(\tthe 1tcn1 Sh)nU in the itL 'mvar ( Li\S"iV,\H

Forcach "tatcnll'Tlh-FnrL'dCh ..,t;.1tcn1cnt,. ,IJ\i ,1rn1Ln !<' },(>R

kiop.., \\ h1eh u,c ilemvar 111-.,!l':1d 1 ,f inlt:'J!:l'r !, ,, )p-, (,i1t ri .i \.1rwhl,"

ron_ach .Y ,uch that.\' in \f- I I \:PR do

\\d] n1l'ilfl !,1 L'\l'(Uk thL \l.llL'lllC!l! f.,!l,,11:11;: Iii\ do <'ILL' l<>r ( ;1,i h Pn 1gr arn 1111n t! J H(1rn1nL'
Lkn1cn1 in 1h,.- c,L1 \\lth the 1kn1,dr .\' 1,.,.,..'1,11\12_ 111 turn ,..1Lh J,dJ!rir
L;1ngu;1gL''-'
vk1nc11t (d thL "'-\ \in'-, -..cl\ ,ire ,,1i, <-f'llL!lh 1111,,rd, 1vd the
1n1pkn1<..111:.1t1nu d(h." \ 111,t d, _, t1111; 1hc ,qdc1 111 \1htLh Uh L'kn1;_11!_\
,it 1h,._ ,,.-t 1,i111 -,,_. pL1,_'-d 111 \' I11corp<)ratio11 c)f Units
(, rL:1 (RI \1( )\'l ) I hv,L' ,t:itcllh n!'- l!l"L'll I rcni, I\L'l ;1n llL'fl) Ill\<'
(fr,\nll ,1 "'--1 1 :n1,il1I, intc) Progran1n1i11g
La11gt1ages
R(rerl'O(t:'..
I. :\lkn I .ind(. "LkL \ p1<>:2r,11n \L1l < 1 fl.,11 .111._i J,,1..., '.\I1ck1c:I l\.;1rr ;111d I )d, 1d B I.,>\ lill<111 111
prP<.Ldur,. (,,111111 -1( \ff'! 1\l:11, !i',1,1 :,- I \L1";1,hu,,rh l ,,rnput,r ,\"11,1;1k,
1. Alkn I I H1hl1,,'.L1rln ..r; pr":--'LHll "fll1rn11s111"11 h',f'
R<_::.,11,7 lH\1 1 1 \\.ir..,,,nf,.{,-,._ \1r !i,, q-
3. H1rt\\bllc (1 ,:'. ti r,1--t'\)')ff.\l-J 1 1 ')]\ll L\ , ,11-ii__:1;:LI.
H...111Jl1,,(1k \,Z,,T' ( .;J'J,\_ ( :-;- ;,pi \111.dl\h "'. c1 r ll,_t,.i1\1. !, [;;
\!1Lkh,dn1 ",11'- dcll
4. B, 1hr1,11 J') <, _-111d f{,qh.tLI J-\ ".l'\\ J'l I! ,H!HlllllL'
J,,r ar1l11L 1,d 111iL-ll1l''- rh r,. "'- ,1J,.h \if YI 'f\,
I <J7 4 I I 'i_", I 7 .J
rh'-' i""lh_, of ho\\ a progra1111ning language rnight
$. Bur,t;dl R ,\1 ( 1ll1n, I \ .!11d f',,pr,1,
f'rt,gr111nn1111_l!_ 111 fl !I' ' I du1bur:---h \ Pr aid in keeping lr::u:"- of ph ,iral unit, (feet, \t'l'. t'ic .1
)'17] are di..;tu,,til. \ nu:thod i, gi,en for the introdurtio11
(L f ( l PJ,q,.'.f.!Jl)l)),_f' \L1IHL1I ( II
H:in-.1rd l' ,1111hr1d L',\ r\-L, i ,, ! h, I '1-.\ of relation;'lhip, an1onf.! unit, (a v1-att i... ,olt,,-arnp...,, a
7. F1;IJ111dn J .111J R,-,11'.1 I' ,\11 \L_,d-h.i,,d ;- .' ard i, thrt:e feel f and ,uh,cqut:nt auton1a1if
L11l!c-'lLll ( ,,111111 \( .\{ /_ ,.; (, \lW lli(i'') -1-_, 1 J -+--+' fon,er'.'!ion ha,cd upon the,c rclation...;hip\. \'ariou,
8. l , l1ln1;u1 ,1 ,d P,..,- 11:ii1 l,,p111,,11111\\I! .,;, \ l 1 ,1;j
h,ltd l:lr1/;'.ll:l,1C.\ f, 1[ -Iff ill, l,d ITIL ]l1L, Th<. !'r," \f] f'' I\ ! propo,al, for , nta, art ron..,idcred.
.\l-lP:-. Pr'-,,,, \-1\1fll\ c1k '.", J pr l l' 1 _1_ !.112 \\ ords and Phra.,,c,: unil,, languagl' dc ..... ig11 .
lJ. (1(,_'\Lhk\ \! -111,.J \lit1.l1,, II I (' ( 1 11 111, r,r,!I ,I t:ll1l, rornpilcr cnn ....tr1H:tion. lan}!uagc
rLfcrl'lll'L'- [1, ,l:11.1 ,tru,.tt11,_, II! I l1 ,11n .\,,/111c11, f 1c: \{-!
! 1 t1n( Jq7.:.J -fli-.'i'l (_!{ -4.i.!, -l.22
10. k.ild,111 (f (,l,,h;ll v\pr, '-,1, 1 n , pllmL.il\>ll d11rirl 1i ,nq-,11;!11,,11
lR-72-111,-(1::'. Ph l) Lri,, ii,.ri ( .,,nr-1 ...._ \\.1 .-,1 ,:1:._'.
SL-:t11k \\,1,h l111h 1 <172
I I. "nuth I) I / I,, ln ,,/ ("'"I""',/',, ,:n,n"w" l
Fu11d1 1111, 111,il Al 1. ',r11!11n, \ddh<>ri-\\ ,.-,.1, 1 !-..:, ,1<1111 \L 'ii
12. 1--.nuth ! l f-_ SlrUL'lllrLd pr,, .r.1n1TT1111e \\Jlh ::,H,, 1,11, nh ri;,
<,1rn1>111111t;\11n,1,t1--+ (U,, l!J--ll 2,, 1 -;_111
13. L"k"\ . B :i11d Zilk, S Pr"L'.r;u-11111111 ,,11h cd,....11.11 ,I 11,1
11r('- Pl<l( \ :, 1np L\fl \L'l\ !h_l' h r \0 '.Ll l ,llill,1:..'.: '>111L11, ...., \I
(,--'\( \1) l.J, -I (:\pril ]Li7'-f) -Z(J __ ",)
14. I ,11\ I 1ur,,1111111, r ,,,/11n; ( h,,,,, f /1111,1 \ir11, :111
l1Hcrd1-..L"1pl111.1r: '.'l\.1 t.z,_, R,.p Jt1 !-:11rkh lll \',_ri ,:: U,1'
l <J:'(1
15. !.,,\\ .ind !Z,,\ru.r P l,,hr1111th,r'(1 'h, ,11_1 1, ,n1 II,
,\k1_t1.in Pl d,ira ....1 1111'1111,\ l ,,n! k,, !h11d \( \! ".\11111 ,,1:
Pr1n1_ 1pk\ ,,t Pr(10_r;nnn111ll! I ,11\l'UJ_L', \ii 1111 1 ( 1;1 1.,ri
(17
16. R Li....cr ! S1\IL l:SI R \!:\ '\. l \L I,;<._ 11 H, I' \ l \_,. l ".- _:1,
/4 ( 11mp1 S i._ 1 l) L r1 \td11h1rd l \I ird,,rd ( ,,)it .-\u\: 1 -1-11
17. R11\nL1 P A11t,1n1at1l r,.- p1(_ ',L!ILtt1..11 -.., k,t1,,,1 J,,1 1,,_.,, 1.1::\
d,1!,l :-!. ruLturL'-. Ph l) l h l-Ln\Hd l , ,\f11t,11d.l!'-. \1 i-. ' I, ,h

H.cp. 'l RH1. LI . ,if R"d1co..,tc1 i.z.,d1L-,1,.r NY 'lcpt 1171\

IR. Sd1\,n11 r <)p1111111.i11nn ,1f \L 1\ h1:ch k\LI 1.111L.11.1,.: J , 1 i1t , ,r r,11, r'l 1' I 11
- il< >111 '1 >ill IJiq ,Ii IL, .1,1111:..'. I,,: :11, 111
V.iluL 1r;1n:-,1n1:-,,1on ,Hld 1h L'1H1ll;-ir11.:-.._ In ( 1'llif'llr1 r / ,111 ,t:11r1i..:,,, l,
'I IIi I i I 1.' I I,: I'-::
I Pcrl':1n111n Prl\\.lJn1,l,1rd.'.i\ l1J7.; Jnl i'J---1
14. !vnncnb,1um ,\ lpL cktL'rIT1111a111,n t"r \'-r, h1,::h k\, I Ti [ llilil'I'.' Tl\:l,

Lingua)!<.''> Ph D I h ( (1ur:.1nt ln:-,t \L.1th S<."1 i'<c\\ \, ,rk l' "\., . \ t,,1 ,q 1('\11111,

Y(1ri,. ()(t J(1;4

20. \\lgf\r1.11 B cirH!\pilLL.:n I l'v1 Pn1\1n_! .!pr 1,p,r111...,,i!1.,1111pk\ '- fli 11 l' I\, li f.. 1 c'tjlll!'V' .Jf;ll', )II '" "'
ddld -..tru1:tun.':-._ .I A( .11 23 2 (A.prd J LJ7hJ _:;x'l _;lJfi , \ '-1. I) 1, 111\ ,1 illtil 11 pil
21. \\ult. \\'.A L(indnn R .L.. Jnd Shn\ l\:1. 1\11 1J1lr,,dutl11,n 1,1 l ht \\irk 1,.1-.. \llJ"l "ll1, ,I b, 1l1c
- nfkJ.tJi,n uf ,1\LPI--
!ht c,1n'.--tru1.--linn .ind ,c L \RD pr,ir1,1n1\ II LI_ !Ji\J <..'I \ L l\l(i._ \t'rill.ki "-.t1 [,1\\\,f
Tran, S(jl11t1f(' rng Sf.:;, ,.i (Dt:L l l7 / (1) 2:'iJ-_2) ( .:; Rc\L',trLh (Jlt11c '.c1.._1' 11111L' \1 ,11. 1'1,,!:'1:1111
\111h,ir, ,.Llrc,' .\I 1,,, .llu
\\',d,c...,11lld. \I.-\ 11].\"-1(1
j 'I;'.:( \ C \1 llii\1 ! ,II '

i_ ,\111Hll1111t :1t11 , n-.. r--.l<l\ I <i7\

l )f V,1lur.-1c i
the AC r,.1 '.'-1un1h'-r
I . l ntroduclion 1 r1 11 1 1 i l n.. 1 11 ! ! 1 1 t of v i e \\ of calt:u l a t i n g . \Ve c a n act ually
rcard t he , 2 " '" being m u lt i p l ied hy the e x prc"ion
1 11 ( ( 1 !l -... 1 Lk_ r 1 n i.: l h c d c , 1 g 11 1 , I l L 1 n g u Jt!l' fi 1r 1,. 1 i111- t L c t ,. ... t:c --' 'l'hu .... . \\ h e n ,, c ,, u1t t o calculate h ()\V far
p u 1i.: r -t'1ill l f r 1 l k:d tL"t ;1 : 1 d d 1 ag 1H1'>l1v c q u 1 p 1l l l' f l l 1 1 J . 1 1 ,111 1 1 h 1 c!..'t fc.1 1 ! 1.., i n .'1 1..,cc( 111J<;. U'i 1 n g thL furn1 ula d =
lh.:Clllll' 1.-IL:u t h : 1 \ p 1 ( 1gr;u1 1 .., 1 11 "'uch a L t n L: u a . c "hnu!d i.:r \\ c (. o u ld \\ r i t e
l !l \( ) 1l11,__ \\' ; ! > 11 1t..: n 1 1 n 1 1 p h , ,H:il u n i t \ l' .g ,( d t :... . hor,L'
d J2( ft'l'l / ", C l
...'
J ( J " L' ( )
('ll l\\ LT . fh..:' l' l / . l' l l r - , p [ l l' l l !l l C l l l l 1 l l l l i l U !l l l :-- l' l l rl l' 1 1 -
h d l1(l..' I l' CH..L1h i l 1 t { ) f pr(lt2fil l11" and ):! l \ l' t h r.: cnr11 p i l c 1 ;1 J 2 t L' L \ q '-.1..' L:___
1
1 4.J k c t
\ U J"Cf l 1"1dJL':l ! J1 )[1 t h ; t t \\ h : 1 ! ! ht. r) !"1 l).: r;11ll!1!1.,' I 111\.-' ;\ll" I". cc--'
\\' h d l l h1.: p n fgr:-tlll ] \ g(ll l\1:--'. ( 1 1 he d ! H ! l );: . -!'hi..'. l0 \ l llL'L' r T I
I t d t \ L' " n ' t 11l d l t \..' r \\ hc' l hL' r n 1 u l t i pl icati1Hl i \ \\ h a t i...,
,, i t h u n r 1 c.. gr:1du:i l l > \\ 1 H k,:d J t ;., \\ ii> J ! l \ ( 1 t h i..: \ ; 1 1 1 g u:1gl .
"fl' ; l J 1 \ . h c1 rp L' Jl l fl'5 h e re . ! l l\ J U:-.t Li. \ l nl p[L' fact t h a t \\('
\,: c \\ l"l"l' dc-.,1 . n 1 n g . a n d \\ L' \\ 1 1 u n d u p h u i ! d 1 11 g 1 n t u t h L
c... d n pr .... t c n d \\ L' :t rc rn u ! t r pl i n g . u se ( ) U f J... n 1 i1,1,I LJgc of
dc:-. 1 g n :1 , e r: gL- J l l. ' l d l n 1 1..:,.- h; 1 n 1 "111 f1 1 r L , p rc ,.,, i n g l hl
h 1 l'. h ....,l h r ) ( i ] :1l 1.. h r:1 i n t h t: n 1 a n i p u l a t 1 1 n1 . a n J cume out
n )l l: t if u n i t .., 1 n t h'- l 1 Hnpu ! a 1 1 , Hl :-. t i ! ; 1 p 1 1 ir : 1 rn S 1 1 1 l1.:
\\ 1 t h t h L right l !l '-a\\'L' r .
u n i t " l' !ltl r l rl g t n'-L ring , _. :i 1 '-u L1 l H ll l " , )f n t d n :, k i n d .., ,
\\ h,it rr1 d k '-- " 11r1 1 t , u..,cful 1 " t h a t t here arc rc l a t inn
pn igr:1 n n n 1 11g langu;i g L " 1 , 1 hL r t h :1 1 1 1 u " t t h t hL. ! 1 1 r ;i u t 1 1-
..... 111r" ;i nlt lfl!! t hcn1 : fnr l' \ an1plc . \\ c ,1, rite t h i n s l i ke .
rn a t i L I L .., t 1 1 1 g rn 1 ll l hl 111.: t i 1 ! 1 1 llll t h L 1 nc ( irp(1r1 t i ( 1 n i i i
u n i t :... ! 1 1 i l l 1 n t c 12. t ; 1 1 c d \\ d ) I h e p 1 c .., L 1 1 1 pt f'l'- r p u t ..,
fn rl h ; 1 pn lp( 1..,t ! ( i i h ( n\ u n i ! .., rr1 1 g h t h :.: 1 11vnh cd Ill
I ll ...."c r1.. l a t H 1n,h ip.., L a n be U\L'd t11gct hl.'f \\ l l h t h e
c xprc..,)1, \n.., ( d :1 L111ua .'- d11t. J r1n 1 \ 1<..h_ , th .... ha,1,., l c l' h
rn u l t i p l 1 c a t 1 ( )l1 ( a n d d J \ l"H lfl ) Jc...:'-. cTihcd ahovc t o "Cun
n i q uc l ( l r i r11 p l c n 1 c n t nl .L! r. h 1 :-. : i n d n l h L r .., 1 11 1 1 l a r pr, 1p1 1\
\ l' r [ , fr1 iJ11 1 1 1)\.._' lJ fl j \ ( t I l fl\ l \ hlr crhc h aZJfdPLJS rrnhl(fl)
ah.
i i i " he n to n 1 u l t 1 p l _\ a n d \\' h e n tn d i v 1Jc h_\ a "(r i n ,cr
l'hc 1 d L a ( i f 1 n c 1 )q11 )rtt1 n: ph \ ',J(..':tl u rnl'. i n t i") ;i
, 1 1 1 1 1 l d r t i ,( c;in hL llfll' r r1nly h a n d l l'd hy \\ r i t i n g .. 1
prnran)Il1 l ! l!2 L 1 r lI..'.llt.l \\ a <.. [ ] \ ) ( 1 1 r 1 g 1 n ctl \\ l l h U'-. ( ) u r
1 1 1 ,lfl a pprupr1<1tc \\ d_\ t1 n d rll l.d t 1 pl _\ 1 n g h_\ I t .
first llcq u <1 1 n L 1 ncL \\ 1 t h i t \\':1:-. , i;i t h .... /\-I I :\ S l;1 1 1 .u;1g1.:
1 2 ] . -rh\.' l' d f l ll",\ rll1.: 11 l i { >l1 1 1 t t h\.: 1 d c ; 1 ( 1 ) 1 1 u r k n 1 , \\ l c... d . c . fc L" t I i nchc:>
\\ ii\ i n 1 .1i 1 r'vl 1 1r\_ f'L'L'l' Jl l l \ l h'- i.JL;r ( ) r \J ! l l \ ', I L l '-. hL c n 11.c...t => I
] l ll L ht''.-J fed
e x t e n d e d ( n J 1 11 1 1 r, n ,, \ ill l 1 ) ( 1 \ l ( l l ) 1 d 1 -ii 1 u\_ hl'', . . ;\ '-. ; 1 1 1
C\tt.'f1',] 1 1 n \ I r .\ L ( i ( ) f l 1 ,\ i -+ ) ( l u 1 i n t l' l l 1 1 1'1 t h 1 -.. p,q1c... r I h u,
i .; n1)! lo nnhLd u 11 1 1 .., 1 n ;i p; 1 r1 i \_uL1r progr; 1 n 1 n 1 1 n !..'. l C \.' l
la n guag L . h u ! t ( ) drd\\ ; 1 \ l c... n t 1 , H 1 \ ( ! : 1 " 1 11 1 p k } \. t pu\\ \ 1 - _-;, l flCh L' '-.
J 1 n c h c :-,
ful convL r\ i ( 1 n lllL' l h 1 id 1 '1 l r LLi ... ..,ica! u n i 1 .., h\' L:>t;il, 1 1 ..,, h i n
3 C(") l1Jll.'(l111n \\ 1 \ h l 1 ni:;i r al t,'. 1.." hr;1 r h l \ ] c....' HJ [ t i ; J
d i :-.cuss1un t d v0ri1lU\ L.1n gu11.. cl1.. ..,in C\111:-. 1d c ra t 1n r 1..,
a n J con1 pilcr implL n1 (. n t 1 t li ) Jl issue.., . I h (. 1 dL : 1 prc
\c n tc d hlrc fTI J _ h t bL llSL'd ]fl i -1 \ J f l L l \ ( ) f \\ J \'', I t ( 1111.. l' h t 11.)'> L :-, t h e \\TPT\ furn1 ( )f 1 h \ ,, h i c h t 1 1
depe n d i n g u p t 1 n t h L Lnl)-'..ll <-t.:.:.c \\ h 1 L h 1 .., h1.. 1 n n 1 i i d 1 f 1Ld n 1 u l l i pl _\ . L h .... c r r 1 ) r i s d i -,cci\ 1..' fc'd bccau"L' t h \. u n i t :-,
tu inclu dt u n n:-. d ( 1 n t \\ urk

2 . What are Unit,:

I h e c:d1..' ti l :i t i 1 n '" \_ ( i rfL'l' ! . i n d \\ L' rn i g h t \\ L' l l :-,a_\ th:it
\Vc d o n ' t k n 1 )\V \\ h <1 t c r icrgy 1 .., : :ll ! \\ t'
' f c c t ': l 1 nc hL:-, is d u n i t 1lt l L'llgt h . L ' n fllrt u n atL l \ 1 t 1:-,
can \a I " t h ; 1 t i ! I " Li qi.., .... r , c d
nnt a L'll\l 1H11c1r u n i t ()! I e n g. t h . onl' usual!) a i n1.., ft)r
- , \ p h , 11 , h
1 n 1.. hc:,, ( 1r fL'l' l NntL' , hu,, c ,c r . t h :.it \\ c' ha\'C n o i l l u:o,i(\11
\\' c :-.. h a l l n ( i t h(. L'()f1Lcrn .... d h .... r \_ \\ ! t h h , n, l h L u n i t .., 1 d h d \ l fl b ',lJl'C(' \;,. fu l h . ((111\'( rtcd' J tCl"l t u l llChL' S .
\Vh 1ch o ne ca rric.., ;i l 1 1 n g i n L; tl L u Lt t i n n " rL l a t L 1 1 1 t he r11 1 ') 111 a kt u n i t '.) a use ful hnnkkcc p 1 11 device .
fl'i11 \\' U r J d : 1 11'.'-lc.' <J d . \\ l' \. ( li1Cc n t r;,1\\.. nn t he n1 ; 1 11 1 r u l d
t i ( ) n ::,.. l h c rn::-.c l ve-; I n urdlr tu n1Pl l \ : 1 t L a n 1 n q u 1 rv 1 11 1 0
3 . Quanliti, and Comparabilit
ho\\ u n i t " get i n l,irr()fdled l fl [( ) ; 1 profCll11 1lllllg Li n
guage . \\'t' pn.:sL n t a ;-,,hort rc... vic,, ol u n i t " ci l c u l u .
:'\ i. )\\ t h ; r t \VL' h a \t: :...t:L' l1 h 1 ) \\' u n i t s are n1anipulat1..- d ,
\\ h i c h lllll' 1 n 1 g h 1 l c :trn 1 1 1 a begi n n i n g 11 h v..,11..:s 1.' ( i u r"c
\\ c n1a} c1h ... tr;1ct l hi 1:,,c properliL'S o f i n terest t n us . \Ve
i 'l :-.hl l l hc...:gin \Vi t h a f i n l t L' '>L' t n f elen1cntary units . \1,: hich
'f"hc l'"'> L' 11 l iil ptii n t f( )r ll'. j.., t h a t u n i t \ n1a\ b l'
\\ c t h i n k 1.)f :,1 111ply :1;,. :,> 111 hul.; \\ i t h ... uggc'\t ivc narnL'S:
'-: arricd a l u n g i n cal1..- u l a t i()n'i, \\'ht:rt.: t hey <tel l i k 1.: v c1 r 1-
abk .., , " nhc\ 1 n g e1)n1n1 u t a l i v 1 t, . ;i..,...;i 1ciativi t\' . 1 1 \\ \ i ) f fl'L' l , cn1 , cc . ,i oulcs . V\/ c v ie\\' a </UCulfity over a set of
l.-' l c' n 1 c n t ar\ u n i t-. as a s;y 111hulic pruduct o f a real
l' XpunL'fl t \ . l' I C
n u mber and c l e m e n t s nf the set raised symbolically to
rational pm1 cr s " For exampl e " the fol lowing arc kgiti-

( 1,m n1 u n1..:;1t idn ... N1ay J ll78

l )f \/olumc :;: l
the ;\ ( 1\1 Numbt'r S

The rel ationships among u n i ts c m p h a\ 1 1c d 1 11 Scc
t i 1 J n give rise to t h e n o t i o n nf cun1n1ensurat1't1<'S.\
among 4 u a n t i t i c ..., - v,e say t h a t l \\o q u a n t i t i e s arL' cum
n1ensurate if one j.., a l.' (1!1 \ l a n t n1 ultiplc nf the n t hc r .
'Fur c x a n1 plc . ,,c ,,o ulJ \\ J. n t fct: l 1 n J i r1t.:hc..., t 1 1 he
L'PJ11 n1 c nsuratc ht... caUSl'. feet :-: 1 inc hr.: s : s i n1 i l a r l ,
acrc 1 and f e e t :-,hl) U I J he cun1 n1c n:"turatc h L cau:-,c I acre
= 43 )h0 f1...: c t . rhis r c l a t 1 o n s h 1 p of L1 i m n1 c n<..;u r:i t L' TlL'S<.,
is S< Hne t h i n g \\ h 1 c h ITT U\t he 1rnposcd 1 111 , i u r "Y "tL n1 ( )t
t'h_ n1L n tar) u n it \ a n d LJ U a n t 1t i c s . () n L' nia) ,,Tile Jo\vn
,- 1 finite ."L't of rL l a t i t i n :-, h i r" ,\ h lch .c n c rltc\ a l l cun1-
n1c n suratcnL:-i,., r c l a t i n n s h i p..., _ Fnr t h L ah1 , \' L' set , lf 1.: l 1.:
n1c n t ary u n i t s . a n d t h e cu.,,,tornary L't 1 n1 n1c n .... ur,1 t L nl" s'- .
t\\.'O n n n r c d u n d a n l rcl,nion,;,,hip:-. gencr1te d l l the rest ,
for cxa m r l c :
feet = 1 ..::i i n c h c ,;,, . acr( - -i . ) h ! l fee t :
I n t h e J a ,;,, t \L'Cti o n . \Ye rL \ i <..." \\'L'd t h ,_. t r i L k " t n r
\\ f i l i n g t h L n un 1 h c r I H l \ ;t n ( i u-. f( 1rfll'> a n d u:-. i n t h e
forms i n \'a r inus n1 a n 1 p u l a t H in:-s 'I'cach 1 n i; : 1 L' t 1 111 p u t c r
t h e se "tri<..:k...; t u r n -; ()Ut tr) he L' \ t rcn1L l y -., 1 111 rl c f-'ir .... 1
a t t h e bottnn1 nf t h i ll f,'.'> , t h L' T"L' i:... ( )111> unc q U i._", l l ( lll
Given a q u a n t i ty . 1:-, it CP111 n1c n ..,,uratt_ \\ 1 t h l . d n d 11 s, .
\\ h a t j ..., t h e factnr 1 11 \ n l \'L'd ..1 l - 1 ) r C\:1n1plL' . d \\1._' ,, :i n t
t o con\crt 1 1 \'( )I t a n1 p...; t o n1 1 l l i \\ l l l'>. \\ L' 1_'.Jn 1<,k
\\'ht...' l h t' r t h e q LH . i t i c n t ( I . , nll :1 n1p'>l. n 1 i l l 1 \\ a t t -.., 1" L1 1n1
n1e nsuratc ,, i t h ! . '!'he a ns\\ c r i, VL' \ a n d t hL' fac l n r 1 ,
1 3 1 1 1 11 1 , L C , ( U volt ,in1 r , L m i l l 111 a l 1 ' J , 1 1( 11 1 l
St.:L'und . t h L q ucst1un nf d c t c rn1 1 n in .i.: \\' h c t hc r ;J
q u a n t i t y is cPn1 n1c..' nsuratc ,, i t h I 1 , '>( il1.:h ;i m a t t e r { if
l i n e a r J.l t! c h r a . 1 i l m a l<. c t h i s Lu n n c L' I H Hl t a k e 1 hc l i )
1 ) f CIL' h ( 1 f t h e.. e q u a t i u n :-, dt:<..,LT l h 1 n g L'\ )fl}TllL'll'-ll f: l l t'lll."', ",
Cun t i n u i ng example ( 1 ) , we h ; t \'e .
lng( k c t ) h,g 1 2 -+ l1)( inchl..'. ) ,
log(acrc ) Ing -1 3 :i fill + 2 log( k c t ) .
or
lo,:( fe e l ) - log( i nc h e , I lug l 2 :- 0 .
log( acre ) - 2 lng( fce l ) lo!! .J :l , h l l II
- r a k i n g t h L u n i t :-. i n t h L i r gi,L' l urdL r ( 1 1.'fL . \L' L' , gr:u11s
l '
.
inchc:,.,. fe e t ) a n J ,,Tit i n g t he L'(lL ffil-il..'. n ts t d l 1 \( u 1Ht s )
\\.'C nlJ.) p u t t h c st..' varinus ft 1 r ins (it zc n 1 1 n t1 ) n 1 . 1 1 r1\
forn1
(
-- 1 - Jog 1 2
I) 0
) pr11cc d u r<...''> v 1 c1 l 1 n 1._' ;1r ;il g1.: h r; 1 I ht,,,_ Ltl' i '- :irL 1 r n p 1 i 1
() 0 I) - log ,13 ,1,1 I
I n sin1ilar fashiun , a n ) q u a n t i t y n1a, he 1 u rneJ i n t u a
vector : c o n t i n u i n g t h i s exan1plt' . J fLct bccun1c" t h e
vector ( U I J I) () 1 l o g J ) , T h e q uestion of 11 h e l h c r a
q u a n tity i-; cnm,n c nsuratc \V i t h 1 , \\h e n t ransla t1.J i n t n
l i n e a r algchra t e r m s , hecnn1es a q u cstinn u f \\ h c t h L r i l
is possible to a d d m u l tiple, of t h e rows of ( 2 ) t < > t h e
vector represe n t i n g t h e q u a n t i t y i n such a w a y 1 h a t a l l
e n t ri e s , except possibly t h e last , arc zero , T h i , relate,
187
directly t 1 1 n11t l t i piic:l t h n1 h > v:"tnnu.., fnrn1, r 1 f I d 1 s.,
CU\\Cd in Scct 1,1n ' 1 -_ a L' h , i i t h e n i ,v.., 1-.., a h 1 r n1 ( ) f
71..' f( ) , i . e . I \ t h e ! 1 \l! 1 ) 1 ',1 lnlc f1 )rn1 ( )f I :\ n1 u l ! J r l L , it :1
f()\V 1-; really J U \ t I rn,c ( ! t ( 1 \( Hllc p( l\\ L' f and ..:.1 1 I'- -., t i l l
l ; ; 1 d d t n ? t h 1 " rn u l t i plt.: t ( ) t he ,lcti 1r rL prLc.,,.: n t i n t hL
q u a n t 1 t 1 " rcal h 1 u , t m u l 1 1 r i l 1 11 g 1 hc q u a n t 1 t 1 h 1 I .
Pcrhap..., t h e :-- 1 n1 plcc:;t \\ ; 1 : !( 1 dL tc r n 1 J r11.. \\ h c t hc r ! l
! ) pu;':>:-:,iblL' t o add appr1 1 p r 1 a t c 1n u l t 1 plc-., n f t h 1._ 1. dnVL.' r
:.iun 1natrix t o a .i, c n q u :1 n t l t } l'- I P tir;;:;( p u r t h 1 111,l t n \
1 n r(n, -cchc !,)n f( 1 r n 1 l h ] ! h 1 " hd" t h e J-.'-' 0 1._' f 1 " 1 d ._,1d1._'
effect [_)j rc\'Ci l r n r1._ d u n d ; 1 n t rc l :t t H ) n ..,, h 1 p, ( cl r1 1 \\ 1 ) [
zcr1h-' " ) tnd illL'( 1 11 -..i \ t L n t rcLi t 11 1 :1 , h 1 p:-. ( ,! r 1 n\ \\ h l \._ h l '
n o n zc rn i n t h e f i n ; d c' l l l r\ :tnd 7:,_ r( , c l ..,,1.,\ h l' rL J I i n \._ 1.
t hL' n i n r i \ 1, i n r11\\ - s.'L'hl.: l ; 1 1 1 f1 i r n 1 1 hs. , ,_c l 1 r r,:rcL"
,e11 r 1 n g t hL' q u ;i n t ! t \ 111 .1: hL . 1 p pl 1 1 dLd 1 ( 1 i t ,1 1hl l ih
t:11L1rged rnatri, p u t 1 n t 1 1 rr 1\\ - L , h l l , n l 1 )rn1 1 1 , i l l
L' n t ric, L' \ \_\..'fll t hL L 1 -... 1 .t rc ;1._ r 1 ) . t h1._ q u :HH 1 t , 1, ( ! 1 11 1 -
rnL n , u r ; i t c \\ l l h l 1 11d l hL' l 1 1 i ; ! l \...' ! H r! i , l l h_. l ( 1g : 1 r r l h n 1
( l f t hL 1.on \ 1._ r-., 1 1 H1 L1L H 1 r , 1 f -..,n111v n1 i n f i n , i l 1._ 11 r 1 \ 1 1 f t h 1._
IlI
l d , t rd\\ I\ l l \ 1 1 1 /C r ! I t hL'!l l h 1_' ( )fl);l ll,i l q u : l !l l 1 1 \ ! '- !li l t
1_'r 1 Jll r1lt_' ll'-llL11 l \\ l ! h !
:\..., c111 L \c1 n 1 p l L . ] 1_ ! u..., L1 1 11-...1\. k'r t h 1. r,r1 ) h k n1 t d
f 1 n d 1 n t h l r1 d 1 u , i n i n l hL' , 1 d ,1 c l rL!c \\ h 1 )'-1. ,trL , 1 1-.,
\llll' :1crc l. -... 1 n :2 the l ( r111 u l : t r ---:;;; ,. ! \ ;-;- 1 . \\ C \\ , u 1 1 r n
h. !l t l \\ J t \. ( d LT\.' :,r ) I'> ( ! l [Tlllh' f l -.., U r ; t l l' \\ J \ h lll C h l -... . l rl
( H_ h 1._r \', , 1 rd". 1 1 \ ( J 1_'l'i.. 77 ) l !h ' l h_'', I " t.__ 1 1 [ 1 ) f 1 h r l " lJ L l l l' \\ I t h
- 1 li,: \ \.'( l ( l f 1 1 1 r d t... rl 1 1 1 1. ht-' -.., 1 -..,
II 11
/\ [ l !1... lH_l 1 ! i .L'. rh1" I<> ihl 1l)d 1 1 1 \ "I I ) :t 1 1 i i r , d t 1<.. 1 r1l,:. I < >
r( 1 \ lc. h c l 1 1 1 1 t 1 , r11 1 \ I'-..' j,,j-..,
II II II - ] 1 1 -!. _..:. r ) n
II II II l, ) \' I -
II II 11 II I! ! 1 ) 1 : \ I -1, - _') I 1 ( I ;-r )
T h u-.., t he tHl n l hLJ 1 ) f t i h:hL..., t i f ( h L dc..,, 1 rL d r d d 1 u -.., 1 ....,
! : ,. ( 4 ., ..::; ti 1 ) ;, J r : 1 h\ , u t 1 4 l .,
1 )
I n rr.lL'1 iCL' . ,1 '-. l il l '-. 1_' \ J rll rd1._ , ( )llL' \\ \ \ u l d 1l1 1 l
]!)
;11. t t i :tll\ 1 1 1 n 1 p 1 1 l L' l 1 ) ; t r 1 t h n 1 -... i n 1 hc fi n . i i t'1 i l u n 1 11 "
R : 1 t h 1._' r , t h L L \ lll'>l:t n t -.., d l'L' ll'-1.d d i rc t: t l \ , \\ h'--n t h1._ 1 1 n,
, 1pL' L 1 1 tP!l" f'L' lj lll f1.' : 1 d d i t 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 n u l 1 1 p l 1c:1 t 1 r 1 1 1 i , d i 1 T1L' .
: i n d ,, h (.: 11 t hl: r t. q u i r,_. 1 n u l 1 1 pl 1L : t t 1 , , n . '--' \ j'1 l l l L' rl t 1 . 1 1 1 t 111
].', d, lTll' .
I n 1.'11h: ! u , lil!l , t h 1 , '-L'1.. t h 1 n h1" 1 n d 1 rt.l1 1 \ : 1 1 1 1 \ c d , 1 1
a ,.' t l ll \ 1_ 11 1 c n t rLprc ..... ,: n L t l ll.lfl , 1 1 cl !_j lldl1 \ l l \ : 1 J !1lL' h . ! I \
",\ !ll h O I J C ]\ ll'.dflt h fl1 \\ rl ( \ 1_' ]1 ; \ \. cl \ 1._' L' f ! ) r \\ l h ,t \ \ . d'-.,i i
'>1..' 1._ n t h:l l t h e t r 1lk,., ,, h h: h h u ir1;u1,, , I r\: t J U !-.'., h l \:1 1 1 1
L1.. r11 1 n g u n i t '> c:111 hL r1_ duLLd t 1 1 c ( ) rn p l L t L- I \ 1nc c h ; 1 n 1c; 1 I
t 1 n t 1 ( 1 kcL'P i n 1 1 1 1 11d ; 1 , \\ 1,,, hct'.,!!l l t i 1__ ( \ J \ ..,, 1 d ,_. r hn\\ ; 1
p n 1 !-.'., ru11 r11 1 11 !-! Ltll!-.'.,Uat2L 1 1 1 1 L:. h 1 h e l p t\1._(,_ p trd '- k 1 i l u n r t
4. lkclaration, of l1nits and their Rdation,hip,
I f u n i t ..... { \\'l' ha\'l' '-.[ i \ ] [l ( ) ( d<... t i nl'd t h L' ll1 r r\.' Ci .... c l y )
ire \ ( ) hL' dl 1 i \1. c d 1 11 ;i p r ( ) g ra 1T1 n 1 1 ng. L111 g u ::igc , t \\'1 )
qut' \ l 1 n n -.. i 11 11nc d i a lL' I ; 1 rt'>L' \V h a t ,, i l l h e t ht.. "'-' t , i i
(on1n1 u n iva I l l ,n.._, \la\ ! \ J /
"I 21
\ ' 1 , i l l llll'
lhl' :\l 1 '."-,; urn her
,: l r llll' n t;i r y u 1 1 1 t :-. - 1 . l \\ h d l \\ 1 1 1 t hl n:i rnLc... hL' '.1 \\ ' h:it
,\ i l l hL l h l l\il; i t 1 ( 1 n c... h 1 p" a n1 1 i n g t h '- "c L' l t: n1 c n t a 1 ) u n 1 t c... '
l 1 n t h q u c -., t i 1 1Jl'-i ,v i i i l ' ; i d 1 ( ' i 1l f l r111 1 n a h k d 1scu.., si 1 ) !l \
- -,\;ttL' f11 C ! l { \ \llLh if';
u n l l'"" t h e h d h 1,, i 11 T l'\( i l u 1 i , 1 n i c... t;1 J... L' l l ' ' 1 lh l : 1 n gu : 1 '-
1.h.: f 1 n i t inn ..,h1 1 u ld n 1 i \ l 1 1 11 1 r1 1 1 t 1 t..,l l t \ ( ) c1 1 1 \ p;1 rl 1l u L 1 r
\l'l ( i j Ll f l [ ] '.-, llHlCh IL'',', d rl y' fl'l cl t i< J J J ', h ] fl ', ;\!ll ( l fl J h ._: Jl)
l n:-. t c ; 1 d . 1t ..,f -i 1 ) u l d p 1 ( 1\ i d1._ t h '- fllL';111:, !'r i r a pri 1gr.1 n nn c r
tn rc:-.'- r \ l' 1d'- n 1 1 fi L r.., \\ 1 1 11._h arL [ 1 1 ht U\cd a .., '- k n1L n
t a r\ u n i t .., dlld t i i l L1.:l,1 rc t h '- fl' L 1 f 11 H1 .., h i 1 1.., \\ h 1 L h ire
1._ ( 1 11 \ c n i c 1 1 1 . S \ ll Ut \ ! \ ! h ) l : i n l \\U1._ h'- r1._ . b u t the t , i l l n \\
i n g l' \ a n i p k dl'L' l a r:1 l t1 lfl'-. \h1 )t1 ld L1;11 \ e ' \ 1 1 u r 1 n ! L' i1 l
I I F\11 ', l . \ R 'i l '- I I S l l i l \ ( l L I ', \ r ll TS.
FT . I I I I L !Tl R < \1
R I Li\l l ( l V, H l PS " I I O V C l l I S 1 1 11 11 1
Fl I l I I . I I 1 1 II I ( M j 1 I ll l R
F r 1 1u1 ...,uch lkcL1 r ,1 1 H 1 1 1 " . t ll 1._ l\ 1 1 n p i l '- r 1 11 d : ( , i ; 1 , 1 r u 1. l
t h e n 1 ;1 t ri \ 1 1 ! rl l : 1 t H. 1 1 1 .., h q,, dl "L 1 1 h1._d 1 11 ')l,,_ 1 j ( n1 -:. "f h 1 ,.
rnay ht' d1 1 ! l v i:-- f( 1 l l 1 1 \\ s, \\ c \ L 1 r t ,1. 1 l h i n ,._ 11t [ t 1 1 " 1 1 d
c l t: n 1 c 1 1 t : 1 r } u 1 1 1 t -. : i n d : 1 1 1 t.: n1 p t , 11 1 ; i l r 1 \ ,,\.., L'. , H.' li u 1 1 1 1 ,
dccl.i rat 1 , 1fl r..., ,._ r 1 l \ 1 u r 1 ! ( 1 ,._ d 1 ) 1 1 1-,\ , 1 , , ll 1 L rt l <1 ! \ u n 1 1 c.
\\ h 1ch ;1 r(: 1 1 1 i t , i l r,-,1,.l\ 1 n l hc ] 1 -, r d f l' , qpc n ,.L:d t , , 1 t ,L1 1 , i
t h L n u n i h'-r { d l'1 d l l t 1 H 1 .., 1 1 1 t h L 1 1 1 , 1 \ l' t \ 1 nlrt : 1 \L , I h1_ n
a vcc l ( H L ; 1 11 h1_ f( 1n1 1 , d l r1 i r t 1 1: ; 1 ( 11 1 l l : 1 t 1 , q 1 , h q1 , 1f l h t
d t: c l a r a t i 1 H l :1 r1t.l r h 1 , i ,: [ ( 1 1 1 .. ,1pp< 1 H i t 1 I . t', ,1r i ;\\ 1 , ,
t h e rn ; i l n \ F:. n\\ r '-d u l l H Hl', , l ri" 1 :_ r f 1 1 1 n h_d d '-
'>cribcd i n \e 1._ f \1 \fl . i n d \\ 1._ d1\," \ 1 \ 1._ r ! ' il <.' i d l h r,_ L
case s, :
- 1 h1._ r1 1 \\ h c1 .., bL l 1 1 n 1 ,: Ic r \ 1 1 n c c1 n 1 n t h < 1 L t h 1 .
d L' L L 1 1 :1 I H ll l 1 '"' 1 1.: d u n d a n t I h L ;ln -1 r1 1\\ ,, h 1 u ld h<
rCll l 1 l \. L' d
1-hL r 1 l\\ ha" hi:l , Jn1c /L' H 1 L\,:cpl J r1 t h1._ l !...,l
l'i l ] t1 1n n - n1'-' ; 1 1 1 1 1 1 l2 t h , 1 t l l i 1 .., tk'(_ L1 r ; 1 t 11 1 1 1 l 1 11 1 t r: 1 d 1Lt..,
c a r l i1._ r ( J!h_' <... "J 11 1 1... J \ ,u1 lTr1 \ f . J l l !.l i. h L J ! \\ ...h l ) ll l i l
hr.. T L'fl l t 1\'(" d
N 1 Hl<..: ( ) r l h 1._' ; 1 h ( ) \. (, ' 1 1 lL': ! f1 l ! l r li ,d d Ill.'\\ l\1 )] 1 f _r ] \ ! , i l
rc l :1 1 i 1 n1 .., h 1 p h : 1 1... h 1. 1_ n ,_ nc1 1 u 1 1 tlr .._,t1
I n t he ,_. ;l \l' \\ hc rt' : 1 ] ,_ L;, i t 1 n11 ( ,, ,1d d 1 t 1 , ;r1 ( ( ' t li, 11 1 1 1 l rt \
h-is hL' C f l 1 11 ; 1 d,._ l i lls,,"' f'\ l' t h : i l t h , !IL ! l l l \ ]'. k f t 1 1 1 r1 ,\\
cchcJq11 i' 1 l l 1 1 1 , a:-. rL q u t rld L' l l h L r f1 H t he :ul 1 1 1 nct l l 1 n 1 1 f
) L' l r11 1 l rl' d('( l : 1 L l l ] 1 1 [ j ", , 1 [ t lh: l ( fi l \ <,']'\!( ,1 -1 , \\ li i , 1 1 ,tf' L
d o n c \\ h l n l; 1 1 n p i l 1 1'1 t h l' r e .... 1 ( ,f t h e prl l:r:t11 1
\\ L' l.' l l l J'fld".I/L' t h : 1 j l h1._ ! \I 'l l \ 1. 1 1-. I 1 \ f J 1 i l l \'Cllc' [ , d J l \
i n n J n 1 l !\L'. t:ll n 1c n 1 u\ u n i t " , t n d .., 1 1 ,,:i t 1 1 1 g 1 h\_ 1 r rL l . 1 -
t innsh1 r.., J ', 1 11 1 h\_ I I Ltl' h i 1)\_'j' \ \\ J i 11. J i ! ' J , 1Cl' \\\_''. l h L
dccL.l L t l !t )r1'- : 1 1 1 d '. c' l 1 u p 1 h1.. n L! 1 1 1 \ - 1 11 1 -.., I'- 1 11 . 1 1 n l } . 1 1 1
i111 pl( n1 L'll l ;\ 1 1dn l' \l' l l' I '-.,_' l fl -,p; ! f \l' l l L l t f l \ l1l . l l l l [llJ l ; 1 t i ( 1 J l
anJ n , , t r1 r t i c u L 1 r l y d ! l f11._ u l t J j t ll L' ',C t ( i j t' k' ll)L' l l l ; t r\
u n i t\ a n d rl l 1 t H 1 n \ h q,.._ \\ e re f i \,._,..J t hL rn a t r 1 .\ (1 1 u ld hv
fiXl' d . L 1 1 t r c:i l c u LJ l Ji in " 1.kp1.: nd , 1 1 1 1 \ u p,t \ n d:. 1 s, 1 11 : 1 t f'! \ .
;ind 1 H l [ u p( 111 hP\\ 1 1 \\ ; ! :-, gL n1.rt1 1 .._ d
S . Unit, and :\lode
I hc n11 1'.t (l-)!l\L r \ a t t \ C t ppr,i:1ch l(i u t 1 l i 1 1 1 1 g u l l i l ...,
i n a pn. 1 grarn n1 i n g l a nguage i-; :-, u n 1 n 1 a riZL'd h . u111t.\'
arr' an 11\'{Jr"ct of n1odt 1 11 t h t:-i tppr1 1{1 c h . \\ l. t h i n k r i f
p! f l l l hl ll l r1 g \\ h a t \\' ( l l J l d . . , - . -- . . . _ _ . , .._,, .....
1 ( or FLO !\ l l 1' G ) 1 11 1 < > " concc p l u a l l ) i n fi n ite n umber
11f \Ub(l;l'l\l'\ -r h L l' \ l L' !l \ i ( l ll \\' l' propO!:>,(' \.V UU J d a]JO\V
ll I C l ,\ R I l) J S I A '.'. < I F l J T .
D I C l \ R I ;\ ( ( . I '.', ( I l l S/ Y I A R/ Y E A R . ( - )
I ) [ ( I \ R I I l M I l ) :\ Y S .
w here . ,' l' l) ! S T :\ C'< ( L h a v a r"i h l e a n d FEEl a
rn1 )d L I n L:L !l l' r a l t.' dl I i \':triable h<1.., a t/llUtllity a'>'>OL'!
a t L d \\ l l li J t , i t 1 :-, t h 1 '> q u 1 n t 1 t y \\ h ic h \Vt:' propu-.e a t hL'
(.k l t n i l tl l rl i Jf t hL' /Ullf\ ( \J ;1 v a n a hlL' . 1- he n1 l' a n i n g of
l h 1 :-. q ti ; 1 n 1 J 1 :, I " t h a t tht.: p n ) d lH_' t , i f it and the val ue of
1 hc , c1 n ; 1 h l e \ lt.' ld.., t he q u :1 n t 1 t y v, h 1 c h t h e pr(1gran1rnt.'r
1:-, 1 ll l L' fL ..., 1 c d 1 r1 F1 1 r c \ ;1111 p!c ! f t h L' value nf thL'
, ;i r i 1 h l L .'\ ! " .1 ;n ',1 )111L. p( ) i n t l !l the exc( u t i(1n o f t h L'
p r ( 1 i_; r , 1 n 1 ,tnd t llz: q u ;i 1 1 t 1 t } : 1 \ ', t 1 c 1 a \ Ld \\ i t h X 1 .... \:() I .TS .
t h 1, n t h \' r1r\l).;r,111 1 1 1 1 t.. r ] \ ! h 1 11 k 1 ng _1 \.' () ] rrs
ThL p r ( 1p( 1\al \ ( , ; 1 l !n\\ ; 1 q u;111 ! i l y t<.1 he the n1Pd1._' llf
;i , d r t d hl L l \ L"-. .., , ll 1 1 L' \\ h a t !l J ( 1rc llL x i bi l i ty than 1 lllL'
J l l ! '.2 h l fir"t pr, 1 p1 1..,,._ _ f r q i 1 : t l l 1 ,\\'\ a vari ahlr..' t,1 he
1 1 1 1. : l '-. U r,d l ! l r 1 1 1 , _::: - h a l f I L c t - , and i ndeed . It
,1 ] 1 1 )\\ \ :1 \ ; 1 r 1 : 1 hlc' { ! 1 he f11L'ci'.-.UrL'd i n " .'\ " '. ' I h i-; Litter
l;1,L J 1 l l' d ! l \ t h , 1 1 t h L h 1 n :1 r p1 H n t ha\ ht c n 111uvcd
l li rL' l [l1 ) \ [ l ] r 1 [l , ( r l l h L I L 1 t cl!ld j-, t'l lT11 11l ( Hl l y k n 1 n\ T1 :l\
" l ; i 1 1 nt'. \ l tl h :-'. c r-11._ r. i l t t , p n 1 \ tdl'\ !11 ) i rn p l c 11 1 c 11 tJtinn
d 1 ! fi L u l t , : i n d n 1 1 \ h,: ; 1 ] ! 1 ) \\'L'J ( H. 1 11 it , depending upon
l h L t d \ l c 1 ) t i hi.: l ; 1 n u ; 1)-'.L' design e r . S i nce ::i n c l c n1 c n t a r
i i n i t L' : 1 n he dcL' L t r Ld t ( ) bL c q u : 1 l t\l a qu;,,i n t i t , a
l ._ l l) \.:. lLlL'.1.. dL" l L:'. !1 n 1 1 ;.; h t '-,\ Jl [JCt 1 1..- :i l l y i i \()\\ ()fl [ 1.. h:n1l'l1 -
l. . ! f"\ u n 1 1 , ti ) bL' st<..\( 1l 1 1 ! L' d \\ I t h a var1ahl1..' t i t hi:-i i:-.
dl' L'. 11 1 1..' d l';!:O,]L'J' ( l l l' \ r1 L1 i n l ( ) f h L' t.' .\pcctcd c las<s o f
( ) '. L'r\ ( ! u l ll l i l lL'\ , 1f l ! l l e'rTll1._' lh:! t L' \_0 ( -l!llJ)lL' \ i l .\ . \UCh d',
:_ ] ;:," ll l c n t : t r\ u n l l" 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ,_ ral p 1 l\\ t.' f\ , i r p n i d UL'l'- nf
L' l <,_' ]l'l\_' l l L i ! } ll ! i l l \ t 1 1 L ! l H 1 n d p1 1\\ l' f :'> . prl)\' !dl' P l h c r
l i ! H 1 t:-.
[ ! ) \\ l i ; i l n 1 1 L'. ! l ! h e :-.\ l l l aL t 1 ca l l \' a\l1 J\\1._ d t 1 1 hL'
;J'-. '-. (1\_ 1 , t 1_ i_ d ,, 1 1 h ;-1 ,:1 r i J hl L \Ve c111pha:-.iL1.. t h a t -.,uch
... \ n i ,lL' l l t J ;,, , r r 1 L [ H ill'> 1.! , ) llt l l :-, 1 n 1 p l i f) t h e L't l fl \ L' r-;i( l n
prt 1 h l c r 1 1
\\ c 1 1 1 1 \\ 1.. dl'l \ i d 1: 1 t hL U\l-' " h 1 lh 1..., n1 :1dc , i f dr.. lLn:1
! H lll'- ;J\\1 1Li:tt 1 ng u 1 1 1 1 " \\ 1 t h \':1 ri:1hk :-. 'f' h L' dl' L'l;1rati1 )J1<;
1 d ( ) ;. 1 rc L ( fflllll l l fl l L 1 1 r t i ll l hL p:,rl l i t t h e prt1r:11n1ncr
,1
1 h ci t t ile 1: 1 1 i : 1 bk, D I \ I \ '-( I A(C ;ind I I M f 11111
h'- u ... cd 1 1 1 ,1 n1;i n 1 1 '- 1 Lt 1 n - . 1 .., t l 1 1 1 \\ 1 t h t h e '-Pl' \_ i ficd u n it s
1 h n )LJ ,Ldl ( lll t t h'- \(1 lp1. :,., ()r t h l' \':J r J a h l 1._' . Fnr instaOCL' ,
1 1 1 l h L ,._ 1 1 n p u l l l l l l1 1 ; t l p:1 rt ( ) f t h L pr1 1 f'._ ru11 . ,, c n11ght
ftl1d 1 h L \ l ; t 1 l' l1 l L' 1 1 [
ll l T\'il I - 0 i i ; 2 I ' .\ll ' l l tv l E f 2 .
I h e , 1 1 1 1 h o f t h , n h t - h ; i n d "de , i l J' C H E S , 'IT A R
Y F .\ R ) ' D .-\ '\ S 1 2 . cu e 1w1 1 h, ,anic '" t h ,isc' 11f the
li,: 1 1 - h:ntd \ldL , hur rhc\ arl' lon1n1t_'!lsura1t'. I n fa1..' L
! V e il < > 11 1 \ t h e k n , >11 lcd )! c t h ,J t Fl. E T = J :1 ' I N CH F S
a n d 'i I A R ., h :, :'< ' D A Y S . t h e marh i n c n ,,f
\ll t i u n 1 1.' dll (tlgn rit h 11 1 1 t,_.i l ] y d 1..' l L' r111 i n c t h r..' l't)n1 111r..' ll
"u r;_t t c 1 1 L"" :u1tl the prcc l \c' n1 u l t i pl ic a t iYe L 11.. t1.)f \\ h i l h
gP\' c r n \ I t -rhi:-- ( )PL'll\ u p t hl' p(1ss i h i l i t }' t h a t ! h t.'
L'l i Tll p i ! c r \\' ( )U l d 1 u tp111 a t ica\ l \ i n sert t h e n 1 u l t i p l icatiun
l ( n1n1un1 ;lt1, 1rh \Lt, I q 7.S
"l \\ ilurnc .: l
thl :\Ct\1 1': urnhlr ::;
 u_y lilt: LlJ l lli;l l l l I l l L I I C L"UU\.: l.Ull l p llCU f)f l h L' aSSJgn nl l' fl f -- 1 h i .., :1ppr1 );1Lh h1 i r h rn 1 n 1 n1 1 JL''-- t hl' n u 111bcr 1 , f n 1 u l t i p l 1 -
statemen t . Whether o r not t he compiler ,J,,,u/d d n t h ,, Lat 1 < ) fl 't d u l ( ) (( 1 fl \ v r" 1 i \Jl .., ( 1 h; 1 t !\ \\ h \\ c-- 1 n1.. l udctl
depends upnn the \Vay i n \vh i c h L'()fl\Cf\ltHl\ a r L' h a n '->lcp J ;1" ,1 l"1r1.. l 1 1 n 1 11;u ) ) ; i n d rvdUL'L' \ r( ,und-, d f L' rf1 ) r
dled 1 11 the rest of the 13nguagc - 1 ! t h e l ,rnguagc dc"gn ( i fl:Jf !', \\ h \ \\. (__' \._" ( l ] i \ 1., f[L'd r ;1ch " U n i d i f c.'l t l \ ! ) th L
--
is l i heral in ,nakin!,'.. cnnvL'r:,,,inn'> . l h i '> nnc r..., 1 n un.J L r I f unit\ ( 1 f v )
t hcrl' arc various \vay:.... i n \vh ich r hc progr;irnrncr c;1n I h i ,., \ ; t r i l l : i rpr\ );!(h 1.. , 1 n !1c uc..cd \\ h1_ 111.. \ e r \\ C
'.pcc i fy \\' h ich cnnv1... rsiun:.... c:111 h a ppe n . t h1...' n u n i l " er in k n ( !\\ ,vh a t u n i t " \\ ,: \\ , l ! 1 t F . { " t, l l ; 1 k1_ t l J I
version shuulJ be \Vur k c d int11 lhL :,,, ; 1 n 1 c :schL !T1l
'f h L rc dfL ',1 1 U d l [1 l 1 ] ,, I [ ) \\ h i '- h
\Ve Il(i\\ prc:-,c n t a "hnrt "un1111ar, t 1 f rhtL' L "' \\h c rL flL' \ i h i J 1 t , in 1 h1\ r'--- \..: :u d " l l 1. h .1,
u n i t s chlck i ng "houlJ hl' d( 111c ind ,, h 1...' r t cnrJ\' L' r"inn
L'i.lfl he done (':>uhjcct t 1 1 t h e ,d1t 1 \ c rcn 1 a r k:, ) .
Assig11n1ct11 'f hL u n i t " , 1 f the , :1ri:1blL ( 1 f t h i.. ! t: ft
h a n d side rnust he c,1m1ne11...,u1 :1tc \\ ) t h t h 1... u n i t '-- ( ) t t h 1;
L'.\pressinn uf t h 1... right-hand "ld1...' ( t h1.. : 111 u :,,, t ht..." L'(! U d l
1 f n u Lt.Hl \ e r:-,inn-; a r c hL 1 ng d l l n c ) I f 1 h\: u 1 1 1 t " ; 1 r ' ,_rr1 ) r n 1 ,1: h'-- t h ,..: p r 1 1 1 1 \_ \.. ( ) fl '-- 1 1 '- r:l f 1 , 1 n . <1 1 H.. l 1 1 n L 1 \ h,
con1111 c 11'.->Ur;ltl' hut l11)l Lq ud . t h1... ri h t - h ; i n d ...,jd L 1 ,, h'--- n 1.. r :p (1 ,11 \ 1.: r: 1 ; , 1 h '--- u n 1 1 " 1 1f I: _ 1 1 , 1 1 1, , r t 1 1,1
rnu ! t i p t icd h) t he appr( 1pn:t t L' L'( ) !l \ L-r'iHHl f:tl' l ( )J ""
t h { !',\' , ij f , \\ , 1 1 i l d 1 1 1 \ , ] \ ,: , I i\ 1 d l l 1 :...' h \ . J i l ! , ! 1 ["" ' ' \\ \' I \ ]
Mu/11p/1(1Jl/011 {//Id d! l ( \ IO I / T h e lll l l h I F , F ( \\ 1 1 { fr(__' l l ll l" l l l ] \ ) \ I ) \JJ\'Ji ,.] l \ l , 1 , Hl \\ , H l l d l ll l ll f U l l ih'\.. -
\\heft.." 1 a n d f:-' c arc 1.._' \Pr'--' ""i(lll"- 111a, h t.. ( 1h 1 , 1 1n'-,J
c_"', ,;1r\ 1 1 1"' r 1 J1f'l't ! \ l l l ! l t i n h 1 n . 1 r , ! 1 \ : 1 , l 1 1 1 1 ,__'--
<.,jn1ply by lllll l t i p l 1 n g t h(__' llll i t .... ( ) f r I ;J!hl F _ [ ) ! \ l '-, ) \ \ ] I l\1 1 un1r (r t f!(l \ 1 ! / 1 : r 1 1 1 ... j <,, , 1 1 1 ,_ 1 1 f l h\.. r1, , ,,' l i l l f""Jl l l
i <... handled ; 1 n <.d1 ),l:( lUc..l!
u , I l l li l l '-- - , J 'a'a U I I [ \ <,, 1 ,,, , i l l \ 1 ! 1 --. \ J l\. 1
J-,_,- _\flOtlt'llfiatiu11 I n l;i l c u l : r t i n L'. t h'-- u n 1 1 ..., J , 1r F 1 pi,_,.- ,-'-. , ,t ,, l l ] ;, : t 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r\h , d ! ll ,'; p 1 1 ) 1 )(__ - \.,,r1\. , r . i l l :
/:' 2 . \\'C hr\! nh,;,,,c r, c t h t1 l . "!11CL' 1: \pqn'-- 11 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 , 1 I ii t lh , I I L' , 1 \ , ! 1 ,__ '-. 1 -.... , l i l ] ' n l \. 1 1 1 \\ h(__ r,_ \ i i'! d k i l , ,\ , ll t
q u a n t i t y \\i t h Tl( l !l t ri \ 1 1 1 u n l l '-- 1 " n 1 l f 1'--1r1"L Iii_ u n 1 1 ... r d \ , ii I 1. , i I i ] 1 . 1 \ ,
I: .2 n1u:st hL' '-1. mn1L n ..... uratL' \\ I t h ( '-qu,il it J l p l t l rl \ l r
1 J
; h , t l l ! Ii...- I \ 111 i 1 _L_' r ,1 r n h u
:--,ion'-> ) ;1nd the C(lf1 VL' T" :-:: H i 1 1 d( )f11..' 1 t fl l t''-'"" : 1 1 , ; 1 r 1 d ,il P , 1 1"{1 !1!1.. 1 1. 1 1 1 ,1.,.., 1 1 ):...' I \ \ , i l k \.. , t n
l, 1 \,ed . I I L" . l '> : 1 r:tt tdn;rl t incl udc.' 1 n t t' C:<...' r l 1. t 1 n <:.. l ct 1 1 1 , 1 ,, 1 y 1 l f1" 1 1,. f l \ ; , [ I h '-- , I i.. I ll c t ; f',1 f . \ i l l ;_ i_,..1 : 1 '
t h e n t h L' U!l l l'-> pf /: 1 111,1:,, hl ; 1rhi1 r:1r: ;,i 11d th,: u n i t " \ ' I 1. 1 1 1 r,.- , 1, Jf1,. l 1 11 .:.: 1 , , t h'- J 1 )rrri . 1 l 1 :1 1 , 1 1lll t, r n.1 n 1 ,_ -., l h ,_
E: 1 1 e, :. arL' o h t : 1 i nvd b y 1:\J1Pnt.. n t 1; i t i n _L'. t h e. u n t t \ , it rti l , " d \ ,,crdi.. d ! 1 1 1 :.._' 11 1 1 1 l 11 1 , r n , l \ I ,q k-d h, 1 ,_ : 1 '--
E i h\ , I f _, !\ !l \ l l d L'( l ll '-. [;trlf. t h t'!l J I I '-. l l c.' 1., ;_ -..,,--.: ! l \ ' J '--] '1.."\ I J I 1,.\J ',(.'
l hl l 1 hL \._- \ \ ll)!1)t'11:-0 U L l l !.' \\ l l h , l i l d ! h i: r ' l l i \ c_ 'f" -, J l ! l I I r, 1 r : 1 1 1 1 c 1 1. r 1 1 :1 '".,, 1 r 1 :..: h h l l , 1 r1 h , l i l d , \ l ) I 1 l l""\ , 1 1 1 (
dnnc if nt..ci_ :-.,;,,,ar\ I"hl' u r l l l '-- 1 )f l h t r c. .,, u l t ,th.. ,11 n p h ,_, n 1 \ c. r, H H l I', d c ,, 1 1 , d t h'- <,, ] [ l l ! l 1 1 1 I ,,, h 1 1 1 n 1 1r1..
. I 1,. , 1 J 1 1 p l 1 ,__ : i l;__' ( ! ! h '-- p r , d > l .. 1 1 1 t '-- \ h.1 : t llc.. ,II. 1 ll i i p : 1 1 : 1 1 ii I 1.. i
1-

,4 ddllt1 ,f! , qtf1rru1 uou , ,u1d t ( -'illfi1 ,n1d 1 '/'( '!"rlf , ir\ 1 1 1 fl l h\..' 1 h , i l \\ il h l 1 ,,. d 1 1 , , i i \ 1 1,. L 1 ,__ 1h>.: ( I h1. r il l
nrdcr ft \ f f..-- 1 .:::::: /: .__,_ [ r i hl v:il i d . ! Ii (.. u 1 1 1 I , lll ll'-- f h1,_ " u hrt > U l l rl t..' ( 1 ) 1 ---. uh'--l' t j l. ! l r 1 1 I _\ d k- , l ...., u h 1 , 1 t 1 1 1 t1 t _. ..., J :1-.., \\ t.. l l
c( )1nnlL' ll"llr:1 l c . ; 1 11 d " i r11 i l , 1 r l :, f, ir {' 1 F _,_ '-' ( l l l t h ,,, . 1 , h \ t he. f''.11" l f lh. t '-. l J ", h \. h , l f ' l " i ! ' ! h l'-- I I l l "l l l '-- 1 h, U f1-
u n i t s a rt n ( it i dc n t 1(a! . 1 h '--' r1 .. ,,)1111.. \.: ( 1J l \ 1,_ r'->1, 1 n l \ nl '-- ,._ "_ 1 ( )-d,t 1 , 1 1 , 1 ! 1 1.. ,__ r 1 r r;__ '- 1 l ! 1 1 1 ; ---. . 1 : ,t I I : 1 1 1 1 '- , \\ i l ' l '-''-.1,. l ) l
sar\ , and t h e LJ U L" " l l \ in hL't'< 1nlL'\ \\ h 1 1.. h gL t :-. n 1 u l t qli'-1 l , I /--!'-' 1 1 \..' i . J I ,.1 ,IUl l 1 l l i [ t i l h l '-- J'f"1 1h l ,.. J l 1 \\ I t h t h ,.. ,.' , l \ l'dl t h c! l
hv ,, h a t . I t i s of .._-- nu r...:.c pPs\1hlL' t u ; 1 rhl1 r:..H i i \ d'--' !1""1{1 1 1 1..I d1 ... r1_ . i r , ..:
--
t hat c :. get\ 1n ul t 1 p l 1 1...:J h) t ht... 1.."( lll '--L111t \\ h l l h \_ ( ) !1 \ '-- n .., 1_" j l IL I ... 11 l I \
i t t u t h e un it:-. o f l- 1 . 1 11 \\ h l l'h 1.. ;1)L' t ht.. u n l \ , >! / _ 1 ..,. f1
! ( 1J' ,1 1npl il 1 1 , . \\ \ ,. 1 1 11 , 1 ,. k r ,.uh 1 ( 1 \ 1 l 1 n'--- J ,, 1 1 1 1,. h
arc ah\'a:,;s i u'-"l the u n i t u f l: 1 I t rn,1\ he p r1.: l z.. r . t b l '- 1 r 1 hc1 , J p C [ l l . d ]' , I L J ! ll l' \ 1,. r , \ \\ l l h U ll l l ' Ii \,,-., u 11 1 , 1 htL
,j

l :l kL' a ..., J i g h t l y !ll ( \f"l' ,L'. l (ih:d \ l \._'\\ 1 1f 1 h 1 11_L" '-- :1T1d 1.. i irl'--Jdc r \\ L h , l \ t." \ ,\ l l \ lJ J <,, 1 l l l ll f (\.' l l l \. ' 1 d 1_ ,1i l , , > 1 1 \\ i i Ji ,1 \. l t L f l
the cc i n t 1... .\ t 111 \\ h1ch t h L ;idd 1t 1 , H1 ( l l l ll l"'-- l-- l 1 1 1 1 1 , L u 1 ,. 1 ) , t ! ; l f l h.' l l' !""'-. /
0
\J; i \ 1 1 \ ll l l , ! 1 1 1 kl
! _ ,
1

let u:-, exan11nc a :-. ! a t c nlL' l l ! 1 d 1 h c l 1 H rn r ) 1 1,. 1 1 H 1\ t l '-- l l 1 \ l 1. 1 1, ( 1 1 ] '-. 1 1 ! \l l l I I j , , ii b 1.. ( ( t ( ' l 1 '. ( ' l i l l ,

1 - E, . /: ,, . ,L t \. 1 1 1 l l l l l' d ; 1 1 t l ' ! l 1 [l i l l l ! i 1 1 1.. I

lll. i l ] r l(l Jl),I\ I , \: f l L H k 1 l l l : J- i, ) ' 1 , i l l i
I f the con1 p il t.. r i :-. J)l'rfur111 i 11 g l ( )fl\ l' t '->1t111\ ;1 1 1 d :1d d 1 1 1nn l\1.. pLh..- l f-t h \ I t ;/ u , .
reorderi ng t ra 1 1sforn1a t iu11\ :l rl' ( d l ( )\\ l' tL it \\ ( lt J l d '--c.'l' l l l l tL J \ I \ d\ , , l \ l \ , 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ,1 1
a d \'i-;ahlL' tn: l r ( ,111 ,.,, , l \,-l t J ( , : 1 1, I )
Grour t hl 1 int() \C l \ ,, i t h i d c n 1 ic; i l U rl l l 't , a n d ( " h c 1 n g1.. 1 h l d ,__ L L 1 1< 1 \ 1 1 i 1 1 1 d .i l 1 1 1 . \ l t l ! 1 . 1 '. l \\ 1 )
.... i m p l y a d J the\L> 1.. xprL':>Si( )l)'-, l( lL t llcr ( ! l ( I C< J T1 \ l" f t , l f J 1l J I 1 ' ' 1 1"",l ! r l \.' l ,.. i '-, h 1 l l h \\ l l h U i l l (<,,, 1 i ! \.. , i l l(:d ,\'
sions f1l.'CL'ssary ) . : 1 1 1 d ('
Dctcrn1 1 11 L: t h e cnn:-.tant rL l a t i n the u n i t :-. 1 d L':11.. h l{1.. p L1Ll . i i ! t 1 L l iJIT1..' l l l'c', 1 1 ! .\ 1 1 1 ,: \ p l c.' 't'-, 1 \ l f l '-, 1 1 1 1
pf t hese sets to t he u n i t s uf \' and m u l 1 1 pl l . I I h1 .\ l
ni:ccs::-.ar y . t h e \Un1s cnmputcd 111 .., tcp I h\ t h,.: l\cpL--J(l' : i l l ;1-..,'-.1)2i1I11,, n t " .. \ I [) }
appr\)priate cunst an t . I i, (
3 . AdJ toge ther t h e resul t s con1puted i n StLp "") l -L1ndlc ; i l l l i l \.." U ]TL'll\."l'\ ( /! ..\ ! , \ L' t he U\l" ( )t ..r J.'.-,

(, > 1 1 1 1 1 l ll l l ' s , l ; l l l f h \ 1.,'-- I ' ! ---, \

() f \ r ,h1 1 1 1 s :, I
l h l' :\( \ 1 '\. u111h '- r -:;
 ;1 l, 1 1 ! h \ n :i nh p : 1 r; 1 n1l t c r . a-., l 1 d l ( i\\ .., I l t t h l'
fcq r n a ! p;H , 1 n 1 l- t l: T 1 ) f (i h ; l \'l' u 11 1 t \ u 1 1 . and lt:l t h L'
C l ! l l \'l' r"inn tJl' l ( 1 r frn111 u ( t he u n i t :- 1 1 t .\' ) 1 1 i u,, h ,:.' .
, , , ! h e n l , ( X ) , , 1 , pl ;icd h, 1 ; 1 ,\ , , ,, ) ( T im
n 1 L t h , id \\ ( 1 rk" l' \ i.: ll 1 11 rt.:1.: u r..,J \ t.' f u n 1.. 1 1 , 1 n l;J ] \ ,
; 1 n d !fl p : 1 r [ l!.' .U L 1 r ,vhi...' !1 ( ; r. 1
1 h is., dc ">(.' r i h 1.. \ . ; 1 \ ; 1 \( l l l l li...'- i ( f- , , i u r l l' l l' \ c ! h ( l\\
! o rJll{ll d !Hl ; 1 c t u :d u n i t , ,, h i l h drl' lP11 1 n 1 '-- n-; u r a t l h u t
u n c q u :1 1 n l , l ) h'-- 1 1.. ,( i ! , '-: d l n t h t: ;1h\L' llL' L' ( d ; J r 1 ) l u r t hlr
1 n f1 ) rn1;i 1 1 ( i n ;d,, 1 u t h ( 1\, t h 1. 7, : 1 ri ... u ..... 1..: d . Jt ''-- ,_ n 1 " td h,_
t he ht:">\ , ( i l u l iun l t 1 1 l \ f-.. l l t \\\ ! l t h : i t t h 1. Z, ;trL fl ( \ l
l\"it...'d ; 1 , I( di l " d u n n t h e 1.. ; i l l ( Hl I t hl n L r n : l \ he
111 u l t i pl 1L'd h, c ! U\t ;d tl r l' ! 1 t t... r 1 11g /- ind d i v i d e d h} c
i ll \ l h L f1 1 rl 1:..\ 1 \ 1 n I t /, ]\ Jl ( ) ( '-.(' \ h\ f, t h e n c L
n1ay he C()p1cd 1 n t 1 ) ; t l L lll p t 1 r; 1 r :,, : i n d / 1 t ..., L l f n ,_: \ C f
U ...,ld t h 1.rl ; l 1 t i... r I hL- rl'. ; 1 ri... nldfl\ ( 1 t hLr ,p1. ..: 1 ,il ,,_;1,c "
,, h i: c h ccl n b L q 11 t 1 n1 11,: J . \\' h l t... h \\ l' "hall 1 1. 1 \ L' u n d 1 "
CU'.-: .Scd U u r n1 :1 i n ann \\ ;1 ..., t 1 1 -,h1 n, t h ; i t pc1 r:1nlt...' t t: r
pa\:-. i n h \ 11a111,,_ h c t \, ,,_ c 1 1 l ( 111 1 n1c11 ..,ur:1 1 ,,_ h u t u ni... q u : i l
u n i t:-. 111;1\ hl dt: l L' '-- ti... d . 1 1 1 d ,,_1 1rrc1.. t l , hc1ndll d \,\ ; 1
..," I'
l'PI1 1 p i l c r : i n d 1 li;d t I l l 1.( ' " I 1 , 1 l l t c' \ t , . 1.
6 . Issues of S) nla,
() 1 1 -. t l ! 1 hi... t!_r 1;1 l , < ,f : i l l t 1\\ i 1 1 . :1 pr( 1t2,r:111 1 n 1 1 n L1n
g uagc t1i t a l k ;1h, ) u 1 u n l t .., i c., 1 11 1.TL: 1 ..., L d rL",tdt h i l i t \ t ) t
prngral11 \ . \\ ' L, 1l1 i \\ di",(lJ\\ : t p:i r 1 1 ... u L. 1 r 1._. , rrL'',", J ( Hl
syntax ,, h 1 c h J \ 111 1 1dc r;Jtlh "-U1. cc , , t u l 1 11 t,1rn1 ;i ] 1 1 1 n:2
\\h a t phy:-.1ci\l" { 1 n d c n i nLLr:-. :in.: ,t1.' CU'-. l ( i!ll cd 1 1 1 \\ 1 tt
i n g . /\.., \\ 1 t h rn : 1 n :,, 1,c., UL''"' 1 ll \ 1 1 1 \ 1 n \2 ,:, n tc1 \ . \\ 1. find I i
im po--.:-. 1hle \ I i hL c1d;1 111 ct1lt :. t h( i u r t h -. fi i l l < 1 \\ J rH,.!. '-.ll_.1. :-.
tinns. and t h L' ) 111 i h ! prnf1 tthl \ hL n1ud 1 t 1e d \ ( 1 fit i n
lllUfL' :-. n1 1 1( i t h l _, \\ I t h t h L rl,t ( ) 1 ;1 pr1 igrd n1 n 1 1 n l a n
guagL' i n ,, h 1 c h u n i t, ;1 r c l l!L'( 1 ! p( 1 Li t o..: d . r i r \ J ll1pl :,, t( 1
plca:-.c d iftt: rc n t L!\l L' ' I n prL''l 1 1 t 1 n g t h L. ..,l. " u c"t 1 , 111 " .
\'. C s h a l l t ry a "- I . t r a :-. r( )'-.'-. l h l l [ 1 "1 '-. \ ; ! ll" t h L p n n t... 1 pk ....
\\' h i c h \\ L' t t:LI ; 1 r L i n1 p1 1rL1 1 1 1 ; i n d ,h( ,\\ h 1 1\\ t l i ,,_...,c
pri ncip]L' :'> l"l' \ U ] ! i ll t h l: r1r t 1 pt l\Cd \)- l l lL\
6.1 i\.f,1ni1nduur ,11,; of u11 i1., s/11 111hl he 1:i\ih/(. I h u :-. . t n r
e x a rn p l c . r t ,cL lll'.'> i na d \ l '< tblc t 1 1 ,upply a n :-, n 1 c 1. h : 1 n 1 ..,n1
for h l i n d l y , t n pp i n . u n i t .., 1 i ft ;111 '--xpr-.,...,11 111 u r tnr
oth cr\\ i SL' h1-p:i:-<:. f ll,!.'. t hl U 1 H l ,-L h l 1., k 1 11 ,L'. f1lL'\h1 n 1 c.,n 1
de:-.cri hcd 1 n Si... c ! 1un . I I 1 11 "-ll':H.L \\ t.' d i ( ) \\ " r n u l t q1 l 1 -
c;1 t 1u n a n d " d 1 , 1 :-, H 1 n h \ u 1 1 1 t , _ 1 h ... 1 1 a 1 1 \ Lk .., 1 rc d
n1a n 1 pu LH 1 r \n ( 1 f u n 1 l .., n 1 ;iy he d1.li i1.,e d : 1\i r 1 h ... r 1 1 1 :-.
dune v i <., i h l y a n d e :x p l 1 L i t l y . F, i r L' \ d lll l'I'-' ..,uppn:-. L ! htt
.\' hac., u n i t, ( ' .\ 1 , ind that } - hd, 11 1 1 u r l l l .., ( ) 1:-.
L'1 1 n 1 n 1 L n :-. u ra l l' \\ i t h I ) . 'l'hL' l l ! { ) l( 1 11,1. r t ,\ the
t()
u n i t -. ( i f } " \\L' h ; .1 \ 1. ( ( ) d 1 v idL r if f' t hl' u n i t --. , i i lL n g t h .
c . g . }/ +- .\'/ (' iv1 . ()f L1 1 u rsc . n 1 i divi\1nn t c t u a l l >, 1 i-.,: u r..,
i n t h L' uh_1 1.Lt l. \ )de I"hL Jll l i n t i , t h tt ( int... c:1n tl l l h
J n n k i n g at t h e t..., \ 1 g n 1nL' n t ,ta lL'lllL' rlt t h : 1 1 }' i, rL'L'L'i\' 1 n g
t h e n u n1hL r \ ) t LL' n l i n 1 l' t1.. r, ( ) f .r I f t h 1. u n i t" \ l f .\ ; u c
'-- hange d 1 1 ) h e 1 nct"i n1 1 n c n \ u ra tL' \\ i t h (' tvl - '.i 11 1 f y 1 11 g ;1
pcrhap..., n1 ; 1 j o r c h a n ge or a n l' rrt i r 1 n \LopL - t h e ,1ht l\'L.'
:1ss i g n n1 c n t hc1...\ 11nl:-. i n v a l id .
J'Jll
\\' h , 1 1 rnrnhi nnl ,, , t h t h e ,1hse rvallon that apparcni
n 1 u l t 1 pl 1Latiu11 a n d d i v i '.'-.inn a rc a l l t h a t arl.' nccc\sar).
fj 1 r r( 1 nvr: r"> l 1 )J1\ , t he p r i n c i p l e t h a t m a n i p u lation of
t1 1 1 1 1 \ \ h ( i u l d he v 1 ..:. 1 h l L --.u[:!csts t h a t syntactica l l y t h e re
n,,_,.:d h L 1 H 1 d 1 \ ! J r1 c t i n n hct\\ c c n a variable a n d a u n i t .
I n ; i '>l'Tl'"'l' t h L" n . ( ) U r l 1 r-;t pr(lposcd syn tactic c .x tcnsion
1 .., n ( l rl t: :11 al! - .i l ! i 1\\ u n i t name:-. a n yv.hcrc 1n c xprcs
..,1nn" 1 h 1" d l l 1 1\\. ..., cxpn,..\si( )f1\ such a'.\:
\\ f l KS r , * D A Y S , c 7 * !,CHES J , , A :'.1 P .
I t 1 , L \ C Tl pt1:-. :-.1hl1.: t n ivL a L'un,i\tent i n t c rprL'U.1 t i P n
t t i t h 1: 1 11.currl nce 1 1t an i "> ( l l Jtcd u n i t : A f'v 1P '=" l *
,\ \ I P . I h e m ac h rnc r1 prcvi,1u,I\ ck,crihcd handle,
t h 1 " ,!'- , 1 dcl.' n e rttL ( h u t n 1 t u rJI ) c1c - npt ;1, a "-PL'L' i a l
1.';)'-,<.._' f' l ) f ht: l t L' J" i_ ) r \\ ( fr'-,l' . \\ L (( l LJ ! d \\ f l t ('
T 1 ,\ R D 1 , ( 1 1
6 . 2 !\ "'--' L'( )J1d i n1 p( ) r 1 a 1 1 t p n n c 1 p l L 1 ..., : ft \"hou/d he
eu:, '-. lh(1 /u n10/.... ( r'n/;)r( t'j n 'n1arA.., 11huu1 th1' units of
,u1 1 ' \'{' !'1'\"_,1011 I h '-- 1dl':1 1 1 f "L n tnrccJ rcn11 rk" i:-. tha.t
rh,.. \ ctrc ri... 1 n arls.. " i n 1 hc: ,cnsc t h a t the> 111 ay hL' [l, ft
! l ll l nl t h e p n igrain \\ 1 t h n11 e ffect nn 1 1 ::- C\.L'CUt it i n . h u t
1.11 ! \ 1 r1. 1... J 1 n t h L s.,(fl\l' t h a t . 1 f prL"::, ctl t . t h e y n 1 u s, t he
,,_ t i fTL L' l l3c- 1.:1 u,t: ( it t h L fact t h a t variable:-. have u n i t :-,
,l-., ...,\ 1,,_ 1 1t,: d \\ i ! h t h L' Tl l . i t 1:-, p, 1:-." 1 h l c t l i \\ fl ll' dn\\n :nl
i...' \prc...,:s.t \ l ll \\ h 1 c h h 1 :-. ,,_-( 1n1 pl 1ca \ L'd u n i t h L h a \ 1 ( 1r tnd
lll"\ <.: r '.l' l : 1 1 1 \ f ll1." l 1 l ! PTl p f U ll l ! S.. . l t \\ ( ) U ] d grL a t l )
l' ! l l i : 1 111.1. rL ;_ HL1h i l ! ! \ i f t h ... rL' \\ C rL a ,, a , r, )r t h L prP
r; t r 1 1 n 11... r \ t i '- t d l t.: ,, h ; i t 1:-. Jfl 1 L' l1dL' d :: i n d ! 1 1 r t h e -. 1H11pi lL'T
I n , L r 1 1 t h 1. 1 n t1. n t I f t hl l a n g u : 1 t, L' i n \, h i l h u n i t, arL
hc t n g i r n hLdd\.:d h:1.., p r 1 i\ J '-. l ( i rl, l ( i r L n f, 1 rLL'd ren11 rk..._
td \ \ l h e r t:,pl<.. . l h t i:-.e f11r u n i t :-. c( i u l d h1.' \\ urt: d i n 1 t 1
t h ... <...' \ J '-. [ J ng \ l fUt.'l llf(' \\ L' dL' '-.Cl"l hi... hLrL l -.;:, ntax L' \j1C
( i , i l l \ f r r t... n h l r1. ,: J rl' ln a r k , tbnu t u n i t :-. , t h i<.. \\ i l l
:1n1 ( l u 11 t t 1 1 rlP n1 ur L t h . t n a \Ucc i n i...' t p1 r c n t h1. t 1 c a l '.'>tJtC
n1,., 1 1 t ,1f u n i t " tu ,, h 1 1.h ;J i \'l' ll i.: \ prL':-.<:-inn shnuld bL'
lu1n p a r : 1 h l c '.'. upp( 1,;;;c \\'L' declare d :
D I C l :\ R l X V< > I . I S ,
Il l ( I \ R I \ ' .\ \ J PS
l n ;i r 1 l' \ J'TL'\'> l 1 i l l . \\ t' ..., Ji 1 i u l d he :ih lc' t u \\TltL . a:-."un1 1 n g
\ L t 1 H Lt 1 d r-. l :it l \ i 1 1 '> h i p,
.\ ) i \\ .\ I I s:
l " hu" t h 1. 1. u r h h L l l'L'" ;ire t ( i he u,ed l l l c l1 L' l ( h L' u n i t , ltl
,vh i c h t h L prcc1. d 1 n g t...' \ prl''>:-.illll lllll'- l hL' L'1)n1parahl c .
l t "L1. 111:-. "in1plL"t a n d rnd\l rea,,H1ahiL' t1i 1 n c l udL' i n
th -. 'prCL't d i n g L' \ pr1...',-; i u n " e ve r y t h i n g hack lt.) firt
n o n a n t h 111c t 1c 1)pc r atnr. 1 ) r l L ft ptrt n t h L' :-. 1 :-. . ' I h u the
L'.\ P J"('",'-,\\\Tl
, 1 \I l l LI \\ ATTS
I 1 , \!I Li I \\ A TTS ) , I X , Y { WATTS} ! .
0.3 ( ) u r l ast prnpn'.-. a\ Pfl '.'>Vnt21 x i 11lt)tivatcd hv t he
d l s i rL t 1 ) ,v r i t c , n prugra.111:-. \\ ha t nne con11 n o n l y uses
l ()f1lmunJ<.: :i t i l:,ns., \lJ\ 1 97 8
,,! Vulumc 2 1
Nurnher )
111 :, u u1..,tu 1 cu :-.nuauon. pct:ifical l y , t h e occur
1 1,.. :-.:,
rence of u nits te mpts one lo reconsider t he use ()f
j uxtaposition to mean m ultiplication . I t is m o re ple as
ing to see " 2 SECS" rather t h a n "2 * Sl::CS . . . ,1mplj
hccause the former i s more customary . \Ve h n n\\ frt)m
the di'icussion i n Section that \\'C n1ay a:) \\ c l \ 1 n t c rprct
thi:-. _i uxtapu'.-iition as m u l t iplicatiri n . and nnce \\ t: a l l t n\
juxtaposi tion tn mean 111 ult i plicatiun \VhL'rc u n it\ arL'
cunccrnccL it i '.-i tcrnptlng (() l e t t htt n1L 1.1 11 1 n g carr\
over gc n1... rally , a l h)\\' i n g :-. l a te n1cnt..., "'uch a,:
A <- 3 X Y.
F v c n t hough j ux t a pn..., itinn a n d '' arc t 1 ) he t n.:ated
the sanlL' :-.cn1 a n tical l y , t hey c<:Hl fh)l hL' t rL':1 t c d idc11 t i
cally sy n tactical] hccau"L' t ,f pu'-:-.ihlt.' cnnfu...., l 1 >n \, 1 t h
function i n vucatinn : F( G + H i n1 igh1 Tllt.' d ll l n rn u l i i pl
the variable F t->, the , u m of G and ff or t o ,q1rh the
functi1.1n F tu t h e ,;,un1 nf G a n d // 'l'hc ; i rn h igu it}' l'dll
be rc:-..olVL' d ">L' lll a n t ical \ \ . if the con1 pilcr h n t 1\\ "
\\ hethcr F 1 .., a variahlc nr ,i
funct11)J1 , t 1 r i t can h'-
rc:-..o lvcd ".\ n t act 1c:i l l y hy rcqu1rin t h,11 an ; 1 ",ll' ri " k
appLar hcl\ve c n a n idL n t i fiLr <ind a parc n t h L'\i/L'd
cx prcs:-..inn \, h e n rn u l t 1 pliLa1 H in l "- dcs1r( d . "I h i -; L t t t c r
Jpproach is t a k e n m [ 7 J .
7 . Conclusions
\\' c haVL' fL' V l l" \\ L' J h , 1 \\ U f1 J l ", a fL' ll"l" d . 1 1 1 1.. ! u d J flt!
t h L' trick:-. for k L'Cp1ng (Ufl\l' f\JUJ}'.', or<.trll LL'd -f"hi.:"l'
trick \\ C rc a n a \ v;cd n1tirc Li1)"t: l \ :n1d h i u n d \ 1 1 ha\ 1.. J
cnn1 plctcly algurithn1iL has.;1s 1 n linear ;_l l!!Lhrd \\' 1 t h
t h e k n o\, ledge 1Jf hn\\ u n i ts 1rc ( u r :-.huuld hL ) u:-1..' d
and the l inear algebra c1. i n n cctio n . \\ l' ha, L pr1 ,p1)",cd 1
powerful ancl flcxihlc mecharnsm which a l luws u n t h l<>
OL'CUr n1ean i n gfully 1n pn ,gra n,...., . Final\ \ . l :-el ( l f
cha nge::-. tn the cxpres:-,inn :-.y11tax h d " hL'L' ll pr1lpn....,Ld
\\'h ich j:-, 111cant lu e n s ure t h;it u n i ! :... ilfl' u-.Ld co1- rc:: c t l y
t , i c nahle a progran1111er tn a...,:-.e rt h i :-. 1 ntL n t iti11:-. ah( i u t
u n i t s . a n d t o cunf()rn1 n1ure c]1)scly tn i n fl l rrn:dly ll"-1.:J
nntation .
There arc Sl'\'c ral is,ucs \vhich \\'L' ha\ L' d c l i hc ratL l y
glossed OVL'f up t o t h i :-. pP i n t . ' l h e fir...,l is t h a t t h c rL' .i re'
Sc\'cral " u n i t <.., " \\' hich dP lh)l \\ Urk l i ke t h e \'a:-.1 llLl p l r
ity of units hecause cnn\'Cr'.-ii<)n j ..., of t he fnnn 1 1 = (tu -..,
+ {3. \\' h e re f3 is .i non1cru cnnst a n t . 1-()f c\an1plc ,
convcr:-.1nn hct\vcen dcgrLc-; c c l:-. iu..., a n d Fahrc n h c i t
( w i t h their usual mean ing) 1 s of t h i s torm . O t h e r
examples i n c l ude A D , a s i n l 'J7r, A D . a n d . i n gcnv- ra l .
n1casurcmcnts relative tn a n arbitrary rc fl'rCil\..'l' pn1n t .
Such " u n i t s " cannot sc nsit->11 be m u l t i p l i e d , d 1 v1decl .
and rai'.-ied to po\vers . as 1 s o useful \vi t h u t h c r u n i t " .
a n d h ence d o n o t occur i n compl icated q u a n t i t i e s I t
*
makes n o sense t o say 1 97 6 * A D , because l 97t, *
A D - 1 97 2 * A D ( 1 97 6 - 1 97 2 ) * A D . I t is,
howeve r , rcasonahk to say t h at 1 9 76 AD - J 972 A D
= 4 * YRS . Such u n i t s arc rare i n engineering calcula
tions, a n d t he j ustification for designing con s t ructs
especially fnr thcr11 [..., doubtful J- J i i\\c'\ C f . t h e \ :ind
n t h c r even T1 h 1 fL' pc1 t h t 1 l n . 11..c1l "unit.._,, . . ...., uch ;:..i :-. the
dcnh<'I . can he ,, l c g a n t l 1 h a n dled h1 lhc r" u, h c ,
m ,chanisrn [ -1 J .
1\ n 1 1 t h c r pr1 )f' ] e rn n ( ) t di,1.. u ,,L-d hc rL' I " 1 11 p u \ - ( 1 U t
p u t . rhc prublen1 1 -.. tn JLc1tJ L' \\ h e t hLr l \ l 1 !1 l'ludc u n i t ..,
1 n t hc'"-1...' 1)per:1 t 1,1n, a n d 1 f '-,i l . h 1 '\\ '{ he' th: t .1 1 1 -.. f1 1 r
dnin!2 t h i '> n1u,t 1_ ) h \' l l ' U"-]\ hL' 1 n t L' r;dL d 1 n t( t h ,: \\ : 1 \ 1
the language h d n d lc':-,, t h L' rc'"t 111 it, i n p u t t 1 u 1 p u l . 1 hL'
1 i n l : pr1)hlL n1 1 ll1 ( ) U l p u t J :-. 1 n d 11.. , i t 1 n .t.: t h e u n i t , d c ..., 1 1 \:d
:ind \\ urry 1 n g ahdul ....,uch d,:LuJ...., ;1...., fic, ld 11\ 1..'rtln\\ I he
ahilit} t n r1..'ad u n n -. frnrri 1 '-L 1t,1 " l re ; t n1 l fnpl 1L'...., 1 h.it ;1
"\ lllh1 d t 1 hh: f l 1 r t l t.' il l L' f l L1 r , unit.., n1 u...., l bt.' d \ :1 1 Ltl)lr.' , J t
ru n 1 i n1 L : i f 1.: 1 11 1 , r:r...,11 i n-.. f n 1 111 i n p u t u 1 1 i 1 " , t r\.. d '-, 1 1 ,d .
t h e rn a t r i , : i nd ; 1-,...,, 1Li : 1 1 l 1 l 1 ( ' r l \ l f' , H i l l 111 c11.. h 1 1 1 c r, 1 1 1 u....,\
.'
:1 1 ....,n he a \ a i l ah!e at r u n t 1 n 1 t
T h e ] ; 1 .., t l '- '- l ! L' \\ h 1ch h:1...., hcr.: n , n n 1 t 1 c d 1 , t il l ll Hl....,l
ir11 p1 1 r 1 , 1 n t - \\ ( 1uld 1 hL d e , 1 :2 n prl'"l' !l t ,...d h ... r,... 1 1 r \ ; 1 r1 -
:i! 1 r ln, r d. 1 t . ;Jl t l L 1 l l : 1n1pr1 1 \ L' t hL r1.. l i ,1 h i l 1 t : :irid rc;1dc1-
h i l 1 1 y r d pr, )r;i n1 , . , , r \\ i i t i l d 1 ! ht. , l ! l ,1d dL'd h u r dc'Il ( l i l
1 h c ri rt i i!fdlllfllL' r' ' '.'. t i . J l l l t ) \ ] ! I ! ( i ! tr1L t l ! l / l ll hl'IP" ( l !l
t h 1 c., pu1 n t . , i n d \\ L' " h d l l ...., 1 n1 p ! y h ,1 \ '-' l ( i \\ ct l t u n t i l . 1
1111!:!U;!L \\ l l h l h L' '-..l' f l : ! l l l f l' '-, : ! l l l "- ...., , J [l)1_' t i c ] d l..' \ f""lt..' r!
l.' lll'l' i n t i rdc r \(1 n1;1 k e t h , .., d l' l t r 111 1 1 L i l i 1 H 1
, 1 ck110 1\ll'd_i.; 111cn 1., I he 1 u t l111r" \\'1. i t 1 l d l 1 h. c tn
t h ; 1 n h. l nn1 ('he : 1 t h ; 1 n1 , (_';1 r!d, ( ' h n ...., t i.: n ,e n . ,ind K. i r h.
'.>:1 t t lc , tur ,1 1 n 1 u ! : 1 t l ll, L'. d 1 ,cu,c., 1 1 1 n , i n t hc ....,1..' n1 c1 1 1 l r, \\ c
:..1rc aJ ..... , i n d c h t c d l n t hL' rc!crcc...., . \\ h 1 1 1 111 1 1rU\ l'd hlH h
the con t e n t a n d 1 1Jrn1 1)! 1 h 1, ptpcr
Rl'fert:n(c
I . L , 1 \ L J1Lii1 L1 ( 'T! .\ r,1 , , t! 1 . 1 t 1 n 1 1 i 1 1 l,u1:.:u.11c, h l f <1 u 1 , , n 1 . J \ 1 <-
1c , 1 i r\ /\\\t - :;, R, l 1 1 l ! f'ul, - \\ 1 1 1 1 ,...., 1!--l - : \ ! \ . f r 1 , r ! i 1 1
1 - k t r,iri l 1 1 t-' . \.;,.'\\ '! , , r k .'\. , ,\ l ' J 7
2. ! f- f- f ,\ R. ] \. ( \Lir1d.ird \ 1 1 \ "> -1 ("! l 1 1 1 11 . 1 1c, I ! ! l ">i.l
..\ l t,- ] <J'h. ln\l l k c l J lu..' t l< l f l I !lt.'. "., \<. ) . . rl-, l \1 - ( ,
J . (. h l , 1 1 h.J1n l 1 L 1ndl 1nc: lt,1,. i 1 , >1i\ , J 1 : d n '.Uf'k" 1 1 ! ,1 k l l'r.11-.
l.1!ll!U,J L'..\ Pr1.:'>c n k d , J I i !h' ] ''' ,.\ t ;\ ! ..\nnu.d \ 1 L t l l l l L'. , \ U \.'. i 'l 1 , t 1
.i, < k . 1 1 c l . 1 11 d I i P , ,i 1 < h , , .1 p 1 , 1L'. 1 ,1 11 1 1 n 1 ni.: i . 1 1 1;,:11,1t- , , , 1 1 ,1 1 1 1 , 1
Cfl(1,u r<11.'.lll,:-'. f l dUrld.1n,: :--... s f . ( )( ,,\ . [ ) ( R --lll.\ ( 1 .:. q .. "' .:; .:, .::, 1 . 1. , ( l \
l \ l i - -, 'i " - (. , ,m r 1 r \ L I ! )r,1 L' , ,1 (. . i l 1 t, ,r1 1 u L,,, .\ ! 1 1.'. c, I (. , l u h
:' . J , d111-.."11 \\ ( \f,J1h1 r11<1!!, ,;{ <111,I !'!n 11, r1! !'r111, 1; 1 , d 1 /,
/ 11,i.:111, i nni:, . \11 <111 1 1 1 \!, \ ir,11 ll 1 i l "., 11 J . ,r . J 1 ..\ -!
1
(1 . \ 1 u11 rL, I R / /1111,nr1u1 { ;n,,ir -\/;:,-hr,1 \<l, ll" '!l-\\ , ,I\ \
R . 1 , ! 1 n L'. .\ L r I ' ll -+
7 . ( lpt'rs1 1 i , lf1.tl !',.- r ! , , 0 1 1 , 1 1 1 , l \ 11 - l l \ ,. 1 .., I , 1 n L;u:1l'.\' I ( ) ! ' _ \ \ 1
1
Pr-,, p( o,, d \1 1 l - \ ] l l- l --li , ' l ", \ r 11 , 1 l'\1 \ I S\ J , , 1 1 \ J , w 11 1 . . u 1 h
;s., I
('po)mun 1cal!( in" .\L.1\ l 9 7 S
"f \'\llllfllC 2 J
rht: ACrvt Nurnh'-r .:.
Copyright of Communications of the ACM is the property of Association for Computing Machinery
and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the
copyright holder's express written permission. However. users may print. download. or email
articles for individual use.