Hvac Handbook

HVAC: Handbook of Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
THIS HANDBOOK PROVIDES COMPREHENSIVE

TECHNICAL INFORMATION TO HEATING,
VENTILATING, AND AIR CONDITIONING
ENGINEERS, DESIGNERS AND PRACTITIONERS
HVAC:
Handbook of Heating,
Ventilation and
Air Conditioning for
Design and Implementation
BY
ALI VEDAVARZ, PH.D., PE
Deputy Director of Engineering, New York City Capital Projects,
New York City Housing Authority and
Industry Professor, Polytechnic University, Brooklyn, NY
SUNIL KUMAR, PH.D.

Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Dean of Graduate School
Polytechnic University, Brooklyn, NY
MUHAMMED IQBAL HUSSAIN, PE

Mechanical Engineer, Department of Citywide Administrative Services
New York City, NY
2007
INDUSTRIAL PRESS INC.
NEW YORK
Copyright 2007, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

COPYRIGHT 2007 by Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Vedavarz, Ali.
HVAC: handbook of heating ventilation and air conditioning / Ali Vedavarz, Sunil Kumar, Muhammed
Hussain.
p. cm.
ISBN 0-8311-3163-2
ISBN13 978-0-8311-3163-0
I. Heating--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Ventilation--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Air conditioning--
Handbooks, manuals, etc. 4. Buildings--Environmental engineering--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Kumar, Sunil.
II. Hussain, Muhammed Iqbal. III. Title.
TH7011.V46 2006
697--dc22
2006041837
Cover Photo: Image published with kind permission of CVRD and Bluhm Engineering.
INDUSTRIAL PRESS, INC.

989 Avenue of the Americas
New York, New York 10018 -5410
1st Edition
First Printing
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed and bound in the United States of America
All rights reserved. This book or parts thereof may not be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form without permission of the publishers.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. FUNDAMENTALS 5. LOAD ESTIMATING FUNDAMENTALS

(Continued)
11 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics 517 Relative Thermal Resistances of Building Materials

13 Conservation of Mass 518 Surface Conductances and Resistances
13 First Law of Thermodynamics 518 Emittance Values of Various Surafces
14 Second Law, Reversibility, and Possible Processes 519 Thermal Resistances of Plane Airspaces
14 Thermodynamic Cycles 521 Thermal Properties of Building and Insulating Materials
16 Fundamentals of Fluid Flow 527 Coefficients of Heat Transmission of Various Fenestrations
16 Flow in Pipes and Ducts 528 Transmission Coefficients for Wood and Steel Doors
111 Noise from Fluid Flow 529 Outdoor Air Load Components
111 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer
114 Overall Heat Transfer 6. HEATING LOAD CALCULATIONS
115 Fins and Extended Surfaces
118 Some Details of Heat Exchange 61 Introduction
119 Augmentation of Heat Transfer 61 Calculating Design Heating Loads
62 Heat loss Through Walls, Roofs, and Glass Area
2. PSYCHROMETRY 62 Heat Loss from Walls below Grade
63 Below-Grade Wall U-Factors
63 Heat Loss from Basement Floor Below Grade
21 Psychrometrics 64 Heat Loss Coefficients
21 Ideal Gas Approximation 64 Heat Loss from Floor Slab On Grade
21 Equation of State 66 Ventilation and Infiltration Heat Loss
22 Humidity Ratio
22 Relative Humidity
7. COOLING LOAD CALCULATIONS
22 Degree of Saturation
22 Wet Bulb Temperature
23 Partial Pressure of Water Vapor 71 Transfer Function Method (TFM)
24 Dew Point Temperature 71 Heat Source in Conditioned Space
24 Saturation 72 Heat Gain from Occupants
24 Enthalpy 73 Heat Gain from Cooking Appliances
25 Wet Bulb Temperature 76 Heat Gain from Medical Equipments
76 Heat Gain from Computer
26 Properties of Moist Air
76 Heat Gain from Office Equipments
27 Psychrometric Chart Presentation 76 CLTD/SCL/CLF Calculation Procedure
212 Thermodynamic Properties of Water at Saturation 77 Cooling Load by CLTD/SCL/CLF Method
218 Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air 78 Roof Numbers
79 CLTD for Roofs
3. AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES 711 CLTD for Walls
727 Code Number for Wall and Roof
31 Introduction 728 Wall Types
31 Heating and Cooling Process 731 CLTD for Glass
32 Cooling with Dehumidification 731 Zone Types for CLF Tables
33 Heating with Humidification 731 Zone Types for SCL and CLF Tables
735 Residential Cooling Load Procedure
33 Adiabatic Mixing of Two Air Streams
736 SCL for Glass
35 Evaporative Cooling
744 CLF for People and Unhooded Equipments
35 Heating and Air Conditioning System Cycles 746 CLF for Hooded Equipments
747 Window GLF for Residences
4. INDOOR AIR QUALITY AND VENTILATION 749 CLTD for Residences
750 SC for Windows
41 Indoor Air Quality 750 SLF for Windows
41 Ventilation Procedure 750 Air Exchange Rates
45 Concentration of Air Pollutants
46 Indoor Air Quality Procedure 8. DUCT DESIGN
48 Filters
410 Hepa Filters 81 Introduction
410 Carbon Media Filters 81 Pressure Head and Energy Equation
410 Fiber and Foam Filters 82 Friction Loss Analysis
410 Ozone 87 Dynamic Losses
410 Ultraviolet Light 87 Ductwork Sectional Losses
88 Fan System Interface
5. LOAD ESTIMATING FUNDAMENTALS 88 Pressure Changes System
89 Duct System Design
89 Design Considerations
51 Conduction 812 Duct Design Methods
51 Thermal Conductivities of Materials 813 Duct Design Procedures
52 Convection 813 Automated Duct Design
54 Thermal Radiation 814 Duct Fitting Friction Loss Example
54 Emissivities of Some Materials 814 Equal Friction Method Example
56 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 815 Resistance in Low Pressure Duct System Example
58 Parallel Arrangement 815 Static Regain Method Example
511 Coefficient of Transmission 817 Fitting Loss Coefficients
iii
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
9. PIPE SIZING 10. HYDRONIC HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEM

(Continued)
91 Pressure Drop Equations 108 Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps

91 Valve and Fitting Losses 108 Operating Characteristics
93 Water Piping 109 Pump Laws
93 Flow Rate Limitations 109 Change of Performance
93 Noise Generation 1010 Centrifugal Pump Selection
93 Erosion
1010 Total Dynamic Head
93 Allowances for Aging
1011 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
94 Water Hammer
94 Hydronic System Piping 1011 Pumping System
96 Valve and Fitting Pressure Drop 1016 Parallel Pumping
928 Service Water Piping 1017 Series Pumping
929 Plastic Pipe 1018 Design Procedures
929 Cold Water Pipe Sizing 1018 Preliminary Equipment Layout
931 Steam Flow in Pipes 1019 Final Pipe Sizing and Pressure Drop Determination
931 Steam Flow Formulas 1019 Final Pressure Drop
932 Vertical Pipes 1019 Final Pump Selection
932 Steam Piping 1019 Freeze Prevention
959 Gas Piping For Buildings
959 Residential Piping
961 Commercial-Industrial Piping
11. ENERGY CALCULATION
972 Compressed Air Systems
972 Compressed Air 111 Degree Day
978 Viscosity of Liquids 111 65F as the Base
980 Piping 112 Application of Degree Days
980 Types of Materials 114 Predicting Fuel Consumption
991 Plastics Pipe 115 Predicting Future Needs
991 Joining Techniques 117 Empirical Constants
993 Standards for Specification and Identification 117 Load Factor and Operating Hours
993 Design Parameters 117 Limitations
996 Installation
118 Degree-Days Abroad
997 Codes and Regulations
997 Pipe Fittings 119 Degree Days for Various US Locations
997 Taper Pipe Thread
9132 Laying Lengths of Pipe with Screwed Fittings 12. COMBUSTION
9134 Allowable Spaces for Pipes
9134 Expansion of Pipe 121 Combustion Basics
9136 Corrosion Resistance 123 Efficiency Calculations
9136 Pipe Support Spacing 127 Saving Fuel with Combustion Controls
9139 Gate, Globe, and Check Valves
1211 Combustion Considerations
9139 Operation
9141 Maintenance Methods 1211 Pressure and Flow Basic Principles
9142 Formulas for Sizing Control Valves 1212 Atomizing Media Considerations
9142 To Determine Valve Size 1212 Combustion Air Considerations
9142 To Determine Valve Capacity 1213 Flue Gas Considerations
9142 For Vapors Other Than Steam 1214 Gas Fuel Firing Considerations
9143 Identification of Piping Systems 1214 Fuel Oil Firing Considerations
9143 Dangerous Materials 1215 Operational Rules of Thumb
9143 Fire Protection Materials and Equipment 1216 Common Application
9144 Safe Materials 1220 Combustion Control Strategies
9144 Protective Materials 1220 Control System Errors
9144 Method of Identification 1220 Combustion Control Strategies
9144 Heat Losses in Piping 1221 Parallel Positioning Systems
9144 Heat Losses from Bare Pipe
1222 Fully Metered Control
9145 Heat Losses from Steam Piping
1223 Feedwater Control Systems
9157 Heat Loss from Insulated Pipe
9158 Cold Surface Temperature 1224 Draft Control
1226 Oxygen Trim
1227 Combustion Air Flow Control Techniques
10. HYDRONIC HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEM
1228 Flue Gas Recirculation (FGR)
1233 Fuel Oil Handling System Design
101 Basic System
1233 Determination of Required Flow Rate
104 Temperature Classifications
1234 Stand by Generator Loop Systems
104 Closed Hydronic System Components Design
104 Convectors or Terminal Units 1234 Multiple Pumps
104 Boiler 1234 Burner Loop Systems
104 Air Eliminations Methods 1236 Maximum Inlet Suction
106 Pressure Increase Due to Change in Temperature 1237 Pump Discharge Pressure
106 Expansion Tank 1237 Piping System Design
107 Expansion Tank Sizing 1237 Pump Set Control System Strategies

TABLE OF CONTENTS v
13. AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS 13. AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

(Continued)
131 Air Conditioning Systems 1391 Hot Water System Control

131 Single Package Units 1394 Mixing Box Control
135 Single Package Installations 1395 Rotary Air-to-Air Heat Exchanger Control
137 Installation of Split Systems 1395 Automatic Control for Dual Duct System
138 Zoning Unitary Installations 1397 Winterizing Chilled Water System
1310 Selection Procedure 1397 Water Circulation to Prevent Freeze-Up
1314 Evaporative Air Conditioning 1399 Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers
1314 Permissible Air Motion 13102 Atmospheric Cooling Towers
1317 Variable Volume AC System 13104 Quantity of Cooling Water Required
1318 Initial Costs 13105 Roof is a Location for AC Equipment
1320 Cooling Considerations 13105 Advantages of Roof
1321 Overlapping 13106 Disadvantages of Roof
1322 Heat Recovery 13107 Servicing Cooling Plant
1322 Heating Cooling Systems 13107 Servicing Cooling Plant for Summer Use
1323 Air Systems 13107 Water System
1326 Controls 13107 Air Handling System
1327 Air Water Systems 13107 Compressor Oil
1330 Sources of Internal Heat 13107 Condenser
1331 Heat from Service Refrigeration 13108 Refrigeration Unit
1331 Exhaust Air Heat Recovery Systems 13108 Check Oil
1336 Heat Pumps 13108 Compressor
1336 Reverse-Cycle Principle 13108 Air Conditioning Equipment Maintenance
1336 Coefficient of Performance 13108 Air Handling Equipment
1337 Heating Season Performance Factor 13108 Air Distribution Equipment
1337 Types of Heat Pumps 13108 Water-Using Equipment
1338 Air-to-Air Heat Pumps 13108 Cooling Equipment
1339 Water-to-Water Heat Pumps 13110 Air Conditioning Maintenance Schedule
1340 Water-to-Air Heat Pumps 13111 Unit Air Conditioners
1340 Air-to-Water Heat Pumps 13111 Central Systems
1341 Ground Source Heat Pumps 13111 Condensing Water Circuit
1341 Special Heat Sources 13112 Cooling Water System
1342 Operating and Installation Factors 13112 Filters and Ducts
1342 Outdoor Temperature Effects 13112 Air Conditioning Maintenance Procedure
1343 Thermostats 13112 Refrigerant Circuit and Controls
1343 Heat Anticipators 13113 Condensing Water Circuit
1344 Equipment Arrangement 13113 Cooling Water System
1344 Electrohydronic Heat Recovery 13113 Filters and Ducts
1345 Cooling Cycle 13114 Rotating Apparatus
1347 System Design 13114 Unit Air Conditioners
1347 Supplementary Heat 13114 Checklist for Air Conditioning Surveys
1347 Optimized Data for Heat Pump
1348 Development of Equations 14. AIR HANDLING AND VENTILATION
1348 Development of Tables
1349 Selecting Air Handling Units 141 Terminology, Abbreviations, and Definitions
1354 Well Water Air Conditioning 143 Fan Laws
1354 Heat Pump/Solar Energy Application 1411 Fan Performance Curves
1354 System Description and Operation 1416 Class Limits for Fans
1360 High Velocity Dual Duct Systems 1421 Fan Selection
1360 Advantages and Disadvantages 1426 Fan Inlet Connections
1360 Dual Duct Cycles 1427 Fan Discharge Conditions
1365 Duct Sizing Technique 1431 Useful Fan Formulas
1365 Large vs. Small Ducts 1432 Nomographs for Fan Horsepower
1366 Design Velocity 1432 Monographs for Fan Horsepower and Actual Capacity
1366 Maximum Velocity 1434 Fan Selection Questionnaire
1367 Sizing High Pressure Ducts 1437 Air Flow in Ducts
1368 Return Air Ducts 1440 Pitot Traverse
1368 Low Pressure Ductwork 1440 Friction Losses
1369 Basic Arrangement 1440 Correction for Roughness
1369 Zoning 1440 Rectangular Duct
1370 Ceiling Plenum 1452 Air Balancing and Air Turning Hardware
1373 Modular Type Office Buildings 1456 Air Distribution
1376 Constant Volume Mixing Units 1456 Fire Dampers and Fire Protection
1377 Apparatus Floor Area 1456 Duct System Design
1380 Construction Details 1459 High Velocity System Design
1381 Automatic Control Applications 1468 Step by Step Design
1381 Rooftop Multizone Units 1468 Main Duct
1384 Multizone Unit Control 1470 Branch Trunk Ducts
1388 Damper Control 1471 Single Branch Lines
1388 Economizer Control Cycle 1472 Duct Design by Computer
1388 Unit Ventilator Control 1473 Fibrous Glass Duct Construction

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
14. AIR HANDLING AND VENTILATION 15. STEAM HEATING SYSTEM DESIGN
(Continued) (Continued)
1475 Determining Required Air Volume 1553 Sizing the Expansion Tank
1475 Estimating Weight of Metal 1554 Compressed Air to Reduce Tank Size
1477 Apparatus Casing Construction 1554 Piping Details
1477 Condensate Drains for Air Conditioning Units 1555 Design of Piping Systems
1478 Air Filters and Dust Collectors 1558 Design of Two Pipe Reversed Return System
1478 Air Filters 1558 Final Check of Pipe Sizes
1479 Dust Collectors 1558 Design of Two Pipe Direct Return System
1482 Dry Centrifugal Collectors 1559 Piping for One-Pipe Diversion System
1482 Wet Collectors 1559 Sizing Piping for Main
1482 Fabric Collectors 1559 Sizing Piping for Branches
1483 Electrostatic Precipitators 1559 Pipe Size Check
1483 Breeching Design and Construction 1560 Piping for One-pipe Series System
1483 Expansion 1560 Combination of Piping Systems
1484 Aerodynamics 1560 Sizing Hot Water Expansion Tanks
1485 Access 1560 Conditions Affecting Design
1485 Round Breeching Construction 1561 Sizing Hot Water Expansion Tanks
1485 Rectangular Breeching Construction 1561 High Temperature Water Systems
1490 Chimney Draft and Velocities 1563 High Temperature Drop
1492 Forced Draft and Draft Control 1563 Heat Storage
1494 Sizing of Large Chimneys 1563 Limitation of Corrosion
1495 Chimney Design and Construction 1563 Pressurization of HTW System
1496 Balancing Small Air Conditioning Systems 1563 Steam Pressurization
1497 Balancing Medium and Large Systems 1564 Gas Pressurization
1498 Balancing Duct Distribution 1564 Air Pressurization
1498 Balancing Systems Using Booster Fans 1564 Nitrogen Pressurization
1499 Air Balancing by Balancing and Testing Engineers 1565 Expansion Tanks
1565 Expansion Conditions
15. STEAM HEATING SYSTEM DESIGN 1565 Determining Expansion Tank Size
1565 Location of Steam Pressurizing Tank
1566 Nitrogen Pressurizing Tanks
151 Large Systems 1566 Application of HTW for Process Steam
151 Equivalent Direct Radiation 1566 Circulating Pumps
151 Piping Connections to Boilers 1567 Pumps for HTW Systems
153 Direct Return Connection 1567 Manufacturers Information
153 Common Return Header 1567 Pump Specifications
153 Two Boilers with Common Return Header and Hartford 1568 Net Positive Suction Head
Connection 1568 Effect of Cavitation Within Pump
154 Two Boilers with Separate Direct Return Connections from 1568 Pump Construction for HTW Systems
Below 1568 Circulating Pump Seals
154 Separate Direct Return Connections 1569 Boiler Recirculating Pump
154 Connections to Steam Using Equipment 1569 Boilers for HTW Systems
1526 Piping Application 1569 Boiler Emergency Protection
1530 Industrial and Commercial Steam Requirements 1569 Pipe, Valves, and Fittings for HTW Systems
1539 Flash Steam Calculations 1569 Valve Installation
1540 Sizing of Vertical Flash Tanks 1570 Welded Joints
1540 To Size Flash Tank 1570 Venting of Piping
1541 To Size Float Trap 1570 Effect of Load Variation on Operation
1541 Airbinding 1571 Pipe Sizing for HTW Systems
1546 Estimating Friction in Hot Water Piping 1573 Ratings of Steel Boilers
1549 Hot Water Heating Systems 1573 Ratings
1549 Service Water Heating 1574 Ratings for Steel Boilers
1549 Operating Water Temperature 1576 Stack Dimensions
1549 Air Removal from System 1581 Heating and Cooling Media
1549 Water Flow Velocity 1581 Brine
1549 Prevention of Freezing 1581 Glycerine
1549 Water Circulation below Mains 1581 Glycol
1549 Limitation of Pressure 1581 Other Media
1550 System Adaptability 1582 Warm Air Heating
1550 Use of Waste Steam Heat 1582 Early Types
1550 Heat from District Steam System 1583 Current Types
1550 Summer Cooling 1585 Furnace Performance
1550 Types of Water Heating Systems 1585 Testing and Rating of Furnaces
1552 Design Recommendations for Hot Water Systems 1586 Acceptable Limits
1552 Water Velocity 1587 Selection of Furnace
1552 Pump Location 1587 Rule for Selection
1552 Air Venting 1587 Blower Characteristics
1553 Balancing Circuits 1588 Blower Sizes
1553 Filling Pressure 1588 Duct System Characteristics
1553 Preventing Backflow 1588 Trends
1553 Connecting Returns to Boiler 1589 Warm Air Registers
1553 Locating the Circulating Pump 1590 Return Air Intakes

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
15. STEAM HEATING SYSTEM DESIGN 16. NOISE AND VIBRATION CONTROL
(Continued) (Continued)
1591 Arrangement of Furnace and Ducts 1645 Take-off Fittings

1594 Basic Thermostatic Controls 1645 Dual Duct Area Ratio
1594 Continuous Air Circulation 1646 Dampers as a Noise Generating Source
1595 Continuous Blower Operation 1646 Sound Barrier for High Velocity Ductwork
1595 Intermittent Blower Operation 1646 Sound Traps
15109 Steam Supplied Unit Heater 1646 Cross Over of Horizontal Dual Duct Mains
15109 Gas Fired Radiant Heaters 1647 Testing of High Pressure Ductwork
15112 Sizing of Steam Traps
1647 Terminal Devices
15117 Unit Heaters
15124 Checklist for Heating System Servicing 1648 Radiation Protection at Wall Openings for Duct or Pipe
1649 Medical Installations
16. NOISE AND VIBRATION CONTROL
17. MOTORS AND STARTERS
161 Noise and Vibration
161 Definitions and Terminology 171 NEMA Motor Classifications
162 Noise Criteria 171 Locked Rotor Torque
162 Speech Interference Criteria 172 Classification of Single-Phase, Induction Motors by Design
162 Sound Levels of Sources Letter
167 Ratings and Standards 172 Torque, Speed, and Horsepower Ratings for Single-Phase
167 Airborne Sound Transmission Induction Motors
167 Vibration Isolation 173 Classification by Environmental Protection and Method of
169 Isolation Mount Selection Cooling
1613 Airborne Noise Through Ducts 173 Standard Voltages and Frequencies for Motors
1613 Regenerated Noise 176 The National Electrical Code
1613 Other Mechanical Noise Sources 176 Grounding
1614 Calculation of Sound Levels from HVAC Systems 178 Motor and Load Dynamics, and Motor Heating
1614 Description of Decibels 178 Torque Speed Relationships
1614 Addition of Decibels 179 Torque, Inertia, and Acceleration Time
1615 The Sabin
1710 Dynamics of the Motor and the Load
1617 Determination of Sound Pressure Level
1620 Noise in Ducted Systems 1711 Motor Heating and Motor Life
1623 Fan Noise Generation 1712 Rotor Heating During Starting
1623 Estimating Fan Noise 1712 Single Phase Motors
1624 Distribution of Sound Power at Branch Takeoffs 1712 Types of Motors
1624 Attenuation of Untreated Duct 1715 Repulsion-Induction
1624 Duct Lining Attenuation 1715 Large Single-Phase Motors
1625 Sound Attenuation of Plenums 1716 Application
1626 Duct Lining and Elbows 1717 Loading
1627 Open End Reflection Loss 1718 Motor Protection
1627 Air Flow Noise 1718 Motor Selection
1631 Flow Noise Generation of Silencers 1718 Analysis of Application
1631 Sound Transmission Through Duct Walls 1719 Polyphase Motors
1632 Calculation of Sound Levels in Ducted Systems 1719 Enclosure
1636 Control of Cooling Tower Noise 1720 Bearings
1636 Fan Noise
1720 Quietness
1637 Water Noise
1637 Drive Components 1720 Polyphase, Squirrel Cage Induction Motors
1637 External Noise Sources 1721 Speed Control
1638 Configuration Factors 1721 Two-Speed Polyphase, Squirrel Cage Induction Motors
1639 Location 1721 Two Speed Motors Come in Two Types
1639 Reducing Sound Generated 1723 Wound-Rotor Polyphase Induction Motors
1639 Half-Speed Operation 1724 Variable Speed
1639 Oversizing of the Tower 1724 Synchronous Motors
1639 Changing Leaving Conditions 1725 Hermetic Type Motor Compressors
1640 Sound Absorbers 1725 Hermetic Compressors to 5 hp
1640 Obtaining Desired Sound Levels 1729 Starters
1640 Acoustical Problems in High Velocity Air Distribution 1729 Motor Controllers
1640 System Noise 1729 Overcurrent Protection
1642 Air Handling Apparatus Rooms 1730 Overload Protection
1642 Selection of Fan Isolation Bases 1731 Starters for Large AC Motors
1642 Apparatus Casings
1733 Winding and Reduced-voltage Starting
1642 Dampers and Air Valves
1643 Flexible Connectors 1733 Electric Utility Limitations
1643 Air Distributing Systems 1733 Minimizing Mechanical Shocks
1643 Duct Velocities 1733 Application
1643 Choice of Duct Design Method 1736 Types of Starters
1643 Ductwork Adjacent to Apparatus Room 1736 Open Circuit Transition
1644 Duct Connections to Apparatus Casings 1737 Advantages and Disadvantages
1644 Type Duct Construction 1739 Useful Formulas
1644 Fittings for High Velocity Ductwork 1739 Electric Motor Maintenance

viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
18. DESIGN PROCEDURE, ABBREVIATIONS, SYMBOLS 20. UNITS AND CONVERSIONS

(Continued)
181 Design Procedure 204 U.S. System And Metric System Conversion
181 Contract and Mechanical Drawings 204 Length and Area
181 HVAC Drawings 204 Mass and Density
181 Floor Plans 205 Volume and Flow
185 Valve Symbols 206 Force, Energy, Work, Torque and Power Conversion
186 Piping Symbols 207 Velocity and Acceleration
187 Pipe Fittings Symbols 208 Metric Systems Of Measurement
188 Abbreviations for Scientific and Engineering Terms 208 Measures of Length
189 Lists of Abbreviations and Symbols 208 Square Measure
208 Surveyors Square Measure
19. CLIMATIC DESIGN INFORMATION 208 Cubic Measure
208 Dry and Liquid Measure
208 Measures of Weight
191 Climatic Design Conditions 2010 Binary Multiples
191 Applicability and Characteristics of the Design Conditions 2010 Terminology of Sheet Metal
1927 Dry Bulb and Wet Bulb Temperature for US Locations
21. INDEX
20. UNITS AND CONVERSIONS
201 U.S. Customary Unit System

201 Linear Measures
201 Surveyor's Measure
201 Nautical Measure
201 Square Measure
201 Cubic Measure
201 Shipping Measure
202 Dry Measure
202 Liquid Measure
202 Old Liquid Measure
202 Apothecaries' Fluid Measure
202 Avoirdupois or Commercial Weight
202 Troy Weight, Used for Weighing Gold and Silver
202 Apothecaries' Weight
202 Measures of Pressure
203 Miscellaneous

PREFACE ix
This Handbook provides comprehensive technical information in a modular form to heating, venti-
lating, and air conditioning (HVAC) designers and practitioners, namely engineers, architects, con-
tractors, and plant engineers. It is also a handy reference for students mastering the intricacies of the
HVAC rudiments. Each chapter is self-contained to the extent possible and emphasis is placed on
graphical and tabular presentations of data that are useful for easy understanding of fundamentals
and solving problems of design, installation, and operation.
This Handbook draws upon the material presented in the Handbook of Air Conditioning, Heating,
and Ventilating, Third Edition, Industrial Press, which forms the basis of the presentation. New top-
ics and chapters have been introduced and previous information updated or rewritten. Examples
using software solution tools have been added alongside traditional solutions using formulae from
the handbook. The organization, however, remains, in the literal sense, a handbook.
We gratefully acknowledge the contributors and editors of the aforementioned Handbook of Air
Conditioning, Heating, and Ventilating, whose knowledge is embedded throughout the present
book. We did not have the opportunity to meet any of them, but their written legacy has left an indel-
ible imprint on the present work.
An important source of information is the ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating,
and Air-Conditioning Engineers) repertoire of publications. ASHRAE serves as the authoritative,
and occasionally the sole, source of up-to-date HVAC related data and analysis. We acknowledge
their permission to use material from various publications, especially the latest ASHRAE Handbook
series.
ASHRAE Publications
1791 Tullie Circle, NE
Atlanta, GA 30329
Web Site: www.ashrae.org
We also acknowledge three corporations for supplying us with material for inclusion in the Hand-
book. We profusely thank Mr. Michael White of Bell & Gossett (an ITT Division), Mr. Kent Silveria
and Mr. Thomas Gorman of Trane Corporation, and Mr. Steven Boediarto of Preferred Utilities, for
facilitating the acquisition of these materials.
The Bell & Gossett corporation has graciously provided the ESP-PLUS software package to
accompany the Handbook. This software, a $100 value, permits users to select components based on
design or operating conditions.
Bell & Gossett (ITT Fluid Handling)
8200 N. Austin Ave
Morton Grove, IL 60053
Web Site: www.bellgossett.com
The Trane corporation has generously allowed us to include their Trace Load 700 load calculation
limited capability demonstration version software with the Handbook.
Trane C.D.S. Department
3600 Pammel Creek Road
La Crosse, WI 54601
Web Site: www.trane.com

x PREFACE
We are also grateful to the Preferred Utilities corporation for making available their publication on
the topic of combustion analysis, and consenting to let us base our combustion chapter on it.
Preferred Utilities Mfg. Corp
31-35 South Street
Danbury, CT 06810
Web Site: www.preferred-mfg.com
We acknowledge the input of our good friend, colleague, and HVAC critic, Mr. Naji Raad, whose
experience in the profession provided a critical review of the manuscript. We thank our editors at
Industrial Press, Mr. Christopher McCauley and Mr. Riccardo Heald, for their editorial input and
suggestions, for reading the manuscript as it developed, and keeping the project on track; and Janet
Romano for her cover design and production assistance. We acknowledge the effort of the many stu-
dents at Polytechnic University who helped in researching for material, proofreading the manu-
script, checking examples, and drawing figures. Those who deserve special recognition are Mr.
Saurabh Shah and Mr. Christopher Bodenmiller for the graphics, Mr. Nayan Patel, Mr. Pranav Patel,
and Mr. Prabodh Panindre for research, calculations, and proofing. Finally, we thank Kathleen
McKenzie, freelance book editor, for her considerable contribution to this Handbooks style, format
and readability.
Every effort has been made to prevent errors, but in a work of this scope it is inevitable that some
may creep in. We request your forgiveness and will be grateful if you call any such errors to our
attention by emailing them to info@industrialpress.com.
Ali Vedavarz, Sunil Kumar, Muhammed Iqbal Hussain

New York City
December 2006

ABOUT THE AUTHORS xi
Ali Vedavarz received his master of science degree in mechanical engineering from the University
of Bridgeport in Connecticut and Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from Polytechnic University in
Brooklyn, New York. Dr. Vedavarz is a member of ASME and ASHRAE and has published techni-
cal papers in ASME journals. Dr. Vedavarz is a licensed Professional Engineer in the State of New
York and is currently the Deputy Director of Engineering (for Design) in the Office of Capital
Projects at New York City Housing Authority. He is also an adjunct Industry Professor at Polytech-
nic University, Brooklyn, New York, where he teaches courses in HVAC design and energy sys-
tems.
Sunil Kumar received his bachelors degree in mechanical engineering from the Indian Institute of
Technology, Kharagpur, India, masters degrees in mechanical engineering and mathematics from
the State University of New York at Buffalo, and a doctoral degree in mechanical engineering from
the University of California at Berkeley. He is presently a Professor of Mechanical Engineering and
the Dean of Graduate School and Associate Provost at Polytechnic University in Brooklyn, New
York. Dr. Kumar has authored over 100 journal and conference papers in the area of thermal-fluid
sciences and has extensive consulting and research experience in this subject area.
Muhammed Hussain received his bachelors degree from Bangladesh University of Engineering
and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh, and masters degree in mechanical engineering from Poly-
technic University in Brooklyn, New York. He is a licensed Professional Engineer in the State of
New York. Mr. Hussain is presently working as a mechanical design engineer in the Department of
Citywide Administrative Services in New York City. Mr. Hussain is also a contributor to, and asso-
ciate editor of, Machinerys Handbook.

PSYCHROMETRY
PSYCHROMETRY P = P1 + P2 + P3 (1)
Psychrometrics.Psychrometrics is the study of the For atmospheric or moist air
measurement of the moisture content of atmospheric air P = P N + P O + P CO + P Ar + P v (2)
(moist air). Atmospheric air, or moist air is a mixture of 2 2 2
many gases and pollutants plus water vapor. The water Equation (2) can be written as
vapor (moisture) in atmospheric air exists in a super-
heated state at a very low pressure, usually less than 1 P = Pa + Pv (3)
psia. One can also define atmospheric air as a mixture of where Pa =partial pressure of dry air (mixture of N2, O2,
dry air and water vapor (moisture). In 1949, a standard
CO2, Ar); and
composition of dry air was defined by the International
Joint Committee on Psychrometric Data as shown in Pv =partial pressure of water vapor
Table 2-1.
Equation of State.The ideal gas for dry air and
Table 2-1. Composition of Dry Air water vapor is as follows:
Constituent Molecular Mass Volume Fraction 1. For dry air:
Oxygen 32.000 0.2095
P a V = n a RT = m a R a T
Nitrogen 28.016 0.7809
Argon 39.944 0.0093 or Pa = a Ra T (4)
Carbon dioxide 44.010 0.0003
or Pa a = Ra T
In HVAC study, psychrometry is commonly taken to
mean the study of atmospheric moisture and its effect on 2. For water vapor:
buildings and building systems. P v V = n v RT = m v R v T
Ideal Gas Approximation.Atmospheric air pres- or Pv = v Rv T (5)
sure of 14.7 psi obeys the ideal gas law with sufficient
accuracy for most engineering applications. Errors in cal- or Pv v = Rv T
culating the fundamental psychrometric parameters, such
as enthalpy, specific volume, and humidity ratio of satu- where Pa =partial pressure of dry air;
rated air at 14.7 psi are less than 0.7% for a temperature Pv =partial pressure of water vapor;
range of 60F to 120F when ideal gas relationships are V =total volume of mixture;
used. Accordingly, we will assume that atmospheric air
behaves as ideal gases with constant specific heat. Table v =specific volume;
2-2 gives the properties of some ideal gases. na =number of moles of dry air;
nv =number of moles of water vapor;
Table 2-2. Properties of Gases
Cp Cv
R =universal gas constant;
R K
Molecular Mass
1 5 4 5 . 3 2 f t - l b f / l b -m o l - R , o r 8 3 1 4 . 4 1
ft -lbf /lbm -R
Relative
Symbol
Btu/lbm- R
Btu/lbm -R
J/kg-mol-K;
kJ/kg-K
kJ/kg-K
T =absolute temperature
Gas The mixture also obeys the perfect gas equations:
Air 28.97 53.34 0.240 1.00 0.171 0.716 1.400
Argon Ar 39.94 38.66 0.125 0.523 0.075 0.316 1.667 PV = nRT or
Carbon (6)
dioxide
CO2 44.01 35.10 0.203 0.85 0.158 0.661 1.285 ( P a + P v )V = ( n a + n v )RT
Carbon
CO 28.01 55.16 0.249 1.04 0.178 0.715 1.399
monoxide where P =Pa + Pv is the total pressure of mixture; and
Helium He 4.003 386.0 1.250 5.23 0.753 3.153 1.667
Hydrogen H2 2.016 766.4 3.430 14.36 2.44 10.22 1.404 n =na + nv is the total number of moles in the mix-
Methane CH4 16.04 96.35 0.532 2.23 0.403 1.690 1.320 ture.
Nitrogen N2 28.016 55.15 0.248 1.04 0.177 0.741 1.400 To compare values for moist air assuming ideal gas
Oxygen O2 32.000 48.28 0.219 0.917 0.157 0.657 1.395
behavior with actual table values, consider a saturated
Steam H2O 18.016 85.76 0.445 1.863 0.335 1.402 1.329
mixture of air and water vapor at 75F. Table 2-3 gives the
saturation pressure Ps of water as 0.43 lbf/ft2. For satu-
Fundamental Parameters.Atmospheric pressure or
moist air pressure: Daltons law for a mixture of ideal rated air this is the partial pressure (Pv) of the vapor. The
gases states that the mixture pressure is equal to the sum mass density is 1/v = 1/739.42 or 0.001352 lbm/ft3. By
of the partial pressures of the constituents: Equation (5) we get
21
22 PSYCHROMETRY
Pv 0.43 144 - Pv V Pa V
--1- = = --------
- = --------------------------------------------- m v = ---------
- and m a = ---------
- (11)
Rv T 85.78 ( 460 + 75 ) Rv T Ra T
3
= 0.001349 lb m /ft
Pv Ra
W = -----------
- (12)
Pa Rv
This result is accurate within about 0.2 percent. For non-
saturated conditions water vapor is superheated and the
agreement is generally better. For the air-water vapor mixture, Equation (12) reduces to
Humidity Ratio W. The humidity ratio W is the ratio 18.015P Pv

of the mass of the water vapor mv to the mass of the dry W = ----------------------v- = 0.6219 ------
28.965P a Pa
air ma in the mixture. (13)
0.6219P
m = ----------------------v
P Pv
W = ------v (7)
ma
Combining Equation (10) and Equation (13) gives
Relative Humidity . The relative humidity is the
ratio of the mole fraction of the water vapor xv in a mixture WP a
= ---------------------
- (14)
to the mole fraction xs of the water vapor in a saturated 0.6219P s
mixture at the same temperature and pressure:
Degree of Saturation.The degree of saturation is
x the ratio of the humidity ratio W to the humidity ratio Ws
= ----v- (8)
xs T, P of a saturated mixture at the same temperature and pres-
sure:
For a mixture of ideal gases, the mole fraction is equal to
the partial pressure ratio of each constituent: W
= ------ (15)
-
Ws T, P
P P
x v = -----v- and x s = -----s (9) Wet Bulb Temperature (Tw).Fig. 2-1 is a schematic
P P
drawing of a device that measures wet and dry-bulb tem-
since the temperature of the dry air and the water vapor peratures. The various instruments used to take these
are assumed to be the same in the mixture. Substituting measurements are called psychrometers.
Equation (9) in Equation (8) we find
When unsaturated air is passed over a wetted thermom-
eter bulb, water evaporates from the wetted surface and
Pv P P latent heat absorbed by the vaporizing water causes the
= ------------
- = -----v- (10)
Ps P Ps T, P temperature of the wetted surface and the enclosed ther-
mometer bulb to fall. As soon as the wetted surface tem-
where Pv =partial pressure of water vapor at temperature perature drops below that of the surrounding atmosphere,
T ; and heat begins to flow from the warmer air to the cooler sur-
face, and the quantity of heat transferred in this manner
Ps =saturation pressure of water vapor at tempera- increases with an increasing drop in temperature. On the
ture T and pressure P (Values of P s may be other hand, as the surface temperature drops, the vapor
pressure of the water becomes lower, and, hence, the rate
obtained from Table 2-3).
of evaporation decreases. Eventually, a temperature is
Using the ideal gas law we can derive a relation between reached where the rate at which heat is transferred from
the relative humidity and the humidity ratio W: the air to the wetted surface by convection and conduction
is equal to the rate at which the wetted surface loses heat
in the form of latent heat of vaporization. Thus, no further
m
W = ------v drop in temperature can occur. This temperature is known
ma as the wet-bulb temperature (Tw).

PSYCHROMETRY 23
Pv, P, and Pw must have consistent units, either in Hg or

psia.
At temperatures below 32F, Equation (16) applies
only to temperatures of air and water vapor over super-
cooled water. For partial pressures of water vapor over
ice, the denominator becomes 3160 0.09Tw, and Pw
must be the partial pressure of water vapor over ice at Tw,
the temperature of an iced wet bulb.
Example 1:A sample of moist air has a dry-bulb temper-
ature of 80F and a wet-bulb temperature of 70F. The
barometric pressure is 29.90 in. Hg. Determine the partial
pressure of the water vapor and of the dry air in the sample
of moist air.
Fig 2-1. Psychrometry apparatus for measuring wet and
Solution: From Table 2-3 at 70F wet-bulb tempera-
dry- bulb temperatures ture, find Pw = 0.3632 psia. The barometric pressure of
29.90 in. Hg is converted by (29.90) (0.491) = 14.681
As moisture evaporates from the wetted bulb, the air psia. By Equation (16)
surrounding the bulb becomes more humid. Therefore, in
order to measure the wet-bulb temperature of the air in a ( P Pw ) ( T Tw )
given space, a continuous sample of the air must pass P v = P w ------------------------------------------
2831 1.43T w
around the bulb. The purpose of the fan in Fig. 2-1 is to
cause the air to be drawn across the wetted bulb. Conven- ( 14.681 0.3632 ) ( 80 70 )
tional air velocities used are between 500 and 1000 fpm = 0.3632 -------------------------------------------------------------------
2831 ( 1.43 ) ( 70 )
for normal size thermometer bulbs. Soft, fine-meshed
cotton tubing is recommended for the wick; it should = 0.3107 psia
cover the bulb plus about an inch of the thermometer Since P = Pa+ Pv
stem. The wick should be watched and replaced before it
becomes dirty or crusty. Distilled water is recommended Pa = P Pv
to give greater accuracy for a longer period of time.
= 14.681 0.3107
Fig. 2-2 shows a device called a sling psychrometer. It
is commonly used especially for checking conditions on a = 14.37 psia
job. The instrument is rotated by hand to obtain the air
movement across the bulbs. The instrument is rotated
until no further change is indicated on the wet bulb. The
reading taken at that time is the air wet-bulb temperature.
Thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature (T*), some-
times called adiabatic saturation temperature, is dis-
cussed later.
Partial Pressure of Water Vapor (Pv).S e v e r a l
equations for calculating this partial pressure have been
proposed and used. Carriers equation, first presented in
1911, has been frequently used with a high degree of
accuracy. The equation makes use of the easily obtainable
wet and dry-bulb temperatures, and its present form is
( P Pw ) ( T Tw )
P v = P w ------------------------------------------ (16)
2831 1.43T w
where Pw =partial pressure of water vapor saturated at
wet-bulb temperature Tw;
P =barometric pressure; and
T, Tw = dry and wet-bulb temperatures, respectively, in Fig 2-2. Sling psychrometer device for conveniently measuring
F wet and dry bulb temperatures

24 PSYCHROMETRY
Dew Point Temperature (Td).During the various At a given total pressure, the dew-point of a mixture is
seasons of the year, especially during the summer fixed by the humidity ratio W or by the partial pressure of
months, in localities where the water supply is cool, it is the water vapor. Thus Td, W, and Pv are not independent
common to see the outside surface of bare cold water properties.
pipes covered with moisture. Another common sight is
that of a glass of ice water with its outside surface covered Saturation.The term "saturation" denotes the maxi-
with a film of moisture. The term often used to describe mum amount of water vapor that can exist in one cubic
the appearance of moisture on cold surfaces is sweating, foot of space at a given temperature and is essentially
as though the moisture came through the walls of the pipe independent of the mass and pressure of the air that may
or the glass. simultaneously exist in the same space. Frequently, we
speak of "saturated air". However, it must be remembered
What is actually happening is that the outside of the that the air is not saturated; it is the contained water vapor
pipe or the glass is at or below the saturation temperature that may be saturated at the air temperature.
corresponding to the partial pressure of the water vapor in
the surrounding air. This saturation temperature is known Enthalpy.The enthalpy of a mixture of ideal gases is
as the dew-point (Td) temperature, the temperature at equal to the sum of the enthalpies of each component:
which condensation first starts to appear on the cold sur- h = h a + Wh s (17)
face as the moist air is cooled at constant pressure.
Atmospheric air and water vapor mixture is usually ref-
Example 1, we calculated the partial pressure of the erenced to the mass of dry air. This is because the amount
water vapor in the air to be 0.3107 psia. Referring to Table of water vapor may vary during some processes but the
2-3, we find that the saturation temperature correspond- amount of dry air typically remains constant. Each term in
ing to a pressure of 0.3107 psia is 65.5F by interpolation. Equation (17) has units of energy per unit mass of dry air.
Therefore, 65.5F is the dew-point temperature of the air With the assumption of ideal gas behavior, the enthalpy is
sample. If any surface located in this air sample were at a function of temperature only. If zero Fahrenheit or Cel-
that temperature, moisture would start to condense on the sius is selected as the reference state where the enthalpy of
surface. dry air is zero, and if the specific heats Cpa and Cpv are
Air itself does not condense nor does it have anything assumed to be constant, simple relations result:
to do with the cooling and condensation of the water
vapor. Actually, the same cooling and condensation of the h a = C pa T
(18)
water vapor would take place if no air were present and h s = h g + C pv T
the entire process were carried out in a closed vessel under
vacuum. Since this definition of the dew point tempera- where hg =enthalpy of saturated vapor at that tempera-
ture is in common use, however, we will use it in our dis- ture, at 0F is 1061.5 Btu/lb m and 2501.2
cussion. kJ/kg at 0C
At the dew-point temperature and below, the air is said Cpa, Cpv = specific heat of air and vapor, respectively.
to be saturated because the air is mixed with the maximum Using Equation (17) and (18) with Cpa and Cpv taken as
possible weight of water vapor. If the mixture of air and 0.240 and 0.444 Btu/lbm-F, respectively, we have
water vapor is cooled at constant pressure, but remains
above the dew-point temperature, there will be no con- h = ( 0.24T + W ( 1061.2 + 0.444T ) ) Btu/lb ma (19)
densation. However, as the mixture of air and water vapor
is cooled, the volume of each component will contract in h = ( 1.0T + W ( 2501.3 + 1.86T ) ) kJ/kg (20)
the same proportion because both are cooled through the where Cpa,Cpv = 1.0 and 1.86 kJ/(kgC), respectively.
same temperature range. In other words, if a mixture con-
Example 2:What is the enthalpy of saturated air at 70F
sisting of 1 pound of dry air and 0.15 pound of water vapor
at standard atmospheric pressure?
is cooled, the resulting smaller volume will still contain 1
pound of dry air and 0.15 pound of water vapor as both Solution: As per Equation (13)
gases will contract in the same proportion. Changes in the Ps Ps
temperature of an air-water vapor mixture do not affect W = 0.6219 ------ = 0.6219 ---------------
the amount of water vapor mixed with each pound of air Pa P Ps
as long as the mixture is not cooled down to the dew-point
= 0.6219 ---------------------------------------
temperature. Under these conditions, the mass of water 0.3633
vapor per pound of dry air will remain the same regardless 14.696 0.3633
of the temperature changes. An air-water vapor mixture at 0.3633
a dry-bulb temperature higher than its dew-point temper- = 0.6219 -------------------
14.3327
ature is said to be unsaturated and the water vapor in the
mixture is superheated. = 0.015764

PSYCHROMETRY 25
As per Equation (19) this air is brought into contact with the water at a lower
h = 0.24T + W ( 1061.2 + 0.444T ) temperature, the air is both cooled and humidified. If the
system is fully insulated so that no heat is transferred into
= ( 0.24 70 + 0.015764 ( 1061.2 + 0.444 70 ) ) or out of the system, the process is adiabatic and if the
= 34.01 Btu/lb ma water is at a constant temperature, the latent heat of evap-
oration can come only from the sensible heat given up by
Thermodynamic Wet-bulb Temperature (T*). the air in cooling. The quantity of water present is
Fig. 2-3 represents an idealized, fully insulated flow assumed to be large (large surface area and quantity) com-
device where unsaturated moist air enters at dry-bulb pared to the amount evaporated into the air. We assume
temperature T1 enthalpy h1, and humidity ratio W1. When that there is no temperature gradient in the body of water.
Fig 2-3. Adiabatic saturation of air

If the temperature reached by the air as it leaves the where T1 and T* are in C.
device where it is saturated is identical to the temperature
of the water, this temperature is called the adiabatic satu- Example 3:In an adiabatic saturator, the entering and
ration temperature or, more commonly, the thermody- leaving air pressure is 14.696 lbf/in2, the entering temper-
namic wet-bulb temperature (T*). ature is 70F, and the leaving temperature is 60F. Calcu-
Thus, in Fig. 2-3, the saturated air leaving the device late the humidity ratio W and the relative humidity ?
will have properties T2*, h2*, and W2*. Liquid water must
be supplied to the device having an enthalpy hf2 at T2* for Solution: After the adiabatic saturator, the relative
humidity is 100% absorbing the water, so Pv2 = Ps2. W2
the process to be steady-flow. Assuming steady-flow
conditions exist, the energy equation for the process is can be calculated by Equation (13)
h 1 + ( W 2 W 1 )h f2 = h 2 (21) Pv Pv
W 2 = 0.6219 ------ = 0.6219 ---------------
The asterisk is used to denote properties at the thermo- Pa P Pv
dynamic wet-bulb temperature. The temperature corre-
= 0.6219 ---------------------------------------
sponding to h2 for the given values of h1 and W1 is the 0.2563
defined thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature. 14.696 0.2563
Equation (21) is exact since it defines the thermody- = 0.01104 lb v /lb a
namic wet-bulb temperature T*. Substituting the approxi-
mate ideal gas relationship for h from Equation (19), the W1 can be calculated by Equation (22)
corresponding expression for h* and the approximate
relationship hf2 at T2* into Equation (21) and then solv-
( 1093 0.556T )W 2 0.240 ( T 1 T )
ing for the humidity ratio W1 gives W 1 = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
1093 + 0.444T 1 T
( 1093 0.556T )W 2 0.240 ( T 1 T )
- (22)
W 1 = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ( 1093 0.556 60 )0.01104 0.24 ( 70 60 )
1093 + 0.444T 1 T = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1093 + 0.444 70 60
where T1 and T* are in F. 11.698 2.4
= ------------------------------
The corresponding equation in SI units is 1064.08
( 2501 2.381T )W 2 ( T 1 T ) = 0.008738
W 1 = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- (23)
2501 + 1.805T 1 4.186T By applying Equation (13)

26 PSYCHROMETRY
Pv ues of temperature and pressure, the humidity

W 1 = 0.6219 ------ ratio W can have any value from zero and Ws.
Pa
vas = vs va, the difference between the volume of
Pv moist air at saturation per lb of dry air, and the
0.008738 = 0.6219 ---------------
P Pv specific volume of the dry air itself, ft3/lbda, at
the same pressure and temperature.
0.6219 P
0.008738 = ----------------------------v vs = volume of moist air at saturation per lb of dry
14.696 P v air, ft3/lbma.
P v = 0.2036 ha = specific enthalpy of dry air, Btu/lbda. The spe-
cific enthalpy of dry air has been assigned the
By applying Equation (14) value of zero at 0F and standard atmospheric
pressure.
Pv
= ------ 100 has = hs ha, the difference between the enthalpy of
Ps moist air at saturation, per lb of dry air, and the
0.2036 specific enthalpy of the dry air itself, Btu/lbda, at
= ------------------- 100 the same pressure and temperature.
0.36328
sa = specific entropy of dry air, Btu/lb-F (abs). The
= 56.04
specific entropy of dry air has been assigned the
The process discussed in this section is called the adia- value of zero at 0F and standard atmospheric
batic saturation process. The usefulness of the foregoing pressure.
discussion lies in the fact that the temperature of the satu- ss = specific entropy of moist air at saturation per lb
rated air-water-vapor mixture leaving the system is a of dry air, Btu/lbda-F (abs).
function of the temperature, pressure, and relative humid-
ity of the entering mixture and the exit pressure. Addition- hw =hs= specific enthalpy of condensed water (liquid
ally, knowing the entering and exit pressures and or solid) in equilibrium with saturated air at a
temperatures, we may determine the relative humidity specified temperature and pressure, Btu/lbwater.
and humidity ratio of the entering mixture, as shown in Specific enthalpy of liquid water has been
Example 3. assigned the value of zero at its triple point
(32.018F) and saturation pressure.
In principle, there is a difference between the wet-bulb
temperature Tw, and the temperature of adiabatic satura- Note: hw is greater than the steam table enthalpy of
tion T*. The wet-bulb temperature is a function of both saturated pure condensed phase by the amount of
heat and mass transfer rates, while the adiabatic saturation the enthalpy increase governed by the pressure
temperature is a function of a thermodynamic equilibrium increase from saturation pressure to one atmo-
process. However, in practice, it has been found that for sphere, plus influence from the presence of air.
air-water-vapor mixtures at atmospheric pressures and Pv = vapor pressure of water in saturated moist air,
temperatures, the wet-bulb and adiabatic saturation tem- psia or in. Hg. Pv differs negligibly from the sat-
peratures are essentially equal numerically. uration vapor pressure of pure water Ps, at least
for the conditions shown.
Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air.Table 2-
4 shows values of thermodynamic properties, for stan- Example 4:What is the relative humidity of moist air
dard atmospheric pressure 14.696 psia or 29.92 in. Hg. that has a dry-bulb temperature of 70F and a wet-bulb
The properties in this table are based on the thermody- temperature of 60F? The barometric pressure is 29.92 in.
namic temperature scale. This ideal scale differs only Hg.
slightly from the practical temperature scales used for Solution: Refer to Table 2-4, At 60F wet-bulb, find hs =
actual physical measurements.
26.467 Btu/lb da . At 70F dry-bulb, find h a =16.818
Symbols used in Table 2-4 are: Btu/lbda. Then,
T = Fahrenheit temperature; h as = 26.467 16.818 = 9.649 Btu/lb da
Ws = humidity ratio at saturation, the condition at
which the gaseous phase (moist air) exists in This is the heat of the vapor. Using Table 2-4, the value
equilibrium with a condensed phase (liquid or of has = 9.649 with corresponding value Pv of 0.4205 in.
solid) at the given temperature and pressure Hg. At 70F dry-bulb, Ps= 0.73966 in. Hg. So, by Equa-
(standard atmospheric pressure). At given val- tion (10)

PSYCHROMETRY 27
Pv Pv
= ------ 100 W = 0.6219 ---------------
Ps P Pv
= 0.6219 ---------------------------------------
0.4205 0.52193
= ------------------- 100 29.92 0.52193
0.73966
= 56.11 = 0.011 lb v /lb da
Example 5:Moist air exists at 70F dry-bulb and 60F From Table 2-4 at T= 70F, find Ws = 0.0158320
dew-point when the barometric pressure is 29.92 in. Hg.
What is the relative humidity of the moist air? lbv/lbda, find Ws. By Equation (15),
Solution: By definition, the 60F dew-point temperature W 0.0110

is the saturation temperature corresponding to the actual = ------- = ------------------------- = 0.694795
Ws 0.0158320
partial pressure of the water vapor in the air. From Table
2-4 at 60F, find Pv = Ps = 0.521930 in. Hg. At 70F, find
Pvs = Ps = 0.739660 in. Hg. The relative humidity is From Table 2-4 at 70F, find Pv = Ps = 0.739660 in. Hg.
By Equation (21),
Pv
= ------ 100 Pv 0.52193
Ps = -------- 100 = ---------------------- 100 = 70.56 %
P vs 0.739660
0.521930
= ---------------------- 100
0.739660
By Equation (21)
= 70.56 %
h = 0.240T + W ( 1061 + 0.444T )
Example 6:What is the enthalpy of moist air at 80F dry-
bulb temperature and 40% relative humidity? Barometric = 0.240 70 + 0.0110 ( 1061 + 0.444 ( 70 ) )
pressure is 29.92 in. Hg. = 28.8129 Btu/lb da
Solution: By Equation (19), h = 0.240T + W(1061 +
0.444T). From Table 2-4 at 80F, find Pvs = Ps = 1.033020 By Equation (5), PaVa=RaT, where Pa is the partial
in. Hg. Relative humidity = Pv/Ps; then, Pv = Pvs = pressure of the dry air in the moist air, may be used to find
V a . By Equation (3) P a = PP v = 29.92.52193=
0.40(1.033020) = 0.413208 in. Hg. By Equation (13)
29.3981in. Hg.=14.434 psia. By Equation (5)
Pv
W = 0.6219 --------------- Pa Va = Ra T
P Pv
Ra T
= 0.6219 ------------------------------------------
0.413208 V a = ---------
29.92 0.413208 Pa
= 0.00871 lb v /lb da 53.352 ( 460 + 70 )
= -------------------------------------------------
144 14.434
h = 0.24T + W ( 1061 + 0.444T ) 3
= 13.6043 ft lb
= 0.24 80 + 0.00871 ( 1061 + 0.444 80 )
= 28.75 Btu/lb da Graphical Representation of Psychrometric
Chart.To facilitate engineering computations, a
Example 7:Moist air exists at 70F dry-bulb and 60F graphical representation of the properties of moist air has
dew-point when the barometric pressure is 29.92 in. Hg. been developed and is known as a psychrometric chart.
Determine (1) humidity ratio, (2) saturation ratio, (3) rel- Richard Mollier was the first to use such a chart with
ative humidity, (4) enthalpy, and (5) specific volume of enthalpy as a coordinate. Modern day charts are some-
dry air. what different but still retain the enthalpy coordinate.
ASHRAE has developed Mollier-type charts Figs. 2-5
and 2-6 the necessary range of variables. These charts
Solution: From Table 2-4 at dew-point temperature of contain all the necessary variables for carrying out HVAC
60F, find Pv = Ps = 0.52193 in. Hg. By Equation (13), computations. Because the chart is complex in design this

28 PSYCHROMETRY
section describes how each variables curves appear so The location and positioning of the scales of the vari-
the user will see to which curves the examples refer. ous properties as well as the constant value lines for these
properties are shown in these simple charts which are not
Fig. 2-5 is the psychrometric chart for use at and above drawn to the actual scale. When you read the values or
sea level. Fig. 2-6 is the psychrometric chart for use at and draw lines, always use a sharp drafting-type pencil and
above 5000 ft. Dry bulb temperature is plotted along the straight edge.
horizontal axis. The dry bulb temperature lines are
straight but not exactly parallel and incline slightly to the
left. Humidity ratio is plotted along the vertical axis on the
right hand side of the chart. The scale is uniform with hor-
izontal lines parallel. The saturation curve slopes upward
from left to right.
Humidity ratio
Dew point temperatures is also horizontal. Dry-bulb,
W
wet-bulb, and dew point temperatures all coincide on the W = 0.010
saturation curve.Relative humidity lines with shapes sim-
ilar to the saturation curve appear at regular intervals.
The enthalpy scale is drawn obliquely on the left of the
chart. Enthalpy lines inclined downward left to right.
Although the wet bulb temperature lines appear to coin- Td
cide with the enthalpy lines, they gradually diverge with
respect to one another (i.e. they are not parallel). The Fig 2-4b. Lines of constant humidity ratio (W)
spacing of the wet bulb lines is not uniform. Finally we
note that specific volume lines also appear inclined from
the upper left to the lower right, similar to enthalpy and
wet bulb temperature lines they are not parallel.The
enthalpy, specific volume, and humidity ratio scales are
all based on unit mass of dry air, not unit mass of moist air.
W
A protractor with two scales appears at the upper left of
v = 13.5 ft 3/lb
Charts 1 and 2 of Figs. 2-5, and 2-6 respectively. One
scale gives the sensible heat ratio and the other the ratio of
enthalpy difference to humidity ratio difference.
Construction of the Psychrometric Chart: The charts of
Figs. 2-5, and 2-6 are slightly different organizations. Td
The ones here should be studied before any other psychro-
metric chart is used. To help the reader understand these Fig 2-4c. Lines of constant specific volume v on the
charts, examples follow. But first, simplified versions of psychrometric chart
the chart is shown in Figs. 2-4a to 2-4g.
w
T
T = 70 F
W
w
Td = 80
Td 80 T
d
Dry bulb temperature
Fig 2-4a. Lines of constant dry bulb temperature td on the Fig 2-4d. Lines of constant wet bulb temperature Tw on the
psychrometric chart psychrometric chart

PSYCHROMETRY 29
Example 8:The air leaves a cooling coil is at 70F Td and

60F T w . What is its humidity ratio and specific
enthalpy?
Solution: The intersection of the 70F Td and 60F Tw
Saturation Line
(O = 100%) lines defines the given state. This point on the chart is the
reference from which all the other properties are deter-
mined.
W
O = 80% Humidity Ratio W: Move horizontally to the right and
read W = 0.008778 lbmv/ lbma on the vertical scale.
Relative Humidity : Interpolate between the 50 and
60% percent relative humidity lines and read 56.11%.
Td Enthalpy h: Follow a line of constant enthalpy upward
to the left and read h = 26.38 Btu/lbma on the oblique scale.
Fig 2-4e. Lines of constant relative humidity on the Specific Volume v: Interpolate between the 13.5 and
psychrometric chart 14.0 specific volume lines and read v = 13.65 ft3/lbma.
Dew Point Tdp: Move horizontally to the left from the
reference point and read Tdp = 53.7 F on the saturation
curve.
h
h =35 Btu/lbda
O = 56.11
W
h = 26.38 Btu/lb
W = 0.008778
Tdp = 53.7
Td
Tw = 60
Fig 2-4f. Lines of constant enthalpy h on the

psychrometric chart Td =70
Solution of Example 8
Enthalpy h (alternate method): The nomograph in the
upper left hand corner of Fig. 2-4g gives the difference D
between the enthalpy of unsaturated moist air and the
enthalpy of saturated air at the same wet-bulb tempera-
Tdp ture. Then h = hs + D. For this example hs = 26.5 Btu/lbma,
W
Tdp = 70
D = 0.1 Btu/lbma, and h = 26.5 0.1 = 26.4 Btu/lbma.
Although psychrometric charts are useful in several
aspects of HVAC design, the availability of computer
programs to determine moist air properties has made
some of these steps easier to carry out. These programs
may be easily constructed from the basic equations of this
Td chapter. Computer programs give the additional conve-
Fig 2-4g. Lines of constant dew point temperature Tdp on the nience of choice of units and arbitrary (atmospheric) pres-
psychrometric chart sures.

222 PSYCHROMETRY
Table 2-4. (Continued) Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air at Standard Pressure

Condensate Water
Temp Humidity Ratio Volume Enthalpy Entropy Enthalpy Entropy Vapor Press.
T lbw/lbda ft3/lbda Btu/lbda Btu/lbda-F Btu/lb Btu/lb-F in. Hg
F Ws va vs ha hs sa ss hw sw ps
163 0.3333600 15.699 24.040 39.197 416.175 0.07298 0.71623 131.03 0.2362 10.377600
164 0.3457200 15.724 24.388 39.438 430.533 0.07337 0.73959 132.03 0.2378 10.625000
165 0.3586500 15.749 24.750 39.679 445.544 0.07375 0.76397 133.03 0.2394 10.877100
166 0.3722000 15.774 25.129 39.920 461.271 0.07414 0.78949 134.03 0.2410 11.134300
167 0.3863900 15.800 25.526 40.161 477.739 0.07452 0.81617 135.03 0.2426 11.396500
168 0.4013100 15.825 25.942 40.402 495.032 0.07491 0.84415 136.03 0.2442 11.664100
169 0.4169800 15.850 26.377 40.643 513.197 0.07529 0.87350 137.04 0.2458 11.937000
170 0.4334300 15.875 26.834 40.884 532.256 0.07567 0.90425 138.04 0.2474 12.214900
171 0.4507900 15.901 27.315 41.125 552.356 0.07606 0.93664 139.04 0.2490 12.498800
172 0.4690500 15.926 27.820 41.366 573.504 0.07644 0.97067 140.04 0.2506 12.788000
173 0.4882900 15.951 28.352 41.607 595.767 0.07682 1.00644 141.04 0.2521 13.082300
174 0.5086700 15.976 28.913 41.848 619.337 0.07720 1.04427 142.04 0.2537 13.383100
175 0.5301900 16.002 29.505 42.089 644.229 0.07758 1.08416 143.05 0.2553 13.689400
176 0.5529400 16.027 30.130 42.331 670.528 0.07796 1.12624 144.05 0.2569 14.001000
177 0.5771000 16.052 30.793 42.572 698.448 0.07834 1.17087 145.05 0.2585 14.319100
178 0.6027400 16.078 31.496 42.813 728.073 0.07872 1.21815 146.05 0.2600 14.643000
179 0.6300200 16.103 32.242 43.054 759.579 0.07910 1.26837 147.06 0.2616 14.973100
180 0.6591100 16.128 33.037 43.295 793.166 0.07947 1.32183 148.06 0.2632 15.309700
181 0.6901200 16.153 33.883 43.536 828.962 0.07985 1.37873 149.06 0.2647 15.652200
182 0.7233100 16.178 34.787 43.778 867.265 0.08023 1.43954 150.06 0.2663 16.001400
183 0.7588500 16.204 35.755 44.019 908.278 0.08060 1.50457 151.07 0.2679 16.356900
184 0.7970300 16.229 36.793 44.260 952.321 0.08098 1.57430 152.07 0.2694 16.719000
185 0.8381700 16.254 37.910 44.501 999.763 0.08135 1.64932 153.07 0.2710 17.088000
186 0.8825100 16.280 39.113 44.742 1050.892 0.08172 1.73006 154.08 0.2725 17.463400
187 0.9305700 16.305 40.416 44.984 1106.298 0.08210 1.81744 155.08 0.2741 17.846200
188 0.9827200 16.330 41.828 45.225 1166.399 0.08247 1.91210 156.08 0.2756 18.235700
189 1.0395100 16.355 43.365 45.466 1231.848 0.08284 2.01505 157.09 0.2772 18.632300
190 1.1015400 16.381 45.042 45.707 1303.321 0.08321 2.12733 158.09 0.2787 19.035800
191 1.1696500 16.406 46.882 45.949 1381.783 0.08359 2.25043 159.09 0.2803 19.446800
192 1.2447100 16.431 48.908 46.190 1468.237 0.08396 2.38589 160.10 0.2818 19.865200
193 1.3278800 16.456 51.151 46.431 1564.012 0.08433 2.53576 161.10 0.2834 20.291300
194 1.4202900 16.481 53.642 46.673 1670.431 0.08470 2.70208 162.11 0.2849 20.724400
195 1.5239600 16.507 56.435 46.914 1789.793 0.08506 2.88838 163.11 0.2864 21.166100
196 1.6407000 16.532 59.578 47.155 1924.187 0.08543 3.09787 164.12 0.2880 21.615200
197 1.7729900 16.557 63.137 47.397 2076.466 0.08580 3.33494 165.12 0.2895 22.071400
198 1.9247200 16.583 67.218 47.638 2251.102 0.08617 3.60647 166.13 0.2910 22.536700
199 2.0997500 16.608 71.923 47.879 2452.343 0.08653 3.91929 167.13 0.2926 23.009200
200 2.3045400 16.633 77.426 48.121 2688.205 0.08690 4.28477 168.13 0.2941 23.490600
a Extrapolated to represent metastable equilibrium with under cooled liquid.

AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES
AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES and a simple cooling process, respectively. The simple
psychrometric diagrams of these processes are shown
Introduction.The conservation of mass and energy Figs. 3-3 and 3-5 respectively.
is used in the study of air conditioning processes. Analy- Neglecting the fan work that may be present, the con-
sis of air conditioning processes is required for maintain- servation of mass and energy equations are as follows.
ing proper temperature and humidity in living space such
as residential, commercial, and industrial facilities. The Conservation of mass:
basic processes are as follows: m = m
a1 = m
a2 a (1)
1) simple heating and cooling processes; m v1 = m v2 = m v (2)
2) cooling with dehumidification;
W 1 = W 2 = constant (3)
3) heating with humidification;
4) adiabatic mixing of two air streams; and Conservation of energy:
5) evaporative cooling. m a h 1 + q = m a h 2 (4)
These air conditioning processes are represented in q = m a ( h 2 h 1 ) (5)
Fig. 3-1. Simple diagrams of the psychrometric chart are
shown in Figs. 2-5 and 2-6. h 1 = h a1 + Wh v1 (6)
h 2 = h a2 + Wh v2 (7)
By substituting Equations (6) and (7) in Equation (5)
with assuming ideal gas law and approximating a proper
acceptable value of W, for HVAC practice Equation (5)
H A B can be written in the following convenient form:
G C q h = 1.10 cfm ( T 2 T 1 ) (8)

o
F D
where q h = heating load, Btu/hr
E
cfm = air flow rate of dry air, ft3/min
T 1 = entering temperature, F
T 2 = leaving temperature, F
Similarly, in the case of cooling the following conve-
Fig 3-1. Fundamental air-conditioning processes nient approximate form is used for HVAC practice:
Process Direction q c = 1.10 cfm ( T 1 T 2 ) (9)
Simple heating O to C
where q c = cooling load, Btu/hr
Simple cooling O to G
cfm = air flow rate of dry air, ft3/min
Humidification O to A
Dehumidification O to E T 1 = entering temperature, F
Evaporative cooling O to H T 2 = leaving temperature, F
Evaporative heating O to D IN
1 2
Heating and humidification O to B
Cooling and dehumidification O to F
ma
h1 ma
Simple Heating and Cooling (W = constant).I n W1 h2
some heating applications, air is heated without moisture q W2 =W1
being added. An example of this process is a heat pump
with heating coil and no humidifier system. In the case of
a simple cooling process, in some chilled water cooling
applications air can be cooled without condensation. Figs. OUT
3-2 and 3-4 shows schematics of simple heating process Fig 3-2. Schematic of simple cooling process (sensible cooling)
31
32 AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES
air will be condensed on the cooling coil and then the con-
densate will be drained out. Because of this condition, the
specific humidity of the leaving moist air will be lowered.
The schematic cooling and dehumidification process is
shown in Fig. 3-6. The air conditioning system on psy-
W1 = W2 chrometric chart representation of this process is shown
in Fig. 3-7. The conservation of mass and energy equa-
tions for the cooling and dehumidification are as follows:
2 1 Conservation of mass:
Fig 3-3. Psychrometric diagram of simple cooling process m a1 = m a2 = m a (10)
1 IN
2 m v1 = m v2 + m w (11)
ma
m w = m a ( W 1 W 2 ) where W 1 > W 2 (12)
h1 ma
h2
W1
q W2 =W1 Conservation of energy:
m a h 1 = m a h 2 + q + m w h w (13)
OUT
Fig 3-4. Schematic of simple heating process
m a h 1 = m a h 2 + q + m a ( W 1 W 2 )h w (14)
q = m a ( h 1 h 2 ) m a ( W 1 W 2 )h w (15)
W1 = W2 IN
OUT 2
1 2 1
ma ma
Fig 3-5. Psychrometric diagram of simple heating process h1 h2
W1 W2
Example 1:Find the required heat to warm 2500 cfm of q
air at 60F at 90% moisture humidity to 120F without
addition of moisture.
mw
Solution: The mass flow rate of dry air is Condensate drain
cfm 2500 60 Fig 3-6. Schematic of cooling with dehumidifying process
m a = --------- = ------------------------ = 11283 lb m /hr
13.2944
The specific volume of air at 60F at 90% is 13.2944
from the psychrometric chart Fig. 2-5.
From the psychrometric chart Fig. 2-5 h 1 = 25.1 1 W1
Btu/lbm and h2 = 39.89 Btu/lbm. By applying Equation (5)
3 x W2
q = m ( h h )
a 2 1
= 11283 ( 39.89 25.1 )
= 166876 Btu/hr Fig 3-7. Psychrometric diagram of cooling with
dehumidifying process
By applying the ASHRAE Equation (8)
Example 2:What is the cooling capacity of a coil if 5000
q = 1.10 cfm ( T 2 T 1 ) cfm mixed air entering at 80F and 67F and leaving at
= 1.10 2500 ( 120 60 ) 55F at 90% relative humidity?
Solution: The mass flow rate of dry air is
= 165000 Btu/hr
cfm 5000 60
Cooling with Dehumidification.In most of the cool- m a = --------- = ------------------------ = 21687 lb m /hr
ing processes, the dew point temperature of the moist air 13.833
entering the cooling coil is higher than the cooling coil The specific volume of air at 80F and 67F is 13.833
surface temperature so that the water vapor in the entering from the psychrometric chart (Fig. 2-5).

AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES 33
The enthalpy of air at entering h1= 31.4 Btu/lbm, W1 = The schematic of this process is shown in Fig. 3-8. The
0.0112 lbv/lbda, h2 = 22.2 Btu/lbm, W2 = 0.0082 lbv/lbda, air conditioning system on psychrometric chart represen-
and the enthalpy of condensation h w = 23.0 Btu/lbv . tation of this process is shown in Fig. 3-9.
Applying the Equation (15) The conservation of the mass and energy equations are
as follows:
q = m a ( ( h 1 h 2 ) ( W 1 W 2 )h w )
Conservation of mass:
= 21687 ( ( 31.4 22.2 ) ( 0.0112 0.0082 ) 23 ) m = m = m (16)
a1 a2 a
= 198024 Btu
m v1 + m w = m v2 (17)
= 16.5 ton
m w = m a ( W 2 W 1 ) where ( W 2 < W 1 ) (18)
Heating with Humidification.In most commercial
facilities such as large office spaces, hospitals, and mod- Conservation of energy:
ern schools where central heating and cooling HVAC sys- m a h 1 + q + m w h w = m a h 2 (19)
tems are used, it is desirable to humidify the supplied
heated air to various room and spaces in order to maintain m a h 1 + q + m a ( W 2 W 1 )h w = m a h 2 (20)
comfortable relative humidity, especially in the locations
where the outdoor relative humidity during winter season q = m a ( h 2 h 1 ) + m a ( W 1 W 2 )h w (21)
is very low. In the heating with humidification process,
air first is heated by the heating coil or gas furnace and Equation (21) can be written in the following useful
then is humidified by adding moisture before it is sup- form:
plied to the space. h2 h1
- = ------
-------------------- q - + h (22)
W2 W1 mw w
Heating medium
Adiabatic Mixing of Two Air Streams. Many air

conditioning applications require the mixing of two air
ma ma streams. This is particularly true for large buildings, and
h1 h2
W1 q most process plants, office spaces, and hospitals, in which
W2
the space return air must be mixed with a certain required
outdoor fresh air for proper ventilation before it enters the
air conditioning unit. In this process, the heat transfer to
1 x the surrounding space is usually small and can be ignored.
mw 2
hw
The schematic of this process is shown in Fig. 3-10. The
psychrometric representation of this process is shown in
Fig 3-8. Schematic of heating with humidification process Fig. 3-11. The mass and energy conservation equations
for this process are as follows:
m + m a1 = m a2 a3 (23)
m v1 + m v2 = m v3 (24)
2 W1 m a1 W 1 + m a2 W 2 = m a3 W 3 (25)
Conservation of energy:
m a1 h 1 + m a2 h 2 = m a3 h 3 (26)
1 X W2 Combining Equations (23) to (26) gives:

h2 h3 W2 W3 m a1
----------------- = --------------------
- = --------
- (27)
Fig 3-9. Psychrometric diagram of heating with h3 h1 W3 W1 m a2
humidification process

1 3 oa = 14.04 ra = 13.70
W oa = 0.009 W ra = 0.0111
ma ma
h1 h3 h oa = 31.54 h ra = 30.20
w1 w3
1500 60 4500 60
m oa = ------------------------ m ra = ------------------------
14.04 13.70
= 6410 = 19708
mw
h2 2 The condition of the mixed air is
w2
Fig 3-10. Adiabatic mixing of two streams process m m = m oa + m ra = 6410 + 19708 = 26118
Solving Equations (23) to (27) for h3 and W3 gives: h oa m oa + h ra m ra
h m = -----------------------------------------------------
-
m a1 m
--------- h + h2 m
m a2 1 31.54 6410 + 30.20 19708
h 3 = --------------------------- (28) = -------------------------------------------------------------------------
m a1 26118
1 + -------- -
m a2 = 30.52 Btu/lb m
and
W oa m oa + W ra m ra
m a1 W m = ---------------------------------------------------------
-
--------- W + W2 m m
m a2 1
W 3 = ------------------------------- (29) 0.009 6410 + 0.0111 19708-
m a1 = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 + -------- - 26118
m a2 = 0.0105 lb v lb v
Example 4:Find the heat transfer rate and mass flow rate
of a heating and adiabatic humidification process where
2000 cfm air enters at 40F and 40% relative humidity and
leaves at 110F and a relative humidity of 30%.
2 W2 Solution: First we will find out the outside air and return
3 W3
air properties. Given
1 W1
cfm = 2000
T 1 = 40 T 2 = 110
Fig 3-11. Psychrometric diagram of adiabatic mixing process
1 = 40% 2 = 30%
Example 3:Find the condition of mixed air in which
1500 cfm of outside air 90F at 30% relative humidity is Mass flow rate of dry air
mixed with 4500 cfm return air of 75F at 60% relative
humidity. cfm 60 2000 60
m 1 = --------------------- = ------------------------ = 9508 lb m /hr
Solution: First we will find out the outside air and return 12.62
air properties. We are given these data: The specific volume of air at 40F and 40% is 12.62
from the psychrometry chart Fig. 2-5.
cfm oa = 1500 cfm ra = 4500 By applying the psychrometry chart (Fig. 2-5)
T oa = 90 T ra = 75 W 1 = 0.002 W 2 = 0.016
oa = 30 ra = 60 h 1 = 11.83 h 2 = 44.93
By applying the psychrometry chart (Fig. 2-5) m 2 = m a h w = 1135

Steam flow rate, m v0 + m w = m v1 (31)

m 1 W 1 + m w = m 2 W 2
m w = m a ( W 1 W 0 ) (32)
m w = m 1 ( W 2 W 1 )
Conservation of energy:
= 9508 ( 0.016 0.002 ) m a h 0 = m a h 1
= 133 lb m /hr
h0 = h1
Applying the energy balance equation for heating and (33)
humidifying equation or
T wb0 = T wb1
m h + q = m h m h
1 1 2 2 w w
q = m 2 h 2 m 1 h 1 m w h w
= m 1 ( h 2 h 1 ) m w h w
0 1
= 9508 ( 44.93 11.83 ) 133 1135 Conditioned
space
= 163760 Btu/hr
Make-up
water
B
Fig 3-12. Evaporative cooling system
A C
2 W2
Psychrometric diagram of Example 4
1
Evaporative Cooling.Conventional cooling sys- 0 W0
tems such as rooftop and system air conditioning systems
and heat pump systems operate on a refrigeration cycle
that has high initial and operating and maintenance cost. Fig 3-13. Psychrometric diagram for evaporative cooling system
The high operating cost is associated with the high elec-
Heating and Air Conditioning System Cycles.Fig.
tricity consumption of the compressor. The conventional
3-14 shows a schematic flow diagram of a simple air con-
refrigerant system can be used in any part of the world.
ditioning cycle. The psychrometric chart representation
However, in hot and dry climates, we can avoid the high
of a typical cooling and heating systems based on Fig. 3-
cost of cooling by using the evaporative coolers. The
14 are shown in Figs. 3-15 and 3-16.
evaporative cooler is based on a simple principle that as
water evaporates, the latent heat of vaporization is
absorbed from the water and the surrounding air. As a
result, both water and the air are cooled during this pro-
cess. The schematic process of evaporative cooling is
shown in Fig. 3-12. The psychrometric representation of
this process is shown in Fig. 3-13. During the humidifica-
tion process the enthalpy of moist air and the wet-bulb
temperature of the air remain approximately constant.
m a0 = m = m
a1 a (30) Fig 3-14. Air conditioning system

Then latent heat is
q s + q l = q t
Humidity Ratio
r room s
q l = q t q s
g
in m heating
m
ix = 110000 88000
o = 22000 Btu/hr
Dry-bulb temperature
Fig 3-15. Psychrometric diagram of heating/humidifying process
Example 6:A room is to be maintained at 75F and 50%
relative humidity. The outside air condition is 95F and
60% relative humidity. The outdoor air requirements for
the occupants is 500 cfm. The total heat gain to the space
Humidity Ratio
o
is 60,000 Btu/hr with a 0.80 SHF. Determine the quantity
m and the state of the air supplied to the space and the
required capacity of cooling and dehumidifying equip-
r ment.
s
Solution: Assume that the conditions of air after the
Dry-Bulb Temperature cooling coil is 55F and 90% relative humidity. Now
make a schematic diagram to locate the points on the psy-
Fig 3-16. Air conditioning cooling system
chrometric chart.
The following examples will provide good practice and
an approach to the analysis of HVAC cycles. T 0 = 95 0 = 60
Example 5:Determine the sensible and latent heat load, T 2 = 55 2 = 90

if 5000 cfm conditioned air is supplied to a room at 55F T 3 = 75 3 = 50
and 90% relative humidity. The space is to be maintained
at 75F at sensible heat factor (SHF) 0.80?
h 0 = 46.4 W 0 = 0.021 v 0 = 14.45
Solution: The total cooling load for the room is
h 2 = 22.2 W 2 = 0.008 v 2 = 13.13
q t = 1.10 cfm T
h 3 = 28.1 W 3 = 0.009 v 3 = 13.66
= 1.10 5000 ( 75 55 )
= 110000 Btu/hr Applying the energy balance equation around the room
Applying the sensible heat factor equation m 2 h 2 + q = m 2 h 3
q s q
m 2 = ----------------------
SHF = ---------------
- ( h3 h2 )
q + q s l
60000
q s = -------------------------------
( 28.1 22.2 )
SHF = ----
-
q t = 10170 lb/hr
q s = q t SHF
= 110000 0.80
= 88000 Btu/hr
where q t =total heat loss, Btu/hr
q s =sensible heat loss, Btu/hr
q l =latent heat loss, Btu/hr

Example 7:A room is to be maintained at 75F and 50%

relative humidity. The outside air is 30F and 50% rela-
tive humidity. The outdoor air requirements for the occu-
pants is 500 cfm. Sensible and latent heat losses from the
spaces are 120,000 Btu/hr and 30,000 Btu/hr. Determine
0 the quantity of air supplied at 120F to the space and the
required capacity of heating and humidifying equipment.
Solution: The figure below is the schematic for the prob-
1 lem.
3 q s
2 SHF = ---------------
-
q + q s l
120000
= ---------------------------------------
120000 + 30000
The flow rate of dry air is = 0.80
10170 13.66
cfm ra = m 2 3 = ---------------------------------- = 2315 cfm
60
The flow rate of outside air is
cfm oa 500 60
m 4 = -------------
- = --------------------- = 2076 lb m hr
14.45
The return air quantity will be (101702076) or 8094
lbm/hr. Assume return air condition and room air condi-
tion are same.
Now we find the mixed air condition by the mixing of
return air and outside air.
m = m + m = 8094 + 2076 = 10170 lb
1 0 4
2
h 0 m 0 + h 4 m 4
h 1 = -------------------------------------------
-
m 1 3
46.4 2076 + 28.1 8094 1 x
= ----------------------------------------------------------------
10170
= 31.84 Btu/lb 0
W 0 m 0 + W 4 m 4
W 1 = -----------------------------------------------
- Draw a line at point 3 parallel to SHF= 0.80, which
m 1
intersect 120F at point 2.
0.021 2076 + 0.009 8094 Applying the energy balance equation around the room
= ----------------------------------------------------------------------
10170 m h = m h + q
2 2 2 3 t
= 0.0115
q t
Applying the energy balance equation around the cool- m 2 = ---------------------
-
ing coil: ( h3 h2 )
m h = q + m h 150000
= -------------------------------
1 1 c 2 2
( 46.2 28.2 )
q c = m 2 ( h 1 h 2 )
= 8333 lb/hr
= 10170 ( 31.84 22.2 ) The flow rate of dry air is
= 98038 Btu/hr 8333 13.66
cfm ra = m 2 3 = ------------------------------- = 1898 cfm
= 8.17 ton 60

The flow rate of outside air is Fan: 4 inch of water pressure drop with 80% efficiency
cfm oa 500 60 EA RA
m 4 = -------------
- = --------------------- = 2427 lb/hr
12.36
The return air quantity will be (83332427) or 5906
lbm/hr. Assume return air condition and room air condi-
RA
tion are the same. Neglecting the return fan effect. SPACE
Now we find the mixed air condition by the mixing of

SA
return air and outside air.
m 1 = m 0 + m 4 = 5906 + 2427 = 8333 lb OA COOLING HEATING
FAN COIL COIL WITH
MA winter : 135 deg. F
h 0 m 0 + h 4 m 4
(SUMMER) HUMIDIFIER
summer : 55 deg. F
h 1 = -------------------------------------------
-
m 1
Find the
= 9.07 2427 + 28.1 5906-
--------------------------------------------------------------- A) Summer air flow, cfm
8333
= 22.55 Btu/lb B) Winter air flow, cfm
W 0 m 0 + W 4 m 4 C) Cooling coil rating, tons

W 1 = -----------------------------------------------
-
m 1 D) Sensible cooling coil rate, Btu/hr
0.0017 2427 + 0.009 5906
= ------------------------------------------------------------------------- E) Latent cooling coil rate, Btu/hr
8333
= 0.0068 lb/lb F) Heating coil rating, MBH
Applying the energy balance equation around the heat- G) Humidifier rating, gal/hr
ing coil:
Solution:
m 1 h 1 + q h = m 2 h 2 Dry Bulb Wet Bulb
Tempera- Tempera- Relative Humidity
q h = m 2 ( h 2 h 1 ) Location ture, Tdb ture, Twb Humidity Enthalpy Ratio
= 8330 ( 46.2 22.55 ) Summer
OA 95 74 37.5 37.50 0.0133
= 197005 Btu/hr RA 75 55.67 29.31 0.0103
SA 55 100 23.30 0.0092
Applying the mass balance equation around the heating MA
coil:
Winter
m 1 W 1 + m w = m 2 W 2 OA 7 100 2.883 0.0011
RA 72 50 26.42 0.0084
m w = m 1 ( W 2 W 1 ) SA 135 7.65 41.77 0.0084
MA
= 8330 ( 0.012 0.0068 )
= 43.3 lb/hr Summer cooling load:
Example 8:An existing building space will be an office q s = 1.10 cfm ( T ra T sa )

space for 200 people. The space design loads are as fol-
lows: q s
cfm = -------------------------------------------
-
Summer: 300,000 Btu/hr sensible (gain), 75,000 1.10 ( T ra T sa )
Btu/hr latent (gain) 300000
= ---------------------------------------
1.10 ( 75 55 )
Winter: 600,000 Btu/hr sensible (loss), negligible
latent = 13636

Mass of air: m oa W oa + m ra W ra
W m = ---------------------------------------------------------
-
cfm 60 m oa + m ra
m a = ---------------------
16830 0.0133 + 43064 0.0103-
= ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
13636 60 59894
= ---------------------------
13.66 = 0.0111
= 59894 lb/h Fan power:
Mass of water: cfm p
P = -----------------------t
q l 6350 f
m l = -----------
-
1100 13636 4
= ----------------------------
75000 6350 0.80
= ---------------
1100 = 10.737 hp
= 68.18 lb/h = 8 kw
Cooling coil capacity:
Humidity ratio of room air:
q coil = m a ( h m h s ( W m W s )h c )
m l
W ra = W sa + ------ = 59894 ( 31.61 23.30 ( 0.0111 0.0092 )32.0 )
m a
= 494078 Btu/hr
68.18-
= 0.0092 + -------------- = 41.2Ton
59894
= 0.010338 Winter load:
q s = 1.10 cfm ( T ra T sa )
At humidity ratio 0.10338 and 75F, h ra = 29.31
Btu/hr. q s
cfm = -------------------------------------------
-
Outside air requirement as per ASHRAE Code is 20 1.10 ( T ra T sa )
cfm/person. So the total outside air requirement = 200 600000
20 = 4000 cfm. = ------------------------------------------
1.10 ( 135 72 )
Mass of air = 8568
4000 60 Mass of air:

m oa = ------------------------
cfm 60
m a = ---------------------
4000 60
= ------------------------
14.26
= 8568 60-
-----------------------
= 16830 lb/h 13.56
= 37911 lb/h
The exhaust air will be 4000 cfm. So the return air will
be 13636 4000 = 9636 cfm and in mass 59894 16830 = Outside air requirement as per ASHRAE Code is 20
43064 lb/h. cfm/person. So the total outside air requirement = 200
20 = 4000 cfm.
Mixed air condition:
Mass of air:
m oa h oa + m ra h ra
4000 60
hm = -----------------------------------------------------
m + m
- m oa = ------------------------
oa ra
16830 37.5 + 43064 29.31 4000 60
= ------------------------------------------------------------------------- = ------------------------
59894 11.77
= 31.61 Btu/lb = 20390 lb/h

Cooling coil capacity (condensate water at 64F hc = Secondary heating coil for room-A:
32.0 Btu/h)
q h1 = 48000 + 1.10 ------------ ( 75 55 )
2728
q = m ( h h ( W W )h )
coil a f s f s c 2
21566
= --------------- ( 32.78 23.30 ( 0.011 0.0092 )32.0 ) = 78008 Btu/hr
2
= 101602 Btu/hr Secondary cooling coil for room-B:
= 8.46 ton 9584
q c2 = ------------ ( 26.42 23.30 )
Secondary cooling coil for room-A: 2
11982 = 14952 Btu/hr
q c1 = --------------- ( 26.42 23.30 )
2
Secondary heating coil for room-B:
= 18692 Btu/hr
q h2 = 36000 + 1.10 ------------ ( 75 55 )

2182
2
= 60002 Btu/hr

HYDRONIC HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEM
HYDRONIC HEATING 5) air separator

AND COOLING SYSTEM
6) connected piping system
Basic System
Hot water heating systems (hydronic heating) are con- 7) make-up and fill water system
veniently being used in many types of buildings and facil-
ities, especially for single family houses and low rise 8) control system.
multiple dwelling buildings. Also many HVAC systems
are using hot water systems as the primary source for The hydronic system can be classified by combination
heating the distribution air. The chilled water cooling sys- of:
tems (hydronic cooling) are popular in certain large resi-
1) operating temperature; 2) pumping and piping
dential buildings, hospitals, and office buildings. The
arrangement; and 3) operating pressure.
main components of a hydronic system are:
1) boiler (heating source) or chiller (cooling source) Depending on the particular application and the type of
2) circulating pump(s) the facility, the proper selection of the boiler(s) or
chiller(s), pumping systems, piping arrangement, and
3) expansion tank(s)
control system are essential for an effective and economi-
4) Heating load (radiators, convectors, HVAC units, cal hydronic system. Schematic piping drawings of some
etc.) or Cooling load (terminal units, fan-coil units, heating and cooling systems are given in Figs. 10-1 to 10-
HVAC units, etc.) 5.
Fig 10-1. Heating system for multiple dwelling building with direct return piping system
101
102 HYDRONIC HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEM
Fig 10-2. Heating system for multiple dwelling building with reverse return system
Fig 10-3. Primary system with constant speed heating system pump for multiple buildings

HYDRONIC HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEM 103
Fig 10-4. Closed chilled water system with constant speed chilled water supply pump and mixing valve
Fig 10-5. Closed chilled water system with variable speed chilled water supply pump

Temperature Classifications.The temperature clas- q

gpm = ---------------------------------------------- (1)
sifications of the hydronic systems can be categorized as: 8.02 T C P
1) Low temperature water (LTW) system
where q =heat capacity of the terminal unit, Btu/h
2) Medium temperature water (MTW) system
gpm = water flow rate, gallon/min
3) High temperature water (HTW) system
=density of water, lb/ft3
4) Chilled water (CW) system
Cp =specific heat of water, Btu/lb F
5) Dual temperature water (DTW) system.
T = temperature drop across the convector or ter-
Low Temperature Water (LWT) System: The maximum minal unit, F
temperature limitation in this case is 250F, The maxi-
mum allowable working pressure is 160 psig. The maxi- For standard conditions in which the density of the
mum working pressure depends on the static head of the water is 62.4 lb/ft3 and the specific heat is 1 Btu/lb-F,
building (height of the building) and the location of the Equation (1) can be written as
system pump(s). It is recommended for working pressure q
gpm = ---------------------- (2)
of higher than 60 psi to use steam to water or water to 500 T
water heat exchanger(s) so that the heating boiler and its
closed piping loop can be separated and to operate at In many design applications the T of 20F is recom-
lower operating pressure without being affected by the mended for small simple hydronic systems, in this case
high system working pressure. Separating the boiler by the above equation can be written as
using heat exchanger(s) from the rest of the system mini- q -
gpm = -------------- (3)
mizes boiler leaks and prolong the life of the boiler. 10000
Medium Temperature Water (MTW) System: I n t h i s Boiler.For new construction boiler(s) must be sizes
case, the working temperature is ranged between 250F based on the actual connected load and piping and pick up
and 350F with an operating pressure of 300 psig. The losses. The actual connected load must be equal or greater
maximum temperature is 400F. that the calculated design heating load. The piping and
Chilled Water (CW) System: In this case the chiller(s) pickup losses for the hydronic (hot water) boiler(s) is 15
operates to provide supply water temperature of 40 to 55 to 25% of the actual connected load and for steam boilers
F, and a pressure of up to 120 psig. For supply tempera- is 25 to 35%. In design application for which only the
ture below 40F, mostly in process applications, anti- boiler needs to be replaced, the boiler(s) must be sized to
freeze of brine solution may be used. match the actual installed connected load plus the piping
Dual Temperature Water (DTW) System: In this case, and pickup loss as mentioned above for proper operation
both boiler(s) and chiller(s) are used with common piping of the boiler(s) specially on very cold days.
system to provide hot water heating and chilled water Air Eliminations Methods.Air in the hydronic sys-
cooling. The maximum operating temperature of the tem can cause water hammer and shock waves in the
heating water is limited to 180F and minimum 40F for hydronic system when the dissolved air in the water can
the chilled water. be separated at the low pressure point of the system.
Closed Hydronic System Components Design
The closed system is a system with only one expansion
tank. The main components of the heating and cooling
hydronic systems are (1) the heating or cooling source
(such as boiler and chiller), (2) system load (convectors,
baseboards, fan coil units, and terminal units, etc.), (3)
expansion tank, (4) system pump(s), air separator,
mechanical fill system; and (5) piping distribution sys-
tem.
Convectors or Terminal Units.The convector(s)
for each room or space must be sized to be equal or greater Fig 10-6. Henrys constant versus temperature for air and water
than the calculated designed heating load for that particu-
lar room or space. The sum of the total convectors and The solubility of air in the water can be described by
other terminal units load in the building is called the Henrys equation as follow:
actual connected load. The flow rate through each con-
vector or terminal unit can be calculated from the follow- p
x = ---- (4)
ing equation: H

where x =solubility of air in water (% by volume) the return side of the terminal units (baseboard loop, con-
vectors, etc.). Air can get into the hydronic system as fol-
p = absolute pressure low:
H = Henrys constant 1) During the initial fill of the system with city
water, which contains dissolved air. In order to
minimize the dissolved air during the initial fill,
an inline separator is recommended to be installed
in the piping system, as shown in Fig. 10-8.
2) Entrain air at the air water interface of the open

expansion tank and closed steel expansion tank
where the air is being used as compressible fluid.
A diaphragm type expansion tank is preferred to
be installed since no direct contact exists between
the compressible gas and water, since they are
Fig 10-7. Solubility versus temperature and pressure separated by a flexible membrane.
for air/water solution
Henrys constant is a function temperature as shown in 3) Through the fittings in the part of the piping sys-
Figure 6. Taking into account the temperature depen- tem where the system pressure is below atmo-
dency of Henrys constant and combining withEquation spheric pressure. Design must ensure that at no
(4), the percentage of the solubility of air in water can be point in the system the system pressure is lower
determined as shown in Fig. 10-7. Fig. 10-7 clearly shows than atmospheric pressure.
what percent of air volume would exist in the different
parts of the hydronic system when the pressure and tem-
perature are known. For example at 10 psia and 120F, the 4) Other considerations are to ensure that (1) pres-
percent air volume if 2.5% from Fig. 10-7. Basically the sure at no point in the system will ever becomes
dissolved air in the water at the higher pressure point of lower than saturation temperature of the operating
the system can be separated at other parts of the system temperature and (2) the calculated (theoretical)
where the pressure is lower. That is the reason air vents net positive head (NPSHA) at the pump inlet is
are installed (1) at the top of the supply and return risers always exceeds the required net positive head
(highest point) where the pressure is the lowest and (2) at given by the pump manufacturer.
Fig 10-8. Air separator and expansion tank detail

Pressure Increase Due to Change in Tempera- expansion which is why the size of expansion tank must
ture. One should know of how much pressure will be based on temperature changes during initial system
increase due to temperature increase; this is especially fill. For example, in low temperature hydronic heating
important for the sizing of the expansion tank. The rela- system when boiler and piping system need to be initially
tionship between pressure change due to temperature filled during winter time, the city water temperature could
change in a piping system is given by the following equa- be as low as 40F, which must be heated to 200F. In this
tions: case, the piping system will experience a large tempera-
( 3 ) t ture difference and the system expansion tank must be
P = --------------------------------- (5) sized to handle this large temperature increase. Another
5--- ---------
D
- + option is that to heat the city water initially by means of
4 E r electric heat to reduce the size of the system expansion
tank, but same procedure must be followed for the future
where P = pressure increase, psi;
system fill to avoid drastic damage to the piping system
=volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion due to excessive expansion. It should be noted that the
of water, 1/F; expansion tanks besides serving a thermal function serves
=linear coefficient of thermal expansion for a hydraulic function as well. As a hydraulic device, the
piping material, 1/F; expansion tank provides a reference system pressure
t =water temperature increase, F; point analogous to the ground point in an electrical cir-
cuit.
D =pipe diameter, in.;
Expansion tanks are of three basic configurations: (1) a
E =modulus of elasticity of piping material, psi; closed tank, which contains a captured volume of com-
=volumetric compressibility of water, in2/lb; pressed air and water, with an air water interface (some-
and times called a plain steel tank) as shown in Fig. 10-12; (2)
r =thickness of pipe wall, in. an open tank (i.e., a tank open to the atmosphere) as
shown in Fig. 10-10; and (3) a diaphragm tank, in which a
flexible membrane is inserted between the air and the
water (another configuration of a diaphragm tank is the
bladder tank) as shown in Fig. 10-11.
Equations for sizing the three common configurations
of expansion tanks are as follow:
Open tanks with air/water interface:
Fig 10-9. Pressure increase resulting from thermal expansion

as function of temperature increase
Based on Equation (5), figures can be developed to

show the change in pressure due to temperature change Fig 10-10. Open tank
for specific pipe sizes and pipe material as shown in Fig.
10-9 which provides pressure increase vs. pressure For diaphragm tanks:
increase for 1 and 10 schedule 40 steel pipes. For exam-
ple for a 5F temperature increase for a 10 schedule 40
steel pipe, the pressure increase is 100 psi.
Expansion Tank.The connected piping in hydronic
systems is subject to expansion and contraction due to
changes in system temperature especially during initial
system fill. Expansion tanks (or compression tanks) are
required to protect against thermal expansion of the pip-
ing system due to temperature rise. During initial fill the
piping system could experience the largest thermal Fig 10-11. Diaphragm tank

For closed tanks with air/water interface: sphere must be located above the highest point in the sys-
tem. A tank with an air/water interface is generally used
with an air control system that continually revents the air
into the tank. For this reason, it should be connected at a
point where air can best be released.
Example 1:Size an expansion tank for dual temperature
system that will be operated at a design temperature range
of 40F to 200F. The minimum pressure at the tank is
62.3 psig (47.6 psia) and the maximum pressure is 117.3
psig (102.6 psia). (Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia.)
The volume of water is 2500 gal. The piping is steel.
Fig 10-12. Closed tank air water interact
1. Calculate the required size for a closed tank with an
Expansion Tank Sizing .Equations for sizing the air/water interface.
three common configurations of expansion tanks follow: Solution: From Table 2-3:
For closed tanks with air/water interface, V 1 ( at 40F ) = 0.01602
V V 2 ( at 200 F ) = 0.01663
-----2- 1 3 T
V 1
V t = V s ----------------------------------------------------
P a P a
(6) V -----2- 1 3 T
------ ------ V
P P 1
V t = V s -----------------------------------------------
1 2 P a P a
-----
- ------
For open tanks with air/water interface, P P
1 1
V2
V t = 2V s ------ 1 3 T (7) 0.01663
------------------- 1 3 6.5 10 160
6
V 1
0.01602
For diaphragm tanks, = 2500 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
14.7
---------- -------------
14.7
V
-----2- 1 3 T 62.3 117.3
V 1
V t = V s ---------------------------------------------------- (8) = 787 gal
1 ----- P 1 2. If a diaphragm tank were to be used in lieu of the
-
P plain steel tank, what tank size would be required?
2
where Vt =volume of expansion tank, gal Solution: Using Equation (8),
Vs = volume of water in system, gal V -----2- 1 3 T
T1 = lower temperature, F V
1
T2 = higher temperature, F V t = V s -----------------------------------------------
1 -----P 1
Pa = atmospheric pressure, psia -
P 2
P1 =pressure at lower temperature, psia
P2 =pressure at higher temperature, psia 0.01663
------------------- 1 3 6.5 10 160
6
V1 = specific volume of water at lower tempera- 0.01602
= 2500 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ture, ft3/lb 1 ------------
62.3-
V2 = specific volume of water at higher tempera- 117.3
ture, ft3/lb
= 186 gal
= linear coefficient of thermal expansion, in/in-
F
= 6.5 10 6 in/in-F for steel
= 9.5 10 6 in/in-F for copper
T = (T2T1),F
The higher pressure is normally set by the maximum
pressure allowable at the location of the safety relief
valve(s) without opening them. A tank open to the atmo-

Expansion Tank Location: It should be noted that the impeller axially to the shaft and it has energy imparted to
location of the tank has no effect on the system pressure it by rotating vanes of the impeller. The fluid leaves the
before and after the pump as shown in Figs. 10-13 to 10- periphery of the impeller at a relatively high velocity and
16. Notice that, when the pump is on, the pressure at the is collected in the casing or shell. This casing is so
pump inlet decreases equal to the amount of pump head designed that the velocity of the liquid is gradually
and it increases at the pump discharge equal to the pump reduced before it is discharged. Here the velocity of the
head. In good design practice, in order to reduce the size liquid is converted into pressure by reduction of velocity
of the expansion tank, it is preferred to install the tank according to Bernoulli's theorem.
before the system pump. The size of the tank can also be The quantity of liquid discharged by the pump is
reduced when the tank is installed at the highest point of almost always measured in gpm, although sometimes the
the piping system where the pressure is the lowest. measure is cubic feet per second. In this discussion gal-
lons per minute is used as the unit.
Pressure developed by a centrifugal pump is specified
as head in feet of liquid.
2.31P
h = --------------
s
where s =specific gravity of the liquid compared to
water (water at 60/60F = 1.00);
Fig 10-13. Effect of expansion tank location with respect to
pump pressure h =head in feet; and
P =pressure in psi.
The head developed by a centrifugal pump is a function
of the impeller diameter and the speed of rotation (rpm).
Maximum head that can be developed by a centrifugal
pump is when the discharge valve is tightly closed and the
pump is discharging zero capacity into the system. This is
Fig 10-14. Effect of expansion tank location with respect to known as the shut-off head of the pump. Since there is a
pump pressure
predetermined maximum pressure that the pump can
develop and this pressure is taken into account by the
designer, centrifugal pumps do not require relief valves or
other unloading mechanizers that are otherwise necessary
for the positive displacement type pumps. The maximum
or shut-off head h of any centrifugal pump can be very
closely calculated by the formula:
DN 2
Fig 10-15. Effect of expansion tank location with respect to h x = --------------
pump pressure 1840
where D =outside diameter of the impeller in. and;
N =rpm.
Fig 10-16. Effect of expansion tank location with respect to

pump pressure
Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps
There are two distinct types of centrifugal pumps: (1)
the turbine type pump, which uses diffusers or guide
vanes in the casing for the conversion of velocity to pres- Fig 10-17. Performance curves for a typical centrifugal pump
sure energy, and (2) the volute-type centrifugal pump, one with 9.5 in. impeller diameter and 1750 rpm constant speed
most commonly used. Operating Characteristics.Hydraulic operating
Mechanically, a volute type centrifugal pump consists characteristics of a typical centrifugal pump, or perfor-
of an impeller or runner having curved vanes revolving on mance curve, is shown in Fig. 10-17. The pressure (or
a shaft and housed in a shell or casing. Liquid enters the head in feet of liquid) developed by the pump at a speci-

fied impeller diameter and at a constant rpm is plotted that apply to the change in performance of a centrifugal
against the discharge of the pump in gallons per minute pump by a change in the speed of rotation or a change in
(gpm.) the impeller diameter of a particular pump. It should
always be remembered in using these laws of affinity that
Note that the maximum head developed by the pump is they are theoretical and do not always give exact results as
at zero capacity or shut-off as previously mentioned. compared with tests. However, they are a good guide for
predicting the hydraulic performance characteristic of a
The head-capacity curve extends from shut-off to max-
pump from a known characteristic caused by either alter-
imum or wide-open capacity. In other words, as the pump
ing the speed of rotation or the outside diameter of the
discharges more liquid, its pressure decreases. The slope impeller. The laws of affinity may be stated as follows:
of the head-capacity curve is due to (1) the curve or shape
and the number of vanes in the impeller; (2) friction or At a constant impeller diameter,
head loss within the pump. As the pump discharges more
1. capacity varies directly as the speed:
liquid, there is increased internal friction, and this friction
loss is actually a loss in pressure or head at the discharge 2. head varies directly as the square of the speed; and
of the pump hence, the slope in head capacity curve. The
pump designer can control to a certain degree the slope of 3. horsepower varies directly as the cube of the speed.
the head-capacity curve by the shape or warp of the impel- In equation form, the foregoing are expressed as
ler vanes and also by the number of vanes. The internal
friction, however, is a factor over which the pump gpm rpm
------------y- = -----------y-
designer has very little control. gpm x rpm x
The efficiency curve rises to a maximum within certain
2
capacity limits and then falls off toward the maximum head y rpm y
capacity of the pump. The brake horsepower curve is usu- --------------- = --------------
-
head x 2
ally as shown; that is, brake horsepower gradually rpm x
increases in value as capacity increases. Maximum effi- 3
ciency of a centrifugal pump lies within the design range. bhp y rpm y
------------ = --------------
-
A pump designer has a definite capacity and head upon bhp x 3
rpm x
which all calculations are based, and the calculations are
such that the maximum efficiency of the pump will be at At constant speed:
or very near design capacity.
1. capacity varies directly as the cube of the impeller
Pump Laws.The efficiency of a centrifugal pump, as diameter;
for any machine, is horsepower output divided by the
2. head varies directly as the square of the impeller
horsepower input. When efficiency is known the horse-
diameter; and
power requirement of the pump is determined by the for-
mula: 3. horsepower varies directly as the fifth power of the
impeller diameter.
HP = gpm DH s-
----------------------------------
3960 E Or, in equation form,
where DH = dynamic head in feet; gpm y d

------------- = ----y-
gpm x dx
s =specific gravity; and
E =efficiency expressed as a decimal. 3
head d
--------------y- = ----y-
This formula holds for any liquid since the specific head x 3
dx
gravity of liquid as compared with water may be inserted
in the formula.
5
bhp y dy
Change of Performance.The so-called laws of ------------ = -------
bhp x 5
affinity relating to centrifugal pumps are theoretical rules dx

and control valves, that must be available in the form of extremely cold weather or in the event of a power failure,
pump pressure. water flow and temperature cannot be guaranteed. Addi-
tionally, continuous pumping can be energy-intensive
Preliminary Pump Selection: The preliminary selection and cause system wear. Designers should take following
should be based on the pumps ability to fulfill the deter- precautions to prevent flow stoppage or damage from
mined capacity requirements. It should be selected at a freezing:
point left of center on the pump curve and should not
overload the motor. Because pressure drop in a flow sys- 1. Select all load devices (such as preheat coils) that are
tem varies as the square of the flow rate, the flow variation subjected to outdoor air temperatures for constant flow,
variable control.
between the nearest size of stock pump and an exact point
selection will be relatively minor. 2. Position the coil valves of all cooling coils with valve
controls that are dormant in winter months to the full-
Final Pipe Sizing and Pressure Drop Determina- open position at those times.
tion.Final Piping Layout: Examine the overall piping 3. If intermittent pump operation is used as an economy
layout to determine whether pipe sizes in some areas need measure, use an automatic override to operate both
to be readjusted. Several principal circuits should have chilled water and heating water pumps in below-freezing
approximately equal pressure drops so that excessive weather.
pressures are not needed to serve a small portion of the
building. 4. Select pump starters that automatically restart after
power failure (i.e., maintain-contact control).
Consider both the initial cost of the pump and piping
5. Select non overloading pumps.
system and the pumps operating cost when determining
final system friction loss. Generally, lower heads and 6. Instruct operating personnel never to shut down
larger piping are more economical when longer amortiza- pumps in subfreezing weather.
tion periods are considered, especially in larger systems.
7. Do not use aquastats, which can stop a pump, in
However, in small systems such as in residences, it may boiler circuits.
be most economical to select the pump first and design the
piping system to meet the available pressure. In all cases, 8. Avoid sluggish circulation, which may cause air
adjust the piping system design and pump selection until binding or dirt deposit. Properly balance and clean sys-
the optimum design is found. tems. Provide proper air control or means to eliminate air.
9. Install low temperature detection thermostats that
Final Pressure Drop. When the final piping layout have phase change capillaries wound in a serpentine pat-
has been established determine the friction loss for each tern across the leaving face of the upstream coil.
section of the piping system from the pressure drop charts
(Chapter 9) for the mass flow rate in each portion of the When designing fan equipment that handles outdoor
piping system. After calculating the friction loss at design air, take precautions to avoid stratification of air entering
flow for all sections of the piping system and all fittings, the coil. The best methods for proper mixing of indoor
terminal units, and control valves, sum them for several of and outdoor air are the following:
the longest piping circuits to determine the pressure 1. Select dampers for pressure drops adequate to pro-
against which the pump must operate at design flow. vide stable control of mixing, preferably with dampers
installed several equivalent diameters upstream of the air-
Final Pump Selection. After completing the final handling unit.
pressure drop calculations, select the pump by plotting a 2. Design intake and approach duct systems to promote
system curve and pump curve and selecting the pump or natural mixing.
pump assembly that operates closest to the calculated
design point. 3. Select coils with circuiting that allows parallel flow
of air and water.
Freeze Prevention.All circulating water systems Freeze-up may still occur with any of these precau-
require precautions to prevent freezing, particularly in tions. If an antifreeze solution is not used, water should
makeup air applications in temperate climates where (1) circulate at all times. Valve controlled elements should
coils are exposed to outdoor air at below-freezing temper- have low-limit thermostats, and sensing elements should
atures, (2) undrained chilled water coils are in the winter be located to ensure accurate air temperature readings.
airstream, or (3) piping passes through unheated spaces. Primary and secondary pumping of coils with three-way
Freezing will not occur as long as flow is maintained and valve injection is advantageous. Use outdoor reset of
the water is at least warm. Unfortunately, during water temperature wherever possible.

INDEX 211
Air conditioning system (continued)

automatic control
A variable speed control 13-95
automatic control
Abbreviations scientific and engineering terms 18-8 winter cycle 13-88
Absorption split systems 13-4 winter operation 13-96
AC motors 17-5 winterizing chilled water system 13-97
Acoustical problems zone day-night operation 13-91
air handling room 16-42 zone mixing dampers 13-88
apparatus casings 16-42 backlash 13-79
dampers in duct 16-42 basic arrangement 13-69, 13-75
fan isolation base 16-42 ceiling plenum 13-70
flexible connectors 16-43 floor layouts 13-69
high velocity system 16-40 office building 13-73
Adiabatic mixing 3-3, 3-5 carryover 13-79
Air check lists 13-114
binding 15-41 air distribution 13-116
composition 2-1 drain facilities 13-115
compressor 9-73 duct system 13-116
discharge pipe capacities 9-78 electric power facilities 13-115
discharge through orifice 9-78 heating load 13-115
hot water heating supply 13-115
flow control 12-27 refrigeration facilities 13-115
handling 14-114-96 sewer facilities 13-115
horsepower 14-1 steam supply facilities 13-115
infiltration in fuel oil piping 12-18 water facilities 13-115
mixing streams 3-3 cold storage 13-58
pipe sizing 9-73 constant volume mixing unit 13-76
piping pressure loss 9-72 construction details 13-80
pressurization 15-64 control 13-9, 13-26
regulators 9-73 control panel location 13-9
removal from system 15-49 cooling considerations 13-20
supply outlets 14-56 dehumidification 13-59
to air heat pumps 13-38 direct solar heating 13-56
to water heat pumps 13-40 double duct 13-9
venting 15-52 duct joints 13-80
Air conditioning process 3-13-8 energy requirements 13-19
heating and cooling 3-1 equipment maintenance 13-108
Air conditioning system 13-113-116 evaporative air conditioning 13-1413-16
absorption split system 13-4 fans 13-79
air handler selection 13-49 furnace mounting 13-7
air handling apparatus 13-77 heat pumps 13-3613-44
air motion 13-14 heat recovery 13-2213-29
air systems 13-23, 13-3013-34 heat recovery air system 13-30
all-water systems 13-27 heat recovery water system 13-30
apparatus casing 13-79 heating and cooling calculations 13-19
apparatus floor area 13-77 high velocity dual duct 13-60
attic or crawl space 13-5 advantages 13-60
automatic control 13-81 air quantities 13-64
cold air plenum 13-85 cycles 13-60
cold deck control 13-82 design factors 13-66
counter and parallel flow 13-98 design high pressure ducts 13-67
damper 13-88 design velocities 13-66
damper operation 13-88 double fan with dehumidifier 13-61
day cycle 13-88 large vs. small ducts 13-65
dual duct constant volume 13-94 low pressure ducts 13-68
dual duct mixing box 13-93 maximum velocity 13-66
dual duct system 13-95 single fan with dehumidifier 13-6013-61
dual duct variable volume 13-94 sizing 13-65
economizer cycle 13-88 system design 13-64, 13-68
face and bypass control 13-9413-95 horizontal package units 13-1
freeze prevention 13-97 humidity control 13-10
hot deck control 13-84 initial costs 13-18
installation of equipment 13-107
hot plenum 13-85 installations in roof 13-8
hot water 13-90 installed costs 13-79
hot water converter 13-94 insulation 13-79
hot water pressure 13-92 lighting heating cooling system 13-22
hot water reheat 13-9213-94 location on roof 13-10513-106
hot water system 13-91 advantages 13-105
mixed air 13-85 automatic control 13-105
mixed air control 13-88 multiple units 13-105
mixed air section 13-82 size of system 13-105
mixing box control 13-94 ventilation 13-106
multizone unit 13-84 machinery space 13-106
night cycle 13-88 maintenance 13-112
night operation 13-89 multizone 13-813-9
preheat control 13-91 multizone units 13-4
pressure control 13-94 noise 13-79
rooftop multizone units 13-81 outdoor conditions 13-14
rotary air to air heat exchanger 13-95 overlapping 13-21
single duct variable volume 13-95 refrigeration chassis 13-2
summer cycle 13-88 remote condensers 13-2
summer operation 13-95 remote condensing units 13-3
unit ventilator 13-88 rooftop 13-6

212 INDEX
Air conditioning system (continued) Automatic control (continued)

selection procedure 13-10 counterflow and parallel flow 13-98
services to equipment 13-107 damper 13-88
servicing of damper operation 13-88
air handling system 13-107 day cycle 13-88
compresser oil 13-107 dual duct constant volume 13-94
condenser 13-107 dual duct mixing box 13-93
cooling plant 13-107 dual duct system 13-95
refrigeration unit 13-108 dual duct variable volume 13-94
water system 13-107 economizer cycle 13-88
single package installations 13-5 face and bypass control 13-9413-95
single package units 13-1 freeze prevention 13-97
single package year round units 13-2 hot deck control 13-84
slab or ground level 13-6 hot plenum 13-85
solar augmented heat pump 13-57 hot water 13-90
solar energy 13-54 hot water converter 13-94
solar heating description 13-54 hot water pressure 13-92
solar heating domestic water 13-56 hot water reheat 13-9213-94
solar heating operation 13-54 hot water system 13-91
solar heating storage tank 13-56 mixed air 13-85
sound lining 13-79 mixed air control 13-88
split systems 13-7 mixing box 13-94
thermostat location 13-10 multizone unit 13-84
utility off-peak cooling 13-57 night cycle 13-88
variable affecting costs 13-80 night operation 13-89
variable volume system 13-1713-21 preheat control 13-91
ventilation air 13-9 pressure control 13-94
vertical package units 13-1 rooftop multizone units 13-81
vibration 13-106 rotary air to air heat exchanger 13-95
wall condensing units 13-8 single duct variable volume 13-95
well water 13-54 summer cycle 13-88
well water precooling 13-55 summer operation 13-95
well water refrigerant condensing 13-55 unit ventilator 13-88
winter to summer tank transition 13-58 variable speed control 13-95
year round remote units 13-3 winter cycle 13-88
zoning 13-69 winter operation 13-96
zoning installation 13-8 winterizing chilled water system 13-97
Air distribution system 16-43 zone day night operation 13-91
dampers as a noise generating source 16-46 zone mixing dampers 13-88
dual duct area ratio 16-45 Automatic control of dual duct system 13-95
duct connectors 16-44 Avoirdupois or commercial weight 20-2
duct design method 16-43
duct in machine room 16-43
duct off fittings 16-45 B
duct velocity 16-43 Backlash 13-79
flutter in dual duct mixing units 16-47 Balancing
grilles, registers and diffusers 16-48 air flow 14-96
high velocity ductwork 16-44, 16-46 and testing 14-99
inlets to high velocity terminal points 16-47 booster fan systems 14-98
large terminal units 16-48 circuits 15-53
noise in flexible connections 16-46 duct distribution 14-98
sound barrier for high velocity ductwork 16-46 Band pressure level 16-1
sound traps 16-46 Bandwidth correction 16-6
terminal devices 16-47 Bare pipe radiation 15-34
testing of high pressure ductwork 16-47 Barrel liquid capacity 20-2
two motor dual duct units 16-47 Below grade wall U-factors 6-3
warm connections 16-47 Belts 13-114
Air filters 9-73, 14-78 Binary multiples 20-10
characteristics 14-80 Blocked tight static pressure 14-2
dry filters 14-78 Boiler
electronic air cleaner 14-79 cast iron 15-77
selection 14-79 cast iron radiators 15-78
viscous impingement 14-78 common return header 15-3
Air handling units connected load 15-73
trap 15-11215-116 direct return connections 15-315-4
Air space thermal resistance 5-19 draft loss 15-76
Air volume drip end 15-7
humidifying or dehumidifying 14-74 effect of load variation 15-70
required 14-75 emergency protection 15-69
sensible heating or cooling 14-74 furnace volume 15-73, 15-75
Airborne noise through ducts 16-13 gas fired 15-75
Aircraft air heater 15-83 grate area 15-73, 15-75
ANSI Standard abbreviations 18-8 hand fired 15-75
Apothecaries Hartford connection 15-3
fluid measure 20-2 heat emission 15-78
weight 20-2 heating surface 15-73
Apparatus casing 13-79 heating value of coal 15-73
Apparatus casing construction 14-77 hot water system 15-69
Application range 14-2 mechanically fired steel boilers 15-74
Atmospheric pressure 20-2 nameplate 15-75
Attenuation 16-1 oil fired 15-74, 15-76
Automatic control 13-81 overhead connections 15-4
cold air plenum 13-85 pipe sizing 15-71
cold deck control 13-82 pipe, valves, and fittings 15-69

INDEX 213
Boiler (continued) Cloud point 12-15

piping 15-15 CLTD
piping connections to boilers 15-1 conduction through glass 7-31
ratings 15-30, 15-73, 15-7515-76 multi family 7-49
return header drip 15-6 roofs 7-9
return piping 15-6 single family 7-49
return trap 15-29 walls 7-11
stack dimensions 15-76 Code number
steam header drip 15-6 thermal properties 7-27
steam main drop 15-6 walls and roofs 7-27
steam main rise 15-6 Coefficient of performance 1-4, 1-6, 13-36
steam mains 15-6 Coefficient of transmissions
stoker fired 15-75 built up roofing 5-14
supply and return piping 15-6 ceiling by metal 5-15
supply header drip 15-6 ceiling by wood 5-15
supply piping 15-6 flat masonry roof 5-145-15
valve installation 15-69 flat metal roof 5-15
venting of piping 15-70 frame ceiling 5-14
welded joints 15-70 frame floor 5-14
Boiler horsepower 12-31 frame partitions 5-12
Boiling point frame walls 5-115-12
calcium chloride 15-81 masonry cavity walls 5-13
ethylene glycol 15-81 masonry partitions 5-13
glycerine 15-81 masonry walls 5-115-12
glycol 15-81 pitched roof 5-16
oil 15-82 Cold air plenum 13-85
tetraanyl silicate 15-82 Cold deck control 13-82
tetracresyl silicate 15-81 Combustion 12-112-20
Brake horsepower 14-2 air flow control 12-27
Branch trunk duct losses 14-60 air heater bypassing 12-17
Breeching air infiltration in piping 12-18
access 14-85 basics 12-1
aerodynamics 14-84 chemistry 12-1
construction 14-83, 14-85 control errors 12-20
design 14-83 control strategy 12-20
design and construction 14-83 draft control 12-24
expansion 14-83 draft measurements 12-17
British standard thermal units, (Btu) 20-7 efficiency 12-3
Broadband noise 16-1 efficiency losses 12-4
Building material resistances 5-17, 5-215-26 energy losses 12-7
Built up roofing coefficient of transmission 5-14 excess air cost 12-3
Byte 20-10 feedwater control 12-23
firing rate 12-18
flue gas 12-6
C flue gas recirculation 12-28
fuel composition 12-1
Canning 15-30 fuel oil 12-16
Carat 20-2 fully metered control 12-22
Carnot cycle 1-4 grate 12-16
Carryover 13-79 natural gas 12-15
Cast iron radiators, capacity 15-79 oxygen sensor 12-17
Cavitation on pump 15-68 oxygen trim 12-26
Ceiling parallel positioning 12-21
by metal coefficient of transmissions 5-15 radiation loss 12-5
by wood coefficient of transmissions 5-15 reaction 12-1
Centimeter-gram-second system of measurement 20-8 safe burner set up 12-3
Cfm and scfm 14-1 short circuiting 12-16
Check valve 9-1399-141 single pressure regulator 12-19
Cheese vats 15-31 stack losses 12-5
Chimney theory 12-1
draft 14-90 tramp air 12-16
sizing 14-94 troubleshooting 12-15, 12-17
velocities 14-90 varying fuel flow 12-2
Circular mil gage for wires 20-1 varying oxygen content 12-2
Circulating pumps 15-6615-67 water in the fuel oil 12-18
boilers 15-69 wet atomizing steam 12-18
cavitation effects 15-68 Combustion control
construction 15-68 air considerations 12-12
for boiler 15-69 atomizing media 12-12
net positive suction head 15-68 cloud point 12-15
seals 15-68 considerations 12-11
CLF draft 12-13
hooded equipments 7-457-46 elevation 12-13
people 7-447-45 firing considerations 12-14
unhooded equipments 7-44 flashpoint 12-15
Climatic flue gas considerations 12-13
cooling design data 19-1 flue gas recirculation 12-14
data 19-119-38 fuel oil firing considerations 12-14
data applicability 19-1 natural gas efficiency 12-8
data characteristics 19-1 nitrogen content 12-15
design condition 19-1 no. 2 oil efficiency 12-9
desumidification design data 19-1 no. 6 oil efficiency 12-10
heating design data 19-1 pour point 12-15
mean daily range 19-1 pressure and flow basics 12-11
Closed system 1-2 saving fuel 12-7

214 INDEX
Combustion control (continued) Cooling tower noise control (continued)

sulfur content 12-15 leaving condition changed 16-39
temperature 12-13 location 16-39
viscosity considerations 12-14 oversizing the tower 16-39
Compressed air reducing generated sound 16-39
pipe sizing 9-73 sound absorbers 16-40
receiver 9-74 water noise 16-37
system 9-72 Cooling water 13-113
system testing 9-74 Cooling water system 13-11213-113
Compressed liquid 1-1 Cooling, heat recovery 13-45
Compresssors 13-114 Counterflow and parallel flow 13-98
Concrete block 15-31 Cubic measure 20-1
Concrete, ready mix 15-31
Condensate drains 14-77
Condensate return pump 15-29 D
Condenser 13-113
Condensing units in wall 13-8 Damper control 13-88
Condensing water circuit 13-111, 13-113 Damper operation 13-88
Conduction 5-1 Dampers 13-113
Connections Day cycle 13-88
heating units to risers 15-8 Decibel 16-1
mains to downfeed risers 15-8 Degree days 11-111-8
offset 15-9 Degree of saturation 2-2
risers to heating unit 15-9 Dehumidification 13-59
runout 15-9 Demand load 9-28
Conservation of energy 1-3, 3-13-3 Demand weights of fixtures 9-30
cooling and dehumidifing 3-2 Density effects 14-4
Conservation of energy equations 3-1 Design lateral load 14-77
Conservation of mass 1-3, 3-13-3 Dew point temperature 2-4
Conservation of mass equations 3-1 Direct fired unit heater 15-83
Continuity equation 1-6 Distilleries 15-32
Control valve sizing 9-1429-143 Domestic water, solar heating 13-56, 13-58
Controls 13-9 Double duct system 13-9
basic factors for designing 15-96 Draft
bonnet air temperature 15-96 burning coal 14-95
continuous air circulation 15-94 control 12-24, 14-92
continuous blower circulation 15-95 foot of chimney 14-95
errors 12-20 measurements 12-17
Drip end 15-7
fan switch 15-94
Dripping riser 15-12
intermittent blower operation 15-95 Dry cleaning 15-32
limit switch 15-94 Dry measure 20-2, 20-8
room thermostat 15-94 Dryers 15-32
strategies 12-20 Dual duct
temperature drop of air in ducts 15-96 constant volume control 13-94
thermostatics 15-94 mixing box control 13-93
valve sizing 9-142 variable volume control 13-94
Convection 5-2 Duct
Convection coefficient 5-3 box plenum system 15-88
Convector piping details 15-4 characteristics 15-88
Conversion design 8-9
fractional inch to millimeter 20-3 design by computer 14-72
millimeter to fractional inch 20-3 design methods 8-12
Cookers, coil 15-31 design procedures 8-13
Cookers, jacketed 15-32 design velocities 8-11
Cooling and dehumidification 3-2 equal friction method 8-12
Cooling and dehumidifing 3-2 equivalent lengths of fittings 15-105
Cooling load 5-33 equivalent rectangular ducts 8-6
Cooling load calculation 7-1 extended plenum system 15-88
CLF method 7-67-49 fibrous glass construction 14-73
CLTD method 7-67-49 fitting friction loss 8-14
cooling coil load 7-1 fitting loss coefficient
heat extraction rate 7-1 bellmouth, plenum to round 8-24
heat gain 7-1 conical diffuser 8-26
heat source 7-1 damper, butterfly 8-19
latent heat gain 7-1 elbow mitered 8-18
radiation heat gain 7-1 elbow mitered with vane 8-18
residential 7-35 elbow with splitter vane 8-17
SCL method 7-67-49 elbow without vanes 8-17
sensible heat gain 7-1 elbow Z shaped 8-19
space cooling load 7-1 exhaust system 8-26
thermal storage 7-1 fire damper 8-27
transfer function method 7-1 return system 8-26
Cooling of fuel oil in atomizers 12-18 round tap to rectangular main 8-25
Cooling tower 13-9913-105 tee converging 8-26, 8-31, 8-338-34
estimating data 13-101, 13-103 transition in rectangular 8-25
natural draft 13-102 transition rectangular to round 8-25
tower height 13-103 transition round to rectangular 8-27
water requirements 13-104 transition round to round 8-26
wet bulb temperature 13-103 varaiable inlet outlet areas 8-24
wind velocity 13-102 wye converging 8-36
Cooling tower noise control 16-36 wye 30 degree converging 8-28
configurations 16-38 wye, 45 degree 8-30, 8-32
fan noise 16-36 fitting loss coefficient tables 8-178-37
half speed operation 16-39 flat and oval duct 8-5

INDEX 215
Duct (continued) Ducts (continued)

individual system 15-88 testing and balancing 8-12
rectangular 8-5 turns 14-51
resistance in low pressure ducts 8-15 velocity 14-37
static regain method 8-13, 8-15 velocity pressure 14-3714-38
trunk system 15-88 Dust collectors 14-7814-79
turns 14-28 dry centrifugal types 14-82
vibration and noise 8-12 electrostatic precipitators 14-83
Duct design 8-1, 8-17 fabric collectors 14-82
Duct design data wet collectors 14-82
diffuser, free discharge 8-21
plenum to rectangular 8-21
sudden contraction 8-21
Tee type, diverging 8-23
E
transition, rectangular to rectangular 8-22 Economizer control cycle 13-88
transition, round to rectangular 8-22 Emissivities 5-4
wye type diverging 8-22 Energy 1-2
45 degree entry branch 8-24 internal 1-2
90 degree elbow 8-21 kinetic 1-2
Duct joints 13-80 potential 1-2
Duct roughness 8-5 thermal 1-2
Ducts 13-113 Energy equation 8-1
air balancing 14-52 Energy esimation
air distribution 14-56 base temperature 11-1
air flow 14-37, 14-53 degree days 11-111-8
air quantities 13-64 abroad 11-8
air supply outlets 14-56 application 11-2
air turning hardware 14-52 different bases 11-911-20
branches and discharges 14-51 U.S. cities 11-911-20
cycles 13-60 empirical constants 11-7
degree of roughness 14-40 fuel consumption 11-4
density of air 14-39 future demands 11-5
design air velocities 14-47 guide of operation 11-2
design considerarion 8-9 limitations 11-7
design velocities 8-12, 13-66 load factors 11-7
double fan dual duct 13-61 operational hours 11-7
dynamic loss 8-7 65 deg, as base 11-1
elbows 8-14 Enthalpy 1-1, 2-4
energy equation 8-1 Entropy 1-1
equal friction method 8-14 Equation of state 2-1
factors for design 13-66 Equipment arrangement 13-44
fan system interface 8-8 Equipment losses 14-60
Equipment maintenance 13-108
fire and smoke management 8-9 air distribution 13-108
flexible ductwork 14-62 air handling 13-108
four types 14-53 central system schedule 13-111
friction chart 8-48-5 cooling 13-108
friction losses 8-2, 14-40 schedule 13-11013-111
friction of air 14-4114-44 water using 13-108
good turns 14-50 Equivalent direct radiation 15-1
high pressure ducts 13-67 Equivalent length of elbow 9-2
high velocity 13-60 Erosion 9-3
high velocity advantages 13-60 Ethylene glycol 15-81
high velocity design 14-71 Evaporative air conditioning 13-1413-16
high velocity system 14-59 air motion 13-14
insulation 8-9 outdoor conditions 13-14
large vs. small in size 13-65 Evaporative condensers 13-113
local loss coefficients 8-7 Exbi 20-10
losses in rectangular elbows 14-46 Excess air 12-3
losses in round elbows 14-45 Excess air measurement 12-6
losses in round fittings 14-45 Exhaust air heat recovery 13-31
low pressure ducts 13-68 Expansion conditions 15-65
maximum velocity 13-66 Expansion joints 15-9
noise control 8-12 Expansion loops 15-9
non circular 8-5 swing type 15-10
pitot traverse 14-3914-40 Expansion of piping 9-1349-135
pressure change in a system 8-8 Expansion tank 15-65
pressure head 8-1 sizing 15-53, 15-65
pressure losses 14-4814-49, 14-61 Expansion valves 13-112
recommended velocities 8-11, 14-57 Extrinsic property 1-1
rectangular and round equivalents 14-47
rectangular shape 14-40
return air ducts 13-68
return air plenums 14-54
F
roughness factors 8-2 Face and bypass control 13-9413-95
roughness values 8-5 Fan 13-79
sectional losses 8-7 acoustic properties 16-21
single fan dual duct 13-6013-61 air entry position 14-20
sizing 13-65 axial fan 14-16
static pressure 14-37, 14-66 backward inclined fan 14-14
static pressure loss 14-60 blade pitch variation 14-31
static regain 14-59, 14-63, 14-65 class limits 14-16
system design 13-64, 14-56 coil unit 13-48
system leakage 8-11 comparison 14-36
tap off fitting 14-62 discharge connections 14-27

216 INDEX
Fan (continued) Freezing point (continued)

discharge dampers 14-30 tetra anyl silicate 15-82
double inlet 14-27 tetra cresyl silicate 15-81
flywheel effect 14-36 French thermal unit 20-7
formulas 14-31 Friction
forward curve centrifugal fan 14-14 chart 1-9, 15-4715-48
horsepower and actual capacity 14-32 chart, duct 8-4
inlet connections 14-26 hot water piping 15-46
inlet dampers 14-29 rate 15-23
inlet effects 14-23 Friction loss 1-9, 8-2
inlet vanes 14-30 copper piping 9-5
laws 14-3 equivalent length of elbow 9-2
noise generation 16-23 flanged pipe fitting loss 9-2
operating limit 14-1814-19 K factors 9-2
operating point 14-11 plastic piping 9-5
paralleling 14-11 screwed pipe fitting loss 9-2
performance curve 14-11 steel piping 9-5
performance data 14-36 tee fitting 9-6
performance modulation 14-29 valve and fitting equivalents 9-79-27
radial blade fans 14-15 valve and fitting loss 9-6
scroll volume control 14-29 Fuel composition 12-1
selection 14-21, 14-34 Fuel consumption degree days 11-4
single inlet 14-27 Fuel oil 12-16
size change 14-3 Fuel oil handling 12-33
speed modulation 14-31 alarm signals 12-39
static pressure 14-1 automatic pump alternation 12-38
surge 14-11 automatic start-stop system 12-38
system resistance curve 14-11 automatic valves 12-38
system surge 14-11 back-up pump operation 12-38
terminology 14-1 burner loop system 12-34
total pressure 14-1 continuous operation 12-38
tubular centfifugal fan 14-15 day tank 12-33
types 14-14 entrained air 12-37
velocity pressure 14-1 flow rate 12-33
Feed mills 15-33 gravity head 12-36
Feedwater control 12-23 intermittent operation 12-38
Filling pressure 15-53 maximum inlet pressure 12-36
Filters 13-113 multiple day tank 12-33
Filters and ducts 13-11213-113 multiple pump 12-34
Fin efficiency 1-16 piping system 12-37
Fin tube piping 15-4 pump controls 12-37
Fins and extended surfaces 1-15 pump discharge pressure requirements 12-37
Fire dampers 14-56 required capacity 12-36
Fire protection 14-56 safety shutdown 12-39
Fire protection equipments 9-143 standby generator application 12-33
Firing rate 12-18 standby generator loop systems 12-34
First law of thermodynamics 1-3 strainer pressure drop 12-36
Fixture units with demand 9-28 suction line losses 12-36
Fixtures demand weights 9-30 tank overflow 12-37
Flash point 12-15 tank venting 12-37
Fully metered control 12-22
Flash steam
Furnace mounting 13-7
calculations 15-39 Future needs degree days 11-5
condensate quantity 15-4415-45
quantities 15-43
Flash tank
capacities 15-42 G
dimension 15-39, 15-45 Gallons into cubic inches 20-2
sizing 15-40 Gas laws 2-1
Flash trap 15-29 Gas piping 9-599-72
Flat masonry roof coefficient of transmission 5-14 capacities 9-59
Flat roof by metal coefficient of transmission 5-15 pressure loss 9-639-70
Flat roof by wood coefficient of transmission 5-15 residential 9-59
Float trap 15-2715-28 sizes for residential 9-59
Floor furnace 15-83 solution 9-62
Flow meter piping 12-3112-32 tables 9-62
Flowwork 1-2 Gas pressurization 15-64
Flue gas composition 12-6 Gas properties 2-1, 12-1
Flue gas recirculation 12-28 Gate valve 9-1399-141
Flush valve capacity 9-30 Gibi 20-10
Forced convection 1-12 Globe valve 9-1399-141
Forced draft 14-92 Ground level installations 13-6
Fractional inch to millimeter conversion 20-3 Ground source heat pumps 13-41
Frame ceiling coefficient of transmissions 5-14
Frame floor coefficient of transmissions 5-14
Frame partitions coefficient of transmissions 5-12
Frame walls coefficient of transmissions 5-115-12
H
Free delivery 14-2 Hanger spacings 15-16
Freeze prevention 10-19, 13-97 Heat 1-2
Freeze up protection 15-16 coefficients of transmission 5-27
Freezing point exchanger 1-18
calcium chloride 15-81 mechanical equivalent 20-7
glycerine 15-81 quantity measurement 20-7
glycol 15-81 scales 20-7
oil 15-82 storage 15-63

INDEX 217
Heat (continued) Heating load (continued)

thermal energy 20-7 ventilation 6-1
transfer 1-11 walls 6-1
Heat anticipators 13-43 walls below grade 6-2
Heat emission windows 6-1
bare radiators 15-79 Heating of fuel oil in atomizers 12-18
bathroom radiators 15-80 Heating performance factor 13-37
enclosure effects 15-78 Heating system
front wall radiators 15-80 cast iron radiators 15-79
pipe coils 15-80 enclosure effects 15-78
propeller unit capacities 15-80 forced air system 15-127
radiator finish 15-78 gravity circulation 15-128
ultra slender tubular 15-80 hot water heater 15-12415-125
unenclosed ratiators 15-79 radiator emission 15-78
unit ventilators 15-80 steam or vapor 15-12615-127
wall radiators 15-80 Henrys constant 10-4
Heat gain Horsepower
computer equipment 7-6 electric motor ratings 17-117-2, 17-4
cooking appliances 7-37-5 Hot deck control 13-84
copier 7-6 Hot plenum control 13-85
laboratory equipment 7-6 Hot water control 13-90
laser printer 7-6 Hot water heating system 15-49
medical equipment 7-6 affecting conditions 15-60
occupants 7-2 affecting design conditions 15-60
office equipment 7-6 air pressurization 15-64
Heat load air removal 15-49
coefficients F2 6-4 air venting 15-52
floor slab 6-5 balancing circuits 15-53
infiltration 6-6 boiler emergency protection 15-69
ventilation 6-6 boiler recirculating pump 15-69
Heat loss boilers 15-69
bare pipe 9-1469-156 branch pipe sizing 15-59
coefficient 9-158 cavitation effects 15-68
cold surface temperature 9-158 checking pipe size 15-58
heat conductivity 9-158 circulating pumps 15-6615-67
in piping 9-144 combination piping system 15-60
insulated pipe 9-157, 9-1599-176 compare with steam 15-63
Heat pumps compressed air 15-54
air to air 13-38 district steam 15-50
air to water 13-40 effect of load variation 15-70
coefficient of performance 13-36 expansion conditions 15-65
electrohydronic heat recovery 13-44 expansion tank sizing 15-53
expansion tanks 15-6015-61
equipment arrangement 13-44 filling pressure 15-53
fan coil units 13-48 gas pressurization 15-64
ground source 13-41 generator 15-6
heat anticipators 13-43 heat storage 15-63
heating performance factor 13-37 high temperature drop 15-63
installation factors 13-42 HTW for process steam 15-66
operating factors 13-42 main pipe sizing 15-59
optimized data 13-4713-48 net positive suction head 15-68
outdoor temperature effects 13-42 nitrogen pressurization 15-64
performance factor 13-37 nitrogen pressurizing tank 15-66
reverse cycle principle 13-36 one pipe diversion 15-50
sources 13-41 one pipe diversion system 15-59
thermostats 13-43 one pipe series 15-50, 15-60
types 13-37 operating water 15-49
water to air 13-40 pipe size check 15-59
water to water 13-39 pipe sizing 15-71
Heat recovery 13-2213-29, 13-44 pipe, valves and fittings 15-69
air systems 13-23, 13-3013-34 piping design 15-55
all water systems 13-27 piping details 15-54
control 13-26 pressure drop in fittings 15-5615-57
cooling cycle 13-45 pressure limitation 15-49
supplementary heat 13-47 pressurization of HTW system 15-63
system design 13-47 preventing backflow 15-53
temperature limit 13-45 prevention of freezing 15-49
Heat transfer coefficient 1-12 pump construction 15-68
combined network 5-9 pump location 15-5215-53
parallel network 5-8 pump specifications 15-67
series network 5-6 reduce tank size 15-54
Heating and cooling media 15-81 seals 15-68
brine 15-81 service water 15-49
calcium chloride 15-81 steam pressurization 15-63
ethylene glycol 15-81 steam pressurizing tank 15-65
glycerine 15-81 summer cooling 15-50
glycol 15-81 system adaptability 15-50
oil 15-82 temperature 15-61
tetraanyl silicate 15-82 two pipe direct return 15-50
tetracresyl silicate 15-81 two pipe direct reverse 15-58
Heating and humidification 3-3 two pipe return reverse 15-58
Heating load 5-33, 6-1 two pipe reversed return 15-52
floors 6-1 types 15-50
infiltration 6-1 valve installation 15-69
roofs 6-1 venting of piping 15-70

218 INDEX
Hot water heating system (continued)

waste steam heat 15-50
water circulation below mains 15-49
water velocity 15-52
M
welded joints 15-70 Machinery space 13-106
Hot water pressure control 13-92 Masonery walls coefficient of transmissions 5-12
Hot water reheat control 13-9213-94 Masonry partitions coefficient of transmissions 5-13
Hot water reheat converter 13-94 Masonry walls coefficient of transmissions 5-11
Hot water system 13-91 Mebi 20-10
HTW for process steam 15-66 Mechanical efficiency 14-2
Humidity control 13-10 Mechanical equivalent of heat 20-7
Humidity ratio 2-2 Metric International System of Units 20-9
Hydronic Microinch 20-1
close expansion tank 10-7 Mil 20-1
cooling 10-1 Minimum deflections 16-9
design layout 10-18 Minimum elevation in drip traps 15-7
diaphragm tank 10-7 Mixed air control 13-85, 13-88
equipment layout 10-18 Mixed air section 13-82
freeze prevention 10-19 Mixing air streams 3-3
heating 10-1 Mixing box control 13-94
medium temperature 10-1 Moist air properties 2-62-7, 2-18
open expansion tank 10-7 Moisture 13-112
pipe sizing 10-18 Moodys friction chart 1-9
piping layout 10-19 Mortar mixes 14-77
pressure drop 10-19 Motors
pump selection 10-19 acceleration time 17-9
temperature classification 10-1 analysis of application 17-18
application 17-17
application data 17-14
I bearings 17-20
capacitor 17-13
Ideal gas 2-1 capacitor run 17-2817-29
Impulse trap 15-29 capacitor start 17-28
Indoor air quality 4-1 classification by cooling 17-3
air filter types 4-8 classifications 17-1
carbon media filters 4-10 application 17-1
fiber foam filters 4-10 electrical type 17-1
HEPA filters 4-10 size 17-1
outdoor air requirements 4-7 compressors 17-18, 17-25
ozone 4-10 constant hp 17-2117-22
pollutants and sources 4-5 constant torque 17-21
pollutants concentration 4-1, 4-5 current relay 17-27
procedure 4-6 DC types 17-7
standards 4-5 design letters 17-117-2
ultraviolet light 4-10 dynamic loads 17-8
ventilation procedure 4-1 dynamics 17-11
ventilation rates 4-2 dynamics of load 17-10
Industrial unit heater piping 15-5 enclosure 17-19
Infiltration heat loss 6-6 fans and blowers 17-18
Installation in attic 13-5 full load currents 17-617-7
Installation in crawl space 13-5 heating 17-8, 17-11
Installation of equipment 13-107
heating during starting 17-12
Insulation 13-79
prevent sweating 9-177 hermetic compressor 17-25
Internal heat hermetic type 17-25
air systems 13-30 hot wire relay 17-27
exhaust air heat recovery 13-31 hp and full load currents 17-617-7
refrigeration heat 13-31 hp and speed ratings 17-4
refrigeration service 13-31 hp ratings 17-14
water systems 13-30 induction run motor 17-27
Intrinsic property 1-1 inertia 17-9
Inverted bucket trap 15-29 internal line break 17-27
Isolation efficiency 16-10 life 17-11
loading 17-17
locked rotor current 17-2
K locked rotor current and torque ratings 17-1
locked rotor kva 17-5
Kibi 20-10 locked rotor torque 17-5
Kilns 15-34 multispeed operation 17-17
NEC code 17-6
oil burners 17-18
L open machine 17-3
overload with capacitor start 17-27
Laundries 15-34 permanent split capacitor 17-27
Layout plan of piping 9-132 polyphase 17-19
Lead lag control 12-28 polyphase induction motor 17-23
Leaking glands 13-112 protection 17-18
Length, measures 20-1, 20-8 quietness 17-20
Lifting trap 15-29 repulsion induction 17-15
Lighting heating cooling system 13-22 repulsion start 17-13
Liquid, measure 20-2, 20-8 selections 17-18
LMTD method 1-19 shaded pole 17-13
Load estimating 5-1 single phase 17-12, 17-15
Lubricants, electric motors 17-39 speed control 17-21
Lubrication of motors 17-39 speed data 17-14

INDEX 219
Motors (continued) Noise and vibration (continued)

squirrel cage induction 17-2017-21 octave band 16-1, 16-7, 16-15
sump pump 17-18 octave bandwidth correction 16-30
synchronous speed 17-24 open end reflection loss 16-27
three phase 17-6, 17-28 pitch 16-1
torque and speed 17-2 ratings and standards 16-7
torques 17-917-10, 17-14 regenerated noise 16-13
two phase 17-7 sabin 16-15
types 17-12, 17-14, 17-21 sound
variable speed 17-24 absorption coefficients 16-16
variable torque 17-2217-23 attenuation 16-10, 16-27
voltage and frequencies 17-3 attenuation of plenums 16-25
wiring diagram 17-22 level of sources 16-2
Motors and starters 17-1 power allotment at branch 16-24
Motors, electric power distribution in branch 16-24
armature rotors 17-40 power level 16-2316-24
ball or roller bearings 17-39 pressure level 16-1, 16-17
brushes 17-39 transmission 16-7
commutators 17-39 speech interference criteria 16-2
inspection schedule 17-3917-40 steam pressure reducing valves 16-13
lubrication, proper 17-39 transformers 16-13
maintaining and repairing 17-3917-40 vibration isolation 16-7
maintenance 17-39 water noise 16-37
mechanical condition 17-39 Noise criteria 16-216-3
monthly inspection 17-40 chart 16-20
rotors and armatures 17-40 Noise from fluid flow 1-11
squirrel cage rotors 17-40 Noise generation 9-3
weekly inspection 17-39 Noise in ducted system 16-20
windings 17-40 Noise on ducts 13-79
Mount types 16-12
Multizone system 13-9
Multizone unit control 13-84 O
Multizone units 13-4
Off-peak space cooling 13-57
Open system 1-2
N Operating water temperature 15-49
Optimized data equations 13-48
National Electric Code (NEC) 17-6 Optimized data for heat pump 13-47
Natural attenuation in ducts 16-24 Outdoor air load 5-32
Natural convection 1-12 Outdoor air requirements 4-4
Natural gas 12-15 Outdoor temperature effects 13-42
Nautical measure 20-1 Oxygen sensor 12-17
Net positive suction head 10-11, 15-68 Oxygen trim 12-26
Night cycle 13-88
Night operation 13-89
Nitrogen content 12-15 P
Nitrogen pressurization 15-64 Paper corrugators 15-35
Nitrogen pressurizing tank 15-66 Parallel positioning 12-21
Noise and vibration 16-116-50 Partial vapor pressure 2-3
addition of decibels 16-14 Pebi 20-10
air flow noise 16-27 Performance factor 13-37
airborne noise through ducts 16-13 Pipe
attenuation 16-1 allowable spaces 9-134
attenuation of a lined duct 16-25 expansion 9-134
band pressure level 16-1 layout plan 9-132
bandwidth correction factor 16-6 layout plan length 9-133
broadband noise 16-1 Pipe fittings 9-979-129
calculation of sound levels 16-14 dimensions 9-97, 9-129
condenser water and chilled water piping 16-13 taper pipe thread 9-979-129
continuous noise 16-1 Pipe sizing 9-1
cooling tower location 16-39 pressure drop 9-1
cooling tower noise control 16-36 valve and fitting loss 9-19-58
cooling waters 16-13 Piping
decibel 16-1, 16-14 allowances for aging 9-3
drive components 16-37 anchor 15-10
duct lining and elbows 16-26 application 15-26
duct lining attenuation 16-24 around door 15-10
ducted system 16-20 around obstacle 15-10
equipment room and critical spaces 16-7 boiler 15-15
external noise source 16-37 capacities, high pressure 15-21
fan acoustic properties 16-21 capacities, low pressure 15-23
fan noise 16-36 capacities, medium pressure 15-21
fan noise estimation 16-23 carrying capacity 9-809-90
fan noise generation 16-23 closed system 9-4
flow noise by silencers 16-31 color identification 9-143
frequency 16-1 contraction 15-11
frequency limits for octave bands 16-15 corrosion resistance 9-136
insertion loss 16-1 metal 9-138
isolation efficiency 16-10 design 15-17
microbar 16-1 dimensional capacities 9-809-90
minimum mounting deflections 16-9 dimensions 9-809-90
mount types 16-12 dripping riser 15-12
natural attenuation 16-24 dripping steam main 15-13
noise criteria 16-216-3 erosion 9-3

2110 INDEX
Piping (continued) Pressure head 8-1

expansion 15-11 Pressure loss
flush valve 9-30 disk type water meter 9-28
hydronic system 9-4 plastic piping 9-92
identification method 9-144 Pressure ratings, plastic piping 9-949-96
lifting condensate 15-14 Pressure required in fixtures 9-6
material, protective 9-1439-144 Pressure unit conversion 20-2
materials 9-4 Pressurization of hot water system 15-63
multiple coils 15-14 Preventing backflow 15-53
noise 9-4 Prevention of freezing 15-49
noise generation 9-3 Process 1-3
obstructions 15-12 Propeller unit heat capacities 15-80
one pipe system 15-17 Properties of gas 12-1
plastic material 9-29 Property 1-1, 1-3
recessed below floor 15-10 Psychrometric analysis 2-1
reducing main 15-10 Psychrometric chart 2-8
single coils 15-13 Psychrometry 2-1
sizing 15-18, 15-20 air composition 2-1
steam bypass control 15-14 degree of saturation 2-2
steam flow 9-31 dew point temperature 2-4
steam riser 15-10 enthalpy 2-4
supports 15-16 graphical presentation 2-7
thickness 9-809-90 humidity ratio 2-2
two pipe high pressure system 15-18 ideal gas 2-1
two pipe low pressure system 15-19 moist air properties 2-6, 2-18
two pipe medium pressure system 15-19 relative humidity 2-2
two pipe system 15-17 saturation 2-4
two pipe vacuum system 15-23 vapor pressure 2-3
underwater corrosion 9-136 water properties 2-12
vacuum lift 15-12 wet bulb temperature 2-2, 2-5
water 9-3 Pump
water hammer 9-4 centrifugal 10-8
Piping design change of performance 10-9
checking 15-59 condensate return 15-29
checking pipe size 15-58 construction 15-68
combination system 15-60 location 15-52
for branches 15-59 net positive suction head 10-11
for main 15-59 operating chsracteristics 10-8
one pipe diversion system 15-59 specifications 15-67
one pipe series 15-60 vacuum 15-30
two pipe direct return system 15-58 Pumping down 13-112
two pipe reversed return system 15-58 Pure substance 1-1
Piping identification 9-143 Purging system 13-112
Plant master control 12-28
Plastic piping 9-29, 9-919-93
above ground 9-93
above ground installation 9-96
Q
below ground 9-93 Quality of steam 1-1
below ground installation 9-96
chemical resistance 9-94
codes and regulations 9-97
design parameters 9-93
R
elastomeric seals 9-91 Radiator capacity 15-79
flanges 9-93 Radiator emission 15-78
flaring 9-93 Rankine degrees 20-7
flow characteristics 9-94 Ratings and standards 16-7
heat fusion 9-91 Ratings of boilers 15-73
insert fitting 9-93 Ream, paper 20-3
installation 9-96 Refrigerant circuit 13-112
joining technique 9-91 Refrigerant controls 13-112
mechanical couplings 9-91 Refrigerant effect 1-4, 1-6
pressure loss 9-92 Refrigerant storage in drums 13-112
pressure ratings 9-949-96 Refrigeration chassis 13-2
solvent cementing 9-91 Regenerated noise 16-13
standards and identifications 9-93 Register 15-89
storage handling 9-96 capacity 15-101, 15-10315-104
thermal expansion coefficients 9-93 loudness 15-106
threading 9-93 pressure loss 15-101, 15-10315-104
types 9-91 Reheat system 13-9
Plumbing water piping 9-28 Relation of air with temperature 14-8, 14-10
Pneumatic pipe sizing 9-73 Relative humidity 2-2
Pneumatic piping 9-72 Remote condensers 13-2
Pour point 12-15 Remote condensing units 13-3
Prandtl number 1-12 Replacing refrigerant 13-112
Preheat control 13-91 Residential cooling load calculation 7-35
Pressure control 13-94 Resistance of building materials 5-17, 5-215-26
Pressure drop 9-1 Return intake
air in pipe 9-759-77 capacity 15-105
air piping 9-72 pressure loss 15-105
gas piping 9-639-70 Reverse cycle principle 13-36
in fittings 15-5615-57 Reversibility 1-4
liquids 9-79 Reynolds number 1-7
return piping 15-23 laminar flow 1-8
supply piping 15-23 turbulent flow 1-7
vertical piping 9-32 Riser drip 15-8

INDEX 2111
Roof as a location for AC system 13-10513-106 Starters (continued)

advantages 13-105 AC motors 17-31
automatic control 13-105 mechanical shocks 17-33
multiple units 13-105 motor controllers 17-29
size 13-105 open circuit transition 17-36
ventilation 13-106 overcurrent protection 17-29
Roof numbers 7-8 overload protection 17-30
Roof top installation 13-6 properties 17-30
Rooftop multizone units 13-81 size with hp 17-32
Rotary air to air heat exchanger control 13-95 types 17-36
Rotating apparatus 13-114 winding 17-33
Rotors Static efficiency 14-2
heating during starting 17-12 Steam
wound 17-23 ashpalt plants 15-30
Roughness factors 8-2 coils 15-12
RPM change 14-3 pressurization 15-63
pressurizing tank 15-65
riser 15-10
S Steam boiler
autoclaves 15-37
Sabin 16-15 cheese vats 15-31
Saturated liquid 1-1 concrete block 15-31
Saturated vapor 1-1 dry cleaning 15-3415-35
Saturation 2-4 flat iron work 15-35
SC for glass 7-50 laundries 15-34
SCL for glasses 7-36 ovens 15-35
Second law of thermodynamics 1-4 paper corrugators 15-35
Selecting air handler units 13-49 paper making 15-36
Service water heating system 15-49 pasteurization 15-36
Servicing of platen presses 15-36
air handling system 13-107 process heating 15-36
compresser oil 13-107 restaurants 15-37
cooling plant 13-107 snow removal 15-37
refrigeration unit 13-108 sterilizers 15-37
water system 13-107 tire recapping 15-38
Shear stress 1-6 vacuum pans 15-38
Shipping measure 20-1 washers 15-38
Short circuiting 12-16 Steam heating system 15-115-129
Signs and abbreviations auditorium type unit ventilator 15-5
scientific and engineering 18-8 boiler feed system 15-1
Simple heating and cooling 3-1 boilers
Single degree freedom vibration isolation 16-7 common return header 15-3
Single duct variable volume control 13-95 controlled system header drip 15-6
Single package installations 13-5 direct return connection 15-315-4
Single package units 13-1 drip end 15-7
Single package year round units 13-2 Hartford connection 15-3
overhead connections 15-4
Single phase induction motors 17-2, 17-417-5
piping connections to boilers 15-1
Single phase motors 17-12 steam main 15-6
Sizing cold water pipe 9-29 steam using equipments 15-4
Slab installations 13-6 supply and return piping 15-6
SLF for glass 7-50 supply header drip 15-6
Solar augmented heat pump 13-57 vacuum header drip 15-6
Solar energy 13-54 convector piping details 15-4
cooling system 13-54 equivalent direct radiation 15-1
Solar heating 13-56 fin tube piping 15-4
operation 13-54 hot water generator 15-6
storage tank 13-56 industrial unit heater piping 15-5
systems 13-54 piping connections to boilers 15-1
Solubility versus temperature 10-5 steam supply to heating units 15-1
Sound traps 15-1
absorption coefficients 16-16 unit heater piping 15-5
attenuation 16-10 unit ventilator piping 15-5
duct wall transmission loss 16-32 vacuum heating pump 15-1
level of sources 16-2 vacuum pumps 15-1
levels in a duct 16-32 Steam main
power at branch take off 16-24 bypass 15-14
power level in a duct 16-34 drip in riser 15-7
pressure 16-35 dripping 15-13
pressure level 16-7, 16-17 rise and drip 15-6
transmission 16-7, 16-31 splitting 15-7
transmission loss factor 16-32 Steam piping 9-32
Sound lining 13-79 capacities 9-33
Space heater 15-83 chart 9-349-58
Specific heat 1-2 equivalent length of fitting 9-34
constant pressure 1-2 equivalent length of run 9-33
constant volume 1-2 formula 9-31
various materials 15-36 initial pressure 9-33
Speech interference criteria 16-2 maximum velocity 9-33
Split phase motors 17-12 pressure drop 9-33
Split system installations 13-7 pressure loss 9-319-58
Spray nozzles 13-113 size 9-32
Squirrel cage induction motors 17-117-2 Stefan Boltzmann constant 1-14
Standard air 14-1 Strainers 13-113
Starters Subcooled liquid 1-1

2112 INDEX
Sulfur content 12-15

Summer cycle 13-88
Summer operation 13-95
Superheated vapor 1-1
U
Supplementary heat 13-47 Unheated temperature calculations 5-9
Supply and return header drip 15-6 Unit
Surface conductance 5-18 conversions 20-8
Surface resistance 5-18 systems 20-8
Surface temperature calculations 5-9 Unit air conditioners 13-114
Surroundings 1-2 air filters 13-114
Surveyors measure 20-1, 20-8 condensers 13-114
Symbols cooling coil 13-114
abbreviations 18-8 fans 13-114
air conditioning piping 18-6 motors 13-114
fittings 18-7 piping 13-114
heating piping 18-6 Unit heater
piping 18-6 air stream direction 15-120
circulation of air 15-120
plumbing piping 18-7
duct furnace 15-118
pneumatic tubes 18-7 enclosed furnace 15-118
sprinklers 18-7 exposed wall 15-120
valves, pipe fitting 18-5 floor mounted heavy duty type 15-117
System boundary 1-2 floor mounted vertical blower units 15-117
System design 13-47 full area heating 15-111
gas fired 15-109, 15-11815-119
gas fired air heater 15-117
T industrial type 15-5
installations 15-119
Tank transition from winter to summer 13-58 obstructions 15-120
Tanks and pans 13-113 occupants 15-120
Tebi 20-10 partial area heating 15-111
Temperature control 12-28 performance factors 15-109
Temperature limit, heat recovery 13-45 piping 15-5
Thermal propeller fan type 15-117
conduction 1-11 sizing 15-118
conduction problems 1-15 spot heating 15-111
conductivity 1-11, 5-15-2 steam supplied 15-110
convection 1-12 suspended 15-109
diffusivity 1-12 suspended blower type 15-117
energy 20-7 suspended heavy duty units 15-117
radiation 1-14, 5-4 temperature limits 15-109
resistance of air space 5-19 thermostat locations 15-120
Thermodynamic too buoyant air 15-109
cycles 1-4, 1-6 types 15-117
fundamental 1-1 Unit systems 20-8
system 1-2 Unit ventilator 13-88, 15-5
Thermostat location 13-10 auditorium type 15-5
Thermostatic controls 15-94 piping 15-5
Thermostatic trap 15-28 Upright bucket trap 15-28
Thermostats 13-43
Through wall installations 13-5
Tip speed 14-2
Ton long and short 20-2
V
Ton, metric 20-8 Vacuum lift 15-12
Tramp air 12-16 Vacuum pump 15-30
Transmission of coefficients Valve and fitting equivalents 9-79-27
doors 5-28 Valve and fitting loss 9-19-58
fenestrations 5-27 Valves 13-113
wood 5-28 check 9-1399-141
Trap gate 9-1399-141
air handling unit 15-11215-116 globe 9-1399-141
boiler return 15-29 Variable speed control 13-95
cleaning 13-112 Variable volume system 13-1713-21
condensate capacities 15-26 cooling considerations 13-20
connection 15-8 energy requirements 13-19
heating and cooling calculations 13-19
flash 15-29
initial costs 13-18
float 15-27 overlapping 13-21
float sizing 15-41 Velocity design criteria 9-3
impulse 15-29 Velocity pressure relation 8-3, 14-38
inverted bucket 15-29 Ventilation 14-1
lifting 15-29 Ventilation heat loss 6-6
pressure differential 15-26 Vibration 13-106
radiation load 15-26 Vibration in pipes 1-11
safety factor 15-26 Vibration isolation 16-7
selection 15-26 Viscosity 1-6
splitting 15-7 Viscosity of liquid 9-78
thermostatic 15-8
types 15-27
upright bucket 15-28
warm up load 15-26
W
Troubleshooting 12-15, 12-17 Wall furnace 15-83
Troy weight for gold and silver 20-2 Wall type
Types of heat pumps 13-37 mass inside insulation 7-287-30

INDEX 2113
Warm air heating 15-82 Water hammer 15-11

air volume 15-9715-99 Water in fuel oil 12-18
blower characteristics 15-87 Water piping 9-3, 9-28
bonnet capacity 15-85 Water properties 2-12
bonnet efficiency 15-85 Water to air heat pumps 13-40
bonnet pressures 15-100 Water to water heat pumps 13-39
combustion air supply 15-93 Water velocities maximum 9-3
combustion and ventilation air 15-93 Water velocity 15-52
combustion efficiency 15-85 Weight
direct fired unit heater 15-83 avoirdupois or commercial 20-2
duct arrangement 15-91 measures 20-1, 20-3
duct heat loss 15-85 metric 20-8
duct system 15-88 sheetmetal 14-7514-76
duct transmission efficiency 15-85 troy, for gold and silver 20-2
floor furnace 15-83 Well water
flue gas loss 15-85 AC systems 13-54
forced air furnace 15-83 precooling 13-55
furnace arrangement 15-91 refrigerant condensing 13-55
gravity furnace 15-82 Wet atomizing steam 12-18
gravity hot air furnace 15-82 Wet bulb temperature 2-2, 2-5
heat input 15-85 Wide open BHP 14-2
industrial warm furnace 15-83 Window GLF 7-477-48
pipeless furnace 15-82 Winter cycle 13-88
rating of furnace 15-85 Winter operation 13-96
register delivery 15-85 Winterizing chilled water system 13-97
register free areas 15-100 Wire, circular mil measurement 20-1
register pressures 15-101 Work 1-2
register temperature 15-9715-99 mechanical 1-2
registers 15-89 shaft 1-2
return air intake 15-90
selection of furnace 15-87
selection procedure 15-87
space heater 15-83
Y
stove 15-82 Year round remote units 13-3
testing of furnace 15-85
thermostatic controls 15-94
throw from registers 15-100
trends 15-88
Z
unit heater 15-83 Zone day night operation 13-91
wall furnace 15-83 Zone mixing dampers 13-88
Waste steam heat utilization 15-50 Zone types
Water conditioning 15-16 CLF tables 7-317-34
Water flow velocity 15-49 SCL tables 7-317-34
Water gauge 14-1 Zoning installations 13-8

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HVAC: Handbook of Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning

THIS HANDBOOK PROVIDES COMPREHENSIVE

SUNIL KUMAR, PH.D.

MUHAMMED IQBAL HUSSAIN, PE

Copyright 2007, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

COPYRIGHT 2007 by Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

INDUSTRIAL PRESS, INC.

Copyright 2007, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

1. FUNDAMENTALS 5. LOAD ESTIMATING FUNDAMENTALS

11 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics 517 Relative Thermal Resistances of Building Materials

9. PIPE SIZING 10. HYDRONIC HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEM

91 Pressure Drop Equations 108 Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps

Copyright 2007, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

13. AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS 13. AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

131 Air Conditioning Systems 1391 Hot Water System Control

Copyright 2007, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

Copyright 2007, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

1591 Arrangement of Furnace and Ducts 1645 Take-off Fittings

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viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

18. DESIGN PROCEDURE, ABBREVIATIONS, SYMBOLS 20. UNITS AND CONVERSIONS

201 U.S. Customary Unit System

Copyright 2007, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

Copyright 2007, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

Ali Vedavarz, Sunil Kumar, Muhammed Iqbal Hussain

Copyright 2007, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

ABOUT THE AUTHORS xi

Copyright 2007, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

Humidity Ratio W. The humidity ratio W is the ratio 18.015P Pv

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Pv, P, and Pw must have consistent units, either in Hg or

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Fig 2-3. Adiabatic saturation of air

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Pv ues of temperature and pressure, the humidity

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Solution: By definition, the 60F dew-point temperature W 0.0110

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Example 8:The air leaves a cooling coil is at 70F Td and

Fig 2-4f. Lines of constant enthalpy h on the

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Table 2-4. (Continued) Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air at Standard Pressure

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AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES

G C q h = 1.10 cfm ( T 2 T 1 ) (8)

32 AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES

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AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES 33

Adiabatic Mixing of Two Air Streams. Many air

1 X W2 Combining Equations (23) to (26) gives:

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34 AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES

By applying the psychrometry chart (Fig. 2-5) m 2 = m a h w = 1135

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AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES 35

Steam flow rate, m v0 + m w = m v1 (31)

Copyright 2007, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

36 AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES

Then latent heat is

Example 5:Determine the sensible and latent heat load, T 2 = 55 2 = 90