Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter presents an overview of previous work on related topics that provide the

necessary background for the purpose of this research. The literature review concentrates

on a range of earthquake engineering topics and structural modelling aspects. For the

understanding of seismic capacity, a review of literature is required in experimental

testing, current design practice, theoretical strength evaluation and modelling techniques

such as finite element modelling. The literature review begins with a coverage of general

earthquake engineering topics, which serves to set the context of the research.

At present, there is no information available on seismic performance of arched rib slab

systems. However, research on similar types of systems have been conducted and the

available literature on those projects reviewed in following sections.

2.2 Earthquake design techniques

The objective of design codes is to have structures that will behave elastically under

earthquakes that can be expected to occur more than once in the life of the building. It is

also expected that the structure would survive major earthquakes without collapse that

might occur during the life of the building. To avoid collapse during a large earthquake,

members must be ductile enough to absorb and dissipate energy by post-elastic

deformations. Nevertheless, during a large earthquake the deflection of the structure

should not be such as to endanger life or cause a loss of structural integrity. Ideally, the

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 damage should be repairable. The repair may require the replacement of crushed concrete

and/or the injection of epoxy resin into cracks in the concrete caused by yielding of

reinforcement. In some cases, the order of ductility involved during a severe earthquake

may be associated with large permanent deformations and in those cases, the resulting

damage could be beyond repair.

Even in the most seismically active areas of the world, the occurrence of a design

earthquake is a rare event. In areas of the world recognised as being prone to major

earthquakes, the design engineer is faced with the dilemma of being required to design for

an event, which has a small chance of occurring during the design life time of the building.

If the designer adopts conservative performance criteria for the design of the building, the

client will be faced with extra costs, which may be out of proportion to the risks involved.

On the other hand, to ignore the possibility of a major earthquake could be construed as

negligence in these circumstances. To overcome this problem, buildings designed to these

prescriptive provisions would (1) not collapse under very rare earthquakes; (2) provide life

safety for rare earthquakes; (3) suffer only limited repairable damage in moderate shaking;

and (4) be undamaged in more frequent, minor earthquakes.

The design seismic forces acting on a structure as a result of ground shaking are usually
determined by one of the following methods:

Static analysis, using equivalent seismic forces obtained from response spectra for
horizontal earthquake motions.
Dynamic analysis, either modal response spectrum analysis or time history analysis
with numerical integration using earthquake records.

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 2.2.1 Static analysis

Although earthquake forces are of dynamic nature, for majority of buildings, equivalent

static analysis procedures can be used. These have been developed on the basis of

considerable amount of research conducted on the structural behaviour of structures

subjected to base movements. These methods generally determine the shear acting due to

an earthquake as equivalent static base shear. It depends on the weight of the structure,

the dynamic characteristics of the building as expressed in the form of natural period or

natural frequency, the seismic risk zone, the type of structure, the geology of the site and

importance of the building.

The natural frequency, which is the reciprocal of natural period, can be calculated using

the following formulae (Smith et al., 1991) as given in Table 2-1.

Table 2-1: Formulae to calculate the fundamental natural frequency of a building

(Smith & Coull, 1991).

Formula Notation Type of lateral load resisting

system
No = D1/2/0.091H D = base dimension in the direction Reinforced concrete shear wall
of motion in meters. buildings and braced steel frames
H = height of the building in meters
No = 10/N N = number of storeys Moment resisting frame
3/4
No = 1/CTH CT= 0.035 for steel structures, 0.025 Moment resisting frame is the
for concrete structures, sole lateral load resisting system.
H = height of the building in feet
No = 46/H H = height of the building in meters For any type of building

The static equivalent earthquake load mainly depends on the accuracy of natural period

calculation. The Australian code (AS1170.4, 1993) recommends No = 46/H formula to

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 calculate the natural frequency of the building. The calculation of equivalent earthquake

force in Australian code is similar to the method recommended by UBC (1997).

2.2.2 Dynamic analysis

The dynamic time-history analysis can be classified as either linear elastic or inelastic

(Chopra, 1995). The linear elastic modelling and analysis of Reinforced Concrete (RC)

structures is a well-established technique. Several commercial packages for the 3-D elastic

analysis of structures are available and are in widespread use (e.g. SAP2000,ETABS,

SPACE GASS, etc.). However, the results of the linear analysis are not useful in the

determination of the actual behaviour of the RC structures and the seismic safety analysis

which depends more on inelastic displacement and deformation up to collapse than on

forces. It is necessary to take advantage of the inelastic capacity of various components of

the structure. The response spectrum approach is based on the linear force response of an

equivalent single degree of freedom (SDOF) system. There have been several

developments in the response spectrum approach including modification to account for

some non-linear effects such as inelasticity, ductility and the response modification factor.

The use of the capacity-spectrum technique in the evaluation of RC buildings has been

suggested (ATC40, 1996). The recent development in the field of displacement-based

response spectra (Bommer et al., 1988; Priestley et al., 2000) represents a promising

approach that may be adapted to the simple seismic assessment of buildings. In general,

the response spectrum approach has its limitations. It does not account for the different

failure modes and sequence of component failure. It does not provide information on the

degree of damage or the ultimate collapse mechanism of a deficient RC structure. The

inelastic analysis of structures requires a non-linear dynamic time-history procedure past

the elastic response and up to collapse (Chopra, 1995). The two principal approaches to

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 model RC component behaviour are microscopic finite element (FE) analysis and

macroscopic phenomenological models. Although accurate, it is not feasible to analyse an

entire structure using microscopic FE models. It is practical to study the behaviour of

isolated elements such as a beam, column, connection, structural wall, slab-column and

slab-wall so that their macroscopic analytical models defined in terms of global

parameters are developed for use in the analysis of a complete structure.

RUAUMOKO (Carr, 1998) is one of the popular programs available to carry out time

history analysis for two or three dimensional frame structures, which has a loading input, a

discretely defined acceleration record (The actual acceleration record is digitised in 0.005,

0.01, 0.02 or 0.025-second time intervals). This program has various types of hysteretic

elements to represents the member behaviour. The commonly used simple element in

RUAUMOKO for reinforced concrete members is the modified Takeda, stiffness-

degrading model (Takeda et al., 1970). There are more complex elements like Fukada

degrading Tri-linear hysteresis are also available for more refined analysis. Li Xinrong

(Carr, 1998) reinforced concrete column hysteresis rule is available in Ruaumoko to model

concrete columns, which allows for the changes in the stiffness of reinforced column as

the axial force in the column changes. The commonly used concrete beam-column

interaction surface is used to model the columns.

2.2.2.1 Member stiffness

When analysing concrete frame structures for gravity loads, it is generally considered

acceptable to base member stiffness on the uncracked section properties and to ignore the

stiffness contribution of longitudinal reinforcement. This is due to, under service-level

gravity loads, the extent of cracking will normally be comparatively minor and relative

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 rather than absolute values of stiffness are all that are needed to obtain accurate member

forces (Paulay et al., 1992).

Under seismic actions, however, it is important that the distribution of member forces be

based on the realistic stiffness values applying close to member yield forces, as this will

ensure that the hierarchy of formation of member yield conforms to assumed distributions.

The structural deformations due to seismic loading will generally be associated with high

stresses. Consequently extensive cracking in the tension zone of reinforced concrete

beams, columns or walls must be expected. The estimation of deflections for the purposes

of determining period of vibration and inter-storey drifts, will be more realistic if an

allowance for the effect of cracking on the stiffness of the member is made. The New

Zealand concrete code (SANZ, 1995) recommends a value for beam stiffness of Ie= 0.4 Ig

for rectangular sections, and Ie= 0.35 Ig for T-beam sections. A more detail

recommendations for stiffness modelling of beams and columns are available (Carr, 1994;

Paulay et al., 1992). In recent papers published by Priestley (1998a) and Priestley et al.

(1998b) have highlighted that beam stiffness is heavily dependent on reinforcement

content, and hence on strength. The use of member stiffness based on just the second

moment of area of member, may lead to significant errors in calculation of building period

and the expected drift.

The recommended procedure of calculating the member stiffness to be used in time-

history analysis is as follows:

The first step is to obtain the moment curvature curve for the beam section using a

specialised computer program such as RESPONSE (Bentz et al., 2000) that considers

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 strain hardening effects and confinement of concrete, where appropriate. Figure 2-1

shows a typical moment-curvature curve for a doubly reinforced flanged T-beam.

The nominal flexural strength (Mn) is determined at a curvature equal to 5 times the

nominal yield curvature (see Figure 2-1), which involves an iterative solution.

The effective stiffness can be calculated from Equation 2-1.

Mn
Ie Ig
y E c I g

Equation 2-1

The above procedure is carried out for both negative and positive moment-curvatures.

The average stiffness value is recommended for the seismic analysis. The average is

appropriate as a consequence of moment reversal along the beam length under seismic

loading conditions.

Figure 2-1: Effective bi-linear yield curvature [After (Priestley, 1998b)]

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 2.2.2.2 Effective flange width

The flange contribution to stiffness in L and T-beams is typically less than the contribution

to flexural strength (Paulay et al., 1992), as a result of the moment reversal occurring

across beam-column joints and the low contribution of tension flange to flexural stiffness.

Therefore, an effective flange width has to be evaluated both flexural compressive strength

and stiffness. These values are given in Figure 2-2.

Figure 2-2: effective flange width calculation after (Paulay et al., 1992)

Identical guide lines to determine the effective flange width for strength evaluation are

given in USA. (ACI-318, 2002) and New Zealand codes (SANZ, 1995), while slightly

different recommendations are given in British (BS8110, 1997) and Australian codes

(AS3600, 2001).

beff bw 0.2l z (T beams )

beff bw 0.1l z ( L beams )
Where l z is the distance between points of zero bending moment.

Equation 2-2: effective flange width calculation [after (AS3600, 2001; BS8110, 1997)]

These effective flange widths are used in analytical work described later in chapter 5.

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 2.2.3 Displacement-based seismic design

In recent years there have been extensive examinations of the current seismic design

philosophy, which is based on provision of a required minimum strength, related to initial

stiffness, seismic intensity and a force reduction or ductility factor considered to be a

characteristic of a particular structural system and construction material. There are

inappropriate two fundamental assumptions of the force-based design: (1) that the initial

stiffness of a structure determines its displacement response and (2) that a ductility

capacity can be assigned to a structural system regardless of its geometry, member

strength, and foundation conditions (Priestley et al., 2000).

The damage sustained by structures during seismic events is closely related to their

displacements and deformation. For this reason, deformation-based design approaches

have been developed to create a structure with controlled and predictable performance.

This design process is consistent with the capacity design philosophy, as it requires control

over deformation demand and supply of the energy dissipation zones. The direct

displacement-based design have now matured to the stage where seismic assessment of

existing structures, or design of new structures can be carried out to ensure that particular

deformation-based criteria are met.

2.3 Behaviour of reinforced concrete structures in earthquakes

The overall behaviour of a structure when subjected to earthquake forces is affected by a

number of factors.

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 2.3.1 Factors affecting the earthquake performance of reinforced concrete
structures

As reported by (Sanders, 1995), the poor performance of buildings was generally due to a

combination of inadequate strength and stiffness of the overall seismic resisting system

and a poor distribution of strength and stiffness over successive storeys, leading to soft

storey formation, a lack of provision of an adequate load path through the structure leading

to partial or complete failure of the structure, and poor detailing of joints and connection

leading to various types of non- ductile failures.

Ductility Capacity :

As described by Park (1992), the term ductility in structural design is used to mean the

ability of a structure to undergo large inelastic deformations in the post-elastic range

without a substantial reduction in strength. Ductility is an essential design requirement for

a structure to behave satisfactorily under severe earthquake excitation. The ductility

demand of a structure under seismic loading is dependent on the construction material, the

design elastic strength and the structural system.

The required ductility of a structure, element or section can be expressed in terms of the

maximum imposed deformations. Often it is convenient to express the maximum

deformation in terms of ductility factors, where the ductility factor is defined as the

maximum deformation divided by the corresponding deformation present when yielding

first occurs. The use of ductility factors permits the maximum deformations to be

expressed in non-dimensional terms as indices of post-elastic deformation for design and

analysis. Ductility factors have been commonly expressed in terms of the various

parameters related to deformations, i.e. displacements, rotations, curvatures and strains.

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 Effects of drift:

In flexible buildings, there can be relatively large lateral movements between consecutive

storeys, which is called the inter-storey drift. This can damage the structure and can also

lead to unacceptable damage to the cladding and non-structural elements. This effect can

be controlled with careful design and detailing. The control of the estimated lateral drift is

another design aspect, which has a significant effect on the seismic performance of

structures. Australian code (AS1170.4, 1993) requires that the maximum inter-storey drift

be restricted to 1.5% of the storey height.

P-Delta effect:

P-delta effects reduce seismic performance because the effective lateral loads are

increased as lateral displacements increase. This has the effect of further increasing the

lateral displacement, and placing higher demand on the structural system. Damage will

therefore occur sooner than in similar systems without significant P-delta effect. The

importance of P-delta effects on the seismic performance of structures depends upon both

the extent of vertical load being carried by the lateral resisting system and the stiffness of

that system. If vertical loads are carried by columns, which are not part of the lateral load

resisting system, then P-delta effects are not likely to be significant. Stiffer structural

systems, such as shear walls, are less prone to P-delta effects because the lower lateral

displacements control the additional over turning moments due to vertical loads.

P-delta effects are significant for flexible systems, e.g. Moment-resisting frames, which

carry both vertical and lateral loads to the foundation. They are most significant for fully

ductile systems, because the relative values of vertical to lateral load are increased and the

lateral load resisting system is more flexible than for structures with limited ductility.

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 Therefore P-delta effects in ductile systems are generally reduced somewhat below the

limiting drift values allowed by the code. P-delta effects should be included in determining

the deflection at the ultimate limit state, with some exceptions, e.g. Short period (stiff

structures), low structures, and structures that are designed to respond elastically. Sway

effects produced by vertical loads acting on the structure in its displaced configuration also

should be taken in to account. The extent to which such effects are included by designers

of flexible ductile systems which carry both vertical and lateral loads can have a

significant effect on the seismic performance of such structures, particularly when ground

motions may be substantially greater than those for which the structure has been designed

(Heidebrecht, 1997).

Effects of strong beams and weak columns:

Under earthquake and gravity loading, the critical bending moments develop in the

vicinity of the frame joints. If these moments exceed the limit state capacity of the

sections, plastic hinges will develop. These hinges may develop mainly in beams, columns

or in a combination of locations. Beam hinge mechanism is more suitable for achieving

ductility in concrete frames than column mechanism because:

A greater number of plastic hinges need to form before a collapse mechanism

develops leading to smaller inelastic rotations in each hinge.
Columns are more critical because they carry the total gravity load from the
structure above and damage to them could lead to catastrophic failures.
Beam hinges are more ductile because they carry lower axial loads than column
hinges.

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 2.3.2 Strength and ductility of materials

2.3.2.1 Reinforcement

Figure 2-3(a) taken from Park (1992) shows typical stress-strain curves measured for

reinforcing bars under monotonic loading. In practice, the actual yield strength of the steel

will normally exceed the lower characteristic yield strength fy. Also, in the plastic hinge

regions during a major earthquake, the longitudinal reinforcement may reach strains in the

order of 20 or more times the strain at the first yield, and a further increase in steel stress

due to strain hardening may occur. The resulting increase in the flexural strength in

plastic hinge regions due to these two factors is of concern, since it is accompanied by an

increase in the shear forces, which could result in brittle failure, and an increase in the

column bending moments, which could cause column plastic hinges. A capacity design

procedure should be used to ensure that flexural yielding occurs only at the chosen plastic

hinge locations during a severe earthquake. In the capacity design procedure, when

designing other regions of the structure, it is assumed that actions are those associated with

the development of the maximum probable flexural strength at the plastic hinges, referred

to as the flexural over-strength. It is evident that the properties of the reinforcing steel to

be used in seismic design should be based on rigorous statistical analysis of the stress-stain

properties, to determine the lower and upper bounds of the flexural strength of reinforced

concrete elements.

Figure 2-3(b) shows stress-stain curves measured for reinforcing steel under cyclic

loading. The rounding of the stress-stain curve during loading reversals in the post

elastic range is due to the Bauschinger effect. This reduction in the tangent modules of the

steel at relatively low compressive stress during reversed loading makes the buckling of

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 compression steel more likely than would be expected during monotonic loading. It is

very important that statistical information on the stress-stain properties of the reinforcing

steel used in seismic regions be available. A proper capacity design cannot be undertaken

without knowledge of the likely variations of the steel properties to obtain strength factors,

and adequate ductility of plastic hinges of members cannot be ensured if the steel is brittle

(Park, 1992).

(a)

(b)

Figure 2-3: Typical stress-strain curves for reinforcing steel (a) with monotonic loading (b) with cyclic
loading mainly in the tensile range of strain.

2.3.2.2 Concrete Behaviour

Figure 2-4 taken from (Mander et al., 1988) illustrates a typical non-linear stress-strain

relationship for confined and unconfined concrete. The confinement is provided by the

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 lateral reinforcement. Concrete is a strain-softening material, unlike structural steel, which

is a strain-hardening material. Strain softening is a decline of stress at advance strain, and

is reflected in the moment-curvature diagrams of flexural members.

Figure 2-4: Non-linear stress-strain relation for confined and unconfined concrete.

2.3.3 Dynamic behaviour of multi-storey frames

It is shown from non-linear dynamic analysis that unexpected distribution of bending

moments may occur in columns of multi-storey frames, compared with the distribution

obtained from static lateral loading (Paulay et al., 1992). Static lateral load analysis

indicated that points of contraflexure exist generally close to mid height of columns.

However, non linear dynamic analysis suggests that at certain times during the response of

the structure to earthquake ground motions, the point of contraflexure in a column

between floors may be close to the beam-column joint and the column may even be in

single curvature. The reasons for the unexpected distribution of column bending moments

at some instants of time is the strong influence of higher modes of vibration, particularly

second and third modes (Paulay et al., 1992).

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 The shift of point of contraflexure in the columns to well away from mid height position in

some cases means that the column moments induced may be much higher than the

moments obtained from the static lateral load analysis and may lead to plastic hinges

forming in columns. Thus, columns will need extra lateral reinforcement to provide

sufficient confinement for concrete.

Frames subjected to severe earthquake motions will undergo several reversals of loading

well into the inelastic range during an earthquake. The factors that affect the load

deflection relationship of concrete members subjected to large cyclic inelastic

deformations are:

1. The inelastic behaviour of the steel reinforcement: when subjected to reversed loading,
the stress strain curve becomes non-linear at a much lower stress than the initial yield
strength.
2. The extent of cracking of concrete: The opening and closing of cracks will cause a
deterioration of concrete, hence will result in stiffness degradation. The larger the
portion of load carried by the concrete, the larger the stress degradation.
3. The effectiveness of bond and anchorage: A gradual deterioration of bond between
concrete and steel occurs under high intensity cyclic loading.
4. The presence of shear: High shear forces will cause further loss of stiffness because of
increase in shear deformation in plastic hinge zones under reversed loading.

2.3.4 Bar slip and bond deterioration

Bar bond slip plays a significant role in the performance of reinforced concrete structures

such as in the case of inadequate anchorage of the beam bottom reinforcement. After

yielding of the beam longitudinal reinforcement the bond slip propagates to the beam

column joint causing additional rotation at the beamcolumn interface. When the bottom

longitudinal reinforcement starts to slip, pullout of the bottom reinforcement occurs which

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 reduces the positive moment capacity substantially. This in turn will reduce the shear in

the joint. The beam will experience rigid body rotation with pronounced pinching (Paulay

et al., 1992).

2.3.5 Joint shear deformation

Joint shear deformation is an important component of the local and overall deformations

of the structure. Experimental measurements on specimens representing existing beam

column joints showed that joint shear deformation contributes over 30% of the story drift.

Shear failure in the joint element can be defined by compressive failure of deteriorated

concrete due to cracking defined by maximum strain in concrete and the tensile failure

when the reinforcement bar reaches the limit state. In spite of the tremendous advances in

the development of sophisticated models for the non-linear analysis of RC structures, the

accuracy and reliability of the results remain to be established. The lack of reliability with

current analysis methods is partly because of limitations in modelling and the adopted

simplifying assumptions (Miranda, 1996).

2.4 Performance assessment

2.4.1 Displacement ductility and capacity

Most researchers relate adequate performance to a certain level of displacement ductility

factor. Displacement ductility factor is defined as:

max
Equation 2-3
y

Where, max = Maximum displacement

y = Displacement at yield

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 The displacement ductility factor required for a typical structure is usually between 3 to 6.

Most design codes refer to this, as the ductility required of a structure responding to a

major earthquake. One disadvantage of using ductility factors as a performance criterion is

that very often the load-deflection relation for a structural component does not have a

well-defined yield point. Because of the difficulties in the definition of yield displacement,

some researchers (Durrani et al., 1985; Park, 1988) have suggested that the deformation

history used in quasi-static testing should be based on the drift ratio rather than the

ductility factor. Also, for the case of interior connections, where significant pinching of

the hysteretic responses occurs as a result of slippage of beam reinforcement, the ductility

factor becomes a meaningless parameter. Paulay (1988) suggested that structures

withstanding storey drift of up to 3% are satisfactory. A maximum inter-storey drift ratio

of 2% has also been a commonly accepted limit. The Australian earthquake loading code

(AS1170.4, 1993) also states that the design storey drift should not exceed 1.5%. It should

also be noted that the New Zealand loading code (NZS4203, 1992) states that the design

storey drift should not exceed 2% for hn 15m, where hn is the height from base of

building to the level of uppermost principal seismic weight.

2.4.2 Energy dissipation capacity

Energy dissipation capacity has been proposed by many investigators as a measure of

member performance. Energy dissipation capacity can be easily obtained as the area

within the hysteretic loops. However, the energy dissipation capacity of a test specimen is

dependent on several parameters that include material properties, reinforcing details,

geometry of the unit and peak deformations. Hence the use of the total energy dissipation

capacity in order to assess the performance of test specimens of different characteristics

and tested under different conditions would be doubtful.

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 One of the more common approaches adopted for the measure of energy dissipation is the

use of equivalent viscous damping ratio (heq). This heq value is defined by Kitayama et al.

(1991) as the ratio of the energy dissipated within half a cycle to 2 times the strain

energy at peak of an equivalent linear elastic system. This heq value is used to determine

the energy dissipated in a particular loading cycle, and to measure the degree of pinching

of the hysteretic loops. The definition of heq is illustrated in Figure 2-5.

Figure 2-5: Definition of equivalent viscous damping ratio heq [After (Quintero-Febres et al., 1997)]

2.5 Finite element analysis

The application of the finite element modelling (FEM) to RC structures has been

underway for the last 20 years, during which time it has proven to be a very powerful tool

in engineering analysis. The wide dissemination of computers and the development of the

finite element method have provided means for analysis of much more complex systems in

a much more realistic way.

For any type of structure, the more complicated its structural geometric configuration is,

the more a computer-based numerical solution becomes necessary. It has also been shown

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 that experimental investigations are time consuming, capital intensive and even often

impractical. The FEM is now firmly accepted as a very powerful general technique for the

numerical solution of a variety of problems encountered in engineering. For concrete

structures in particular, because of complexities of concrete behaviour in tension and

compression together with integrity of concrete and steel, extreme difficulties are

encountered in modelling and obtaining closed form solutions, even for very simple

problems (Abdollahi, 1996).

The civil engineering structures are today designed with respect to the limit state of

serviceability and limit states of the strength and stability. These complex problems of a

different nature are possible to solve by FEM methods. Nonlinear elastic concrete models

have been extensively used in finite element analysis of RC structures with varying

degrees of success.

The main obstacle to finite element analysis of reinforced concrete structures is the

difficulty in characterizing the material properties. Much effort has been spent in search of

a realistic model to predict the behaviour of reinforced concrete structures. Due mainly to

the complexity of the composite nature of the material, proper modelling of such

structures is a challenging task. Despite the great advances achieved in the fields of

plasticity, damage theory and fracture mechanics, among others, a unique and complete

constitutive model for reinforced concrete is still lacking.

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 Finite element analysis has advantages over most other numerical analysis methods,

including versatility and physical appeal. The major advantages of finite element analysis

can be summarised as (Cook et al., 2002):

Finite element analysis is applicable to any field problem.

There is no geometric restriction. The body analysed may have any shape.

Boundary conditions and loading are not restricted.

Material properties are not restricted to isotropy and may change from one element
to another or even within an element.

Components that have different behaviours, and different mathematical descriptions,

can be combined.

A finite element analysis closely resembles the actual body or region.

The approximation is easily improved by grading the mesh.

Some disadvantages of finite element analysis are:

It is fairly complicated, making it time-consuming and expensive to use.

It is possible to use finite element analysis programs while having little knowledge of
the analysis method or the problem to which it is applied. Finite element analyses
carried out without sufficient knowledge may lead to results that are worthless and
some critics say that most finite element analysis results are worthless (Cook et al.,
2002).

Specifically developed computer programs are used in finite element analyses of

reinforced concrete structures. However, many commercially available general-purpose

codes provide some kind of simplified material models intended to be employed in the

analysis of concrete structures.

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 2.5.1 The material models

The program ANSYS, Version 8 (2003) was used in this study to model the test specimen.

It has been used successfully in the past to model beam-column subassemblage. Its

reinforced concrete model consists of a material model to predict the failure of brittle

materials, applied to a three-dimensional solid element in which reinforcing bars may be

included. The material is capable of cracking in tension and crushing in compression. It

can also undergo plastic deformation and creep. Three different uniaxial materials, capable

of tension and compression only, may be used as smeared reinforcement, each one in any

direction. Details of element types used for concrete and reinforcement are given in

chapter 5.

2.5.1.1 Failure Criteria for Concrete

The model is capable of predicting failure for concrete materials. As mensioned in the

previous section both cracking and crushing failure modes are accounted for. The two

input strength parameters i.e., ultimate uniaxial tensile and compressive strengths are

needed to define a failure surface for the concrete. Consequently, a criterion for failure of

the concrete due to a multi-axial stress state can be calculated (William et al., 1975).

A three-dimensional failure surface for concrete is shown in Figure 2-6. The most

significant nonzero principal stresses are in the x and y directions, represented by xp and

yp, respectively. Three failure surfaces are shown as projections on the xp-yp plane. The

mode of failure is a function of the sign of zp (principal stress in the z direction). For

example, if xp and yp are both negative (compressive) and zp is slightly positive (tensile),

cracking would be predicted in a direction perpendicular to zp. However, if is zero or

slightly negative, the material is assumed to crush (ANSYS, 2003).

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 Figure 2-6: 3-D failure surface for concrete (ANSYS, 2003)

2.5.2 Non-linear solution

In non-linear analysis, the total load applied to a finite element model is divided into a

series of load increments called load steps. At the completion of each incremental solution,

the stiffness matrix of the model is adjusted to reflect nonlinear changes in structural

stiffness before proceeding to the next load increment. The program ANSYS (ANSYS,

2003) uses Newton-Raphson equilibrium iterations for updating the model stiffness.

Program ANSYS is used in finite element analysis in chapter 5.

Newton-Raphson equilibrium iterations provide convergence at the end of each load

increment within tolerance limits. Figure 2-7 shows the use of the Newton-Raphson

approach in a single degree of freedom nonlinear analysis.

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 Load

Converged Solutions

Displacement

Figure 2-7: Newton-Raphson iterative solution (3 load increments) (ANSYS, 2003)

Prior to each solution, the Newton-Raphson approach assesses the out-of-balance load

vector, which is the difference between the restoring forces (the loads corresponding to the

element stresses) and the applied loads. Subsequently, the program carries out a linear

solution, using the out-of-balance loads, and checks for convergence. If convergence

criteria are not satisfied, the out-of-balance load vector is re-evaluated, the stiffness matrix

is updated, and a new solution is attained. This iterative procedure continues until the

problem converges (ANSYS, 2003).

2.5.2.1 Load stepping and failure definition for FE models

For the non-linear analysis, automatic time stepping in the ANSYS program predicts and

controls load step sizes. Based on the previous solution history and the physics of the

models, if the convergence behaviour is smooth, automatic time stepping will increase the

load increment up to a selected maximum load step size. If the convergence behaviour is

abrupt, automatic time stepping will bisect the load increment until it is equal to a selected

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 minimum load step size. The maximum and minimum load step sizes are required for the

automatic time stepping.

In the FE study conducted by Kachlakev et al. (2001), it was shown that the convergence

of the models depended heavily on behaviour of reinforced concrete. Full size RC bridge

beam model was used by Kachlakev et al. (2001) to demonstrate the load stepping. Figure

2-8 shows the load-deflection plot of the beam with four identified regions exhibiting

different reinforced concrete behaviour. The load step sizes have been adjusted, depending

upon the reinforced concrete behaviour occurring in the model as shown in Table 2-2.

Figure 2-8: Reinforced concrete behavior in RC beam (After Kachlakev et al., 2001)

Table 2-2 Summary of load step sizes for beam model (After Kachlakev et al., 2001)

Table 2-2 shows the load step sizes used by Kachlakev et al. (2001) to obtained the

converged solution for non-linear analysis. As shown in the table, the load step sizes do

not need to be small in the linear range (Region 1). At the beginning of Region 2, cracking

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 of the concrete starts to occur, so the loads have been applied gradually with small load

increments. Load step size of 0.91 kg (2 lb) is defined for the automatic time stepping

within this region. As first cracking occurs, the solution becomes difficult to converge. If a

load applied on the model is not small enough, the automatic time stepping will bisect the

load until it is equal to the minimum load step size. After the first cracking load, the

solution becomes easier to converge. Therefore the automatic time stepping increases the

load increment up to the defined maximum load step size, which is 34.05 kg (75 lb) for

this region. If the load step size is too large, the solution either needs a large number of

iterations to converge, which increases the computational time considerably, or it diverges.

In Region 3, the solution becomes more difficult to converge due to yielding of the steel.

Therefore, the maximum load step size is reduced to 11.35 kg (25 lb). A minimum load

step size of 0.45 kg (1 lb) has been defined to ensure that the solution will converge, even

if a major crack occurs within this region. Finally, for Region 4, a large number of cracks

occur as the applied load increases. The maximum load step size has been defined to be

2.27 kg (5 lb), and a 0.45 kg (1 lb) load increment is specified for the minimum load step

size for this region. For this study, a load step size of 0.45 kg (1 lb) is generally small

enough to obtain converged solutions for the models. It should be noted that the above

procedure cannot be used without at least having a rough idea of the load deformation

curve, therefore, this becomes trial and error iterative procedure.

The failure of the models has been defined when the solution for a 0.45 kg (1 lb) load

increment still does not converge. The program then gives a message specifying that the

models have a significantly large deflection, exceeding the displacement limitation of the

ANSYS program.

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 2.5.3 Evolution of crack patterns

In ANSYS, stress and strain outputs are calculated at integration points of the concrete

solid elements. Figure 2-9(a) shows the integration points in a concrete solid element. A

cracking sign represented by a circle appears when a principal tensile stress exceeds the

ultimate tensile strength of the concrete. The cracking sign appears perpendicular to the

direction of the principal stress as illustrated in Figure 2-9(b). The smeared cracked pattern

in ANSYS can be displayed at each integration point or at element centroid.

(b)
(a)

Figure 2-9: (a) Integration points in concrete solid element (b) Cracking sign [After(ANSYS, 2003)]

2.6 Ribbed slab construction

Rib beam slab systems have long been regarded as one of the most economically efficient

forms of reinforced concrete Gravity Load Resisting Systems (GLRS). Specially for long

span slabs or slabs with very high-imposed loading, rib slab construction is extremely

economical and viable. The first rib slab system invented by Francois Hennebique, has

been patented in early 1900s,which had fallen into disuse due to the high cost of timber

and labour. The innovative long span light weight formwork system, Corcon, has been

developed and patented throughout the world, by Decoin Pty Ltd in response to an

increasing shortage of good quality plywood and the increasing need for safe, economical

and durable structural slab system. The Corcon slab, in contrast to conventional rib slab

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 system, is easier and less expensive to construct from both labour and material points of

view. Corcon system has better performance with respect to environmental benefits such

as greenhouse gas emission, less use of embodied energy and reduction of whole of the

cycle cost in terms of maintenance and energy used (Dragh, 2000).

This reusable lightweight sheet metal form system optimises the traditional rib slab

construction (see Figure 2-10) by using corrugated arch metal sheet spanning over series

of sheet metal beam moulds to form the suspended concrete slab. The corrugated arched

metal sheet enables the rib beam spacing to be increased to 1200 mm from the

conventional 600 mm. A typical cross section of the Corcon formwork system is shown in

Figure 2-11. This system could be designed to span up to 9.0 m with simple reinforcement

and to span 14.0 m with post-tensioning.

Plastic / plywood
Rib moulds

600 mm
Typical

Figure 2-10: Typical conventional ribbed slab construction

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 Figure 2-11: Typical cross section of Corcon slab formwork system

The use of ribs to the soffit of the slab reduces the quantity of concrete and reinforcement

and also the weight of the floor. The saving of materials of the conventional ribbed slab

systems will be offset by the complication of formwork and placement of reinforcement.

However, formwork complication is minimised by use of standard, modular, reusable

formwork, usually made from polypropylene or fiberglass. The Corcon formwork system

is further refined to achieve additional savings over the conventional formwork system,

such as reduction of scaffolding frames by over 50 % resulting in 50 % labour saving. The

reduction of the formwork supporting points are possible due to the fact that the sheet

metal rib forms are capable of spanning greater distance and the use of a special

bracketing system, which will prevent the buckling of formwork. The main advantage of

this contiguously cast rib slab system gives enhanced structural performance by making

use of the high shear resistance of the slab and the high flexural resistance of the ribs. The

slab between ribs is capable of supporting considerable superimposed dead and live load,

due to the natural arching action. The first Corcon slab has been installed in a two-storey

house in Queanbeyan, NSW in March 1995. Since then, over 80 000 m2 has been placed

including 10 000 m2 installed in Kuala Lumpur. Figure 2-12 illustrates the slab soffit of a

Corcon slab system.

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 Figure 2-12: Corcon rib beam and slab soffit

2.6.1 Code Recommendation for Rib Slab Design

For conventional rib slab systems various minimum member sizes, proportions and rib

spacing have been specified in British and U.S. codes. ACI code(ACI-318, 2002) limits

the maximum clear rib spacing to 800 mm, New Zealand code (SANZ, 1995) limits the

maximum clear rib spacing to 750 mm whereas British code(BS8110, 1997) allows rib

spacing specified up to 1500 mm. The commentary to the U.S. and New Zealand codes

indicates that the size and spacing limitations for rib slab construction are based on

successful performance in the past and with an allowance of 10% higher shear stress

carried by concrete.

ACI and New Zealand codes recommend that rib depth excluding topping should not be

greater than 3-1/2 times the minimum width of the rib. The minimum width of the rib

should not be less than 100 mm. The minimum thickness of slab should not be less than 50

mm or one-twelfth of clear distance between ribs whichever is greater. In contrast BS

Code requires that the depth excluding topping should not be greater than four times the

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 width of the rib. The minimum width of the rib is determined by the consideration of

cover, bar spacing, fire and durability. Bs code also specifies that the minimum thickness

of slab should not be less than 50 mm or one tenth of clear distance between ribs

whichever is greater.

Clearly, experimental work is required to explore performance of this new rib system,

which is quite different to the conventional system. Australian concrete structures Code

(AS3600, 2001) does not provide any design guidelines for rib slab construction.

2.7 Previous Relevant Experimental Work on Ribbed Slab System

There have been no investigations reported on seismic behaviour of concrete beam-arch

slab systems, both locally and internationally. However, there has been a limited amount

of research into reinforced concrete T-beams and beams with flange effect. As no directly

related research work was found, some relevant research projects were reviewed and

presented in following sections.

2.7.1 Research work carried out by Shao-Yeh et al. (1976)

The work covered by Shao-Yeh et al. includes an experimental and analytical study

program to investigate the inelastic behaviour of critical regions that may develop in a

beam near its connection with the column of a reinforced concrete ductile moment-

resisting space frame when subjected to severe earthquake excitations. In the experimental

program, a series of nine cantilever beams, representing half-scale models of the lower

story girder of a 20-story ductile moment-resisting reinforced concrete office building was

designed according to ACI (318-71) Code. These cantilever beams were designed in order

to study the effects of (1) the slab by testing T-beams with a top slab width equal to the

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 effective width specified by the ACI (318-71) Code; (2) relative amounts of top and

bottom reinforcement by varying the amounts of bottom reinforcement.

The amount of instrumentation (mostly electronic transducers) used in the experimental

set up and provided valuable data for obtaining the overall response of the test beams, as

well as for studying in detail most of their deformation and resistance mechanisms. Data

from the continuously recorded hysteretic force deformation diagrams provided excellent

information on the overall beam behaviour since the history of stiffness degradation,

strength degradation and energy dissipation were easily deduced using such data.

Photogrammetric techniques were used for studying the deformation pattern of critical

regions in order to detect the nature of shear distortion. Shao-Yeh et al. concluded that

more realistic models, such as beam-column subassemblages, should be tested to study the

effect of critical regions near beam-column connections and the contribution of different

types of floor systems in the overall behaviour of these assemblages.

It was found that the stiffness degradation occurring in R/C beams has been identified to

be very sensitive to the loading history. It has been observed that once the peak

deformation of a cycle increased in either direction during inelastic load reversals the

initial stiffness and energy dissipation per cycle were observed to degrade during

subsequent reversals. Stiffness degradation also occurs due to repeated applications of

loading reversals at constant large beam displacement ductilities. In the low shear stress

situations, the Bauschinger effects of steel and bond deterioration have been considered

the main sources of stiffness degradation.

The failure of unsymmetrically reinforced beams (commonly found in T-beams with

unequal top and bottom reinforcement) subjected to reversals after flexural yielding,

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 precipitated or accelerated by local buckling of the bottom bars near the beam support

when these bars were compressed during downward loadings. For the symmetrically

reinforced beams, failure appear to have been caused by the gradual loss of shear transfer

capability along large cracks, which opened up across the entire beam section.

It was identified that the energy dissipation capacity of R/C beams can be increased by

delaying the degradation of stiffness and the early failure of the beam, which may result

from buckling of the compression bars. More specifically, this can be achieved in the

following ways: by providing supplementary cross-ties to support the compression bars

unrestrained by corners ties. Using supplementary ties, over beam without such ties,

attained a 74% increase in the energy dissipation capacity. Increasing the amount of

bottom steel by 89 %, there was an improvement in the energy dissipation capacity by

55%.

It was found that the bond stress behaviour of anchored main bars in compression and

tension is different. The length required to develop applied compression forces along

cyclically loaded anchored main bars was less than that required to develop tension, i.e., a

larger maximum bond stress was developed along compression bars than along tension

bars. There were two areas where bond stress could not develop effectively. One was near

the beam-column interface, where bond disruption occurred as a consequence of the shear

that developed in the bar due to dowel action at the interface crack The other area where

bond could not properly develop was along the length where yielding takes place at the

peaks of cyclic loading. Here, bond disruption was mainly due to considerable contraction

of the bar.

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 It was concluded that the main influence of the slab on the inelastic behaviour of T-beams

was the contribution of slab reinforcement to the top tensile steel area. The increase in

downward moment capacity due to slab reinforcement caused more energy dissipation per

cycle. However, this increase imposed higher compression in the bottom compression

zone, and higher shear force acting in the downward direction. These increased

compression and shear forces could cause early buckling of bottom bars and increase the

amount of shear degradation. These factors should be considered in the analysis and

design of the critical regions near beam-column connections. Therefore confinement of

compression bars in T-form beams (such as rib beams) is required.

It was identified by comparing the hysteretic behaviour of Beams with different lateral tie

reinforcement indicated the advantages of providing lateral supports for main compression

bars by means of stirrup-tie corners or by supplementary cross-ties. It was recommended,

therefore, that current provisions for the arrangement of lateral ties for longitudinal bars in

the columns also apply to compression bars in beams. Therefore, it may be essential to

keep ligatures in rib beams, even the shear requirement is not critical.

It was concluded that when full deformational reversals are expected to occur in the beam

critical regions near the column connections to improve energy dissipation capacity, it was

recommended that the bottom (positive moment) steel be at least 75 percent of the top

(negative moment) steel. This may be useful to check the performance of the rib beam

with different bottom steel percentage. As experimental program of this nature is

expensive, this could be easily done using FE analysis technique.

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 2.7.2 Research work carried out by Durrani et al. (1987)

The work covered by Durrani et al. includes an experimental and analytical study program

to investigate the behaviour of interior beam-to-column connections including a floor slab

was studied by testing three subassemblages. The length of the beam and the height of the

columns represented one half of the span and storey height, respectively. This testing

arrangement was based on the assumption that for moment-resisting frames subjected to

lateral loading, the inflection points will occur approximately at mid span of beams and at

mid-height of columns and will remain stationary during load reversals. This assumption

results in test specimens that was convenient for laboratory testing. Despite this

simplification, such tests have given considerable insight into the behaviour of joints.

The test specimens have been designed based on the assumption that when the slab beam

was in negative bending, the beam longitudinal reinforcement and the slab longitudinal

reinforcement over the entire width of the slab would yield simultaneously. The columns

were designed to be at least 20 percent stronger than the slab beam to ensure the formation

of flexural hinges in the beams.

It was identified from the test results of subassemblage, the hysteretic loops have become

increasingly pinched after the 2% drift. This was attributed mainly to the opening and

closing of wide flexural cracks in the bottom of the main beams. It also observed that the

major flexural crack has been observed was at the beam-to-column interface of the

specimen.

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 Cracking of the joint core due to shear in the joint was identified as an important factor

that affects the bond of reinforcing bars passing through the joint. It also identified that

there is a better anchorage of top bars compared to the bottom bars. This can be partly

attributed to the confinement of the upper portion of the joint by the slab. However, the

major factor was the larger amount of top steel than the bottom steel.

It has been observed that main beam top reinforcements starts yielding at the drift of 1.5 %

while the slab reinforcement remained elastic and the stain in the slab reinforcement

decreases with the distance away from the beam. However, once the main beam top

reinforcement yielded, the strain in the slab reinforcement has increased rapidly, the

reinforcing bars farther from the main beam experienced higher stain than did close to the

main beam. At a drift level of 4%, the reinforcement in the entire width of the slab had

yielded. Thus, for server earthquake loading, the contribution of the slab in calculating the

beam flexural strength cannot be ignored.

It was concluded that beams with slab sections (T beams) with unequal amounts of top and

bottom steel (more top steel than bottom steel), the range of strain demand during reversed

cyclic loading will be more server for the bottom steel. Thus, bond deterioration and bar

slip problems will be more significant for the bottom steel.

2.7.3 Research work carried out by Pantazopoulou et al. (2001)

The work covered by Pantazopoulou et al. includes an experimental and analytical study

program to investigate the effect of slab participation in seismic design. Until recently, it

was an established design practice to neglect the presence of the slab in estimating beam

stiffness and strength, except when the slab was located in the compression zone of the

beam (known as T beam design). Experimental evidence from tests on complete frames

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 and slab-beam-column assemblies has illustrated that this practice resulted in the gross

underestimation of beam flexural strength in the assumed plastic hinge regions (at the face

of beam column connections). This neglected source of beam flexural over strength has

significant consequences in the realization of the objectives of the established capacity

design frame work for reinforced concrete (RC) where beam shear design, joint

dimensioning, and column flexure/shear detailing are controlled by the requirement of

beam flexural yielding.

Experimental studies have shown that at large drifts, the entire width of the slab might be

engaged as additional tension reinforcement to the beams subjected to hogging moments.

Therefore, in the design, the effect of increased slab participation on structural stiffness,

bar cut-offs, beam shear demands to be considered.

2.7.4 New Zealand Code (SANZ, 1995) recommendations

According to the New Zealand code (SANZ, 1995) recommendations, only some of the

reinforcement in slabs parallel and integrally built with a beam can be taken into

consideration in resisting negative moments at the supports of continuous beams. When

earthquake induced moments are to be resisted the tensile and compression forces in the

beams must be transferred to the core of the column beam joints. The effectiveness of

force transfer to the joint core from slab bars, situated a large distance from the column, is

doubtful. On the other hand the moment input capacity of the beams to the columns during

large inelastic lateral displacements of the frame must not be grossly underestimated if

columns are to be protected against early yielding. Code intended to permit the inclusion

of the slab steel, within the prescribed width limits, into the evaluation of the negative

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 moment of resistance of the section and to require it to be considered when the over

strength of the section is being assessed.

Where transverse beams of comparable size to that under consideration, frame into a

column, a larger slab width is considered in recognition of a more efficient force transfer

to the column beam joint core. The four cases normally encountered are illustrated in

Figure 2-13.

Figure 2-13: All longitudinal steel placed within shaded area to be included in flexural resistance of
beam [After-(SANZ, 1995)]

2.7.5 Research work carried out by Scribner et al. (1982)

Scribner et al. have studied the influence of different arrangement of ligatures on the

behaviour of doubly reinforced flanged concrete T- beams during repeated reversed

inelastic flexure loading. The types of ligatures used are shown in Figure 2-14.

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 Type-1 Type-2 Type-3

Figure 2-14: Different ligatures configurations used

The results indicated that the use of type1 and type 2 ligatures has no significant effect on

the cyclic flexural behaviour. However, the use of type 3 ligatures indicated little loss of

cyclic flexural capacity.

It was found that the shear requirement in rib slab design was not critical for the specimen

used in this project. The experimental details are given in chapter 3. The design

calculations for the test specimen are presented in AppendixB. Therefore, a V-shape

ligature (similar to type-3) to suit the rib slab construction was used in the rib beam test

assembly, as this will increase ease of construction.

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 Abdollahi, A. (1996). "Numerical Strategies in the Application of the FEM to RC
Structures-1." Computers & Structures, Vol. 58, No. 6,pp1171-1182.

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AS3600 (2001). Concrete Structures, Standard Association of Australia, Sydney,

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ATC40 (1996). Seismic evaluation and retrofit of concrete buildings.Applied Technology

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 Miranda, E. (1996). "Assessment of the seismic vulnerability of existing buildings."
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 William, K. J. and E. P. Warnke (1975). Constitutive Model for the Triaxial Behavior of
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