antoniades (1992), "Poetics of Architecture", Van Nostrand Reinhold, USA
Earlier in chapter one, architecture education has been studied as well as how
metaphor/analogy has been used to generate new ideas and expand the imagination and the
fantasy of architecture students.
Anthony C. Antoniades (1992) defined fantasy as:
The ability of a person to generate images that cannot become reality, no matter what the
circumstance
Existence: Mind
Ingredients: Dreams - Visions
16
While imagination:
The ability of the mind to see what is there. It has a pragmatic connotation
The previous diagrams emphasize the importance of fantasy and imagination together to
bring a creative new idea to reality. Fantasy exists in dreams, while with imagination, fantasy
will come to reality.
Antoniades A. C.(2006) agreed that analogy can be a Fantasy , what is the image that comes
into your mind if you were to solve it in your wildest fantasy or within come other cartoon /
fantasy world .
Michael Michalko (2006) found that this involves using your imagination without reference
to objective reality; what is the image that comes into your mind if you were to solve it in your
wildest fantasy?
Concerning Fallacy, Philip Steadman, in 2008, Stated Analogies are shown to be conductive
to fallacies, such as
2.8.1 Functionalist Fallacy

Another type of Analogy Antoniades A.C.(1992) agree on was close / direct where a straight
functional parallel relationship exists e.g. selling science is like selling baked beans or the human
arm is like an angle poise lamp
2.8.2 Historical Fallacy

A fallacy depends on historical accumulation of information where data has been evolved
through a period of time forming a historical fallacy.
2.9 Other Types

Other types of analogy has been found like verbal figural/numerical analogiesforced- spontaneous- constructive and derivational analogies. verbal Analogy is like Linguistic
Analogy, while figural /numerical Analogy could be one of the proportional analogy or
Mathematical analogy.
2.9.1 Forced Analogy

When analogical problem solving is initiated by an explicit hint to use a particular case
(provided by a teacher) as a source for analogy
2.9.2 Spontaneous Analogy

It is initiated by spontaneous retrieval of a source from memory and noticing the analogy
between this case and the target. In the present work only the last case is investigated
2.9.3 Constructive Analogy

When it is initiated by a reasoner's explicit decision to try to solve a difficult problem by an
(a priori unknown) analogy and generating (constructing) various sources by systematic
transformations
17
2.9.4 Anthropometric Analogy

Rowe P. (1987-80) defined anthropometric analogy as ' mental constructs' describing
human's physical occupancy of and movement through a space.
2.9.5 Pictorial/Geometrical Analogy

Pictorial and geometric analogy has been emphasized by Hoffman R. R. (1995) considering
visual forms and figures whether geometric or non-geometric. Pictorial analogy is similar to
visual analogy while geometric more likely like mathematical analogy.
2.9.6 Verbal Analogy

Many have evoked verbal analogy like Hoffman R. R. (1995), Saklofske D. H. and Zeidner
M. (1995). It is similar to linguistic analogy. It deals with language structures and the relations
between words and vocabulary.
2.9.7 Numerical Analogy

McAlpine J., Weincek B., Jeweler S., and Finkbinder M. (2008) illustrated numerical
analogy to be logic problems involving two sets of numbers. The items in the first set are related
some way, and items in the second set have to be related to each other in the same way.
Numerical analogies can also be described to be proportional relation between numbers.
2.9.8 Figural Analogy

Explained by Lochhead W. J. (1984), it is a series of figures presented , where the first figure
is related to the second figure in the same way that the third figure is related to one of the answer
choices.
Chapter 3: AR in Practice
Based on the philosophical base, for each project a philosophical analysis will
1. Identify source - target of AR process
2. Specifying - Mapping type.
Similarity type
Analogy type
Metaphor category
The similarity type could be
1. Syntactic (Isomorphism) . One-to-one, structure correspondence
2. Pragmatic . Finding most important aspect in respect to purpose
3. Semantic ...... Referring to the same meaning
The mapping type could be
1. SMT (Structure Mapping Theory) ~ structural similarities (syntactic)
2. Pragmatic Mapping - infers pragmatic constraints not structural
18
3. Multiconstraint Theory - relies on the three constraints syntactic semantic, and

pragmatic
Metaphor is classified into three categories:
1. Tangible Metaphor Visual, material character of both entities
2. Intangible Metaphor Concepts, ideas, Human conditions, Particular Quality
3. Combined Metaphor Visual + Conceptual, the visual is excuse to detect virtues and
Qualities
Never the less, it will be evaluated according to
1. Sustainability ----- if yes =1, if no = 0
2. Technology use ----- if it uses 1, if not 0
3. Flexibility ----- if it satisfies it 1, if not 0
4. Complexity ----- if it satisfies it will identify it if visible or invisible, if not 0
Chapter three studies the architectural theories. It traced the evolution and development of
these classical theories resulting in four main discourses that influenced most of the
contemporary architecture if not all. These four evolutionary discourses are stated above
Sustainability Technology use Flexibility - Complexity
3.1 Form (Venustas)

Analogy is built on a similarity between the source and the target to be solved. The form of
the Building has always been the center of interest to every architect, thus everything around us
has a form to which can be symbolized and referred to through our design process.
Any object with an interesting form can be a source for an analogy to our design. Biological
analogy is most common since ancient history of architecture, when architects took their
proportions from the human body then living creatures or objects from nature like a shell.
3.1.1 Central Building of the BMW Plant

Project
Central Building of the BMW Plant
Architect Zaha Hadid
Location Leipzig, Germany
Created
2005
Asensio F. (2007) saw it as a response to the architect's interest in spatial innovations and the
developing concept of architecture as a field of forces and flows that generates new landscapes,
the building converts the movements and the pathways used by workers, visitors, and plant
production into a leitmotif of the project's overall design.
Source
Target
Mapping
Type
Geometry
Central
Bdg.
Pragmatic
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Analogy Type
Derivational
Metaphor
Category
Tangible
Mathematical
Canonic
19
Form
1
Function
0
Structure
1
Table (3-1) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- Central Building of the BMW
Plant
Source: Researcher
The building is of central structure connecting all internal movements and activities. It
intersects in three main production facilities:
1.Body in white- manufactures auto bodies 2.Paintshop 3.Assembly
Forming part of an open plan of multilevel floors and platforms , a scissor-like form connects
the ground and the first floors by means of one continuous surface, while two gigantic platforms
linked by staircases mange to articulate spaces with different functions without losing the visual
communication between the area.
This project shows only visible complexity in its forms and shape, no specific technology
nor flexible doctrine has been used. No sustainable principle has been shown in this project.
Fig. (3-1) a-b Central Building of the BMW Plant

Source: Asensio F., 2007, New Architecture: An International Atlas , Abrams, New York ,
U.S.A.
Both mapping and Similarity types are Pragmatic; Finding most important aspect in respect
to purpose. The geometric forms transformed in explosive, directionless, floating, elongated
fragments conveyed a transformational and mathematical analogy. The abstraction of forms can
be interpreted into canonic analogy too.
3.1.2 Casa Mila

Project
Casa Mil
Architect Antoni Gaudi
Location Barcelona, Spain
Created
1906-1910
Source
Wavy
Target
Mapping Type
Similarity Type
Analogy Type
Apartment
Pragmatic
Pragmatic
Visual
Metaphor
Category
Tangible
20
Bd.
Honeyco
mbs
SMT
Form
1
(Symbolic)
Organic
Canonic
Functional
Syntactic
Function
0
Structure
1
Table (3-2) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation - Casa Mila

Source: Researcher
Fig. (3-2) a-b Casa Mila Antoni Gaudi

Source: Greatbuildings.com
to purpose through the shape of the waves
While SMT and n where the organization of the Honeycomb structure was followed in
interlinked organized blocks.
Using both wavy and honeycomb as a source from nature conveys iconic analogy, while
transferring its proportions conveys visual; proportional analogy too.
The wavy form was followed. Thus, a visual; symbolic analogy came true. While the
honeycomb abstracted conveys Canonic analogy. Referring to Honeycomb as well conveys an
organic analogy, while the orderly function of the honeycomb similar with that of an apartment
building gives functional analogy as well.
3.1.3 Glass Pavilion at the Cologne Werkbund Exhibition

Project
Glass Pavilion at the Cologne Werkbund Exhibition
Architect Bruno Taut
Location Germany
Created
1914
Source
Crystal
Target
Mapping Type
Similarity Type
Analogy Type
Pavilion
SMT
Syntactic
Pragmatic
Pragmatic
Canonic
Iconic
Visual
(Symbolic)
Within-Domain
Gothic
Style
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Table (3-3) a AR Process sorting - Glass Pavilion at the Cologne Werkbund Exhibition
Source: Researcher
Form
Function
Structure
21
Table (3-3) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation

to purpose and at the same time respecting and mapping the structure of the source. Where the
form and the shape of the Gothic vaults and crystalline structure.
Following the crystalline shape with its geometry conveys canonic analogy, while the gothic
style referent achieves a visual; symbolic analogy as well.
As a within domain analogy a referent to the past gothic architecture as the source of analogy
is architectural style as well from the same domain.
Using crystal as a source from nature conveys iconic analogy, while transferring its
proportions conveys visual; proportional analogy too.
Fig. (3-3) a Glass Pavilion at the Cologne Werkbund Exhibition

Source:
http://www.shafe.co.uk/art/Bruno_Taut_Glass_Pavilion_at_Cologne_Werkbund_Exhibitin_1914-.asp
Fig. (3-3) b Glass Pavilion at the Cologne Werkbund Exhibition

Source: Weston R., 2004, Plans,Sections,and Elevations,Laurence King Publishing
While PushPullonaut (2005) found it that the best-known single building and prismatic dome
of the Glass Pavilion at the Cologne Werkbund Exhibition (1914).
22
3.1.4 Notre Dame du Haut , or Ronchamp

Project
Notre Dame du Haut or Ronchamp
Architect Le Corbusier
Location Ronchamp, France
Created
1955
Source
Target
Mapping Type
Similarity Type
Analogy Type
Virgin
Mary
Body
Crab shell
Chapel
SMT
Syntactic
Visual
(Symbolic)
Pragmatic
Pragmatic
Organic
Canonic
Iconic
Form
1
Function
0
Metaphor
Type
Intangible
Structure
1
Table (3-4) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- Notre Dame du Haut , or
Ronchamp
Fig. (3-4) a Notre Dame du Haut, or Ronchamp

Source: Mathews K., 1998-2008, Great Buildings architecture, Retrieved: February 19, 2009,
from www.greatbuildings.com
Both mapping and Similarity types are Pragmatic; Finding most important aspect in respect to
purpose and at the same time respecting and mapping the structure of the source.
Symbolizing the body of Virgin Mary gives a Visual; Symbolic analogy, while the crab shell
shape gives an organic analogy with its abstraction and geometry conveys a canonic analogy.
Using a crab shell as a source from nature conveys iconic analogy, while transferring its
3.1.5 Big Eye

Project
Big Eye
Architect Kisho Kurokawa
Location Oita, Japan
Created
2001
23
Source
Cosmic
Sphere
Target
Open
Space
Mapping Type
Pragmatic
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Form
1
Function
0
Analogy Type
Visual
(Symbolic)
Canonic
Iconic
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-5) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- Big Eye

Both mapping and Similarity types are Pragmatic; finding most important aspect in respect
to purpose, just following the form of the symbolic cosmic sphere. Thus, a visual; symbolic
analogy is achieved. As following also the abstraction and the pure geometry of sphere, canonic
analogy finds a place too.
Using cosmic sphere as a source from nature conveys iconic analogy, while transferring its
Fig. (3-5) a-b Big Eye

Source: Asensio F. , 2007, New Architecture : An International Atlas , Abrams, New York ,
U.S.A.
Fig. (3-5) c Big Eye

Source: Asensio F. , 2007, New Architecture : An International Atlas , Abrams, New York ,
U.S.A.
3.1.6 Walking City

Project
Walking City
24
Architect Archigram
Location Unbuilt
Created
1964
Source
Machine
Target
Mapping Type
Similarity Type
Analogy Type
City
SMT
Syntactic
Mechanical
Structural
Form
1
Function
0
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-6) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- Walking City

It is so obvious the great influence of the industrial and machine revolution on young British
architects in late 1960s.
Both mapping and Similarity types are SMT and Syntactic; respecting and mapping the
structure of the source. Respecting the structure of a vehicle or walking machine with all its
components of its structure. Thus, mechanical and structural analogies are achieved.
Walking City in New York, 1964

Ron Herron, Archigram
Courtesy Ron Herron Archive
Fig. (3-6) Walking city

Source: designmuseum.org/design/archigram
3.1.7 Yas Hotel

Project
Yas Hotel
Architect Hani Rashed + Lisa Anne Couture
Location Abu Dhabi , U.A.E.
Created
2007-09
Source
Target
Mapping Type
Similarity Type
Diamond
Hotel
SMT
Syntactic
Analogy Type
Visual
(Symbolic)
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
25
Canonic
Organic
Iconic
+ Shell
Form
1
Function
0
Structure
1
Table (3-7) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- Yas Hotel

Both mapping and Similarity types are SMT and Syntactic respecting and mapping the
structure of the source
The diamond geometric shape followed here with abstraction in the structure skin achieves
the canonic and visual (symbolic) analogy at the same time. While the shell shape of the
buildings gives organic analogy.
Using shells as a source from nature conveys iconic analogy, while transferring its
Fig. (3-7) a b Yas Hotel

Source:designboom.com/weblog/cat/9/view/6388/asymptote-architecture-the-yas-hotel-abu-dhabi.html
Fig. (3-7) c d Yas Hotel

Source: designboom.com/weblog/cat/9/view/6388/asymptote-architecture-the-yas-hotel-abu-dhabi.html
This project shows visible complexity in its forms and shape, as well as invisible complexity
in its structure. Specific technology has been required to build its skin. But, no flexible doctrine
has been used. This project meets sustainable principles through the treatments of its shell skin.
3.1.8 Experience Music Project

Project
Experience Music Project
Architect Frank O'Gehry
Location Seattle
Created
2001
26
Source
Electric
Guitar
Target
Music
Center
Mapping Type
Pragmatic
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Visual
(Symbolic)
Canonic
Philosophical
Transformation
al - Organic
Sculpture
Organic
Geometry
Form
1
Function
0
Analogy Type
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-8) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- Experience Music Project
to purpose. Following the guitar form achieves the visual; symbolic analogy while dealing with
the building sculpturally gives a philosophical analogy with the science on sculpture. The
organic form of the building with its transformational volumes and surfaces in interpreted into
transformational and organic analogy.
This project shows visible complexity in its forms and shape, as well as invisible complexity
in its structure. Specific technology has been required to build its skin. But, no flexible doctrine
has been used. No sustainable principle has been shown in this project.
Fig. (3-8) Experience Music Project

Source: knihovna.tul.cz/download/R00168-Architektura.doc
3.1.9 Guggenheim Museum

Project
Guggenheim Museum
Architect Frank O'Gehry
Location Bilbao
Created
1991-97
27
Source
Target
Mapping Type
Similarity Type
Analogy Type
Sculpture
bows
Organic
Geometry
Museum
Pragmatic
Pragmatic
Canonic
Philosophical
Transformation
al - Organic
Form
1
Function
0
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-9) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- Guggenheim Museum
Fig. (3-9) Guggenheim Museum

Source: knihovna.tul.cz/download/R00168-Architektura.doc
to purpose. Dealing with the building sculpturally gives a philosophical analogy with the science
on sculpture. The organic form of the building with its transformational volumes and surfaces in
interpreted into transformational and organic analogy.
3.1.10 Vitra Fire Station Weil am Rhein

Project
Vitra Fire Station, Weil am Rhein
Location Germany
28
Created
Source
Cubism
Art
1990-94
Target
Fire
Station
Mapping Type
Pragmatic
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Form
1
Function
0
Analogy Type
Derivational
Canonic
Philosophical
Metaphor
type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-10) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- Vitra Fire Station Weil am Rhein
to purpose. Referring to the art of cubism, this conveys a philosophical analogy. The abstraction
in form conveys canonic analogy. The transformation of geometries conveys transformational
analogy
A good example of the oriented cubism of Zaha's forms , narrow and tight spaces , forced
lines but still keeping its pride , looking up , exploded scattered into parts , but sticking together
don't want part forming a comprehensive strong complex again .
Fig. (3-10) Vitra Fire Station Weil am Rhein

Source: Pritzkerprize.com
3.1.11 Bibliotheca Alexandrina

Project
Bibliotheca Alexandrina
Architect Snohetta
Location Alexandria, Egypt
Created
1998-2002
29
Source
-Sun God Ra
-Lotus
(Egyptian Architecture)
Target
Library
Mapping Type
Pragmatic
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Analogy Type
Visual
(Symbolic)
Metaphor Type
Combined
Within-Domain
Canonic
Iconic
-Earth Photo
Form
1
Function
0
Structure
1
Table (3-11) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- Bibliotheca Alexandrina

to purpose. The shape of earth photo is symbolizing the world wide out inspiring the aggregation
of the world wide knowledge in the library.
Thus, visual; symbolic analogy has been conveyed. While borrowing from the lotus shape
columns from ancient Egyptian architecture symbolizing the greatness of the past to be
transferred to the greatness of the present through knowledge and information technology.
30
Fig. (3-11)a-b-c-d-e Bibliotheca Alexandrina

Source: Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Photo Gallery, Retrieved: November 08,2009, from
http://www1.bibalex.org/English/gallery/pages/a01%20(10).htm
3.1.12 Sun Valley House

Project
Sun Valley House
Architect Bart Prince
Location Idaho , USA
Created
1989-91
Source
Waves
Target
House
Mapping Type
Pragmatic
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Form
1
Function
0
Analogy Type
Visual
(Proportional)
Canonic
Iconic
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-12) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- Sun Valley House
31
Fig. (5-12)a-b-c-d-e Sun Valley House,

Source: Pritzkerprize.com, Cattermole P., 2006, Buildings for Tomorrow: Architecture that
changed our world, Thames and Hudson, UK
This project shows visible complexity in its forms and shape as well as invisible complexity
to build its curvature walls that are interchangeable and connected. No specific technology has
been required to build its skin, nor has flexible doctrine been used. This project is a good
example of sustainability with its stone and wood construction in harmony with its surroundings.
3.1.13 NEMO National Center for Science and Technology

Project
NEMO National Center for Science and Technology
Architect Renzo Piano
Location Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Created
1992-97
Source
Target
Ship bow
National
Center
Mapping Type
Pragmatic
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Form
1
Function
0
Analogy Type
Visual
(Proportional)
Canonic
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
0
Table (3-13) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation - NEMO National Center for
Science and Technology
to purpose. The form of the ship bow has been interpreted with care and found a function as well.
Borrowing the shape of ship bow conveys visual; proportional analogy, with its abstracted
geometry conveys canonic analogy too.
32
Fig. (3-13)a-b NEMO National Center for Science and Technology

Source: Cattermole P. , 2006, Buildings for Tomorrow : Architecture that changed our world,
Thames and Hudson ,UK
3.1.14 Eden Project

Project
Eden Project
Architect Nicholas Grimshaw and partners
Location St Austell, Cornwall, England
Created
1995-2001
Source
Soap
bubble
Target
Glass
House
Mapping Type
Pragmatic
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Analogy Type
Visual
(Proportional)
3.Canonic
Subterrane
an
Creature
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Organic
Iconic
Form
1
Function
0
Structure
1
Table (3-14) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- Eden Project

Using subterranean creature as a source from nature conveys iconic analogy, while
transferring its proportions conveys visual; proportional analogy too.
33
Fig. (3- 14) a-b Eden Project

Source: Cattermole P. , 2006, Buildings for Tomorrow : Architecture that changed our world,
Thames and Hudson ,UK
3.3.15 Selfridges
Project
Selfridges
Architect Future Systems
Location Birmingham, England
Created
1999-2003
Source
Target
Bombshell
Departme
nt Store
Mapping Type
Pragmatic
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Analogy Type
Visual
(Proportional)
Canonic
Within Domain
Organic
Gothic
Style
Metaphor
Type
Combined
Biomorphi
c
Form
1
Function
0
Structure
1
Table (3-15) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- Selfridges

to purpose which is the fluid form.
Bombshell shape conveys a visual; proportional analogy. The abstraction of form conveys a
canonic analogy too.
Using biomorphic as a source from nature conveys iconic analogy, while transferring its
34
Fig. (3-15)a-b-c-d- Sun Valley House

Source: Cattermole P. ,2006,Buildings for Tomorrow : Architecture that changed our world,
Thames andHudson ,UK , Future systems,279 SELFRIDGES BIRMINGHAM ,Retrieved: July
28 2009,from http://www.future-systems.com/architecture/architecture_03.html
This form marked a coming age where spacecraft came in saucer form. Until then there were
no client brave enough to approve such form.
3.3.16 Kunsthaus Graz

Project
Kunsthaus Graz
Architect Spacelab-Peter cook and Colin Fournier
Location Graz - Australia
Created
2001-2003
to purpose which is the organic form.
Biomorphic as a source conveys organic analogy as an organic natural element. While visual;
symbolic analogy was achieved by the symbolizing of the pumpkin shape. Borrowing the art of
sculpture with its curves conveys philosophical analogy too. And the abstraction in forms gives
canonic analogy.
Source
Biomorphi
c
Organism
Target
Mapping Type
Pragmatic
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Analogy Type
Organic
Canonic
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
35
Gigantic
Pumpkin
Visual
(Symbolic)
Sculptural
Philosophical
Form
1
Function
0
Structure
1
Table (3-16) a-b AR Process sorting - Kunsthaus Graz
Fig. (3-16 )a-b Kunsthaus Graz

Source: Cattermole P., 2006, Buildings for Tomorro : Architecture that changed our world,
Thames andHudson ,UK
3.3.17 National Library of the Czech Republic

Project
National Library of the Czech Republic
Architect Paul Preissner Architects Limited
Location Prague, Czech Republic
Created
Not yet (Competition)
36
Fig. (3-17) a-b-c-d Sundsvall Performing Arts Theater Perspective-Site Plan-facades-Sections

Source: Choi B., Yoon S., and Sung Min L., 2008, Digital Diagram II Architecture and Interior,
Archiworld, Korea
Source
Fluid
Target
Library
Mapping Type
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Pragmatic
Existing
Landscape
Form
1
Function
0
Analogy Type
Iconic
Visual
(Symbolic)
Organic
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-17) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- National Library of the Czech
Republic
to purpose which is the fluid flexible forms.
3.2 Structure
3.2.1 Lloyds Building
Rogers thinking was always about interrupted interior spaces, he was functionally oriented. He
introduced flexibility and technical imagery to late modern style.
Project
Lloyds Building
Architect Richard Rogers
37
Location
Created
London, England
1979-1984
Source
Target
Machine
Office
Building
Mapping Type
SMT
Similarity Type
Syntactic
Form
1
Function
1
Analogy Type
Functional
Structural
Mechanical
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-18) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- Lloyds Building

structure of the source which is the machine
principle has been shown in this project.
Fig. (3-18) a-b-c-d Lloyds Building

Source: Mathews K., 1998-2008, Great Buildings architecture, Retrieved: February 19 , 2009 ,
38
3.2.2 Fuji-Sankei HQ Building

Fuji-Sankei building is just an example of Megastructure style. Its view from across Tokyo
bay , with its position on the artificial island of Odaiba, looking on the transport artery of
Rainbow Bridge.
Project
Architect
Location
Created
Source
Lattice
Fuji-Sankei HQ Building
Kenzo Tange
Odaiba, Tokyo, Japan
1993-96
Target
HQ
Building
Mapping Type
SMT
Similarity Type
Syntactic
Analogy Type
Structural
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Canonic
Form
1
Function
0
Structure
1
Table (3-19) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- Fuji-Sankei HQ Building

structure of the source which is the lattice.
Following the lattice form conveys structural analogy, where the building structure resembles
a lattice. The abstraction of form conveys canonic analogy too.
Fig. (3-19) a-b Fuji-Sankei HQ Building

Source: Kenzo Tange Associates,FCG (Fuji-Sankei Communications Group) Headquarters
Building , Retrieved: July 28 2009,From http://www.ktaweb.com/works/en_fcg.html
39
Fig. (3-20) c Fuji-Sankei HQ Building

Source: Mark A. Brown, 2000-2007, Fuji Sunkei Building, Retrieved: July 28, 2009, from
http://markb-photo.que.jp/Tkyarch/0002.html
3.2.3 Sandbag Shelter Prototype

Project
Sandbag Shelter Prototype
Architect Cal-Earth Institute, Nader Khalili, US
Location Various Location
Created
1992
purpose which is nature and natural sustainable materials.
Borrowing from nature conveys iconic analogy, as well as borrowing materials from
surroundings conveys ad-hoc or ecological analogy.
Using a source from nature conveys iconic analogy, while transferring its proportions
conveys visual; proportional analogy too.
Source
Nature
Caves
Target
Shelter
Mapping Type
Pragmatic
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Form
1
Function
0
Analogy Type
Iconic
Ecological
Ad-hoc
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-20) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- Sandbag Shelter Prototype
40
Fig. (3-21) c-d Sandbag Shelter Prototype

Source: Aga Khan Award for Architecture, Sandbag Shelter Prototypes, various locations,
Retrieved: June 20 2009, from http://www.akdn.org/akaa_award9_awards_detail3.asp
Photo on the left shows the housing after completion, the one at the right shows the share f
the citizens in building their own houses in team work.
Fig. (3-21) e Sandbag Shelter Prototype

Fig. (5-21) a-b Sandbag Shelter Prototype

3.2.4 American Pavilion at Montreals Expo 67

Project
The American Pavilion at Montreal's Expo '67
Architect Buckminster Fuller
Location Montreal, Canada
Created
1967
41
Source
Cosmic
Sphere
Target
Open
Space
Mapping Type
SMT
Similarity Type
Syntactic
Form
1
Function
0
Analogy Type
Visual
(Symbolic)
Canonic
Iconic
Structural
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-21) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- American Pavilion at Montreals
Expo 67
Fig. (3-22) a-b American Pavilion at Montreals Expo 67

structure of the source which is the cosmic sphere. Using a source from nature conveys iconic
analogy, while transferring its proportions conveys visual; proportional analogy too.
Fig. (3-22) c-d American Pavilion at Montreals Expo 67
42
3.2.5 30 St Mary Axe ( Swiss RE )

Project
30 St Mary Axe
Architect Norman Foster
Location London, England, UK
Created
2000-2004
Fig. (3-23) a- b St Mary Axe (Swiss RE )

Source: Architecture Week, 2005, Swiss Re Tower by Foster and Partners, Retrieved: November
20, 2009, from http://architectureweek.com/2005/0504/today.html
Fig. (3-23) c -d St Mary Axe (Swiss RE )

Source: Architecture Week, 2005, Swiss Re Tower by Foster and Partners, Retrieved: November
Source
Bullet
Shape
Target
Tower
Mapping Type
Pragmatic
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Form
1
Function
0
Analogy Type
Visual
(Symbolic)
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-22) a-b AR Process sorting -Architectural evaluation- St Mary Axe (Swiss RE)
43
to purpose which is the bullet shape. Thus, conveying a visual ; symbolic analogy.
3.2.6 Phaeno Science Centre

Project
Phaeno Science Centre
Location Wolfsburg, Germany
Created 2005
Both mapping and Similarity types are Pragmatic; finding most important aspect in respect to
purpose which is the hybrid transformed form.
Hybrid sculpture as a source in analogy conveys a transformational analogy where the
transformational of forms while the abstraction used conveys canonic analogy too.
Source
Target
Mapping Type
Similarity Type
Analogy Type
Hybrid
Sculpture
Science
centre
Pragmatic
Pragmatic
Derivational
Canonic
Form
1
Function
0
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-23) a-b AR Process sorting- Architectural evaluation- Phaeno Science Center
Fig. (3-24) a b Phaeno Science Centre

Source: Arc space, Zaha Hadid Architects Phaeno Science Center, Retrieved: July 28 2009, from
http://www.arcspace.com/architects/hadid/phaeno/phaeno.html
44
Fig. (3-24) c d Phaeno Science Centre

Fig. (3-24) e f Phaeno Science Centre

Fig. (3-24) g Phaeno Science Centre

Source: World Architecture News, Zaha completes in Wolfsburg, Retrieved: July 28 2009, from
http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com/index.php?fuseaction=wanappln.projectview&upload_id
=199
45
Fig. (3-24) h i Phaeno Science Centre

Fig. (3-24) j-k Phaeno Science Centre, courtesy Zaha Hadid Architects
Fig. (3-24) l m Phaeno Science Centre ,Drawing courtesy Zaha Hadid Architects
3.2.7 Expo Station

Project
Expo Station
Architect Norman Foster
Location Singapore
Created
1997-2001
Source
Target
Mapping Type
Similarity Type
Analogy Type
Metaphor
46
Drums
Station
Pragmatic
Pragmatic
Form
1
Function
0
Visual
(Symbolic)
Type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-24) a-b AR Process sorting- Architectural evaluation- Expo Station

to purpose which is the form of the drums, thus conveying a visual; symbolic analogy.
Fig. (3- 25) Expo Station

Source: Cattermole P., 2006, Buildings for Tomorrow: Architecture that changed our world,
Thames andHudson, UK
3.3.8 City of Art and Sciences

Project
City of Art and Sciences
Architect Santiago Calatrava
Location Valencia, Spain
Created
1991-98
Source
Extinct
Species
Target
City of
Art and
sciences
Mapping Type
SMT
Similarity Type
Syntactic
Organic
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Anatomical
Structural
Human
Features(e
ye)
Iconic
Form
1
Analogy Type
Function
0
Structure
1
47
Table (3-25) a-b AR Process sorting- Architectural evaluation-.City of Art and Sciences
Both mapping and Similarity types are SMT and respecting and mapping the structure of the
source which is the organic anatomy of the eye as Calatrava stated.
Organic analogy is obvious here through the extinct species resembles the buildings here as
well as the Human features especially the eye which its anatomy was borrowed to influence the
structure here conveying structural and anatomical analogy.
Fig. (3-26) a-b-c-d-e City of Art and Sciences

Source: a-c-e spanish-living.com/regional/Valencia_city-of-arts-and-science.php
Source: Arc space, Santiago Calatrava City of Arts and Sciences, Retrieved: July 15 2009, from
http://www.arcspace.com/architects/calatrava/camino_moreras/, Cattermole P. , 2006, Buildings
for Tomorrow: Architecture that changed our world, Thames andHudson ,UK
3.2.9 Lyons-Satolas TGV Station

Project
Lyons-Satolas TGV Station
Architect Santiago Calatrava
Location Lyons-Satolas Airport, Lyons, France
Created
1989-94
Both mapping and Similarity types are SMT and respecting and mapping the structure of the
source which is the organic anatomy of the eye as Calatrava stated.
Organic analogy is obvious here through the extinct species resembles the buildings here as
well as the Human features especially the eye which its anatomy was borrowed to influence the
48
structure here conveying structural and anatomical analogy. Organic analogy repeated itself in
the bird form resemblance.
Source
Bird form
Target
TGV
Station
Mapping Type
SMT
Similarity Type
Syntactic
Organic
Iconic
Anatomical
Human
eye
Form
1
Function
0
Analogy Type
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-26) a-b AR Process sorting- Architectural evaluation- Lyons-Satolas TVG Station
Fig. (3- 27) Lyons-Satolas TGV Station

Thames andHudson, UK
3.2.10 Spaarne Hospital Bus Station

Project
Spaarne Hospital Bus Station
Architect NIO Architecten
Location Hoofddorp, Netherlands
Created
2003
49
Source
Bulb
Target
Bus
Station
Mapping Type
Pragmatic
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Visual
(Symbolic)
Canonic
Iconic
Transformation
al
Muscular
boa
Form
1
Function
0
Analogy Type
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-27) a-b AR Process sorting- Architectural evaluation- Spaarne Hospital Bus Station
Both mapping and Similarity types are Pragmatic ; Finding most important aspect in respect
to purpose which is the bulbous shape like a muscular boa.
Since the shape of the bulb has been transformed, transformational analogy dins a way here.
The abstraction conveys canonic analogy. Also visual; symbolic analogy is achieved through the
symbolism of the bulbous muscular form.
Fig. (3-28) Spaarne Hospital Bus Station

Thames and Hudson, UK
3.2.11 Falkirk Wheel

Project
Falkirk Wheel
Architect RMJM Architects, Ove Arup Butterley Engineering
Location Falkirk, Scotland
Created
1999-2002
Source
Target
Orange
Segment
Rotating
boatlift
Mapping Type
Pragmatic
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Visual
(Symbolic)
Transformation
al
Iconic
Philosophical
Sculpture
Form
Function
Analogy Type
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
50
Table (3-28) a-b AR Process sorting- Architectural evaluation- Falkirk Wheel

to purpose which is the form of the orange segment. The art of sculpture finds a way as well
conveying philosophical analogy too.
Since the orange segment shape is transformed, so transformational analogy exists. While at
the same time visual; symbolic analogy.
Fig. (3-29) Falkirk Wheel

3.2.12 NatWest Media Centre

Project
NatWest Media Centre
Architect Future Systems
Location Lord's Cricket Ground, London, England
Created
1994-1999
Source
Shell
Target
Media
Centre
Mapping Type
Pragmatic
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Form
1
Function
0
Analogy Type
Visual
(Symbolic)
Canonic
Iconic
Organic
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-29) a-b AR Process sorting- Architectural evaluation- NatWest Media Centre
to purpose which is the form of the shell. A shell conveys organic analogy as well as through
abstraction gives canonic analogy. Nevertheless, a visual; symbolic analogy is conveyed as well.
51
Fig. (3- 30) NatWest Media Centre

3.2.13 2014 Winter Olympic Stadium

Project
2014 Winter Olympic Stadium
Architect Populous
Location Sochi, Russia
Created
2009-2014
Fig. (3-31) 2014 Winter Olympic Stadium

Source: Eugene, 2009, My modern metropolis, Populous website, world architecture news,
Modern Architecture-2014 winter Olympic stadium has crystalline skin, Retrieved: November
05, 2009, from http://www.mymodernmet.com/profiles/blogs/modern-architecture-2014-1
Source
Target
Mapping Type
Similarity Type
Analogy Type
Metaphor
Type
52
Crystal
Stadium
SMT
Syntactic
Form
1
Function
0
Structural
Canonic
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-30) a-b AR Process sorting- Architectural evaluation- 2014 Winter Olympic Stadium
structure of the source which is the crystalline structure. A natural source is brought to analogy
here conveying iconic analogy.
3.2.14 Opera House Mariinsky II

Project
Opera House Mariinsky II
Architect Dominique Perrault
Location Saint Petersburg, Russia
Created
2003
Fig. (3-32 ) a-b-c-d-e Opera House Mariinsky II

Source: Asensio F., 2007, New Architecture: An International Atlas, Abrams, New York, U.S.A.
Source
Crystal
Target
Opera
House
Mapping Type
SMT
Similarity Type
Syntactic
Analogy Type
Structural
Canonic
Metaphor
Type
Combined
53
Iconic
Form
1
Function
0
Structure
1
Table (3-31) a-b AR Process sorting- Architectural evaluation- Opera House Mariinsky II
Considered a good example of evolutionary crystalline membrane that has been evoked years
ago
structure of the source which is the crystalline structure, also a natural source so it conveys
iconic analogy.
Crystal as a source of analogy conveys structural analogy while it abstraction conveys a canonic
analogy too.
3.2.15 Stockholm Public Library

Project
Stockholm Public Library
Architect Gage-Clemenceau Architects
Location Stockholm, Sweden
Created
Not yet
Fig. (3-33) a-b Stockholm Public Library

Archiworld, Korea
Fig. (3-34) a-b-c Stockholm Public Library Section- Column- Assembly to Column
54
Archiworld, Korea
Fig. (3-35) a-b-c Stockholm Public Library Detail First Floor Plan-Fifth Floor Plan
Archiworld, Korea
Source
Floral
Target
Library
Mapping Type
Similarity Type
Analogy Type
SMT
Syntactic
Iconic
Organic
canonic
Structural
Leaves
Form
1
Function
0
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-32) a-b AR Process sorting- Architectural evaluation- Stockholm Public Library
structure of the source which is the floral leaves. Since a natural source therefore iconic analogy
is conveyed here.
3.2.16 Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC)

Project
Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC)
Architect MYAA
Location Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Created
Not yet
55
Fig. (3-36) a-b Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) Perspective Plan

Archiworld, Korea
Fig. (3-37) c-d Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) section Tower section
Archiworld, Korea
Fig. (3-38) e-f Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) structure concept

Archiworld, Korea
.
Source
Target
Mapping Type
Similarity Type
Analogy Type
Metaphor
Type
56
Islamic
Geometric
Pattern
Library
SMT
Syntactic
Orientatio
n to
Mecca
Form
1
Function
0
Visual
(Proportional)
Canonic
Mathematical
Derivational
(Symbolic)
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-33) a-b AR Process sorting- Architectural evaluation- Organization of Islamic

Conference (OIC)
structure of the source which is the mathematical geometric Islamic patterns.
3.2.17 Sundsvall Performing Arts Theater

Project
Sundsvall Performing Arts Theater
Architect EMERGENT
Location Sundsvall, Sweden
Created
Not yet
Source
Shell
Target
Arts
Theater
Mapping Type
Similarity Type
Analogy Type
SMT
Syntactic
Structural
Canonic
Iconic
Transformation
al
Form
1
Function
0
Metaphor
Type
Combined
Structure
1
Table (3-34) a-b AR Process sorting- Architectural evaluation- Sundsvall Performing Arts
Theater
structure of the source which is the shell. Since a natural source therefore iconic analogy is
conveyed here. The shape of the shell was transformed which inspires us with transformational
analogy as well.
The shell structure of the building conveys structural analogy; with the abstraction it transfers
canonic analogy too.
analogy too.
57
Fig. (3-39) Sundsvall Performing Arts Theater Perspective

Archiworld, Korea
3.3 Function (Utilitas)

3.3.1 Schroder House
Project
Schroder House
Architect Gerrit Rietveld
Location Utrecht, Netherlands
Created
1924-1925
Fig. (3-40) a-b Schroder House
58
Source
Target
Cubism
House
Mapping Type
Pragmatic
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Form
1
Function
1
Analogy Type
Canonic
Visual
(Proportional)
Philosophical
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
0
Table (3-35) a-b AR Process sorting- Architectural evaluation- Schroder House

Simple geometric forms, primary colors, It represents the characteristics of 'De Stijle' being
Abstract and simple. Thus, conveying canonic and visual; proportional analogy. Also by
referring to Cubism as an art this conveys philosophical analogy as well.
to purpose which is the simplicity and abstraction in forms from cubism.
3.3.2 4X4 House

Project
4X4 House
Architect Tadao Ando
Location Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
Created
2003
Source
Minimalism
Philosophy
Target
Mapping Type
House
Pragmatic
Form
1
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Function
1
Analogy Type
Phylosphical
Visual
(Proportional)
(Symbolic)
Functionalist
Metaphor
Type
Intangible
Structure
0
Table (3-36) a-b AR Process sorting- Architectural evaluation- 4X4 House
59
Fig. (5-41) 4X4 House

Source: Wikiarquitectura,4x4 House,Retrieved:June,20 2009,from
http://en.wikiarquitectura.com/index.php?title=4x4_House
3.3.3 District with Shops, Offices and Apartments

Project
District with shops, offices and apartments
Architect Aldo Rossi
Location Italy
Created 1996
Source
Target
Mapping Type
Similarity Type
Analogy Type
Palladian
Basilica
District
SMT
Syntactic
Within Domain
Form
1
Function
1
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
0
Table (3-37) a-b AR Process sorting- Architectural evaluation- District with Shops, Offices and
Apartments
60
Fig. (3-42) a-b-c-d-e District with shops, offices and apartments, Original sketch by Rossi, 1996
Source: designboom.com/eng/exhibition/rossi1.html
Both mapping and Similarity types are SMT and Syntactic; Finding most important aspect in
respect to purpose which is the architecture of the Palladian basilica. So, a within-domain
analogy finds its way here by referring to another architecture style and project in this design
concept.
3.3.4 Hiroshima City Art Museum

Project
Hiroshima city Art Museum
Architect Kisho Kurokawa
Location Hiroshima, Japan
Created 1988-1989
Source
Atomic
Bomb
Blast
Target
Museum
Mapping Type
Pragmatic
Similarity Type
Pragmatic
Analogy Type
Explanatory
Metaphor
Type
Intangible
Visual
(Symbolic)
Form
1
Function
1
Structure
0
Table (3-38) a-b AR Process sorting- Architectural evaluation- Hiroshima City Art Museum
61
Fig. (3-43) a-b-c Hiroshima city Art Museum

Source: kisho.co.jp/page.php/212
purpose
Both mapping and Similarity types are SMT and Syntactic; Finding most important aspect in
respect to purpose. Symbolizing the big blast with a hole and open space interrupting the
building. Also explaining the big emptiness after the blast with this empty space interrupting the
building explains the architect design idea and concept.
3.3.5 Seoul Performing Arts Center

Project
Seoul Performing Arts Center
Architect Gage/Clemenceau Architects
Location Seoul, Korea
Created
Not yet
Source
Shells
Target
Arts
Center
Mapping Type
Similarity Type
Analogy Type
SMT
Syntactic
Structural
Visual
Iconic
Functional
Form
1
Function
1
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
0
Table (3-39) a-b AR Process sorting - Architectural evaluation- Seoul Performing Arts Center
62
Fig. (3-44) a-b-c Seoul Performing Arts Center

Source: Gage-Clemenceau Architects, Retrieved: November 21, 2009, from
http://www.gageclemenceau.com/
structure of the source which is the shell structure that is common in many architecture projects.
This conveys structural analogy. But, the use of shell this time changed the conventional function
of the enclosed center to an open unfolded space, thus conveying functional analogy
3.3.6 Health Sciences Campus, University of Granada

Project
Health Sciences Campus, University of Granada
Architect Chris Lee Architects
Location Granada
Created
Not yet
Source
Target
Mapping Type
Similarity Type
Analogy Type
Cells
Structure
University
Campus
SMT
Syntactic
Organic
Visual
(Proportional)
Iconic
Structural
Form
1
Function
1
Metaphor
Type
Tangible
Structure
1
Table (3-40) a-b AR Process sorting - Architectural evaluation- Health Sciences Campus,
University of Granada
Both mapping and Similarity types are SMT and Syntactic; respecting and mapping the structure
of the source (Cell Organization).
63
Fig. (3-45) a-b-c Health Sciences Campus Perspective Master plan Design Concept
Archiworld, Korea
Its faade as well allows the gradual change in opacity and transparency of the building
depending on the programmatic requirements and the sun. Thus, this makes this building the
future expansion.
64
Fig. (3-45) c-d Health Sciences Campus Section - Elevation

Archiworld, Korea
Functionally universities and educational buildings are based on a monolithic design. Instead
this campus borrowed the cell shape and structure changing the monolithic design forming
smaller scaled building blocks akin to the existing fabric of Granada. These blocks are
interlinked with cellular courtyards adding social spaces within.
Conclusion
-Analogy is a significant problem solving technique and a scientific thinking method. It is
drawing similarities and differences between a source and a target to transfer a certain solution or
matter from the source to the target.
-Analogical reasoning is called for three main purposes with different percentage:
1. Problem solving
2. Explain to others
3. Identify problems
But if the source and target are from different domain (between/cross/inter domain analogy),
analogical reasoning is used more to explain a problem more than solving it.
- Metaphor is a linguistic phenomena, a figure of speech to refer to two objects not literally
similar but assuming they are, through symbolism and abstraction. It is the transcription of one
thing in form of another
-Metaphor is classified into three categories:
1. Tangible Metaphor Visual, material character of both entities
2. Intangible Metaphor Concepts, ideas, human conditions, particular quality
3. Combined Metaphor Visual + Conceptual, the visual is excuse to detect virtues and
qualities
-Metaphor has been used long ago in architecture Antoniades A. C. (1992) believes its first
utilized by the early German expressionist who got influenced by Nietzsche's philosophies.
-Analogy plays a significant role in
1. Creativity and bringing unusual ideas
2. Architectural Education - a creative design approach
3. Artificial Intelligence - mapping genetic algorithms
65
-Genetic algorithm has been brought too many application and especially architecture through
analogy, where a similarity exists between architecture and any living creature though behavior,
function, and structure.
-While analogy process has been correspondence to creativity stages that encourages scientist to
make a computational model for creative analogy. These models have been developed to
represent an AI tool. e.g. EUREKA that is based on analogy.
-Many applications that apply analogy were found for the same purpose of using AR as a
problem solving technique. Richard Horden made a true experience through encouraging his
students to develop design ideas depending on objects and living things i.e. AR. It has been
proven that analogy brought to design classes helps to test and to develop students fantasy and
imagination, which are a key element in creativity.
-AR in architecture education has been used for two purposes; creating beautiful forms, and
bringing intelligent solutions. These purposes meet Vitruvius decorum, as architect care for these
three idioms while designing.
AR in Architecture
1. Creating beautiful forms
2. Intelligent solutions
Form-Venustas
Structure-Firmitas
Function-Utilitas
Fig. (4-1) AR in architecture meets Vitruvius triangle.

- Analogy Categories has many points of view depending on similarities, or the source/target
Domain.
-Based on the study or classification of Philip Steadman to biological analogy types, it is found
to be equivalent to other analogy types relating the study of the science of architecture. The other
types it is equivalent to are also categorized by similarity nature, which proves that the
correspondent relation is logically successful.
AR in Architecture
Meaning
Organic Analogy
Anatomical
where by building types are categorized according to

methods taken from botany and zoology
Engineering structure of buildings is compared with the
Analogy
Category /Type
Visual
Structural
66
Analogy
Ecological Analogy
Darwinian
(Evolutionary )
Analogy
skeleton of the animal

Views the appropriateness of designed objects for their
functional purposes as being equivalent of the fitness of
animals and plants for their environment
Explains the design of useful objects and buildings in
terms of repeated copies in which variations are made at
each stage, and are then put to the test
Functional
Philosophical
Table (4-2) Biological AR types in architecture by Philip Steadman maps/matches with other AR
types
Source: Researcher
-Knowledge nature whether it is transformational analogy or derivational analogy, proved that do
not have to be obligated to exact information during mapping and transfer process. Some
modification in the benefit of the AR process can be applied
-Source Nature Category is similar to those of the Similarity nature. Depending on Visual
references (natural-unnatural) as well as proportionality has been commonly used referring to
similarity or to source nature.
-Domain Distance depends on chapter one premise of Novices and experts, where experts can
draw distant analogy, providing creative AR.
-Earlier in chapter one, metaphor use has been enhanced within imagination and fantasy.
Steadman (2008) provoked analogies to be conductive to fallacies also.
-Many theorists and researcher found a great interest in analogy and its types trying to deduce
how to infer analogy in different ways.
-Analogy has been elaborated long time ago, has been developed. Thus, multiple analogies found
its way. In which one started with a single analogy, then accumulative by another one referring
in the same case to different source to AR process.
67
Predictive
Expressive
Analogical Problem Solving

Explanatory
Figural/Numerical
Intangible
Tangible
Verbal/Conceptual
Linguistic
Metaphor
Constructive
Combined
Historical
Spontaneous
Mechanical
Functional
Anthropometric
Biological
Mathematical
Multiple
Single
Ecological
Ad-hoc
Forced
Anatomical
Transformational
Darwinian
Organic
Structural
Derivational
Surface
Iconic
Natural/Unnatural
Functionalist
Historical
Personal
Canonic
Within-Domain
Local / Intra-Domain
Philosophical
Functional
Symbolic
Between-Domain
Visual
Distant / Cross / Inter-Domain

Proportional
Pictorial
Analogy Types
Tree
Fig. (4-3) Types of analogical reasoning tree

Source: Researcher
68
-Form and Structure are easily affected by analogy through many architectural projects though
out different periods of time. Only with the evolution of architecture theories which introduced
advanced technology enabled architecture to be affect in its function through the analogy of
digital architecture and flexible architecture as well
-Digital architecture deals with the architecture space as infinite space with no limits while
considering the traditional rules of architecture design. Inferring computer science to expand the
architects' imagination will create challenges to scientists to make those cyber spaces come to
real.
-Multiple analogy; having more than one source in the AR process, is frequently used in
architecture. Sophisticated forms, remarkable structure, and innovative function were introduced
when bringing more than one source in the AR project. it is more clear in digital architecture that
has a fluid form with digital conception of function.
-Visual analogy whether it is symbolic or proportional is very common in architectural design
concepts. Architects are more visually oriented to bring analogy visually.
-Most of these projects has been selected to reflect architecture trends and movements all
through history to fulfill an integrated study of the evolution of form, structure and function in
architecture design.
69
CHRONOLOGY
1880
1901
SCHOOL/TREND
Art Nouveau
Fluid
Architecture
-Organic
Forms
BASIC/ MAIN
FEATURES
ANALOGY TYPE
EXAMPLE
-Organic
forms
(Vegetalgeologicalanimal forms)
-English arts
and craft +
Romantic
movement
-no geometryfollow
function
-Vernacular
arch.
Organic
Iconic
(natural)
Philosophical
Casa Mila
(Antoni
Gaudi)
CHRONOLOGY
1920
1907
Cubism
Cubism
-Abstract forms
and shapes
-fragmentation spatial ambiguity
-transparency multiplicity
Supermatism
-Colorful shapes
+
abstract fragments
1909
1919
Futurism
Bauhaus
Formalism
-Le Corbusier
-Functionalism
-a house is a
machine
-Speed of
machine
1920
De stijl
Structuralism
-Mies Van
Der Rohe
-Less is more
-Minimalism
Organic
Iconic
(natural)
Philosophical
Canonic
Mathematical
Geometric
Proportional
Canonic
Mathematical
Geometric
Proportional
Philosophical
Mechanical
Functional
Philosophical
Mechanical
Functional
Philosophical
Functional
Structural
Einstein
Tower
(Eric
Mendelson)
Garden Pavilion
(Josef Gocor)
Vitra Fire Station

(Zaha Hadid)
SantElia
Centre Le
Corbusier
(Le Corbusier)
Lake shore
drive apts
(Mies Van
Der Rohe)
1939
1954
1960
70
1961
-Abstract simple
geometry
-Functions
pragmatically
Canonic
Mathematical
Geometric
Proportional
Functional
Schroder house
(Gerrit Rietveld)
1962
SCHOOL/TREND
BASIC/ MAIN
FEATURES
Expressionism
Expressionism
-Symbolic colors +
Exaggerated imagery
Angular+ Organic forms
Crystalline
-Crystalline
forms of glass
ANALOGY TYPE
Organic
Symbolism
Organic
Geometric
Structural
EXAMPLE
Sidney Opera House

(Jorn Utson)
Sacred
Building
(Wassili
Luckhardt)
Organic
Brutalism
Metabolism
Archigram
Minimalism
-Organic
+ Fluid forms
-Chunky
angular solids
-Technocratic
future
-Minimalist art &

philosophy
-Japanese
traditional arch.
Organic
Iconic
(natural)
Philosophical
Bavinger
House (Herb
Greene)
Expressive
structural
-City future
-Cells-pods
-Changeable
function & space (
permanent+
temporary city
elements)
Biological
Mechanical
Functional
Structural
Big eye
(Kisho Kurakawa)
Mechanical
Functional
Structural
Philosophical
Functional
Plug-in city
(Peter cook)
4X4 House
(Tadao Ando)
RonChamp
(Le
Corbusier)
71
CHRONOLOGY
1870
1976
SCHOOL/TREND
High Tech
Megastructure
BASIC/ MAIN
FEATURES
-Alternative
+appropriate
technology
ANALOGY TYPE
Philosophical
Structural
EXAMPLE
Lloyds Building
(Richard Rogers)
1970s 80s
1984
Contemporary
Deconstruction
Digital
Sustainable
-City Scale
-Plug-in
-Technological
intelligence
-Special
hybridization
-Charted +
angular +
fractured
Arch.
-Jacque Derrida theories
-Future generation needs

-Renewable resources
-Closed lifecycle
-Waste management
Philosophical
Mechanical
Structural
Fuji-Sankei HQ
Building
(Kenzo Tange)
Transformational
Philosophical
-Varied spaces
Constructed within
+ in conjunction with
+ augmented by
Computers
-No physically + no
geometry
-real = simulation
-Integrated with broad
band
global network
Philosophical
Daniel Libeskind Villa

(Daniel Libeskind)
The Netherlands
(Kas Ooterhuis)
72
-Biological
-Cosmological
-Proportional
Art School Singapore
(Ali Kriscenski)
CHRONOLOGY
Contemporary
1989
1998
SCHOOL/TREND
New Fluidity
Asymptote
Liquid
BASIC/ MAIN FEATURES
-Irregular + non-standard
+ soft+ free+ random+ dynamic
-some organic / some not elements
-Scientific visualization
+ new computational
technologies
ANALOGY TYPE
Philosophical
Organic
Biological
Philosophical
-cyber spaces
-reconfigure + respond to users desire
(democratization of space)
-infrastructure of global internetcellular telephony grid orbit satellite
-analogous to data structure
Mathematical analogy
Philosophical
Biological
EXAMPLE
National Library of the Czech

Republic
(Paul Preissner architects limited)
Yas Hotel
(Hani Rashid
Lisa Anna)
Paracube
(Marcos Novac)
Fig. (4-4) Architecture movements and trends timeline mapped with analogical reasoning types
Source: Researcher
73
Architecture in between 1880-1907 focused on the various shapes of forms drawing

analogy from different sources found in the surrounding. Geometric forms, mathematical
proportions as well as animal and botanical or any object found in nature were a rich
source of form that has not been utilized before.
From 1909 and the start of futurism until de stijl, the influence of the industrial age was
obvious that an architect think functionally of a building like a machine that no matter the
shape but it should function. Although, this resonates so much in shapes to be being so
simple and pragmatic. Pure geometric forms were used to emphasize functions.
Mechanical analogy evoked but as a concept not to form
In 1920 of expressionism, crystalline and organic in 1939, back to organic and angular
forms some of the brutalism as well emphasized angular and chunky solids, back to nature
and organic forms.
The brutalism emphasizes as well the structure of the building by making it in the
exterior like center Pompidou. Archigram as well in the 1960s followed mechanical
analogy but it resonates not only functionally but the building itself looks like a machine.
Archigram was followed by high tech and megastructure where the structure of building is
so pragmatic and articulated in the architecture of the building.
With late 19th and the beginning of the 21st century transformation in forms was
obvious through deconstruction-digital liquid-new fluid-asymptote architecture.
Manipulation of form resonating with new technologies and computerized systems has
taken place, reflecting the data structure of the information technology revolution of our
century.
Philosophical analogy has been inferred while following this technological revolution with
its computerized and global systems. Thinking in architectural design concepts with no
limits, to be all coming true and if not available technology, architects can think and
manifest their ideas through cyberspaces.
Analogy is a key conceptual and cognitive thinking in architecture all though different
decades. Imposing different sciences (Philosophical analogy) and various elements from
nature by analogy has helped developing and maturing the architects mind.
From just mechanical analogy conceptually in Bauhaus, de Stijl, and minimalism,
architects emphasizes about mechanical analogy has grown and developed to have a
machine like building in archigram and megastructure.
With information technology and the revolution brought by computers and robots,
architects interpret it in cyber or hyper spaces thinking far from just 3-dimensional space,
Imitating the data structure visualization in liquid and asymptote architecture. Cyberspaces
will be developed that real wont be different than simulation
All these analogies has bounced between three main sciences or concepts
-Geometric shapes-proportions-numbers
-Biological science; zoology, botanical any natural object of flaura or fauna Fluids
-Mechanical, machines recently computers and data structures
All has been imposed and manifested by analogy in architecture with different ways, once
conceptual then materialistic, visual and tangible
74
LIST OF REFERENCES
Books, Papers, Articles, Thesis and Dissertations
Adam E. Green, Jonathan A. Fugelsang, David J.M. Kraemer,Noah A. Shamosh, Kevin
N. Dunbar , 'Frontopolar cortex mediates abstract integration in analogy' , Department of
Psychological and Brain Sciences, 6207 Moore Hall, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH
03755, USA
2001, Cyberspace: the world of digital architecture, Images publishing, Australia
Abel C.,1997, Architecture and Identity : Towards a Global Eco-Culture", Architectural
Press,Great Britain
Agrest D. and Gandelsonas M. , 'Semiotics and Architecture:Ideological Consumption or
theoretical Work , in Nesbitt K. ,1996, Theorizing a New Agneda for Architecture : An
Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965-1995, Princeton Architectural Press, New York ,
USA
Andrew A. ,1997 , The Language of Metaphor , Routledge , London , United Kingd om
Antoniades A. C.,1992, Poetics of Architecture, Van Nostrand Reinhold, USA
Aristotle, 2005, Rhetoric , Digireads publishing, UK
Asensio F. ,2007,New Architecture : An International Atlas , Abrams, New York , U.S.A.
Baker R.,1993, Designing the future: the computer transformation of reality, Thames and
Hudson, Hong Kong
Baraquin N. , Dudue J. , Ribes F. , Baudart A. , Laffitte J. , and Wilfert J. ,2000 ,
Dictionare de Philosophie ,Deuxieme edition, Armand Colin, Paris , France
Blackburn S. ,1996 , Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy , Oxford University Press , New
york , USA
Boldt L.G., 1999, Zen and the art of making a living: a practical guide to creative career
design,Penguin Books Ltd., USA
Broadbent, G.,1973, Design in architecture: architecture and the human sciences
,London; New York: Wiley
Bussagli M.,2005, Understanding Architecture, I.B.Tauris,London , New York
Carpiceci A. C., 2000,Art and History of Egypt: 5000 years of civilization,CASA
EDITRICE BONECHI, Florence, Italy
Casakin H. ,2002 , 'Visual Analogy as a Cognitive Strategy in the Design Process: Expert
Versus Novice Performance '
Cattermole P., 2006,Buildings for Tomorrow : Architecture that changed our world,
Thames &Hudson ,UK
Choi B., Yoon S., and Sung Min L., 2008, Digital Diagram II Architecture and Interior,
Archiworld, Korea
75
Christensen B. T. and Christian D. Schunn, 2005 , 'The relationship of analogical distance

to analogical function and pre-inventive structure: The case of engineering design' ,
Department of Psychology, University of Aarhus,
Colquhoun A. , 2002, Modern Architecture,Oxford University Press, England
Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2000, Routledge, Taylor and Francis
Group, London, UK
Conway H., and Roenisch R., 2005, Understanding architecture: an introduction to
architecture and architectural history, Taylor and Francis, London, UK
Cook P. , Archigram ( Group) , Chalk W., 1999, Archigram, Princeton Arcitectural Press
Czech Cubism: architecture, furniture, and decorativ arts, 1910-1925, Princeton
architectural press,
D. Jenny and M. Nathan ,Spring 2008 , 'Analogical Reasoning in the Engineering Design
Process and Technology Education Applications', Journal of Technology Education ,
Volume 19 no. 2
DAmato C., Fanizzi N., Esposito F. , 2006, ' Analogical Reasoning in Description
Logics ' , Department of Computer Science , University of Bari , Italy
Daugherty J., Mentzer N.,2008, Analogical Reasoning in the Engineering Design Process and
Technology Education Applications , Journal of Technology Education , Vol.19 No. 2
Davies C., ' High Tech Architecture'

De Bono, and Edward,1973, Lateral Thinking:Creativity Step by Step ,New York :Harper
Flew A. ,1979, A Dictionary of Philosophy , Pan Books , Macmillan Press , Laurence
Urdang Associates Ltd. , Great Britain
Fraser, I. and R. Henmi,1994, Envisioning Architecture - an analysis of drawing, New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold
Frazer J., 1995 , An Evolutionary Architecture , Architectural Association , London , UK
Gallagher , Bierker E, 2002, 'Analogical Thinking : Bringing the past , present , and future
into relationship '
Gentner D. , ' Analogical Reasoning , Psychology of ' , northwestern university , Evanston
, Illinois , USA
Gentner D. , Bowdle B. , Wolff P. , and Boronat C. , 2001 ,'Metaphor is like Analogy '
Gentner D. , Keith J. Holyoak , and Boicho N.Kokinov, 2001, The Analogical Mind :
Perspectives from cogsciencenitive , MIT press, USA
Gero J. S., Maher L. M.,2006, ' Mutation and analogy to support creativity in computeraided design ' , University of Sydney , Australia
Gross M. , Do E. , 1995, ' Drawing Analogies - supportive creative architectural design
with visual references' , 3rd international conference on computational models in creative
design , university of Sydney, Sydney
Gruber P. ,2008, 'The signs of life in architetcure', IOP Publishing Ltd. , Department of
design and construction , institue of architecture and design , Vienna university of
76
technology , Vienna, Austria

Gust H. , Krumnack U. , Kuhnberger K. , Schwering A. ,2006,'Analogical Reasoning : a
core of cognition', Institut fur Kognitionswissenschaften,
Universitat Osnabruck
Hall P. , 2002,, Living for Tomorrow , Metropolis magazine , december
Harpaz-Itay Y. , Kaniel S., Ben-Amram E. , 'Analogical Construction versus analogical
solution , and their influence on transfer' , School of Education , Bar Llan University ,
ranat Gan , Israel
Hays M. K. ,1998 ,Architecture Theory since 1968, MIT Press, Cambridge , Massachusetts
, London England
Herrema R. ,1998, ' Architecture and algorithms in the composition of analogies ',
Department of music , Northeastern university , USA
Herstatt C. , 2008, ' How to use analogies to create breakthrough innovation?' , Institute
for technology and innovation Management , Hamburg University of Technology
Higgins, James M, 1994, 'Creating Creativity, Training & Development', 48(11), pg11-15
Hindarto P. ,2000-2009, WA Movements and Styles
Hoffman R. R., 1995, Monster analogies, AI magazine, Volume 16, Number 3

Hofstadter D. ,1995, Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies , BasicBooks , Acme Art
Inc., USA
Holyoak K. , 2001 ,'A Century Or So of Analogical Reasoning', October 12
Holyoak K. J., Thagard P., 1999 ,Mental Leaps :Analogy in creative thought, MIT press,
USA
Holyoak K. J., Spellman B. A.,1996, Pragmatics in Analogical Mapping , Cognitive
Psychology, Article no. 0019, University of texas at Austin , University of California, Los
Angeles
Horden R., Fuchs U., and Franke B.,2008, Micro Architecture : with 680 Illustrations,
Thames & Hudson Ltd., London , UK
Intemann K. ,2000, ' Reasoning by Analogy ', Bellevue community college CTILAC
Project
Itewi M. , 'Towards a Modern Theory of islam Architecture ', Australian Journal of Basic
and Applied Sciences , 1007 , INSInet Publication , Tafila Technical University , Faculty
of Engineering , Jordan.
Itkonen E., 2005, Analogy as Structure and Process: Approaches in Linguistic, Cognitive,
John Benjamins publishing company
John D. boyd, Winter 1976 , 'The Principle of analogy and the immortality question in
Tennyson's in Memoriam'
John F. Sowa and Arun K. Majumdar, 'Analogical Reasoning: VivoMind LLC'
Johnson M.,1981, Philosophical perspectives on metaphor, Univesity of Minnesota press,
USA
77
Johnson P. A.,1994, ' Metaphor as necessity & difficulty ', The Theory of Architecture :
Concepts , Themes and Practices , John Wiley ans Sons Inc., Canada
Judy S. Deloache , Sharon T. , Symbols and Similarity : you can get too much of a good
thing , Journal of Cognition and Development , 6(1) , 33-49 , University of Virginia ,
Mercer University , 2005 , Lawrence Erlbaum Associates , Inc.
Klein G. A., 1987 , Applications of analogical reasoning , Metaphor and symbolic activity
,Lawrence Erlbaum associates Inc,USA
Koberg ,Donald, and Jim Bagnall,1977,The Universal Traveler 2d ed,Los Altos.CA
:William Kaufman.
Koltz H.,1989, 20th Century Architecture : Drawings - Models - Furniture, Academy
Editions ,London, UK
Kronenburg R. ,2007,Flexible Architecture that responds to Change , Laurence King
Publishing, UK
Lacy B. ,1991, Contemporary Architects : Drawings and Sketches, Harry N. Abrahams
Inc. Publishers , New York , USA
Lang J. ,1994, Urban Design: The American Experience, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New
York, USA
Lang Jon ,1987a, Procedural Theory.In Creating Architectural Theory : The Role of the
behavioral Sciences in Architectural Design ,New York:Van Nostrand Reinhoold
Lash S.,1999, Another Modernity: a different Rationality , Blackwell publishers Ltd., UK
Le Corbusier,1958 ,The Chapel at Ronchamp, New York: Frederick A. Praeger.
Leatherbarrow D. ,1993,The Roots of Architectural Invention : Site , Enclosure, Materials
, Cambidge University Press , USA
Lieutenant colonel Cargill S. T. , The philosophy of analogy & symbolism , rider &
company , London , UK
Linden J. ball and Thomas C. Ormerod & Nicola J. Morley ,' Spontaneous analogizing in
engineering design : a comparative analysis of experts & novices ' , Psychology
Department , Lancaster University , Lancaster LA1 4YF , UK
Lochhead W. J., 1984 , Beyond problem solving and comprehension: an exploration of
quantitative reasoning, Lawrence Erlbaum associates Inc., USA
Maher M.L., Gero J. S.,2006,'Mutation and Analogy to support Creativity in Computeraided design', Design Computing Unit, University of Sydney, Sydney
Maher M.L.,Gero J., 1995,'Drawing Analogies-Supporting Creative Architectural Design
with Visual References', 3d intenational conference on computational models of creative
design, University of Sidney, Sydney
Makarov I.M.,1987,Cybernetics of Living Matter: Nature, Man, Information, MIR
Publishers Moscow, USSR
Manktelow K., 1999, Reasoning and thinking, Psychology press Ltd., UK
Mann A. T. ,1993 ,Sacred Architetcure , Elements Boks Ltd. , USA
78
McAlpine J., Weincek B., Jeweler S., and Finkbinder M., 2008, Solving logic problems,
Educational impressions, USA
Mcfarland T. D., and Parker R.,1990, Expert systems in education and training,
Educational Technology Publications Inc., USA
Menin S., and Samuel F.,2003,Natue and SpaceAalto and Le Corbusier, Routledge,
London , UK
Michael Michalko, 2006, Thinkertoys: A handbook of creative-thinking techniques ,
Second Edition, Ten Speed Press, Toronto
Moffet M., Fazio M., and Wodehouse L., 2004, A World History of Architecture, Mcgraw Hill,
Singapore.
Nesbit K. , 1996, 'Semiotics & architecture : ideology consumption or theoretical work'

,Agrest D. , Gandelsonas M., Theorizing a new Agenda for architecture an anthology of
architectural theory 1965-1995 , Princeton Architecture Press, New York, USA
Nesbitt K. , 1996, Theorizing a New Agneda for Architecture : An Anthology of
Architectural Theory 1965-1995, Princeton Architectural Press, New York , USA
O'Donoghue D.1997, 'An Integrated Analogy Model for Creative Reasoning', Department
of Computer Science, Maynooth University, Co. Kildare, Ireland.
Ouyang T. Y., and Forbus K. D.,2004, 'Strategy Variations in Alogical Problem Solving' ,
Qualitative Reasoning group, NorthWestern University.
Park C. S., Han I., 2002, 'A case-based reasoning with the feature weights derived by
analytic hierarchy process for bankruptcy prediction',Graduate School of Management,
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 207-43 Cheongryangri-Dong,
Dongdaemun-Gu,
Seoul 130-012, South Korea
Pearsall J., and Hanks P., 2001, New Oxford Dictionary of English, Oxford university
press, England
Peng C.,2001 ,Design through digital interaction: Computing communications and
collaboration on design,Intellect Ltd,Great Britain.
Petruccioli A.,1998, Typological Process and Design Theory, Agha Khan Program for
Islamic Architecture at Harvard University and Massachusetts, Cambridge , USA
Podolefsky N. S. and Finkelstein N. D.,2007, ' Reframing Analogy : framing as a
mechanism of analogy use' , AIP Conference proceedings, Vol. 883 issue 1 , Ebsco Host
Procter P, 1995, Cambridge International Dictionary of English , Cambridge university
press, Cambridge, New York.
Rosenthal M. , Yudin P. ,1967 , A Dictionary of Philosophy , Progress Publisher , Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics.
Routio P.2007, 'Theories of Architecture ', http://www2.uiah.fi/projekti/metodi/135.htm
Rowe P. G., 1998, Design Thinking, Seventh Edition, MIT press, USA
Saklofske D. H., and Zeidner M., 1995, International handbook of personality and
intelligence, Plenum Press, New York
79
Salu Y., 2005,'A Neural Network for Analogical Reasoning ' , Department of Physics &
CSTEA . Howard university , Washington DC
Schunn Ch. (University of Pittsburgh), Christensen Bo T. (Copenhagen Business School),
The Effect of Artifacts on Analogy in Innovative Design
Scott C. McIntyre , 'Analogical reasoning via intelligent animation : a problem solving
methodology' , College of business , University of Colorado , Colorado Springs , Co
80933
Sennott S. ,2004, Encyclopedia of 20th century Architecture
Shelley C., 1999, ' Multiple analogies in archaeology', Department of philosophy ,
University of Michigan Ann Arbor
Shepherd R.,2002, Structures of our time, Mcgraw Hill,USA
Sriraman B. , ' Analogies & mathematics : what is the connection ' , TMME , Volume no. 2
, p.56
Stafford B. M.,1999, Visual Analogy:Consciousness as the Art of Connecting, MI
PressT,USA
Stamper J.W.,2005, The Architecture of Roman Temples:The Republic to the Middle
Empire, Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom
Steadman P. 2008, The Evolution of Designs : Biological Analogy in Architecture and
Applied Arts , Routledge , London, UK
Steele J.,1997,Sustainable Architetcure : Principles, Paradigms, and Case Studies,
McGraw-Hill,New York, USA
Stierlin H., 1996, Islam: Early Architecture from Baghdad to Cordoba, Volume I, Taschen,
Italy
Strielin H.,1992,The Pharaohs Master-builders, Terrail, Italy
T.W. Mak and L.H. Shu , 2007 , 'Abstraction of biological Analogies for design' , Science
Direct , Dept. of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering University of Toronto, Toronto,
Canada
Thagard P. ,1998 , Mind Readings : introductory selections on cognitive science , MIT
Press
Thomsen W.C.,1994,Visionary Archiecture: From Babylon to Virtual Reality, Prestel Verlag, Munich , New York
Twombly R. C., 1979, Frank Lloyd Wright : His life , His Architecture , second edition,
John Wiley and sons Inc., Singapore
Tzonis A, and Lefaivre L., 1992,Architecture in Europe: Memory and invention since 1968, Thames
and Hudson , Singapore
UT Learning Center, 2005, ' Inductive and deductive reasoning', University of Texas at
Austin,USA
Vidler A. ,1994, The Architectural Uncanny: Essays in the modern unhomely, MIT Press
,USA
80
Vosiniadou S. , 1995, 'Analogical reasoning in cognitive development ', Metaphor and

symbolic activity 10(4), 297-308 , Deparment of methodology , history , and theory of
science , University of Athens , Lawrence Erblaum Associates . INC. , Greece
Wang W.,Rivard H., Zmeureanu R.(2005), ' An object-oriented framework for simulatoin
based green design optimization with genetic algorithms', Department of construction
engineering, University of Quebec, Departmeent of building , civil , and environmental
engineering, Concordia University
Weinstein R.,1994 , Morphosis Buildings and Projects:1989-1992, Rizzoli International
Publication ,Inc., Italy
Wertheimer L.,2004 , Architectural History, Dearborn Financial Publishing Inc., USA
Weston R., 2004, Plans,Sections,and Elevations,Laurence King Publishing
Whaley B. B., and Holloway R. L., 1996, ' "Rebuttal" analogy: a Theoretical
Note',Department of communication , university of San Fracisco, Department of
Communication Studies, Virginia Polytechnic Institue, and State University, Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates Inc.
Whyte W. , May 2006, 'How do buidlings mean ? Some issues of interpretaion in the
history of architecture' , Wesleyan University ,
Wigley M., The Architecture of Deconstruction : Derrida's Haunt, MIT Press,
Wiley J. , And Sons ,1992,Foster Associates : Recent works, The Academy Group Ltd. ,
St. Martin's Press ,U.S.A
Yang J., Brandon P.S., and Sidwell A.C. ,2005, Smart & Sustainable Built Environments,
Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Uk, USA
Young K. J., 2007, ETET: Emerging Talents , Emerging Technologies, ARCHIWORLD
Co.,Ltd., Korea.
Young K.,J.(2007),' ETET: Emerging Talents , Emerging Technologies', ARCHIWORLD
Co.,Ltd., Korea.
Zannos A.,1987,Form and Structure in architecture: the role of statical function,Van
Nostrand Reinhold, USA
Zeisel J.,1980, Inquiry by Design :Tools for Environmental Behavior Research,
Cambridge University Press, New York
Web Resources
Absolute astronomy, Bruno Taut, Retrieved: June 15 2009,from
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Bruno_Taut
Abstract Concrete Works ,Less is more , Retrieved: June 15 2009,from
http://www.abstractconcreteworks.com/essays/lessismore/ls_s_mor.html
AC Toolbox, Universal Binary for Mac OS X: Version ,Retrieved: January 31 2009 ,from
http://www.koncon.nl/downloads/ACToolbox/
Aga Khan Award for Architecture, Sandbag Shelter Prototypes, various locations,
81

American Studies at university of virginia, Machine art exhibition, Retrieved: February 19
2009, from http://xroads.virginia.edu/~MA03/pricola/art/machine.html
Analogy vs Metaphor ,Retrieved: February 03 2009,from
http://members.ozemail.com.au/~ddiamond/analog.html
Ancient Persia, Ancient Persia art and architecture, Retrieved on November 02, 2009,
from http://www.ancientpersia.com/art_f.htm
Ancient Persia, Ancient Persia art and architecture, Retrieved on November 02, 2009,
from http://www.ancientpersia.com/art_f.htm
Arc space, Exhibition Santiago Calatrava Form & Design Center, Retrieved: May 21
2009,from http://www.arcspace.com/architects/calatrava/form_design/
Arc space, Santiago Calatrava City of Arts and Sciences, Retrieved: July 15 2009,from
http://www.arcspace.com/architects/calatrava/camino_moreras/
Arc space, Zaha Hadid Architects Phaeno Science Center, Retrieved: July 28 2009,from
Arc Space,1999-2009, Asymptote architecture ,Retrieved: December 10, 2009,from
http://www.arcspace.com/architects/asymptote/asymptote_features.html
Archigram,Retrieved: July 05 2009,from www.Archigram.net
Archinform, Archigram, 1994-2009, Retrieved: December 10, 2009, from
http://eng.archinform.net/arch/1402.htm
Architecture Week, 2005, Swiss Re Tower by Foster and Partners, Retrieved: November
Bauhaus archiv , Retrieved:19 February 2009, from http://www.bauhausarchiv.de/english/bauhaus1919/index.htm
Bauhaus school , Retrieved: February 19 2009,from
http://www.cs.umb.edu/~alilley/bauhaus.html
Bauhaus,Bauhaus 1919-1933 , Retrieved: February 19 2009,from http://www.bauhausdessau.de/index.php?history
Benediktinerstift Gottweig, Ort der Begegnung, Der Gottweiger, Retrieved: November 05,
2009, from http://www.stiftgoettweig.or.at/content/site/de/home/goettweiger/index.html
BEURS VAN BERLAGE, Organic Architecture, Retrieved: 05 July 2009,from
http://en.beursvanberlage.nl/tentoonstellingen/organisch.html
Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Photo Gallery, Retrieved: November 08,2009, from
http://www1.bibalex.org/English/gallery/pages/a01%20(10).htm
Biogeometry and related subjects, 2006, Retrieved: December 10, 2009, from
http://www.biogeometry.org/
Biomimicry institute, 2007-2009, Retrieved: December 10, 2009, from
http://biomimicryinstitute.org/about-us/what-is-biomimicry.html
blueverticalstudio, Approach the Future The Asymptote Experience, Retrieved: June,20
82
2009 ,from http://blueverticalstudio.com/go/?p=645,

Boicho Kokinov, Analogy-Making: Psychological Data and Computational Models,
Retrieved: March 10 2008,from
http://www.nbu.bg/cogs/personal/kokinov/COG501/Analogy-making.html
Bonnie Goldstein DeVarco, Invisible Architecture The NanoWorld of Buckminster Fuller,
Retrieved:February,07 2009,http://members.cruzio.com/~devarco/nature.htm
Calter P. , Ad Quadratum,the Sacred Cut, &Roman Architecture, Retrieved: February 11
2009,from http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/math5.geometry/unit7/unit7.html
CCTV,CCTV HEADQUARTERS, CHINA, BEIJING, 2002 , Retrieved: July 15
2009,from
http://www.oma.eu/index.php?option=com_projects&view=portal&id=55&Itemid=10
Celaya E., 1997-2009, Bionic tower-vertical city-data, Retrieved: December 10, 2009,
from http://www.torrebionica.com/bvs-english/bvs-english.htm
Changingminds, Analogical reasoning, Retrieved:2002-2009,from
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/argument/types_reasoning/analogical_reasoning.htm
Chinese Antique Furniture Center, Styles of Ancient Chinese Architecture , Retrieved:
November 01,2009, from http://www.antique-chinese-furnitures.com/special-topic/ancientchinese-achitecture/styles.htm
Chino M.,2008,Inhabitat, Top ten green architecture projects 2008, Retrieved: December
10, 2009, from http://www.inhabitat.com/2008/12/27/top-ten-green-architecture-projectsof-2008/
Christian Schunn (University of Pittsburgh). Bo T. Christensen (Copenhagen Business
School),The Effect of Artifacts on Analogy in Innovative Design, Retrieved: April 13 2007
from www.lrdc.pitt.edu/schunn/innov2006/talks/Schunn.ppt .
Cite Des Sciences et de l'Industrie,Retrieved: December 10, 2009,from http://www.citesciences.fr/english/index.php
Colani Trading ,Bio-Design, Retrieved: February 07 2009,from www.Colani.ch
Coquempot S., 2006, Departement Action Culturelle, Promenade Architecturale,
Retrieved:Novemebre05, 2009, from http://www.citesciences.fr/cs/Satellite?blobcol=urldata&blobheader=application/pdf&blobheadername1=
Content-Disposition&blobheadervalue1=inline;
filename=idv_architecture_lyc_PDFF&blobkey=id&blobtable=MungoBlobs&blobwhere=
1195478711521&ssbinary=true&ASSETTYPE=Document&ID=1193650285319&COMP
OSITE=education|college_lycee&COMPOSITE_ID=1193650334746&CDS_ORIGINE_I
D=1193650334746&CDS_ORIGINE=education>college_lycee&CDS_ORIGINE_URL=/
cs/Satellite?pagename=Portail/EDUC/PortailLayout&pid=1193650334746&c=PortailPara
ms&iv=null&Nature=Itinraire de visite,Document pdagogique&Discipline=Arts
plastiques,Disciplines artistiques,Arts appliqus&TypePublic=Enseignants,Groupes
scolaires&AccessEvt=Visiteurs mobilit rduite&NivScolaire=Lyce
CSA ILLUMINA,STEADMAN, P.,THE EVOLUTION OF DESIGNS: BIOLOGICAL
ANALOGY IN ARCHITECTURE AND THE APPLIED ARTS, Retrieved: December,28
2008 ,From
83
http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=20020
4200348CE&q=architecture%20process%20architects%20buildings%20software&uid=1028352&setcookie=yes
Cultural China, 2007-2010,Imperial Mausoleum Architecture, Retrieved: November 01,
2009, from http://arts.cultural-china.com/en/83Arts4937.html
Design Boom, Aldo Rossi, Retrieved: July 15 2009, from
http://www.designboom.com/eng/exhibition/rossi1.html,
Design Boom, approach the future - the asymptote experience , Retrieved:June 20
2009,from http://www.designboom.com/contemporary/asymptote.html
Design museum, Archigram, Retrieved: February 18 2009,from
http://www.designmuseum.org/design/archigram
Dezeen, Zaha hadid in Abu Dhabi, Retrieved: May 21 2009,from
http://www.dezeen.com/2007/02/02/zaha-hadid-in-abu-dhabi-update/
Dictionary of P.M.,http://philosophy.uwaterloo.ca/MindDict/analogy.html
Dirks, Arthur L.,1998,Critical thinking and analogical thinking: A model, Retrieved:
November 18,2008, from http://webhost.bridgew.edu/adirks/ald/papers/analog.htm.
Disruptive Library Technology Jester, Defining Service Oriented Architecture by
Analogy ,Retrieved: December,23, 2008,from http://dltj.org/article/defining-soa-byanalogy/
El sevier ,Visual Analogy - a Strategy for Design Reasoning and Learning, Retrieved: July
28 2009, from http://www.elsevier.com/framework_products/promis_misc/621428c9.pdf
Ellen Yi-Luen Do and Mark D Gross, Shape based reminding as an aid to creative design,
Retrieved: 28 July 2009, From http://depts.washington.edu/dmachine/PAPER/CF95SBR/sbr.html
Ellipsis, A natural model for architecture , Retrieved: January 08 2009,from
http://www.ellipsis.com/evolutionary/contexts01.html
Encyclopedia of Irish and World Art, 2008-2009, Ancient Persian Art ,Retrieved:
November02, 2009, from http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/ancient-art/persian.htm
Eugene, 2009, My modern metropolis, Populous website, world architecture news, Modern
Architecture-2014 winter olympic stadium has crystalline skin, Retrieved: November 05,
2009, from http://www.mymodernmet.com/profiles/blogs/modern-architecture-2014-1
Fact Monster, What's an Analogy?, Retrieved: May 22 2009,from
http://www.factmonster.com/spot/analogy.html
Faculty philau,Weaving as an Analogy for Architectural Design, Retrieved: 23 January
2009,http://faculty.philau.edu/GriffenC/weaving_analogy.htm
Famous architects, 2009, Antonio Sant'Elia, Retrieved: December 10, 2009, from
http://famedarchitect.com/antonio-santelia/
form follows behavior ,Metaphor and analogy in visualization , Retrieved: February 03
2009,http://www.formfollowsbehavior.com/2007/04/29/metaphor-and-analogy-invisualization/
84
Foster and partners, Singapore's New Expo Station Opens,Retrieved: june 20 2009,from
http://www.fosterandpartners.com/News/012/Default.aspx
Future systems,279 SELFRIDGES BIRMINGHAM ,Retrieved: July 28 2009,from
http://www.future-systems.com/architecture/architecture_03.html
Gage-Clemenceau Architects, Retrieved: November 21, 2009, from
http://www.gageclemenceau.com/
Gardenvisit,7.3 Metaphorical architecture , Retrieved: February 11 2009, from

http://www.gardenvisit.com/history_theory/library_online_ebooks/architecture_city_as_la
ndscape/metaphorical_architecture
Greatbuildings, Bauhaus, Retrieved: February 19 2009,from
http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Bauhaus.html
Gur Natty,Nice analogy between Architecture and Music. , Retrieved: December 29 ,
2008,from http://weblogs.asp.net/NGur/archive/2005/01/22/358676.aspx
Hani rashid + Lise anne couture,asymptote architecture: the yas hotel, abu dhabi
,Retrieved: June 20 2009, form
http://www.designboom.com/weblog/cat/9/view/6388/asymptote-architecture-the-yashotel-abu-dhabi.html
Henry Whiting Residence, Whiting Residence , Retrieved: July 05 2009,from
http://www.bartprince.com/whiting.html#
Hrudifisch,Abductive Reasoning, Retrieved: March 10,2008,from
http://www.hrudifisch.de/pdf/AbductiveReasoning.pdf
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/login.jsp?url=/iel3/1059/7404/00298842.pdf?arnumber=2
98842
IEEExplore, Blanc, F.; Allemand, S.; Dufosse, M.; Sanchez, E., Neural and cognitive
modeling of analogical reasoning,
IISD, What is Sustainable Development? , Retrieved: February 18 2009,from
http://www.iisd.org/sd/
Information provided by Japanese Embasssy,2008, Asian Info, Japanese Architecture,
Retrieved: November 02, 2009, from
http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/japan/architecture.htm#SHINTO ARCHITECTURE
Inside archtiecture,Civil Engineering Analogy to Enterprise Architecture:
Flawed,Retrieved:Nov 24,2008,http://blogs.msdn.com/nickmalik/archive/2008/09/13/civilengineering-analogy-to-enterprise-architecture-flawed.aspx ,
Jirousek C., 1995, De Stijl, Retrieved: December 10, 2009, from
http://char.txa.cornell.edu/art/decart/destijl/decstijl.htm
Karim I., 1997, Rexresearch, The science of Biogeometry, Retrieved: December 10, 2009,
from http://www.rexresearch.com/biogeom/biogeom.htm
Kenzo Tange Associates,FCG (Fuji-Sankei Communications Group) Headquarters
Building , Retrieved: July 28 2009,From http://www.ktaweb.com/works/en_fcg.html
Kisho Kurokawa, Fusionopolis, one-north Development, Singapore, Retrieved: July 15
2009,from http://www.kisho.co.jp/page.php/253
85
Kisho Kurokawa, Hiroshima City Museum of Contemporary Art, Retrieved: July 15

2009,from http://www.kisho.co.jp/page.php/212
Kurokawa K., 2006, Works and projects, Retrieved: December 10, 2009, from
http://www.kisho.co.jp/page.php/265
Langley P. , Retrieved: 14 November 2008,from
http://cll.stanford.edu/~langley/papers/eureka.cs95.pdf ,Retrieved: November,14 2008
Liquid Architecture+Design, Retrieved: July 05 2009,From
http://www.liquidarchitecture.co.uk/
Mark A. Brown, 2000-2007, Fuji Sunkei Building, Retrieved: July 28, 2009, from
http://markb-photo.que.jp/Tkyarch/0002.html
Mark Brown's Photography, Kenzo Tange Associates, Fuji Sankei Building
Mathews K., 1994-2008, Greatbuildings, Worker's club, Retrieved: December 10, 2009,
from http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Workers_Club.html
Mathews K., 1998-2008, Great Buildings architecture, Expo Pavilion ,Retrieved:
November 02 , 2009 , from
www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/US_Pavilion_at_Expo_67.html
Mathews K., 1998-2008, Great Buildings architecture, Pantheon ,Retrieved: November 02
, 2009 , from www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/pantheon.html
Mathews K., 1998-2008, Great Buildings architecture, Retrieved: February 19 , 2009 ,
McCarter, 1997, Frank Lloyd Wright, Unitarian Church, Shorewood hills, Winsconsin,
Retrieved: November 05,2009, from http://www.delmars.com/wright/flw8-13.htm
Mixingmemory, Reasoning: Analogical Reasoning and Category-based Inducation ,from
http://mixingmemory.blogspot.com/2004/12/reasoning-analogical-reasoning-and.html
Modernism, INTRODUCTION TO BAUHAUS, Retrieved:15 June 2009,from
http://www.artsmia.org/modernism/iintro.html
MoMa Archives ,Philip Johnson discussing the 1934 exhibition Machine Art, Retrieved:
February 18 2009,from http://www.moma.org/research/archives/highlights/10_1991.html
Mycoted, Analogies, Retrieved: Novmber 10 2008 ,from
http://www.mycoted.com/Analogies
National University of Ireland, Maynooth, ComputationalModels of Analogy and
Metaphor Mapping, Retrieved: August 31 2009, from
http://www.cs.nuim.ie/~dod/references.html
New York Times, City on the Gulf: Koolhaas Lays Out a Grand Urban Experiment in
Dubai, Retrieved: July 15 2009,from
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/03/arts/design/03kool.html?_r=1
Nexus Network Journal, Retrieved: May 21 2009,from
http://www.emis.de/journals/NNJ/RHF-fig14.html
Novac M, ZeichenBau : Virtualits relles, Retrieved: December 10, 2009, from
http://www.archilab.org/public/2000/catalog/novak/novaken.htm
86
O'Brien B., 2009, About :Part of New York Times Company, Buddhism, Historic Temples
of Japan, Retrieved: November 02, 2009, from
http://buddhism.about.com/od/throughasiaandbeyond/ig/Historic-Temples-of-Japan/TojiPagoda.htm
O'Brien B., 2009, About :Part of New York Times Company, Buddhism,Zen 101:An
introduction to Zen Buddhism, Retrieved: November 02, 2009, from
http://buddhism.about.com/od/chanandzenbuddhism/a/zen101.htm
ONTOLOG , Retrieved: March 07 2008,from
http://ontolog.cim3.net/file/work/DatabaseAndOntology/2007-07-12_JohnSowa/analogy-JohnSowa_20070712.pdf
Open2.net,A brief biography of the Swiss architect Le Corbusier , Retrieved: February 11
2009, fromhttp://www.open2.net/modernity/4_1.htm
Organicarchitect, WHAT IS ORGANIC ARCHITECTURE?, Retrieved: June 19 2009 ,from
http://www.organicarchitect.com/organic/
Psychoanalytic Electronic Publishing, Metaphors and Isomorphisms: Analogical
Reasoning in Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Retrieved: March 07 2008, From
http://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=APA.030.0509A
Psychology: An international Perspective, Inductive reasoning, Retrieved: March 07 2008,
From http://www.psypress.com/pip/resources/slp/topic.asp?chapter=ch10&topic=ch10-sc06
pushpullbar,Bruno Taut - GLASS PAVILION ,Retrieved: June 15 2009, from
http://www.pushpullbar.com/forums/architectural-models/9792-bruno-taut-glasspavilion.html
Radical Pedagogy, Randy Garner, Humor, Analogy, and Metaphor: H.A.M. it up in
Teaching
Rawles B. A., and Elysian, 1997-2008, The geometry Code, Sacred geometry, Retrieved:
November 06, 2009, from http://www.geometrycode.com/sg/index.shtml
Retrieved: February 19 2009, from http://www.archigram.org/
Rolfdisch,Retrieved: Fenruary 2009,from www.rolfdisch.de
Routio P., 2007, Architectural Theory, Thematic Theories of architecture, Retrieved:
August 04, 2009, from http://www2.uiah.fi/projects/metodi
Routio P., 2007, Architectural Theory, Thematic Theories of architecture, Retrieved:
August 04, 2009, from http://www2.uiah.fi/projects/metodi
Routledge Architecture, Philip Steadman ,The Evolution of Designs Biological Analogy in
Architecture and the Applied Arts , Retrieved: December 23 2008,from
http://www.routledgearchitecture.com/books/The-Evolution-of-Designsisbn9780415447539
Saltz J., 2009, Artnet Magazine, Where the girls aren't , Retrieved: November 20, 2009,
from http://www.artnet.com/magazineus/features/saltz/saltz10-2-06_detail.asp?picnum=3
SD gateway , Introduction to Sustainable Development ,Retrieved: February 18 2009,From
http://sdgateway.net/introsd/definitions.htm
87
Short R., Islamic Decoration, Retrieved: Novemeber 02, 2009, from

http://www.rachelmarieshort.com/images/Islamic%20Decoration.pdf
Solomon R., 2009, SRGF, Guggenheim, 1878-1935 Biography, Retrieved: November 20,
2009, from http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/showfull/piece/?search=Futurism&page=1&f=Movement&cr=5
Spanish-Living, Valencia's City of Arts and Science (Ciudad de las Artes y de las
Ciencias) , Retrieved: July 15 2009,from http://www.spanishliving.com/regional/Valencia_city-of-arts-and-science.php
SUO Group, the historical introduction ,Retrieved: march 11 2008,from
http://suo.ieee.org/email/msg01350.html
Susan W., About, Sustainable Development, Retrieved:18 Fabruary
2009,http://sbinfocanada.about.com/od/environmentbiz/g/sustainabledev.htm
Sydney Architecture Images,Expressionism Approximate Dates 1920 to 1950
,Retrieved:June 15 2009,from http://www.sydneyarchitecture.com/STYLES/STYExpressionist.htm
The MIT press, 2009, Retrieved: December 10, 2009, from
http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?tid=7648&ttype=2
The Pritzker Architecture Prize,2009, Zaha Hadid 2004 Laureate, Retrieved: June 12,
2005, from http://pritzkerprize.com/laureates/2004/works.html
The Pritzker Architecture Prize,2009, Zaha Hadid 2004 Laureate, Retrieved: June 12,
2005, from http://pritzkerprize.com/laureates/2004/works.html
The Reftective studio, Christine Wonoseputro, Retrieved:February,3,2009, Metaphors: A
Creative Design Approach or Theory?
http://transmaterialasia.wordpress.com/2006/11/01/hadids-metaphors-reading-herbiography-from-the-way-of-thinking/
The university of texas at austin, Introduction to Cognitive
Psychology,Retrieved:January,08 2009, from
http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/Faculty/Markman/PSY305/PDF/Reasoning1.pd
f
Theories of Architecture, Thematic Theories of Architecture, Retrieved: August 04
2009,from http://www2.uiah.fi/projekti/metodi/13k.htm
Theories of Architecture, Theories of Architectural Synthesis ,Retrieved: August 04
2009,from http://www2.uiah.fi/projekti/metodi/13l.htm
Theory of a Product,Theory of Architecture, Retrieved: August 04 2009, from
http://www2.uiah.fi/projekti/metodi/135.htm
Tour my country, Austria Guide with a local twist, Wiener Stadtbahn by Otto Wagner: the
ancestor of Vienna's subway, Retrieved: November 06, 2009, from
http://www.tourmycountry.com/austria/stadtbahn-vienna.htm
Train for creativity, What is analogies?, Retrieved: December 25 2008,from
http://www.train4creativity.eu/dat/53B03112/file.pdf?633650438150545000
train for creativity, What is analogies?, Retrieved: December 25 2008,from
88
http://www.train4creativity.eu/dat/53B03112/file.pdf?633650438150545000
Univerzitni Knihovna, Architektura, Retrieved:J une 20 2009,
http://knihovna.tul.cz/download/R00168-Architektura.doc
Vaastu International, 2009, Ancient Architecture, Retrieved: Novemeber 02, 2009, from
http://www.vaastuinternational.com/planarch4.html
Vesalius Andreas,Metaphor and analogy in Vesalian anatomy, Retrieved: February 11
2009, from http://vesalius.northwestern.edu/essays/metaphoranalogy.html
Vitullo-Martin J., 2004, The Manhattan Institute's Center for Rethinking Development,
The West Side Rethink Donald Trump's Riverside South , Retrieved: November 02, 2009
from http://www.manhattan-institute.org/email/crd_newsletter01-04.html
Vosniadou , Stella and Andrew Ortony, Similarity and Analogical Reasoning, Retrieved:
March 07,2008,from http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Abstracts/Vosniadou_Ortony_89.html
Web museum, Expressionism ,Retrieved: June 15 2009, from
http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/tl/20th/expressionism.html
Welch A., and Lomholt I., 2009, E-architect, German-made House of the Future by
architect Daniel Libeskind, Retrieved: December 10, 2009, from http://www.earchitect.co.uk/products/libeskind_villa.htm
Wikiarquitectura,4x4 House,Retrieved:June,20 2009,from
http://en.wikiarquitectura.com/index.php?title=4x4_House
World Architecture Community, Probo Hindarto, MOVEMENTS AND STYLES Modern
architecture style in Indonesia, Retrieved: June 10 2009,from
http://www.worldarchitecture.org/theoryissues/?position=comments&codde=1573&tipi=5&up=2&title=articles%20@%20WA%2
0MOVEMENTS%20AND%20STYLES
World Architecture Community, STYLES IN AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE, Retrieved:
June 13 2009,from
http://www.worldarchitecture.org/links/?http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/fnart/fa267/am
styles.html
World Architecture News, 2009, Populous prove olympic pulling power, Retrieved:
November 05, 2009, from
http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com/index.php?fuseaction=wanappln.projectview&upl
oad_id=12441
World Architecture News, Zaha completes in Wolfsburg, Retrieved: July 28 2009,from
http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com/index.php?fuseaction=wanappln.projectview&upl
oad_id=199
Yin Yang, Feng Shui Institute The Natural Home of Feng Shui,Yin and Yang, Retrieved:
November 01, 2009, from http://www.feng-shui-institute.org/yinyang.htm
Yronwode C., 1995-2003, The Sacred Landscape, Sacred geometry what is it, Retrieved:
November 06, 2009, from http://www.luckymojo.com/sacreddefined.html
Yusheng L, The modern art museum of Fort Worth- Tadao Ando, Retrieved: December 10,
2009, from http://figure-ground.com/mamfw/0001/
89
90

Chapter 1: Philosophy of Analogical Reasoning I. Philosophy: 1.1 Philosophy of Analogy

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 1: Philosophy of Analogical Reasoning I. Philosophy: 1.1 Philosophy of Analogy

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ANALOGICAL REASONING

Form - Structure - Function

Chapter 1: Philosophy of Analogical Reasoning

Fig. (1-1) Prototypical Analogy

Fig. (1-2) Analogy as tree diagram

Fig. (1-3) Formal Analogy

Analogy is to deal with a target in correspondence to a source (base) accordingly to the

1.2 Analogical Reasoning

1.3 AR as a problem solving technique

1.4 Categories of Metaphor

II. WHY ANALOGY:

memory) must be imposed. As long as analogy depends on similarities/referents or constraints, a

Hadamard Four Stages of Creativity

Fig. (1-5) Hadamard Four stages of creativity-correspondent to-Analogy Phases

Fig. (1-6) State Space of routine and creative designs

1.6 Analogy and Artificial Intelligence

1.6.1 Genetic Algorithm

Fig. (1-7) Tree of Fractal Mutations (1991)

1.6.1 Architecture Education

Fig. (1-8) a-b-c Bridge (Munich 2002)

Fig. (1-9) a-b Habitation (Munich 2007)

Fig. (1-10) c-d-e Habitation Munich 2007

Chapter 2: Analogical Reasoning Types in Architecture

2.1.1 Visual analogies

2.1.2 Structural analogies

E. E. (1989) saw it as a perceptual or surface similarity is relatively salient and easy to

2.1.3 Philosophical analogies

2.1.4 Functional analogies

2.2 Based on Knowledge Nature

2.2.1 Transformational Analogy

2.2.2 Derivational Analogy

2.3 Based on Source Nature (Literal Analogy)

2.3.1 Iconic (natural Unnatural) Analogy

2.3.2 Canonic Analogy

2.4 Based on Distance between Domains

2.4.1 Between-Domain (Distant analogies/ Cross Domain)

2.4.2 Within- Domain (Local analogies)

2.5 Based on Source Type

2.5.1 Mathematical Analogy

2.5.2 Biological Analogy

Table (2-3) Biological AR types in architecture by Philip Steadman

2.5.3 Linguistic Analogy

2.5.4 Mechanical Analogy

2.5.5 Ad-hoc Analogy

2.5.6 Stage Analogy

2.6 Based on Source Multiple

2.6.2 Multiple Analogies

2.7 Based on Purpose (Rebuttal Analogy)

2.7.2 Expressive Analogies

2.7.3 Predictive Analogy

2.7.4 Analogical Problem Solving

2.8 Analogy and Fallacy / Fantasy

2.8.1 Functionalist Fallacy

2.8.2 Historical Fallacy

2.9 Other Types

2.9.1 Forced Analogy

2.9.2 Spontaneous Analogy

2.9.3 Constructive Analogy

2.9.4 Anthropometric Analogy

2.9.5 Pictorial/Geometrical Analogy

2.9.6 Verbal Analogy

2.9.7 Numerical Analogy

2.9.8 Figural Analogy