STAUDACHER Veronika Bachelorarbeit

Matr.Nr. a6802339 Neurolinguistics

A 033 Bachelorstudium Prof. Dr. Susanne Reiterer

612 English and American Studies

LANGUAGE LEARNING W ITH AN AGING BRAIN

"Was Hnschen nicht lernt, lernt Hans nimmer mehr.

July 2011
Table of contents

1 Introduction and definitions ..................................................................................... 3

2 Brain development and aging factors.................................................................... 6

2.1 Changing brain structures ................................................................................... 6

2.2 Neuronal changes............................................................................................... 11

2.3 Chemical changes in brain ................................................................................ 11

2.4 Genetic factors ....................................................................................................14

2.5 Environmental influences ..................................................................................14

2.6 Impairments and aging diseases......................................................................16

3 Language learning in later adulthood .................................................................. 18

3.1 Aging factor ..........................................................................................................20

3.2 Intelligence and aptitude....................................................................................23

3.3 Education .............................................................................................................24

3.4 Motivation to learn a language..........................................................................25

3.5 Learning styles ....................................................................................................27

4 Use it or lose it successful language learning as older adult ..................... 28

4.1 Delaying the effects of brain aging ...................................................................29

4.2 Prerequisites of language learning ..................................................................32

4.3 Strategies for language learning 60+ ..............................................................33

5 Conclusions and future prospects ....................................................................... 35

6 Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 38

2
1 Introduction and definitions

The demographic share of older people is increasing. They gain importance in

economic fields as well as in health industry, not to forget in education and lifelong

learning.

The following chapters will deal with aging 1 people, their aging brains and how

their learning, especially learning of a (second) language, can be managed.

Actually, in this paper the main focus will be on situations and possibilities in the

late adulthood. What does aging mean in this context? What is the difference

between childhood, youth, adolescence, adulthood and old age?

Traditionally, we divide human lifespan in three major parts: infancy and childhood,

adolescence (teenager), adult life and old age or late adulthood. Up to now old

age is linked in our perception with retirement from active professional life. In

modern societies there seems to be a change towards more phases in ones life.

E.g. concerning the occupational history the former lifelong service in one

company is nowadays often interrupted for continuing education, sabbaticals or

childcare. What is of interest for this paper and has also great influence on the

demographic development of our society is that the late adulthood (60+) has

prolonged to such an extent during the last decades that this age period can be

divided again into three stages, the young old, middle old and the old old.

Nowadays, the average life expectancy of women in Austria is 82.9 years and 77.4

of men (http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/soziales/gender-statistikdemographie/

1 BE, AE.
ageing aging As the great majority of studies and referenc es use the American version, we
also stick to it in this paper.

3
043903.html, 14.7.2011). In other words, there is enough time to decide on an

active life after retirement, e.g. on learning a language, because if a women retires

at the age of 60 there still remain more than 20 years of a hopefully fulfilled life.

In other contexts we find the term 50+generation or the golden fifties when they

speak about the groups starting with the young old who are going towards the end

of their work life or will retire soon. These mentioned groups usually are in good

health conditions, are still very active and are open for changing environments. But

they show differences according to their gender, their level of education and the

culture in which they grew up (Ohly 2007: 87, Kimerstorfer 2007: 22-23, 25). A

survey by Fessel & GfK in 2006 classifies four types of members of the

50+generation, namely the Curious, the Happy, the Lively and the

Withdrawn (Fessel & GfK 2008: 7). This means that 74 percent (the Curious, the

Happy, the Lively) feel healthy and fit enough to lead an active life, including

learning something new.

Furthermore, we will have to dedi-

cate growing interest to the recent

demographic development showing

an increasing percentage of older

population and a decrease of the

younger age groups. If this long-term

development will continue the older

generation will form the majority, at

least in Western, industrialised so-

Figure 1 : Population pyramid for Austria 2006, 2030 and
cieties. This trend, lasting since the 2050
Source: Statistik Austria 2011

4
beginning of the 20th century, has two reasons: One is the decreasing birth rate,

the other is the fact that people become older and die later, as already mentioned

above (Nandy 1977: 2, Kimerstorfer 2007: 24). As a result of the mentioned facts

and developments, a great number of sciences have been dealing with aging, with

the development of the human brain, with communication and language in this

context: biology, medicine, psychology, sports, economic sciences, cultural

sciences, demographics and even theology. The most recent ones are gerontology

(the study of the aging process as such) and geragogy (concentrating on

education / teaching of the elderly; on lifelong learning) (Berndt 2003: 9, Ohly

2007: 86-87, Kimerstorfer 2007: 76-78).

Biologically, the period of early adulthood is said to be the culmination point of

human productivity, but the human brain is already declining after puberty, it is

aging. But fact is that aging could also be manifested right after birth if we

describe it as lifelong process of changes, of maturation during the first third of

lifespan, and of decline and degeneration the time afterwards till death (Seeberger

2011: 2). If this holds true also for the main organ we have, the brain, and for our

main communication tool, our language, then we have to speed up and learn as

much as we can as early as possible. To learn more about these correlations and

interrelations, the following chapter will deal with the human brain and its

development over lifespan and how it is changing towards older age. The

subsequent section will have a look at lifelong learning in general and in particular

on language learning in older age. The paper will close with strategies to delay the

effects of brain aging and thus also encourage (second/third) language learning as

50+ or even in late adulthood (60+).

5
2 Brain development and aging factors

Behavioral research has found out at least three patterns of age-related changes

in cognitive development: life-long declines, late-life declines and life-long stability.

In longitudinal as well as cross-sectional studies more or less steady decline is

found for cognitive skills like working/episodic memory, processing speech, spatial

ability or reasoning. After the age of 60 decline shows acceleration in some fields

e.g. the speed of processing. What is most interesting here is the fact that there is

an acceleration of decline in cognitive activities 3 6 years before death. On the

other side, the late life decline especially of short-term memory is distinct after the

age of 70. Furthermore, study results report on a relative stable semantic memory

until late lifetime. Researchers conclude that life experience backs up knowledge,

and the result is wisdom often observable with older persons (Hedden & Gabrieli

2004; 88 89).

When the former president of the US George Bush Sr. proclaimed the decade of

the brain to enhance public awareness of the benefits to be derived from brain

research" in 1990 a great number of activities with following publications and

programs was initiated (Sprenger 1999: 100, Janich 2009: 101). Since then

cognitive neuroscience of aging has been more and more engaged with the

question about age-related changes in neural structures of the brain and their

effects on learning (Hedden & Gabrieli 2004; 88 89).

2.1 Changing brain structures

Many studies affirm that structural changes are to a certain e xtent normal but can

6
become pathological thus being the result or the cause of age-related diseases.

Firstly, post mortem and in vivo studies (fMRI) tend to confirm that older adults

have less grey matter in brain than younger ones. This means that there is a

decrease in brain volume in general and a loss of weight of individuals brains

especially over the age of 60.

In general, neuron loss or shrinkage is said to cause only 10 % reduction each

decade in the total length of myelinated axons of the brain. Other studies report on

volume losses in the cerebral cortex of 14 % over the age of 30 90 years, of 35

% in the hippocampus and of 26 % of the cerebral white matter, again with the

highest loss after the age of 50 (Anderton 2002: 811 - 812, Hedden & Gabrieli

2004; 88 89).

Former studies wanted to confirm that neuron loss in the aged brain is not so

dominant and neuron loss takes

place only in specific regions

(Rapp & Gallagher 1997: 14). But

anyway, aging is associated with

brain shrinkage, mainly in the Figure 2 : Progressive changes in ne urons of prefrontal

cortex with aging
Source: Nandy 1977: 41
regions of the association cortex,

striatum and cerebellum, but shrinkage of white matter and hippocampus is

accelerating not until older age (Raz et al. 2007: 91). In addition, recent studies

report that the reason for loss of volume in certain brain areas probably does not

result from cell death, but rather from lower synaptic density in older adults,

which declines steadily from the age of 20 years onwards and which is one of the

markers of Alzheimer disease (Hedden & Gabrieli 2004: 89).

7
In detail, a major region for age-related changes affecting volume and functions is

the frontostriatal system including the prefrontal cortex and the basal ganglia

where motor, cognitive (language, memory, reasoning) and emotional actions are

interconnected and regulated. The estimated average decline in the structure of

the prefrontal cortex is about 5 % per decade, beginning with the age of about 20.

As motor control is highly relevant for speech production, i.e. for the impulses

needed for muscles in and around the mouth to formulate the appropriate sounds

of speech, the age-related changes in these areas can have negative effects on

articulation (Singleton 1995: 32, Bongaerts 1999: 135, Singleton 2004: 84, Hedden

& Gabrieli 2004; 89, Herschensohn 2007: 12).

Moreover, the white matter tracts in frontal lobes also show an age-related loss of

integrity what could have negative effects on memory circuits. In addition,

Parkinsons and Alzheimers patients show lesions and loss of volume in the

entorhinal cortex, located in the medial temporal lobe and being the main interface

to the hippocampus which has an important role in transferring information from

short-term memory to long-term memory, a very important aspect in language

learning. On the other hand, the decline of the structures of the hippocampus and

the parahippocampal gyrus is said to be 2 3 % per decade, increasing up to 1 %

per year after the age of 70.

As the below mentioned changes happen gradually and may start more than a

decade before Alzheimers disease, emerging cognitive impairments during this

period could be used for predicting progression from healthy (normal aging) status

to Alzheimers disease (Hedden & Gabrieli 2004; 89 - 92).

8
 Senile plaques:
Moreover, senile plaques are also an age-related change, namely the abnormal

deposit of amyloid, a protein, which is deposited outside the neuron in the grey

matter of the brain often surrounded by abnormally swollen neurits. Plaques often

occur in the amygdala and in the sulci of the cortex, but rarely in the cerebellum.

Plaques are of various shape and size and are known as markers for Alzheimers

disease where the number of the plaques has greatly increased compared to a

normal aging brain where only a few plaques could be found (Anderton 2002:

814). Women are said to have slightly more plaques than men and generally the

proportion of people with plaques increases from about 10 % at the age of 60 to

more than 60 % with 80 years. Interestingly, there are elderly persons having

varying degrees of amyloid plaques but do not show any clinical abnormalities

compared to cohorts without any amyloid deposits (Dickson 1997: 55 69).

Neurofibrillary tangles:
Neurofibrillary tangles, which are decayed portions of the dendrites and are

aggregates of a tau protein, are significant markers of AD. In normal aging the

number of tangles is relatively low and can be found only in hippocampus,

amygdale and entorhinal cortex whereas in strongly demented persons the

neurofribriallary tangles are widespread (Anderton 2002: 814). Under electron

microscope we recognize an entanglement of spiral twisted protoplasm-threads in

these areas. The precise mechanism of tangle formation is not completely

understood, and it is still controversial whether tangles are a primary causative

factor in disease or play a more peripheral role. Anyway, large numbers of senile

plaques and neurofibrillary tangles are characteristic features of Alzheimers

disease (de Leon 2007: 116 - 117).

9
 Blood vessels:
Furthermore, we must not forget the possible changes of blood vessels in the

brain caused by different reasons and with various effects because the saying

one is as old as ones arteries provides a remarkable truth. PET studies have

found that also cerebral blood flow in the white and grey matter declines during

normal aging and with it the rate of oxygen supply. Reasons could be structural

changes in the cerebral vessels in connection with thrombotic, infarcted or

infectious occasions. Furthermore, diseases associated with artherosclerosis,

hypotension, diabetes, heart disease could also affect the cerebral blood supply

(de la Torre 1997: 78-80).

Metabolism:
In this connection we must mention the fact that also the cerebral metabolism

tends to slow down with age. This is affirmed by PET as well as fMRI studies

concerning measurements of the rate of glucose or of oxygen as well as of

cerebral blood flow in general. The less the brain is affected by cardiovascular

diseases the less is the degree of reduction in cerebral metabolism and blood flow

(Blass, Gibson & Hoyer 1997: 111, Mechelli 2004: 583 - 585).

To sum up we can say that normal aging does not necessarily lead to cerebral

dysfunction. On the other hand, there is an increasing number of studies reporting

that changes in signal transmission between the neurons are responsible for age-

related cognitive deficits, rather than structural alterations (Gazzaley & DEsposito

2006: 68).

10
2.2 Neuronal changes

Our brain is said to consist of more than 100 billion cells, most of them being

neurons, the cells of the nervous system, which is responsible for transmission of

impulses to and from the brain supposedly at a rate about 200 miles per hour. The

nerve cells remain healthy until death, unless one has a specific disease

(Guttmann 2001: 1). In detail, the neuronal cytoskeleton remains preserved, only

smaller alterations are detected in some proteins associated with microtubules,

neurofilaments and microfilaments. The cause might be oxidative stress,

excitotoxicity or metabolic impairment. Concerning age-related late-onset brain

diseases like Alzheimers or Parkinsons severe changes in the cytoskeleton are

symptomatic (Geddes & Matus 1997: 24 39).

Furthermore, myelin degeneration which is observable alread y in earlier age, but

increases with later age could be the cause for age-related cognitive and motor

slowing. This process is often accompanied by a granular degeneration of myelin

what could be the consequence of oxidative damage to macromolecules (Dickson

1997: 53).

2.3 Chemical changes in brain

Due to recent improved research methods like use of fMRI (functional magnetic

resonance imaging) or PET (positron emission technology) researchers have

enough evidence to state that cognitive decline is not due to neuron loss but has

to do with changes in chemical interactions in brain. They examined brains of

elderly people after their death and found numerous plaques and tangles typical

11
for Alzheimers disease but none of them had suffered from Alzheimerss

(Guttmann 2001: 2).

Neurotransmitters:
Cell to cell signals are sent by electrical conduction and chemical stimulation of

surface receptors. These chemical signals are transported by neurotransmitter

substances (Kelly & Roth 1997: 243, Janich 2009: 53). A number of researchers

have postulated that deficits in neurotransmission may have an effect on age-

related learning and memory, as well as motor function, and that those deficits

may have influence on the development of neurodegenerative diseases. For

instance, the neurotransmitter dopamine, also called the happiness hormon, was

found in the substantia nigra, the midbrain and the hypothalamus. It plays a role in

transporting motor control signals, but also signals concerning learning and

memory, furthermore it is responsible for transporting pleasure and reward. The

degree of its availability is said to be a marker for aging, but concerning the

electric and chemical effects much more research is needed (Kelly & Roth 1997:

251 252). Recent findings confirm a decline of dopamine of about 8 % per

decade starting after the 4 th decade which is connected e.g. with a lower glucose

metabolism in the frontal cortex. Furthermore, serotonin receptors also decline in

the frontal cortex with age and dopamine receptors in the subcortical striatum.

(Hedden & Gabrieli 2004: 90).

Free Radicals:
For a long time and still under debate is the free-radical theory of aging. It states

that the organisms age because cells accumulate free radical damage over time

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-radical_theory_of_aging, 17.7.2011 ). Free radicals are

produced during oxygenation of organic substances. Some free radicals are highly
12
reactive and are supposed to be involved in the reduction of cell membrans, of

collagen, of elastin and other elements. Even more severe is the likely effect of

free radicals on DNA causing the formation of unstable substances which in turn

can alter the DNA structure so that mutant proteins form imperfect enzymes

having a negative effect on cells (Nandy 1977: 1-2, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-

radical_theory_of_aging, 17.7.2011).

Researchers have found out that antioxidants such as vitamin A, vitamin C,

vitamin E can slow the process of aging by preventing free radicals from oxidising,

or can even reduce the formation of free radicals. These antioxidant chemicals

found in many foods are frequently cited as the basis for fighting this risk factor.

Nonetheless, some recent studies tend to show that such an antioxidant therapy is

not useful (Nandy 1977: 4, Muller 2007: 495).

Estrogen replacement:
A broader debate in the context of chemical influences is going on about the

estrogen replacement therapy in healthy post-menopausal women. The reason for

this measure is that estrogen (the primary female sex hormone) is supposed to

increase cerebral blood flow and to accelerate metabolism which has an effect on

prolonged vitality and functionality of cerebral neurons (de la Torre 1979: 91 -

92). Studies during the 1990ies show evidence that women who have used

estrogen replacement have better naming abilities with advancing age, alongside

a decreased risk of Alzheimers disease (Obler & Gjerlow 1999: 161 162).

As chemical reactions or structural changes in brain do not happen to everybody

in older age or at least do not occur at the same pace their occurrence might be

also due to genetic factors and might be influenced by human development.

13
2.4 Genetic factors

During evolution of the human brain over more than 100.000 years for a long time

the maximum age of humans was about 40 or 50. Only during the last millenniums

and especially in the past centenaries people are constantly growing older and

reach an old age of more than 70 or 80 years mainly due to better live conditions

and higher education. This might be the reason why all brains decline with aging

because there was no evolutionary selective pressure in former eras (Guttmann

2001: 3).

As Robert Tan from the Mens Health Network at the University of Texas-Houston

states having good parents certainly helps: your genes determine how long you

are going to last (http://www.zirh.com/optimal%20aging.aspx, 23.7.2011). Studies

have proved that certain proteins in the brain like e.g. apolipoprotein E4 can be

genetic risk factors for memory decline , especially for the development of AD.

Therefore researchers think that genetic factors have an impact on the functional

decline of the brain. Furthermore, it is likely that a combinatio n of genetic and

environmental factors might determine whether a person is destined to get AD or

not, independent from age (Anderton 2002: 811, 813).

2.5 Environmental influences

Recent findings and also practical experiences show that the aging of brain can be

speeded up or slowed down by lifestyle factors.

Lifestyle:
Restricted weight lowers the blood glucose level. Glucose is very reactive as a

14
chemical and can cause damage to proteins. Especially those individuals with

diabetes show more signs of brain aging than non-diabetic [ones] (Guttmann

2001: 3).

Education:
Those who use it [the brain], dont lose it as quickly is the resume of numerous

studies. Constantly using cognitive patterns could make the synopses stronger or

even create new neurons (Guttmann 2001: 3).

Exercise:
People walking rapidly min 45 minutes a day show significantly improved age-

related cognitive abilities (Guttmann 2001: 3).

Stress:
Under stress the human body produces the hormone cortisol which in small

dosage can improve memory, but in larger amounts has a negative, depressing

effect on our immune system (Guttman 2001: 4).

Sleep/Rest:
Sleep of at least 8 hours per night helps protect against age-related chronic

illnesses including memory loss. (Guttmann 2001: 3).

But certainly there is no guarantee that we can keep our brain in top condition if

we avoid all the above mentioned negative environmental influences . At least the

consequences of aging in the brain and the central nervous system could be

slowed down, in fact the earlier one starts with lifestyle improvements the larger

can be the impact on delaying brain aging (Guttman 2001: 4).

15
2.6 Impairments and aging diseases

A short overview of the main brain diseases and impairments in later adulthood will

help to understand why most of the affected persons have massive problems in

performing cognitive processes.

Alzheimers disease (AD):

Dementia among elderly can have various

reasons, but Alzheimers disease is the

commonest. The onset of Alzheimers disease is

difficult to diagnose reliably. Only post mortem

inspections clearly show a large amount of the

characteristic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles

Figure 6 : Causes of dementia in later life
in certain brain areas. Also synapse loss is Percentages in this diagram based on
a study in the US in 1992
extensive in AD and this process can start early in Source: Baddeley 1998: 323

age (Baddeley 1998: 321 322, Hof & Morrison

2004: 611). Especially during the early stages of AD the symptoms can vary from

patient to patient and can comprise problems with orientation concerning time and

place, memory and language blackouts, decrease of visual abilities and attention

and gradual loss of competence in problem solving and social functions.

Furthermore, personality changes are a symptom in a later stage of the disease

(Baddeley 1998: 322, Obler & Gjermow 1999: 91).

Parkinsons disease:
Most of the Parkinsons diseases are caused by subcortical cellular changes.

Patients have problems with walking and speech, at least in starting to carry out

these movements. Their speech elements may end up in stumbling, and also their

16
writing will be disturbed. These impairments are caused by loss of muscle control

but usually there is no damage to language areas in the brain. This form of

dementia shows primarily problems with memory and with recalling stored

knowledge. The cause is said to be an insufficient distribution of dopamine to the

frontal lobe, a central region for language production (Obler & Gjerlow 1999: 91

94).

Aphasia and dementia:

Both aphasic and demented patients produce some speech elements but often

with disturbed forms or unusual elements. With aphasics there is often a sudden

onset after a stroke or a gradual deterioration with a tumor which causes linguistic

but also other cognitive impairments. On the other side, dementia develops

gradually and is not so easy to distinguish it from normal aging at the beginning.

The area and extent of brain damage determine the type of aphasia and its

symptoms. There is evidence that the demented persons have problems in

connecting cognition and language (Obler & Gjerlow 1999: 102 103).

Cerebrovascular diseases:
These vascular impairments in the brain are well known to have a negative effect

on cerebral blood flow and thus are main reasons for brain damages and

dementia. They can be the cause for occlusive infarcts or encephalic hemorrhage,

each of them affecting the cerebral blood flow massively. Besides others, the

consequences can be a number of cognitive impairments. [T]he older the patient

who develops a cerebrovascular insult, the worst the prognosis (de la Torre 1997:

80 81, 97).

Hypertension:
As many other diseases also hypertension reduces cerebral blood flow, what can
17
lead to decreased cerebral oxygen metabolism. Hypertension can also increase

the amyloid and the neurofribrillary tangles who are markers of AD, but also occur

in other neurodegenerative diseases (Blass & Gibson & Hoyer 1997: 111 - 112).

Cerebral stroke:
This means loss of certain brain functions due to a problem in the blood supply to

the brain which can be due to a blockage (e.g. thrombosis) or a leakage of blood.

The consequence concerning speech can be the inability to understand or

formulate speech. There can also be a so-called silent stroke which does not have

any outward symptoms, but still causes damage to the brain so that the risk for a

major stroke in the future is high. A recent study in the US has found out that

people who carried out regular moderate to intense physical exercise where 40 %

less likely to have a silent stroke (http://psychcentral.com/news/2011/06/10/

moderate-to-heavy-exercise-for-brain-health/26840.html, 16.7.2011).

To sum up we can stress that cerebral blood flow and metabolism tend to

decrease in later adulthood. And the above prognosis the older the patient the

worst the prognosis holds true for all diseases and impairments in old age.

3 Language learning in later adulthood

Elderly persons of today are in many aspects different from those of previous

generations and surely from coming cohorts 2 of the future. Future elderly people

will have grown up in the post-industrialized world including all benefits and risk

2
In this context cohort denotes a sample of persons who were [or will be] born in the same period
of time, and who have therefore lived [will live] through similar social influences (Kimerstorfer
2007: 25).

18
factors of modern living. An increasing number of the population will benefit from

improvements of preventative medicine and a rising awareness of health factors in

lifestyle. As mentioned before this will lead to longevity of a greater percentage of

the population and consequently to a higher number of active older adults

(Dickson 1997: 51 52). The lifestyle of older persons will no longer be

determined only by its biological age, but rather by their social and financial

situation, their attitudes and their values (Kimerstorfer 2007: 28). Consequently, we

can observe an increasing number of older people returning to part-time or full-

time learning in many parts of the world (Singleton 2004: 213).

On the other hand, certain structural changes in brain and cognitive problems are

inevitable with aging, but the learners gender plays a significant role for the age of

onset. Affected are to some extent the motor and mental skills, but what will be

hold steady is the general knowledge as well as the lexicon. But in addition we

have to accept that there is a slight decrease in attention span, in shor t-term

memory and recall speed (Dickson 1997: 52). Studies report reduced accuracy

and slower reaction time in comparison to the younger subjects (Gazzaley &

DEsposito 2007: 73).

Compared to other fields in brain research only a relatively small number of

studies delivers results about second language learning in late age, only since the

1990ies language development in adults becomes a topic of interest (Nippold

2006: 2, de Bot 2009: 425 426, 429). What does occur in brain when we are

learning? Neuroscientists explain it simply as communication of two neurons.

Electrical stimuli in the dendrites and chemical signals (neurotransmitter) in the

synapses transport learning content to and fro the short- and long-term memory

19
areas, the motor, visual or acoustic areas. About 100.000 billion neurons are

involved in this immense task. Each neuron is said to be linked with another 5.000

to 10.000 neurons (Sprenger 1999: 2 3, Obler & Gjerlow 1999: 15).

The main regions of brain involved in learning are the occipital lobes for visual

information and the temporal lobes for acoustic processing influencing speech and

memory. Most important for higher learning processes like critical thinking,

problem solving, planning and decision making are the frontal lobes (Sprenger

1999: 42).

3.1 Aging factor

At this point we have to state that the boundary between normal aging and

preclinical disease is not always easy to define. Some researchers argue that

language impairments during Alzheimers disease are simply an exaggeration of

what happens with normal aging (Obler & Gjerlow 1999: 104). But there are a

number of behaviors of demented persons which have never been seen in normal

elders. This would mean that age-associated cognitive decline is not necessarily

the first stage of an inevitable progression to AD [Alzheimers disease] (Hof &

Morrison 2004: 607).

Many researchers have followed Lennebergs theory of the critical period

hypothesis from the 1960ies which means that after the onset of puberty the

capacity for language acquisition declines because the brain loses plasticity after

its organization and lateralization is completed. This means that the left

hemisphere becomes dominant and specialised for all language functions

(Singleton 1995: 31, Obler & Gjerlow 1999: 70 72, Singleton 2004: 130- 131).
20
Some studies also argue that the auditory acuity is highest at the age of 10 -14

years. And because the auditory loss starts immediately afterwards this could be

the reason for an endpoint of a critical age for language learning (Singleton 2004:

119 - 120). The consequence is that it becomes more and more difficult for

persons to acquire a second language in adulthood, especially its phonology and

syntax. But Lenneberg himself stated that lexical development may continue

throughout lifetime, and that it is not impossible for adults to learn and speak a

second language, although it requires conscious and labored efforts. (Nippold

2006: 4-5, Kimerstorfer 2007: 5). But already in 1997 Bialystok argued against a

cut-off point and for a continuous decline of language learning abilities (1997: 117).

Since then there has been a long controversial discussion for and against the

postulation of a critical period (Singleton 1995: 31 -36, Berndt 2003,

Herschensohn 2007: 19, Ohly 2007, Kimerstorfer 2007). Mercifully, the language

scientist Steven Pinker argued that adults can learn a second language as long

as they are motivated, receive enough instruction and practice it sufficiently. But

he also makes clear that adults will never be able to speak an L2 without

conscious effort and a marked foreign accent (Singleton 2004: 103, Nippold 2006:

7).

Nevertheless, the proficiency of late learners in L2 also depends on the amount of

exposure to the language, the type and quality of instruction, the motivation and

aptitude of the learner and the frequency of using the new language. For instance,

Singleton (1995: 44 45) reports about very successful subjects of a study group

who reached a native-like level of the L2. After learning English at school their

exposure to the foreign language was highly increased at the university. They were

21
almost exclusively taught in English, attended phonetic and pronunciation trainings

and regularly interacted with native speakers of English during international

conferences. These successful L2 learners were highly motivated and received

their goal of becoming perfect speakers of English because of their efforts and

their exposure to the language for a longer time.

After decades of discussions about the critical period, or as it is called later on, the

sensitive period (Singleton 1995: 45, Herschensohn 2007: 11) e.g. in 2003 Berndt

again cites other researchers who also criticize the critical period hypothesis

(2003: 29):

Age does influence language learning, but primarily because it is associated

with social, psychological, educational, and other factors that can affect L2
proficiency, not because of any critical period that limits the possibility of
language learning by adults.
What makes us optimistic is that there are examples of late learners who reached

(near-)native proficiency what might either be due to better biological preconditions

in brain or be caused by positive parallel influence by the L1 (Nippold 2006: 9 -10).

Studies document an interference of L1 at all linguistic levels when learning a

second language, including phonological as well as semantic levels (Albert &

Obler 1978: 226). The level of L1 proficiency, the knowledge of its grammar and

syntax structure can have a greater influence on further language learning,

especially with elder people, than might be known by now (Singleton 2004: 109).

Besides researcher discuss whether the L2 learner simply uses the set of sounds

his brain has stored or whether a second system of sounds is developed for the

L2, the latter still not being identical to that of a native speaker (Obler & Gjerlow

1999: 126).

Already in 1995 and again in 2004, Singleton stated that in learning a second
22
language the youngsters are better in the long run, but that there are many

exceptions, and that about 5 % of the elderly language learners master the second

language although they have started learning it long after the critical period (Obler

& Gjerlow 1999: 133, Singleton 2004: 16 - 17). Nevertheless, a number of

researchers agree on the fact that children are better at learning grammar of an L2

language and in gaining a native-like pronunciation (Berndt 2003: 28). An

extraordinary example of late language learning was the author Joseph Conrad,

an immigrant from Poland to Great Britain, who managed to learn the English

language in reading and writing perfectly like a native speaker, but was never able

to speak it properly (Singleton 1995: 30).

Nevertheless, older language learners might be handicapped to a certain extent,

but they can always fill the gap with their life experience. Besides their broad

knowledge in many fields they have trained a series of cognitive strategies and

procedures which in this context can account for better and faster combination of

new learning content to an existing context in the long-term memory of the brain

(Berndt 2003: 137-138).

3.2 Intelligence and aptitude

Intelligence is the ability to deal with cognitive complexity (Gottfredson 1998: 25)

which includes all components of cognitive ability of men. Therefore it is also a

factor in language acquisition, but more in formal language learning and but not so

much in informal, social use of the language. This might change in older learners

who tend to use strategies and learning styles determined by intelligence also in

informal situations of language use (Kimerstorfer 2007; 8). Intelligence is said to

23
be an indicator for information processing and learning in brain. The Seattle

Longitudinal Study tested individuals every 7 years and found out that even at the

age of 78 the performance during an intelligence test had increased by 8 %

(Berndt 2003: 115- 116).

On the other hand, aptitude is a special competence of person on one or more

areas, usually above-average. Quite often we hear about highly skilled persons

although we can assume that everybody has got more or less talents

(http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Begabung, 23.7.2011). Aptitudes which help to

advance language learning could be special analytical skills or a good working

memory (DeKeyser 2007: 227). Aptitude is not a prerequisite for language learning

but it makes learning easier, especially for older persons. But also learners with

less aptitude for language learning can achieve a certain level of proficiency

(Kimerstorfer 2007: 9).

3.3 Education

Concerning education as positive prerequisite for language learning in adulthood it

seems to be proven that a higher than average ed ucation can delay the general

cognitive decline by one year for each year of education. And for females the

decline can sometimes be delayed till the age of 70 (Baddeley 1998: 319).

The results of a study in 1999 asking for the factors that influence naming in

adulthood showed significant correlations between naming and education,

professional reading, number of adult education courses and the work-related

language use (Barresi et al 1999: 84 85). The conclusion we can draw from

these results is that adults should engage in active language activities throughout
24
their life to maintain a good word -finding ability (Barresi et al 1999: 88).

The results of various studies attest that mental activity during lifespan, e.g.

including higher education, reduce the risk of developing dementia. Any mental

activity increases the cerebral blood flow and thus the provision with vital elements

like glucose or oxygen (de la Torre 1997: 90). Generally speaking, the higher the

education of a person the more probable and the more successful he/she will learn

a second language in late adulthood (Berndt 2003: 14).

3.4 Motivation to learn a language

Motivation is certainly an important factor for language learning, especially for the

degree of proficiency being reached. If an adult particularly in older age has no

reason to invest time and money in learning a second language and even more to

learn it to a level of a native

speaker he will never reach

this aim (Nippold 2006: 10,

Kimerstorfer 2007: 11). Motiva-

tion can even make up for de-

ficiencies both in ones lan-

guage aptitude and in learning

condition (Drnyei 2005: 65).

One of the main reasons for a

attending a language course, or Figure 4 : Attending private courses of 60+ persons in Austria
2008
for further training in older age Source: Statistik Austria, Bildung in Zahlen 2010, p. 115

25
in general, is to make up for education which had not been possible in younger

age. As we know that the chances for education of the todays 60 years old were

by far not so excellent than they are for young people nowadays, we can

understand that for that generation language learning can be seen a sort of

compensation. The diagram on the previous page confirms these assumptions

showing that for Austrian 60+ students attending courses language learning is

already second after sports, and it is followed by music, art and design, then

comes next self-development, and immediately after that computer training.

Especially women of the mentioned age group are eager to take the chance of

fulfilling perhaps a long wanted wish. Women of older age are also much more

engaged with sports, travelling or cultural and educational activity than men of the

same age (Berndt 2003: 148 149). Furthermore, there are gender-specific

differences in the choice of education. Women seem to prefer language and

literature as well as psychology whereas men rather start with subjects like history,

archaeology or geography (Kimerstorfer 2007: 69).

A further motivation factor is generated by the phenomenon of loss of social

contacts after retirement which can also be a strong motivation for language

learning in a public institution. On the one side, social contacts from the time of

professional life drop away, often because of strongly differing interests. On the

other side, often the family situation has changed: Children are grown up and live

their own lives, sometimes the partner of many years has died. Therefore, the

finding and cultivation of new social contacts is a main factor for attending a

language course or starting a (language) study program at a university. Often it is

important that older persons can leave the house to meet with likeminded contacts

26
(Berndt 2003: 153).

As said before, language learning in later adulthood is motivated by the wish to

travel to other countries and to be able to communicate with people living there.

Actually, the tourism industry recently has created an increasing number of travel

packages especially designed for the target group of the elderly people, including

educational trips including language course abroad (Sprachurlaub fr Menschen

ab 50). They describe the trips as continuing education without compulsion, in a

relaxing atmosphere. The participants are likeminded and therefore pleasant

social contacts. The described development could be a new field of activity for the

recent occupational field of foreign language geragogy (Berndt 2003: 154 - 155).

3.5 Learning styles

Each learner has a certain learning style according to his type and preconditions.

In literature they list four types of learning: visual learning, auditory learning,

kinaestetic learning, tactile learning types. Some people can learn better when the

content is visualized. This means the learner can read the text or can study it on a

chart. Listening to texts and lexical items again and again can help the auditory

type. The kinaesthetic learner wants to write down the tasks or to draw

connections in a graph (e.g. mindmapping technique), and the tactile learner

learns best by executing tasks like building a model (Kimerstorfer 2007: 10).

Integrative learning can give a very strong impetus for language learning because

it takes place when the learner identifies emotionally with the culture behind the

language he is learning. The learner is interested in the people and the culture, the

history or the nature of the country whose language he is learning. On the other
27
hand, if learning a certain language only has functional or practical reasons, e.g.

learning for an exam or only for job-related reasons, it is called instrumental

learning. Surely, the pressure to reach a certain proficiency will be high in this

case, but this kind of learning will hardly be relevant for older learners

(Kimerstorfer 2007: 11).

4 Use it or lose it successful language learning as older adult

As we can conclude from the above arguments, the elder generation will be more

and more interested in learning foreign languages in future. Because of the fact

that people become older and die later tertiary (language) education will take place

more and more often in later age. Thus, all the above mentioned consequences

have to be taken into account and a rethinking has to take place. But after all we

must not forget that (foreign or second language) learning can or should take

place during the whole lifetime. The UNESCO World Education Report 2000

stresses in its title that education for all throughout lifetime must be possible

(Berndt 2003: 231).

Concerning the neurolinguistic research in the field of adult language learning, a

number of neuroimaging methods help to study the effects of learning on brain

structures in vivo. Besides morphometric and volumetric techniques, more recently

voxel-based morphometry (VBM) is used to measure changes in grey and white

matter. It can show the effects of learning and language practice on the brain

structure. The results depict the structural differences depending on age of

acquisition of the second language and the proficiency, as well as the number of

28
languages. But there is still disagreement in interpreting the results of VBM

(Osterhout 2008: 7-8).

Most recent cortical stimulation studies show detailed patterns of cerebral

language activation, especially the differences of localization and organization of

more than one language. PET as well as fMRI techniques are used to find out

whether different languages activate different brain areas by imaging the changes

in neuronal activities. The most interesting aspect of these new technologies is

that all the various areas of the brain being involved in a cognitive task (e.g.

production and perception of a language) can be displayed all at once. And recent

results show that L2 processing involves largely the same language-specific

cortical area as native language (L1) processing (Wattendorf & Festman 2008: 4 -

5).

4.1 Delaying the effects of brain aging

Researchers agree that successful aging consists of three components:

Low probability of disease or disability,

high cognitive and physical function capacity,
active engagement with life (Rowe & Kahn 1999: .434).

Thus, we can derive that learning (a language) is an important factor of successful

aging (Ohly 2007: 87). In the meantime the terms "healthy ageing" or "optimal

ageing" have been proposed as alternative terms to successful aging (Gilmer &

Aldwin 2003: 25). The most valuable findings in brain aging are surely that besides

genetics the lifestyle factors can highly influence the rate of changes in brain

(Guttman 2001: 3). Some keys to longevity including a long-lasting learning ability

can be summarized as follows.

29
Apart from being active, nutrition is a relevant factor in later age to back up health

and thus preserve mental fitness. As mentioned above the brain needs a number

of neurotransmitters to transport impulses. E.g. acetylcholine is produced from

choline which can be found in eggs, liver or soy products; this chemical substance

helps to build long-term memory. Also carbohydrates are necessary for a healthy

brain because they contain tryptophan which causes the release of serotonin. That

is why we can conclude that it makes sense that each meal during a day includes

carbohydrates and proteins. And as the brain consists of about 78 % water we

should drink enough water or any other liquids (Sprenger 1999: 96).

In Western civilization we eat too much food in general and consume too much

salt and sugar causing high blood pressure and diabetes. Fresh fruits and

vegetables are important for antioxidants like vitamine C and E, as mentioned

above, to avoid damages in brain.

Experts also agree upon the fact that the more active elderly people are, the more

likely they are to stay physically and mentally fit and to be satisfied with life

(http://www.zirh.com/optimal%20aging.aspx, 23.7.2011). Elder adults who maintain

an active lifestyle, namely engaging themselves socially, mentally or physically, are

protected to a certain degree against the onset of dementia, especially Alzhei mers

disease, because it avoids accumulation of amyloid and other brain damage. The

most exciting finding in this context is the fact that lifelong bilingualism protects

against the onset of Alzheimers disease. In a recent study the disease was

diagnosed 4.3 years later and even the first symptoms were realized 5.1 years

later than with the monolinguals (Craik & Bialystock & Freedman 2010: 1726).

A series of studies prove that regular physical activity or further working

30
engagement after retiring helps to sustain a normal level of cerebral blood flow

whereas high blood pressure would cause stroke or heart diseases. Furthermore,

regular mental activity is associated with reduced risk for dementia. Usually,

people with higher education level bear these factors in mind and adapt their

lifestyle accordingly (de la Torre 1997: 89 90).

There are also some tools available to train the brain, i.e. to perform brain

jogging. Besides sporting or artistic activities the older adult can use even video

games for mnemonic training. E.g. a professor from Japan created a game called

Brain Age: Train Your Brain in Minutes a Day!. The Nintendo game includes a

variety of puzzles, stroop tests for training the reaction time, mathematical

questions, and Sudoku puzzles and thus trains cognitive, motor and linguistic

areas in brain (http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Kawashimas_Gehirn-Jogging,

25.7.2011).

Furthermore, people who are happy seem to live longer. People who are more

than averagely successful in life can delay their cognitive decline by three years

(Baddeley 1998: 320). The explanation could be that as when one is happy,

certain chemicals and hormones are produced. For instance, being single can

shorten lifespan whereas having children paradoxically can extend life

(http://www.zirh.com/optimal%20 aging.aspx, 23.7.2011).

As we have to summarize that language learning is not so easy in later adulthood

we should find out some strategies to improve the chance to learn a foreign

language. The teachers as well as the learning environment should be adjusted to

the cognitive capacities of the older brains.

31
4.2 Prerequisites of language learning

Singleton (2004: 136) describes Lennebergs arguments that language learning in

adulthood is possible despite of his critical period hypothesis because of language

universals. This means that although languages are so different, every language is

based on the same universal principles of semantics, syntax and phonology

(Singleton 2004: 135). In this context Lenneberg states that L1 acquisition

provides a basis for a degree of L2 learning and goes on:

A person can learn to communicate in a foreign language at the age of

fourty we may assume that the cerebral organization for language
learning as such has taken place during childhood, and since natural
languages tend to resemble one another the matrix for language skills is
present (Lenneberg 1967 cited in Singleton 2004: 136).
Many researchers disagree with these arguments, but they could be an optimistic

basis for language learning in older age.

Furthermore, an adequate

financial basis is a precondition

for further education in late

adulthood (Berndt 2003: 15).

Adult education centers offer

special programs and a great

number of foreign languages for

elderly persons at favourable

prices. An increasing number of Figure 3 : De velopment of 60+ University students in Austria

1980-2009
Source: Statistik Austria, Bildung in Zahlen 2010, p. 111
older people are studying at

universities. But as the diagram shows the launching of tuition fees in Austria in

2000 caused a rapid decrease of the 60+ students so that only 0.93 % of the total

32
number of students was 60 years old or more in the following year.

4.3 Strategies for language learning 60+

Learning strategies are concepts to achieve the learning goal, in this context

namely to reach the goal of a certain proficiency of a (second) language. They will

consist of planned actions from starting onwards and step by step to the aim of

learning a second or foreign language, ideally in using the most apt learning

techniques according to the type of learning of the person, as well as the

information of previous learning experience . These learning strategies are

techniques for improving the learning process (Ohly 2007: 88, Kimerstorfer 2007:

16-17). A good language teacher for older pupils is the one who can incorporate

the students life experience into the learning process (Berndt 2003: 232).

Moreover, as the visual and auditory capacities with elder persons often are

restricted the language trainer has to find teaching techniques which account for

these impairments. The mean hearing loss is about 20 % at the age of 60, 30 %

with 70 years and 43 % at the age of 80. Before that age there had been a linear

decline till the age of 50. This hearing loss is noticeable mainly in the high-

frequency range of sounds. Consequently, mainly consonants with high frequency

sounds cannot be distinguished properly (in German f, s or z) what can lead to

mix-ups. For the teacher or trainer of a language this means that there should not

be much background noise in the teaching room, that linguistic components

should be pronounced clearly and not overlapping (Berndt 2003: 124).

And as the eye lens of a 60 year old has almost lost its elasticity he will have

problems to see objects nearby properly. After the visual acuity peak at the age of
33
18 it steadily declines till 55. Furthermore, the retina can have lost transparency so

that the eye can spot fewer than 30 % of light intensity. This means that pictures or

presentations of linguistic contents or exercises should be adapted accordingly

(Berndt 2003: 124 126, Singleton 2004: 120 - 121). Consequently, L2 teachers

should be aware of these impairments and calculate a longer time of exposure of

learning tools. Of help for the older learner is the combination of audio and visual

presentations and an increased time for adaption between lighted and darkened

surroundings (Singleton 2004: 121).

As the mentioned visual and auditory impairments can occur earlier or later in late

adulthood and can be stronger or weaker the learning abilities can vary from

person to person. Therefore, individual learning strategies must be adapted

accordingly. If a person has former experience with language learning it will be

easier to teach a new language again. Language learning should not happen

under pressure of time. Complex learning content should be split up into single

teaching modules. Older learners rather concentrate on quality learning and

quantity is no more a priority. In addition, older people cannot concentrate on

content too long and they can be distracted faster from a learning situation. Elder

learners are better in acquiring language modules if they can work them through

with their own speed (Berndt 2003: 140 - 142, 147, Singleton 2004: 121).

Handwriting is a skill we use the whole lifetime and is performed automatically

more or less but studies have proofed that already at the age of 40 this manual

skill is slowing down and till the age of 60 it has decreased heavily. This is caused

by the decrease in reaction time in general but also by a reduced motor

coordination of the fingers at the mentioned stages of age. The central nervous

34
system is not able any more to deal with too many impulses at the same time.

Teachers are requested to prepare learning material that does not afford too much

writing in a short time (Berndt 2003: 127- 128).

As aging is associated with the slowing down of processing speech, parallel to the

slowing down of all reactions of older adults, the problem seems to lie in the

capacity of the working memory. In other words this means that fewer elements

can be processed in a certain period of time what should be kept in mind by

teachers of elderly people (Baddeley 1998: 302 - 305, Singleton 2004: 214).

Taking these facts into account an example for a language learning lesson with an

older group of pupils could be structured as follows: Warming up repeating

listening to a text reading the text analysis/grammar exercises with new

contents repetition of hearing and listening evaluation (Berndt 2003: 229). In

this context it is important to state that it is helpful to older learners that the lessons

follow a certain structure. But in spite of all these training efforts we have to face

the fact that we cannot give a 70 -year-old the memory of a 20-year-old

(Baddeley 1998: 313).

5 Conclusions and future prospects

Following recent trends we have to be aware that by 2050 the group of the elder

people may exceed that of the younger population. Consequently, the late-in-life

educational opportunities will have to increase. If we further assume that a large

part of the world population will be bi- or multilingual in future it should be

indispensable that research in all the above mentioned sciences should be

35
increased in the field of aging and language learning.

Concerning foreign language learning in old age we can sum up that almost

native-like proficiency in a second language can be achieved also by elder

learners, when they are immersed in the new language, can use it in many

situations and are highly motivated and want to reach a certain level because of a

certain reason (Nippold 2006: 11). But of course we have to accept that there are

situations where perfectness, almost native-likeness in the new language is not

the main goal. Cognitive or personal circumstances have to be taken into account

and the teaching techniques and learning activities have to be adapted adequately

(Muoz 2007: 248).

Language teachers of older pupils should keep in mind to implement certain basic

technologies: give clear speech input, offer repeated opportunities to hear and

listen and to train new elements, apply memory strategies, divide complex content

in single modules and do not set under too much time pressure (Singleton 2004:

215). Concerning the teaching environment institutions should offer rooms with

ideal illumination and professional acoustics, the atmosphere should be inviting

and stimulating, but in any case adapted to adult pupils. Thus a healthy older adult

learner will become a successful foreign language learner

Language learning is rarely an end in itself. An increasing number of educated

people have realized that it is necessary to train the brain to keep it working. This

activity can start with crossword puzzles and might end in learning a second

language, wherein the former only needs the retrieving of stored information from

the brain but the latter uses complex cognitive processes in the respective brain

regions. And the successful elderly foreign language speaker is proud of his new

36
knowledge. He likes to communicate with native speakers, to read literary work of

the new language, to use it for further studies or when travelling abroad (Singleton

2004: 219).

Furthermore, to maintain our brains capacity as long as possible a change in

lifestyle will be necessary. Studies proofed that cognitive loss is to a large extent

preventable (Guttman 2001: 4). Consequently, the best advice we can give to

elder people is to keep their mind active and utilize their memory and cognitive

skills: Use it or lose it is the adage (http://www.zirh.com/ optimal%20aging.aspx,

23.7.2011).

In spite of such a great amount of know how we have gained about adult language

learning and the relevant processes in brain and the strategies we can offer there

still remains a huge need for age-focused (empirical) research concerning L1 as

well as L2 learning. Regarding the future changes in population development

towards a larger percentage of older adults there remain immense challenges for

various sciences, especially health sciences, economics and tertiary education.

37
6 Bibliography

Albert, Martin L.; Obler, Loraine K. 1978. The bilingual brain. Neuropsycho-
logical and neurolinguistic aspects of bilingualism. London: Academic
Press.
Anderton, Brian H. 2002. Ageing of the brain. Mechanisms of Ageing and
Development 123, 811 817.
Baddeley, Alan. [1982] 1998. Your memory. A user s guide. London: Alan
Baddeley.
Barresi, Barbara A.; Obler, Loraine K.; Au, Rhoda; Albert, Martin L. 1999.
Language-related factors influencing naming in adulthood. In
Hamilton, Heidi E. (ed.). Language and communication in old age.
Multidisciplinary perspectives. London: Garland Publishing, 77 90.
Berndt, Annette. 2003. Sprachenlernen im Alter. Mnchen: Judicium Verlag.
Bialystock, Ellen. 1997. The structure of age: In search of barriers to second
language acquisition. Second Language Research (13/2), 116- 137.
Birdsong, David (ed.). 1999. Second language acquisition and the critical
period hypothesis. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Blass, John P.; Gibson, Gary E.; Hoyer, Siegfried. 1997. Metabolism of the
aging brain. In Timiras, Paola S.; Bittar, E. Edward (eds.). 1997.
Advances in cell aging and gerontology. vol 2. London: Jai Press, 109
128.
Bongaerts, Theo. 1999. Ultimate attainment in L2 pronunciation: The case of
very advanced late L2 learners. In Birdsong, David (ed.). 1999. Second
language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis. Mahwah:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 133 160.
Burke, Sara N.; Barnes Carol A. 2006. Neural plasticity in the ageing brain.
Review. Nature 7(January), 30 40.
Craik, Fergus I.M.; Bialystok, Ellen; Freedman, Morris. 2010. Delaying the
onset of Alzheimer disease: Bilingualism as a form of cognitive reserve.
Neurology 15, 1726 1729.
De Bot, Kees. 2009. Multilingualism and aging. In Ritchie, William C.;
Bhatia, Tej K. (eds.). 2009. The new handbook of second language
acquisition. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Ltd., 425 442.
de Leon, Mony J. et al. 2007. Imaging and CSF studies in the preclinical
diagnosis of Alzheimers disease. In Annals of the New York Academy
of Sciences 1097(Imaging and the aging brain), 114 145.
de la Torre, J.C. 1997. Cerebrovascular changes in the aging brain. In
Timiras, Paola S.; Bittar, E. Edward (eds.). 1997. Advances in cell aging
and gerontology. vol 2. London: Jai Press, 77 108.
DeKeyser Robert M. (ed.), 2007. Practice in a second language. Per-

38
 spectives from applied linguistics and cognitive psychology. New York:
Cambridge UniversityPress.
Dickson, Dennis W. 1997. Structural changes in the aged brain. In Timiras,
Paola S.; Bittar, E. Edward (eds.). 1997. Advances in cell aging and
gerontology. vol 2. London: Jai Press, 51 76.
Drnyei, Zoltn. 2005. The psychology of the language learner. Individual
differences in second language acquisition. London: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Fessel & GfK. 2008. Generation 50 plus: Die vergessenen Konsumenten?
Wien: Fessel & GfK.
Frackowiak, Richard S. J.; et al (eds.). 2004. Human brain function. 2nd ed.
London: Academic Press.
Gabrieli, John D.E. 1996. Memory systems analyses of mnemonic disorders
in aging and age-related diseases. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences, Irving, CA. 93(November 1996) 13534 13540.
Gazzaley, Adam; DEsposito, Mark. 2007. Top-down modulation and normal
aging. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1097 (Imaging
and the aging brain), 67 83.
Geddes, James W.; Matus, Andrew I. 1997. The neuronal cytoskeleton. In
Timiras, Paola S.; Bittar, E. Edward (eds.). 1997. Advances in cell aging
and gerontology. vol 2. London: Jai Press, 23 50.
Gilmer, Diane F.; Aldwin, Carolyn M. 2003. Health, illness, and optimal
ageing: biological and psychosocial perspectives. Thousand Oaks:
Sage Publications.
Gottfredson, Linda S. 1998. The general intelligence factor. Scientific
American Presents 9(4): 24 29. http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson
/reprints/1998generalintelligencefactor.pdf (22.7.2011).
Guttmann, Monika. 2001. The aging brain. USC Health Magazine, Spring
2001. http://www.usc.edu/hsc/info/pr/hmm/01spring/brain.html (15.5.2011).
Hamilton, Heidi E. 1999. Language and communication in old age. Some
methodological considerations. In Hamilton, Heidi E. (ed.). Language
and communication in old age. Multidisciplinary perspectives. London:
Garland Publishing, 3 22.
Hedden, Trey; Gabrieli, John D.E. 2004. Insights into the ageing mind: A
view from cognitive neuroscience. Nature Reviews, Neuroscience
5(February), 87 97.
Herschensohn, Julia. 2007. Language development and age. New York:
Cambridge UniversityPress.
Hof, Patrick R.; Morrison, John H. 2004. The aging brain: morphomolecular
senescene of cortical circuits. Review. Trends in Neurosciences 27(10,
October), 607 613.
Janich, Peter. 2009. Kein neues Menschenbild. Zur Sprache der

39
 Hirnforschung. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag.
Kelly, Jeremiah F.; Roth, George S. 1997. Changes in neurotransmitter
signal transduction pathways in the aging brain. In Timiras, Paola S.;
Bittar, E. Edward (eds.). 1997. Advances in cell aging and gerontology.
vol 2. London: Jai Press, 243 278.
Kimerstorfer, Margit. 2007. Successful language learning in old age. Diploma
Thesis, University of Vienna.
Kolb, Brian; Whishaw, Ian Q. 1998. Brain plasticity and behavior. Annual
Reviews of Psychology 49, 43 64.
Mechelli, Andrea. 2004. Detecting language activations with functional
magnetic resonance imaging. In Frackowiak, Richard S. J.; et al (eds.).
Human brain function. 2nd ed. London: Academic Press, 583 595.
Muller, Florian L. et al. 2007. "Trends in oxidative aging theories". Free
Radical Biology & Medicine 43(4), 477503.
Muoz, Carmen. 2007. Age-related differences and second language
practice. In DeKeyser Robert M. (ed.), 2007. Practice in a second
language. Perspectives from applied linguistics and cognitive
psychology. New York: Cambridge UniversityPress, 229 250.
Nandy, Kalidas; Sherwin, Ira (eds.). 1977. The aging brain and senile
dementia. New York: Plenum Press.
Nippold, Marilyn A. 2007. Later language development: School-age children,
adolescents, and young adults. 3rd ed. Austin: PRO-ED Inc.
Obler, Loraine K.; Gjerlow, Kris. 1999. Language and the brain. Cambridge:
University Press.
Ohly, Kay. 2007. Older learners of German and their use of language
learning strategies. Papers from the Lancaster University Postgraduate
Conference in Linguistics & Language Teaching 2006. vol.1. http://
www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/pqconference/vol1/Ohly.pdf (19.7.2011).
Osterhout, Lee et al. 2008. Second-language learning and changes in the
brain. Journal of Neurolinguistics 21(6), 509 521.
Rapp, Peter P.; Gallagher, Michaela. 1997. Toward a cognitive neuroscience
of normal aging. In Timiras, Paola S.; Bittar, E. Edward (eds.). 1997.
Advances in cell aging and gerontology. vol 2. London: Jai Press, 1
22.
Raz, Naftali; Rodrigue, Karen M; Haacke, E. Mark. 2007. Brain aging and its
modifiers. Insights from in vivo neuromorphometry and susceptibility
weighted imaging. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1097
(Imaging and the aging brain), 84 93.
Ritchie, William C.; Bhatia, Tej K. (eds.). 2009. The new handbook of second
language acquisition. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Ltd.
Rowe, John W.; Kahn, Robert L. 1999. "Successful ageing". Gerontologist
37(4), 433 440.

40
Seeberger, Bernd. 2011. Gerontologische Forschung und Versorgungs-
systeme. http://www.umit.at/dataarchive/data54/seeberger_vortrag_sympo
sium_wien_28_04.pdf (17.7.2011).
Singleton, David; Lengyel, Zsolt K. (eds.). 1995. The age factor in second
language acquisition. A critical look at the critical period hypothesis.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Singleton, David; Ryan, Lisa. 2004. Language acquisition: The age factor.
2nd ed. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Sowell, Elisabeth R. et al. 2003. Mapping cortical change across the human
life span. Nature Neuroscience 6(3, March 2003), 309 - 315.
Sprenger, Marilee. 1999. Learning & memory. The brain in action.
Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Statistik Austria. 2006. Bevlkerungspyramide fr sterreich 2006, 2030 und
2050. http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/bevoelkerung/demographi
sche_prognosen/bevoelkerungsprognosen/027331.html (4.7.2011).
Statistik Austria. 2010. Bildung in Zahlen 2008/09. Wien: Statistik Austria.
Statistik Austria. 2011. Statistik der natrlichen Bevlkerungsbewegung.
http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/soziales/gender-statistik/demogra
phie/043903.html (14.7.2011).
Tan, Robert S. Optimal aging & keys to longevity. http://www.zirh.com/
optimal%20aging.aspx (23.7.2011).
Timiras, Paola S.; Bittar, E. Edward (eds.). 1997. Advances in cell aging and
gerontology. vol 2. London: Jai Press.
Wattendorf, Elise; Festman, Julia. 2008. Images of the multilingual brain:
The effect of age of second language acquisition. Annual Review of
Applied Linguistics 28, 3 24.
Whalley, Lawrence J. et al. 2004. Cognitive reserve and the neurobiology of
cognitive aging. Review. Ageing Research Reviews 3, 369 382.

41