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JGSG dG c S J ,Yh .cCG hCG MGh c dP j
aVEG c N c ,kLe kHc KKh KK Ye e Y edGh
.d c dG g a IdG dGh dG d Oe

a dG eCG e dG j CG e je ah dG AfG iL dh
j CGh ,2000 Y H QU b fCGh ,kdY d j dDdh ,dG J
Y Lj dG dG J CGh ,IOhe a Wj H UNG uV
j CG k GNCGh ,iNCG d Y Le dh dG H dqCG dG dH He
gjh QHGh dG f OL a q j kJ kY fh dG Ve
.HdG adG idG IOjR N e jObG dG Y a

e YdG g QhH IS dGh d jdG Y dG je EG

d dH dG OdG Y Ld HdG dG TCG CG OhCGh ,dG
FfG M Yh ,GNEGh jdGh LGdGh LdG a ddG IOdG
Yd dG dG TCG c ,RfEG YS Yh ,dG Ld
Y dG je a FeR dch dG a gRfEG Y GTEG H fCG dG
.HdG id G Y dG IQOe J Hj jdG dGh d jdG

` g 1431 /3 /20 V j d G

dGh d jdG Y dG je FQ
jdG gGHEG H e .O

22
 dDdG M

j d G f C d Q G O G Q S e d G J M (Neil Sclater ) J S f C G H G
jGhhdG GOJGh ,(Raytheon Company) jGQ c T a F dGh
. d C d Gh H d G e d E G j C G b Microwave Associations

UCG K zElectronic Design{ fhdEG dG e a kbe k GQqe Y

a h .Product Engineering Magazine f h d E G f E G d f h d E d Q e
LddG JG a dG QdG J S UCG M M e
k a H M jdG
g N J S N . S 25 I d Q d G G g a
,IQ b GOhq eh ,GQGO M d q oU e A dG e k G c k GO Y I dG
J dG ADg e Y Jh .Ad YH GO jGOh , jQ Hh
,IOdG fEG HOCGh jdG SGQdG OGYEGh ,d IodG dG
bd LddG cdG e OY dEG Yh .IjdG jdG dEG aVEH
.FY d UN e HH edG

e jf a kge k GQe JS Y d dG dG OG eG Yh
,Electronic Buyers News h ,Control Engineering h ,Electronic Engineering Times
E G e a c J dC J a Y S hCG dsCG
hCG fh d
.fehdG

M c e k GO Y McGraw-Hill f , O T S G d d G G g d E G a VE H
:g ,fhdEG Y

23
 (Ye dDc - fK W) fhdEG Y YSe
The Encyclopedia of Electronics (2nd Ed. Coauther)

edG GQGdG LdJ a ddG fQR

Galluim Arsenid IC Technology

fhdEd dGh dG
Wire and Cable for Electronics

cT TdG) fhdEG Se b c e SO dGh e dG dG

.(ghce
Electronics Dictionary (Fifth and Sixth Editions of McGraw Hill)

24
 eqdG

.edG JM f e k qe k GAL fhdEG LddG UCG d

H j j J CG f CG d j d dG , dGh FG d a
FGO Weh kHGHCG q J UCG ,JGh ,JdGh ,fhdEG
a jdG g hJ YGPEGh fjdG GdG NCGh ,VGdG J qJ
fhdEG LddG Y idG YEG FSh cqJh .dG eG H
eh ,JdG ed L q dG MGh ;ffEG e gQYH
.bdG jdG GSH dG FdGh ;fdGh ,jdG

Gg OLh e kadCe k GeCG LddG dG a a OLh Y jdG Hh

ILCGh GJdc fhdEG Ld f YEG e F dG q dG
QdG e pa qdh LddG QdG YH k GQe dG hjh .jdG
dEG hDJh Jeh MU J e YS dG fhdEG ILCG a jGdG
QdG Gg Y jdG ad k qe h j NBG dG qCG M a .IO No
GYG e ,JM a gKCJh fhdEG g Y jW M e QdG
.dG a HU OLH

dG edG Y d eCG QdG d YEG FSh EG

M J kUf j dG FSh H CH kY ;LddG Y bdG
N qfCG Y Vheh q e J e kdZ dG qLddG VGdG H
.e Y

25
 CG VGdG g d kY cCG W Y j jdG UTCG a ,dd
Y Gaj CG Yh .jdG QqdG Gg GcGj d Y QOe Y Ghj
d a Y jQOb Gj M qMdG qdG dGh gdG H
hCG jQJ CG Y GM CG d j d jd kjqJ eCG Gg jh .jQdG g
kJGP fCG J GdhM jdG eqCG .JdGh fhdEG Y a J
Y H GpMoCG a dG LGdG e gZh SdG dH fSH
a edG qVjdG OdGh ,dGh ,qdG jqdG e dBJh ae
.QOdG g

Zj jdG UTCd Le HH g q dG dG dG GP dG Gg EG
mHZ a dG hO e jdG fhdEG LddG e a aQe J a
dG Gg e KdG bCG Jh .adCdG Zh edG UdG e
If{ Y b c jh ,fhdEG YU a FdG ndG YdG
hJ dG IdG dG e jdG Yh ,qj dG gd zeT
Sh e HQCG e cCG Y dG j ,dc .a IOQGdG qSSCG VGdG
q c co bh .gGdG fCGh ,GQGdGh ,ILCG Y qSDe mhLh qVJ

,NGdG VGdG ah qJ e QdG qJo eeh S jH a

GOSEG CG c .aseh IRQH H MdG dG dG OQhoCGh
.a e cCG a IQcdG VGdG SG feEG Qd J d aGdG

,Yj d e ee jCG Qd j CG dG Gg j
qSSCG H qeo hCG qdG jQddG IOT ie a UTCG YSHh
edG H kfQe ,qdG da ,dG Gg e SG LddG
iJ ,qVjdH dG AdGh ,qHdGh ,fhdEGh ,qdG dG a
gdG GQOEG SJ Y YJ dG jqdGh OdG e H OY Y
.qdG

q J
GQGdGh fhdEG UdH AkGHG VGdG e kSGh ie dG
Jh ,dG JG dSCGh ,IQqdG fCGh fhdEG ILCG dEG

26
Jo VGe LQOoCG ,dG S a .GQGdGh UdG TCG YU kjCG
jJ f SG ILCGh ,jhdG ddGh JdG BG Y AdG
,dBG GqdG BGh ,qdG jDhdG Xeh ,QdG qTCGh ,(GPS) aGdG bGdG
.qYUEG JG QbCGh ,dG JdGh ,GQGOGdGh ,FdG SdGh

LddH ae f SJ a ZGdG jH dG Gg j S
e q c e j Sh .e qJ d hCG qT aGhd AGS fhdEG
a edG UTCGh ,dG AeCGh ,dGh ,udGh ,IGdGh ,dG
g e qch ,dGh ,jQdGh ,dGh ,jdGh ,fYEG :ddG dG
.AGQdGh SdG e q d Y Le fCG c .fhdEG YU Y H
dH SGdG fhdEG LddG e a eqe HH dG Gg Sh
m ed k q eh k Ge k GQe NBG dG S a ,dG H dEG
.UN jJ GP H q e

d fhdEGh AHdGh ,dhqCG AjdH dG qdG OGdG qEG

jdG VGdG CG dP dEG p p
r VCG .fe aCG Y god LdG Gg a LQe
Iba jb VGe qlJ JH PEG a IQce Z ,dG GQGdGh HfCc
eHh ,edG fCGh ,JdG eH q dG FdG eqCG .qqgCG
.JdG GQGH dG qc d Rh QhV g e e coa JdG

qSSCG fudGh UdG dEG dG e fdGh hCG dG qj

,(GO jG dG) q F dG e dGh , q dGh , eh dG : eh
,Jdc :qfehdG UdG ddG dG hjh .GQjfGdGh
Y Ie hCG fhdEG GQGd HJ fc AGS cqdGh ,M q dGh
edG dG eCG ,HHdGh qd HGdG dG Vjoh . d
dG F dG GQG dGh S SCG fh dEG GQG dG Y a
a e ah mAG LCG a d dG VG dG cPoh .(Building-Block)
GOOdH JdG GQGdGh UdG dch ,qSdG GOOdG Hh ,qFGdG
.(Microwave Bands) j h d G L d G f C G Y e h , d d G i d G G P

27
edG GQGdGh ,qdGh KdG edG GQGdH dG VGdG eqCG
a bdG QOeh ,JdG a IcGdG bbQo dEG aVEH ,qdGh qbdG
,qFdG fhdEGh ,fhdEG QNG GhOCGh ,bdG Ohqeh ,jQ q dG
dEG ToCG M a .e We a cPo a ,fh dEG V Y BGh
,jhdG hCG idG ddG IMh :g We KK a JdG LdJ
,qdG edG Udc ,DhGLCGh JdG ofh ,idG dG IMh
.qFdG SdGh ,HdGh ,OdGh ,TdGh

, qdGh , qKdG hCG GQSG :jd IO e a q Nlh

:j e ddG dG dG dhJh .JGh ,jOGdGh RdG Hh YGPEGh
,jqdG qYdG fhdEGh ,fhdEG edGh LdG e
a edG qdG fhdEG GhOCGh ,dG dH q dG fCGh
UdG TCG Yd kJ kMT dG AGLCG qJh .dGh dG
,SCH UN b gh .UCJh GQGdG GdCG Ydh Jh gJh
jH q dG ILCGh t dG a j NBG bh ,UdGh ,dGh
GQqd VdG AGqL e H j QmV hCG m Y CG e bdG UdG TCG
.dY qFHc

YdG dG Gg a edG qSSCG QOdGh LGdG jJ qJ d

qFGHG fhdEG e QqJ kc QOdG g Jh .dG LGe b e
LdG Gg e j dG eCG ,dG Gg a kqJh kq J cCG J dEG
Gg a LQdG fhdEG VGe a UdG h
q j jd kqb k GQe
.YdG dG

JS f

28
 h C G dG

(ddG) dqdG Z fhdEG fqdG

jdG

(Filters) uTdG eT If
(Passive Filters) dqdG Z uTdG (Fixed Resistors) HdG ehpdG
(Power Supply Filters) bdG jJ uTe IqdG ehpdG
(Variable Resistors)

dG JdG LdG uTe (Capacitors) pqdG

(Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Filters )
QqdG OOqdG je (Inductors) KqdG
(Crystal Frequency Standards)
(Transformers) FHdG qdG

eT If
e j IQGO e AL Y IQY g (ddG) qdG Z fhdEG qdG EG
:g kYT cCG dqdG Z fqdGh .qLQN qFHc jJ dEG LdG hO

29
qj .(Leads) aW Y e jh ,KqodGh ,pqdGh ,ehpdG
qdG L jf e Gj aW dG QdG qd CG 1-1 dG
YdG qd CG 2-1 dG qj H .ddG QdG OGeG Y qjh
qdG NOEG j .qdG d dH Fb jhGH jRGe aW dG
qdG eCG ,90 jhGH aW W IQGdG Md e K a dG QdG
q
NOEG j fCG dG e .dG a W CG hO e dNOEG a dG YdG
x
.JeJhCG BG SGH IQGdG Md K a fqdG c AGLCG

(CG)

()
.FHc e - ,ehe -CG :dG jQe fqe 1 -1 dG

(O) () () (CG)

,dG ddG - , dG OMCG eGdG -CG :dG YT e 2 -1 dG

.adG /eGdG UdG -O ,dhdEG dCG -

IjGdG ddG LM f ,fhdEG fqdG Y UGdG dG EG

,(HjEGh dG) dqdGh dqdG Z fqdG e jdG NOEG dEG OqCG ,dEG
K hH IQGO Md Y Te H J eEH dGh d GWCG dG

30
EG . (SMT) dG cdG GP GQGdG LdJ SGH hCG e hCG IQneo
hCG e bbQ Y IQY g ehdGh dc ddG Z fqdG
e jdG dh ,IQGdG Md Y d Hb fe fGH dG fGSCG
e ehQCG e fqe edG GQGdGh GQjfGdc dqdG fqdG
.FHdG IQGdG Md Y d Hb gh

HdG ehdG
ehe hP FHc qe gh ,e IQGO a FHdG QqdG aqJ hdG fj
OqJ CG ehd j .() geQh (ohms) hCH Y qj HK b GP
FHdG ddG a kWg kVQa ,IQGdG a adG FHdG QqdG IT QGe
. I Q G M T Y b d G a G O J h C G (Ohms Law ) h C G f b a h

Y qe e GMh Y IQY g (Fixed Resistors) HdG ehdG EG

GP ehdG g kYT fGSCG ehdG cCGh . q e hCG fGSCG T
dG M kae hdG AdG j .1-1 dG a qdG QdG dG
IOqdG AGLCG qJ .fL Y S W P AZ e Y kqSehCG fGSCG
jqa Sh ,fHc AZh ,fe AZh ,e S he e ehdG
q q
g bbodGh qdG ehdG EG .cDe eh ,(Cermet) (eS) eGS
.q dG ehdG Y eCG

() hCH Y qj J b GP ehH IQqe HdG ehdG L EG

h C G j e h C G (kilohms - k ) h C G B G h h C G Q c H d G g h G J h
. (megohms - M )

:iNCG qFHdG GjdG

.hCH dG dG e je c ,ehdG b hJ
.(W) GdH IOqdG IQdG
q d dH AL QGdG edG
. (ppm/C ) j e I Q G M L Q O
. (V ) d d H d G b C G ( d d G ) d G a

31
Kdh ,FHdG d aVEG GjJ kjCG d ehdG H
H NO Keh e ehdG g Jh .NdG dh
QNG Y QYG H GKDdG g NCG qdG Y Lj dd .cJ
.ILCG H a eGSc q e hCG jqOY Z m Fd m ehe

ehdG ASHh .H IkTe bdG jJ Y ehdG Hb JJ

ehe e E a ,(Power Supplies) FHdG bdG jH q dG
q bCG IkOY J h ,5 W `dG hO J IQH IQe fhdEG GQGdG
E G .1 W e
(25.4mm ) M G d G f E G O h H g 5 W I Q d G P f G S C G h d G W
.UCG ehe 1/8W ,W ,W GQdG GP ehdG qJ . in (6.4 mm oHh)

fHdG cqdG ehe

g c ,(Carbon-Composition Resistors) fHdG cqdG ehe qJ
Gg qjh ,da HGQ e HdG e N e ,3-1 dG a qe
Jo K eh fL Y e aW e db a VJ ehe Ld IOqe dG
ie qJ a ehdG g a ehdG UdG ed f .dG a
VdG GKCdG e cCG c q Jh IQG dG LQO a q J e ShCG
g J .fdGh fHdG ZCG GP ehdG e fQdH FHdG
a 20 h , d G a 10 H hG j e h d G a ShC G h J f n H YdG

U he Y

ee W
O c hCG eQ
jd qe

dne L

.fHc he AGLCG :3 -1 dG
32
b a qj e ,WdG AGLCG e HWdG UeG dEG e dEG aVEH dG
b g fHdG cqdG ehe e IOSG CG dEG IQTEG QJh .qdG
.Y dG qfj Gd fdG ddG GP QjfGdG GQGO a gCG
CG EG ,100 M hn 1 H fHdG cdG ehd jjdG dG hGJh
IQdG eCG ,100 M hn 1 H hGJ dG J g kYT cCG jjdG dG
.2 W d E G 1/8 W e a j j d G

fHdG AdG ehe

a qe g c ,(Carbon-Film Resistors) fHdG AdG ehe qJ
W f h C G b Y V d G H d G Y e h e M H H ,4 -1 d G
aVEG H .jOGaEG ehe Y d dG j K .dG a Jo K eh
dG QjdG qdH ehdG b QqJ ,hdG fL a aW e jAZ
H hdG AW j K .dG dH dG SGH IFGdG ehdG qj
a 10 dGH fHdG AdG ehd ehdG hJ Qqjh .SH RY
.1/8 W hn , W , W g fHdG cqdG ehd jjdG IQdGh .dG

RY Z

f H c A Z
f Y he
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eh dG b
qdG QdH
Ye
AdGh dG

.fHc AZ he :4 -1 dG

33
 adG qdG ehdG
S H a d G d G e h d G J j ,5 -1 d G a h j c
e IkOY ehdG S qj .eGS hCG SH f Y k GL aQ he
e jAdGh jQdG adG UJ j .(hf) ehdG -dG IOqe
,ehdG e Yf K .qFHdG IQGdG cE dG dG an W
IQH UdG eh dGh (General Purpose) edG eGSG eh e
GMh ehe b hG J .(Power Wirewound Resistor) adG ehdG
, d G a 2 e h d G h J b h ,1 megohm h 10 ohms H e d G e G S G
e c C G j j d G I Q d G G P G M d ,100 ppm/C O h H j Q G d G e d G h
. d G a 10 `d G q j h J 5W

GP dG a GSd IOqe adG ehdG Ea Y Hh

QqdG a M Ye J fCh dG qdd fd dPh fdG GOOdG
h C G d G R E G j . (DC ) d G Q d G e h e b j j d G e C G (AC ) h d G
S H dG hCG SdG GOOdG Y dG YdG g J
M d b OM H f Y ehdG S W dLEG H Gg j h .FK
q
,NBG gMCG a ce M e Hj ,dd f .(bdG) dG
.dG YdG e b hCG dRCG b f dHh

RY Z

S e S
he e hCG

eGS bT

AZ

qe eQ
W
.dG dG he 5 -1 dG

34
IOe J .YT h jQe GWCG e adG dG ehdG J
,dG IQdG GP adG dG ehdG a d dG hCG cHEG
Y a VJ hCG eGdG IOH q a ddG IQdG GP ehdG J eCG
a IQdG ehdG TG N e J dG g EG .IQGd IOe dCG
d Y HUCG M N M hCG Td Hb OGe CG H gOLh M
.CdG jW Y

fdG AdG ehe

(Metal-Film Resistors) fdG AdG ehe J ,6-1 dG qj c
bdG fdG AdG jo CG eEa .fHdG AdG ehe U jW H
(Alumina) edCG IOqe e f Y ZGdG SdH hCG jOKdG TTdH
Vj S fe AZ Y hCG ,jJ IM NGO ,dCG cCH ahdG
jdG cCG IOqe e MCG cCG a bdG fdG ZCG J .AGdG a
e e a dG ZCG eCG ,ehc f IOqe e hCG (Tin Oxide)
M g h , j e H G H ( d H b a N e ,Frit ) ( j a ) L R h K e
qdH ehdG g jJ j .(edG) aN IOe e he he
.gN H dG dH dG SGH bqH ndG jd QdG

:LQH fdG AdG ehe VJ

H LQCj QGM eeoh dG a 1 H JhdG ehdG GP ehdG

.100 ppm/C h 25 ppm/C

.200 ppm/C QGM eeoh dG a 5 H JhdG ehdG GP ehdG

GP GMdG dh 1/8 W hCG W IQdG GP GMd g YCG dG EG

S a a I Q c e 100 megohms d E G b J d G e h d G .I a e 1/20 W `d G
.10 kohms e q bCH IQqeo Y H qdh ,UCG

35
 qe a AZ

RY Z

eGS f

AdGh dG Ye
.dG AdG he :6-1 dG

ehdG T
jY Y J (Resistor Network) hdG T CG ,7-1 dG qj
ceC q e dG e dG Gg qEG PEG .IRcdG f Y cCG hCG ehe
J .Ohe M a QGdG b ehdG e 15 dEG 6 e qJ IOqe
qVe Jh dG AdG GP ehdG Y IkOY jQdG dG eo
J . (SIP ) U G d G j O M C G e R Q N G O h C G (DIP ) U G d G F K e R Q N G O
10 h C G 8 h C G 6 a I N C G e C G , (Pin ) S H O 16 h C G 14 d h C a , (SIP ) Y (DIP ) j e
FdG bdG :dfG cdG a ehdG dG Jo .HHO
da nb Y J dG dG GQGdG H (Pull Down) dGh (Pull Up)
QqJ e dh ,(Sense Amplifier Termination) dG q e AfEc ,e
.(LED) Ad QqdG Fd VdG

J .dG IRcQ a keGSG cCG IOdG g edCG eGdG IOe EG

Powdered) q dG - jOdG e e qe M HH b dG dG
G g N H . e G S I R c Q Y j e H G Q e d G (Silver-Palladuim
eCG .V ehe GP U N a eGdG e dG HGj dG
(Ruthenium - K hQ - e S e N e Y d G e h d G Q M C G
Y dP H Hnoa ,je HGQ eh (Frit) ja LdG e e Cermet)

36
HGJ Yh ,dG Gg N jCG j .ehdG UdG d UdG GWCG
QdG dEG kjCG ehdG T J .eheh U IOe J eGdG e
dG b EG .dG dH dG SGH bH ehdG b jd qodG
.dG a 2 dGH Qqj hJ e 10 Mohmsh 10 ohms H hGJ ehdG
.S KCJ CG hM hOh eBG m H W e bCG jJ dG e J
IOe e Z
cjEG
ehe ZCG

Ue N

eGS IRcQ GWCG

.he T :7-1 dG

AdG GP dG f fEa ehd bO cCG knb eCG j eY

,(Nickel-Chromium) (h f) h dG dG j e e q dGh b dG
,(Tantalum-Nitride) dfdG j fh ,(Chrom-Cobalt) hdG -d H dGh
T EG . e dCG eG S IO e e IR cQ Y V dG hCG T T dG
.g IQGO GRcQ fCG Y kjCG J qVdG Z bdG AdG GP ehdG
hCG fe q e Y NGO jdGh ehdG bdG AdG T qVJ
.(aN) eGS

eGdG bbdG ehe

a qe g c ,(Ceramic Chip Resistors) eGdG bbdG ehpe EG
jf IOe TTH hCG hdG edG M Nh H H Jo ,8-1 dG
I c Q Y (Nickel Chromium ) h d G - d G h C G (Tantalum Nitride ) d f d G
q J dP H .jd LdG e H hdG S AW j .edCG e
37
dG Y a SSCG e qe M joh ,e bbQo dEG GRcdG
eh .GWCG hH kehe jdG a d dhqCG Mc dG a Jh adG
dG e fG e dG IOdG jd dG e ILM W VJ K
q Jo k G NCGh .(Inner Electrode) NGdG
UUdG e J IO H G WCG
.dG IOYEG Y dG d jdGh

LdG J ehe IOe

cCG e
jKhdG

eGS IcQ

- UUQ J Oh dEG
dG jOH Y jb .kqS cqdG bbdG he :8 -1 dG

LdJ QqJ eh ,a dG GQGd bbdG ehe U UCH J d

GP ehdG bbdG OHCG MJ iLh .Y dG OGORG dG cdG
QNG CGe J BG a eGS 3.2 1.6 mm `d dG cdG
GP 1206 b b Q e S b H J S d G g E G) . J e J hC G c d Gh
cfh . q b C G hC G 1/8 W `H b b d G e h e I Q b j J J .(0.063 0.125 in O H C G
o H dG GWCG hH fGSCG g (SMT) ehd jdG dG CG ,kjCG
n
.dG HGhQ Y dG LCG e fdG e c M qe ed

IqdG ehpdG
OpdG
b qJ M (Variable Resistor) qe he g (Potentiometer) OpdG EG
W Y (Wiper) Mq dG hCG (Sliding Contact) pdodG eodG MGREH ehe
gY e L c Y W Od .HZdG dG Y d ehdG
cJ GPEG .cqdGh ddG Mq dH e dK Wh ,HdG hdG

38
dEG OdG ehe b qJ hdG dG jGH f dG dEG Mq dG
hdG dG W Y cdG dG a Mq dG cqJ GPEG eCG ,fOCG gM
.JLQO bCG dEG OdG ehe b a
:Mq dG jH qd dBG K g
dH dG jW Y Mq dG MGREG - 1
eCd M q dG a d (Lead Screw) Z H H dG O Y IQGOEG - 2
.dh
hdG dG INCG g J d Mq dH UdG QR hCG ZH IQGOEG - 3
.QqdG
:j d kah fhdEG IQGdG a OdG qjo
.bqdG Ope - 1
.(Panel or Volume Control) M d G hC G I Q d G H V O d G -2

.qdG OdG - 3

bqdG OpH jo e a ,(Pot) g Od Y QodG QNG EG

.(Panel or Volume Control Pot) IQdG hCG MdG HV OdGh ,(Precision Pot)
(Trimmer) qodG SG IkOY Y oa (Trimmer Pot) OdG qe eCG
L CG dEG IQTEG QJ .((Trimmer Capacitor) HqdG dG Y d)
.f dG edG dG dh OGdG f e J IdG ehdG g

MdG hCG IQdG HV OdG

fGQhO Y d j d OdG e dG Gg qj ,9-1 dG qj c
,(Tuning Radio Frequencies) jjOGdG GOOqdG dJ e FXh OqDjh jW
,I q dG Vh ,(Brightness) dG Vh , dG BG U Vh
e a MdG V a OdG jo .jjdG GQGdG a jdG Vh
,fjdG dGh ,jdGh ,jOGdG ILCc : fh dEG I LCG
Ge e jdG dc , SShCGh ,JdG TTh , q dGh
d M d G H V J . (Electronic Test Equipment ) f h d E G d G
39
e g a ,H FjdG GqdG jH dG Y IQdG ILCG g
Y NGO OpdG e dG Gg qVj .dGh QdG OdG Ve H HQ
.bdG Oe dG Mf e jo Qe OY e fGSCG

(CG)

()

.dG SdG - ,qdG -CG :dG Oe :9 -1 dG

H kWe j hCG d LGdG MdG eqe N IkOY dG HV cqjo

qJh ,MqdG V ne e a eo dneo (HGQ Uh gh Bushing)
cqJ dd Z L HdG d .HdG ME dU e qfe H
H IQGO Md Y OdG cJ j .LGdG MdG N IQGdG Md Y
QdG dG OYh dG e c j H LGdG MdG N J
H J dc .LGdG MqdG a a N e jgX (Control Shaft)
a dG g c ,fqdG e d jEGh J Je GdCG HV
.ddG IdG jOGdG ILCG

HdG e GdCG HV a edG ehdG UdG J CG j

g e f dh .UdG SdG e hCG ,edG IOqe hCG QdG dnodG
e IkOY .e jjJ IQbh ,e hJh ,e ehe f OGdG
fHdG OGdG UY e x d h , d G a 20 h d G a 10 H h d G j
edG OGe o J .ehpodG a (Tapers) bSG LQO UdG SdGh
e aGj Qe H GdCG HV Jo .bdG a YCG OqdG H

40
AGLCG ,GMh T Y H jh .jdG hCG jQdG jQdG dG
GMd j .ehdG OGdG e SGh QN dG Ja ,dGSG j
f SGH H dG j cCG hCG ehe JMh e kbW J CG dG
SdG -9-1 dG qj .LGdG MdG M a Obd QdG OdG
.gdG d dG edG

qdG OdG
Y J IU Ie ehe g (Trimmer Potentiometer) qdG OdG
j h . d G H e I Q O f H d (Set and Forget ) ( J G h V C G ) C G e
INCG MdG N dG J , k LEG .dG GQGdG a IkOY dP
dG Me a V Oj b dh ;dG Leh BG a e
H J d G d G b h e h d G b a G d G O d (Calibration )
,RdG ILCGh ,jOGdG ILCG a HqdG J .GQGdG Ye Y
dG Ge GfCG eh , J dG T Th , dG Gq dGh
UCG M a j b HqdG Y dG CG dEG IQTEG QJ .JGh
hCG dY HWQ hCG dY IQGM LQd VqdH dG J h ,bqH Jo UdG
IH J H dG Y NGO HqdG VJo .IQGdG Y e Xh J
ehe UYh eJh MCGh TCG H qd .edG he Y
FT T Lj .jQdG hCG jdG jdG FGod Joh ,IOeh e
.qdG hCG dGh IQGhqdG :Hqd

QGhqdG qdG OpdG

Rotary Trimmer) IQGhq dG Hq dG q J ,10-1 dG q j c
Y Gj q eh FGO f ehe Y IMdG IQhdG GP (Potentiometers
d dG FGdG dG qEG .QdG hCG O d I MGh IQhO N gOG eG
,(10 mm hn 6mm) 3/8 in hn in QbCH IQGdG Md Y cd Se OpdG
GMh kjCG aqJ .dG Y IgX hCG Vhe ehdG UY b a Jh
GQhdG IOdG IQGhqdG Hqd Ea dc .(13 mm) in e cCG bo GP
41
P QGhdG OdG IQGOEG Y ehe b V jh ,FGO f ehe Y kjCG
dEG UdG j M dG NBG a hCG dG Y hCG YCG a eEG VdG dG
cE dG M Gj CG e dG GQhO dBG qJ .IQdG ceCG a
a 3/8 in hn in He g FdG MCG cCG EG .IQhO 20 a ehdG f ec
.Jc Md Y cJ e SJ H H Y IYe ,HHO e Y
.Hqd GdCG Y dG cdG e YdG jg dG eqDj

dG qdG OdG
Y dG hCG (Rectangular Trimmer Potentiometer) dG Hqd
CG q d jh .NGdG dG dd IQGOEH b OqJo M , q N ehe
H qVe kYT cG GMdG .IQhO 20 a NGdG dG ec Rj
.J c M d Y c d H H O d G e R J .(19.1 mm) in H e
dG hP QGhdG OdG
q e

dG e M

e he Y fe Z
edG IOe

eGS IRcQ

qdG OdG 10-1 dG

42
UEH dG jW Y aJo CG Mq d a j dG UCG H LJ
d ehdG UdG .hdG dG OG eG Y dG dEG hCG eCG dEG
,ehe Sh ,M P Hch ,fHc AZ e J CG j HdG
.L o eh ,Ue SHh ,eSh
cCG GMdG d j dh ,( W) OqJ dG HdG e EG
SGH jjdG IQdG OqJ .(1 W) OqJ CG GQhdG IOdGh (32 mm) 1 in
Ph adG YdG c CG cfh ,QdG hdG dGh q dG S b
.jQdGh jdG jdG e aGd qe dG cdG

bdG Oe
dBG g ,11-1 dG qj c ,(Precision Potentiometer) bdG Ope EG
dG a MGh bH IQe ehe eCJ dBG g J .qeh hd LQeo
K d G J d G a S G h f Y g d G g J . b C G Y (1 % )
j a , F a j Y fCGh ,S dG BGh ,(Analog Computers)
IOYEG aJ CG bdG gd j .(Sensors) q c dhqCG ddG eGSG
UGbCG OLh qEG .(Control Shaft) qdG Od J d kah bOh dd V
d dPh Oe Ve CG dEG OdG LQ qjo (Vernier Dials) fQa
.V hH IQe N da Y

OGdG eCG .QGhqO Qe OY e dG fGSCG Y bdG ge d EG

NGO qeh zC{ T Y a IMGdG IQhdG GP bdG ge a ehdG
,fhM hCG dd J IOdG GQhdG GP bdG ge CG M a .dG
OY Ye J .11-1 dG a Ve g c ,dG NGO qJ kjCG gh
q dG Ye NqCJh qJ a k GQhO dG OY Y cqdG ddG dG
.ddG NGO dj CG e q dG qj e Ggh ,QGhqdG OdG cM e

ehe e qj eh .a IOLdG ehdG UH bdG ge OsJ

H adG dG ehdG Y qjo .SH ehe hCG ae S

43
jQGM ee UdG d .e KCG S Y hCG f Y aQ ehe S
f G Y . I O e f S G G P f C G E G , (Low Temperature Coefficients ) V
b hj QGH IQhO c H ehdG b OGOJ hdG dG Y q dG
e bdG J H .dG M dG adG d IMGh IQhO a ehdG
Y dG j dh .S qd 1 hJ kFGO d j ddG W
SH IOH e e S e Y gh ,g dd e Ff fSG
.ehdG a OjORG Vqj AdG Gg .ehe

d j CG FU e fqdG n dG SdG ehpd j fCG H

j , q N UY d dH UdG J j Gd ,Ff fSG
j ,dG S Y .QdG V e J N da od bbSG
q GO Y qJ N da AYE qj CG bSd
, (Sine ) j h G d G L
.(Logarithmic) JQZd hCG ,(Square Low) HdG fdGh ,(Cosine) dG Lh

edG e fG c ehdG Y

OY

dG hU
He

.bdG Oe 11 -1 dG

Infinite) g e f SG LQO GP k jCG gh ,e dG IO e J

. d Y I Q G M L Q O A G L C G a j C G b d G O e e O G j e Y , (Resolution
q dG AGgGh cBJ dEG OqDj e (Abrasive) Tc OGdG g Ea ,SCd
.OdG Y q j ddHh
44
IMGdG IQhdG GP ;Ye dEG (Precision Pots) bdG ge jCG qJ
ehdG OGe a qdG H .(Multiturn) GQhdG IOqdG hCG (Single Turn)
CG dGh dG adG gd j dG a Y aGdG GYCGh
YdG bdG ge L eCG ,GQhdG IOqe hCG IMGh IQhO GP eEG J
d GP ge a eS IOe e ehe UY e hCG SH Ue IOe e
.IMGh
:bqdG gd SSCG UGdG
. (Torque ) G Q h d G Y J h C G ` H A d G
. (Resistance Range ) e h d G f
. (Power Rating ) d G I Q d G
. (Ambient Temperature ) d G I Q G M L Q O f
. (Rotational Life ) G Q h d G Y
c M a , k e .ehdG Yh GQhdG OY QNG eGdG g OqJ
,eRdG bdG J d k GL V ehe d Y jOMCG IQhdG P Od
OdG GQhd dqdG LQdGh .GQhdG IOdG gdG dEG j QNG Ea
g kYT cCG GQhdG IOdG gdGh 320 dGM g jOMCG IQhdG P
O G Y C H G M h L j f C G d G e , (3600 ) Y G Q h O d G h G Q h O d G G P
. I Q h O 40 ,25 , 15 ,5 ` c e G Q h O

dh (GQhdG OdGh OMCG) GQhdG Yf jQdG UCG J

q N e
d G e h d G f E G . a C G h C G d G a 0.025 H (Linearity )
e h e f h ,150 ohms d E G 10 ohms e g I Q h d G j O M C G b d G g d
GQhdG Oqd dG ehdG f eCG 1 Mohms dEG 200 kohms e ddG
c C G d E G 200 kohms e g d d G e h e f h ,1 kohms h 3 ohms H G h a
. 5 Mohms e

g c .IQRGDc hCG Md Y cJ GMh T Y bdG ge J

MdG N Md Y cJ dG GMdG VJ M dG ge a dG

45
, M d G a a Y I g d G (Threaded Bushing ) d d G J L h J Y C G e
cqJ dG GMdG eCG .(Lock Washers) MEG ah fe bH qdG
Joh fe IYb GdCG Y qJh SCG dEG eeCG L Va IQRGDc
M Q h j d G e d G (Groove ) I K a S C G Q P Z H M E H (Clamped )
.dG Y AH hCG Qe c eEG bdG ge Joh .bdG Oe Y e

qdG
Y QOb fhdEG qe g ,12-1 dG qj c ,(Capacitor) qdG EG
Md e dCJ dG J g qdG TCG HCGh .FHdG bdG jJ
,ehdG H ,qdG Jo .(Dielectric) FHc RY H j fe
e Yf Lj fhdEG j e ah .kW ddG Z fqdG cCG fK
IY H JS b hGJh ,IdG qdGh HdG qdG :qdG
dG qj .(microfarads F) OGQahjdG dCGh (picofarads - pf) OGQaH
e dG S dG -12-1 dGh HdG q d e dG S dG -12-1
.IdG qd
fe U
(jOhdEG)

(CG)
h

FHc RY

() ()

d G G P d G e Q - , H d G d G G P d G e Q - , d G - C G : e 1 2 -1 d G
.IqdG

46
.(Electrolytic) dhdGh (Electrostatic) JShdG dEG qdG Jo
H e hCG FGg J CG j FHc RGY JShdEG qdh
hCG LdG e hCG ,eGdG e hCG ,SdG e Ac dG dRdG OGdG
QdG e FHdG RdG GP qdG CG dEG IQTEG QJh .(Mica) dG
.fhdEG Ye V J J d

dCG dEG (Electrolytic) dhdEG dG J ,iNCG Mf e

FHc RGY fqj fdG jg C ,(Tantalum) dfJ hCG (Aluminum)
d qj CG jh .(Electrochemical) Fchc dH cCG AZ GP
.aL c hCG ,qe c hCG ,qe bbQ e (Anode) OfCG

GdG ASH ,SSCG a J hH J HdG qdG S b EG

b J j jdHh .IQGdG LQO a GdG KJ dG dG
j .dG e ke qe f V b CG Y IqdG qd dG
.(RF Circuits) jjOGdG GOOqdG GQGO a qdG e dG Gg

JShdG dG
AZ e FHc RY (Electrostatic Capacitor) JShdG qd EG
bQh e oa gGOhdEG hCG gU eCG ,LdG hCG dG IOe hCG SH
qdG FU qJ .FHdG RdG Y qSe e e hCG ,bQ fe
b eGdG Y HnJ dG dG OdG QMCG e adG hCG eGdG
.FHdG GaCH gN

SdG ZCG qe
Plastic-Film ) SdG AdG qe qJ ,13-1 dG a qe g c
R Y A Z h C G b Q f e A Z e b Q S H R Y A Z H (Capacitors
e FHdG RdG qj .Ue aW e fGSCG T Y neo bQ
jdH ,(Polypropylene) HhdH ,(Polyester) dH :ddG OGdG
d G A d G c S h G J . (Polycarbonate ) f H Q d H , (Polystyrene )
47
ZCG e EG . 20 m CG 0.8 mil h 1.5 m CG 0.06 mil H qdG a
dG CG kY ,10 F hn 0.001 F H MhGdG dG GP g kYT cCG
ddG eCG .GSCG a Iae jQe b g 500 m hn 50 F H MhGdG
dG a 1 H dG hJ hGjh .1600 VDC hn 50 VDC H hGa dG
. d G a 20 h

hCG jdG GQhCG Jo bdG fdG bQdGh FdG dG j ah

a e C G .R d G A d G e (0.00635 mm) 0.00025 in c S GP b d G d C G
200 H cH kZGa UQdG hCG dCG Sa ,fdG ZCG cJ
q o
H kjCG FdG dG Joh .AdG Y 50 nm dEG 20 nm e CG 500 h
AdG GP qdG EG .Ue GWCG e bdG fodG ZCG UJh
K .He jjJ d dG bbdGh AdG qe e NCGh UCG g nodG
Rd N M a ;(Self-Healing) kJGP qJo dG AdG qe EG
f dG A dG NC j , d a d V J M f , F H dG

Qe W

Ue fe bbQ
GWCG Y

AZ
RY
FHc

bbQ
fe

Qe W
AdG e :13-1 dG
SdG

48
SdG FHdG RdH dG qa H qjh , q dG a dG M
W H (Short-Circuits ) b G Q G O M e d G g J . F G d G
dG e AfG H . qdG Y aJ a d d Hh ,IQh dG dG
jo GMdG H .RY SH H dG Jo hCG q J UdGh
YdG jd HfCG T Y hCG e fe Y a e H Y
fdG ZCGh fdG FbdGh FdG dG e c aqJ .dG e
.TCG a jY qJ e mSGh f Y YT hCG jQe GWCH

FdG FHdG RdG

cCG e (Mylar) e SH hdG hCG (Polyester Film) ddG AdG qjo
a dG G SG a k Y T (Film Dielectrics) FdG FHdG RGdG
e Ye GMH fQdH IU qH j fEG .FdG dG
k V kH qJ Jo qdG g CG c . j dG f dh i NCG ZCG
,
jJ a de eeoh ,85C dEG -55C e ,YCG de jQGM eeoh
bbdGh ZCG J .dG a 10 dGM dG a hdG jh .IQGdG
GMdG J M a ,fhdEG cSG dG a SGh f Y
Q d G h , (Bypass ) j d G d G h , (General Blocking ) d G d G a f d G
Filtering) T dG F Xh ah ,(Decoupling) G bG qah ,(Coupling)
. (Function

qgCG cCG U dG dEG (Polypropylene) HhddG ZCG J

a HhdG e J PEG .(Polyester) ddG e qdG J e
e YdG dG HJ .AGdG Y dGh ddG GOOqdG J
SdG e YdG d qCG EG ,jddG e YdG Jh SdG
.jddG qdH UdG J e hdG QdG qJ a YCG GjJ
Volumetric) M IAc dh ,105C Y J CG HhddG qd j
q
. d d G G P d G e a C G (Efficiency

GfG a HhddG hCG bQdG OdG e YdG qdG Jo

49
 G Q G O a h , (Pulse-Forming ) d G J h , (CRT ) j O K d G H f C G T C G
Jeeh ,dG a 5 HhddG qd dG hJ j .jjOGdG GOOdG
. q N J jQGdG

ZCG F N H e j d dG ZC F N I Y H J
k GqJ Joh ,V (Dissipation Factor) OqJ eY J a :HhddG
.kf k GqL k GQGSG Jo fCG c ,IQGdG LQO a dG H dG a k V
cCG jddG ZCG GMh Ea f jdG GP HhddG e fQdHh
,(Integrating) e dGh ,(Timing) bdG a ZCG g Jo .k M
.85C g d G i d G I Q G d G L Q O h , d G G Q G O h

Iqe Sh jJ eGY (Polycarbonate) fHddG ZCG qe eqDJo

dEG aVEH gh .jddG qe U e HQe (Capacitance Stability)
LQO hG J .(Isulation Resistance) hdG dG a kdY k J K Jo dP
g J h . d G a 5 d H h J e 150C h -55C H d G J Q GM
.jqdG dG a SGh H qdG

dG qe
e Ye dG e bQ RGY (Mica Capacitors) qdG d
H d FHdG dG HK hGjh .dG OdG e gh ,dG FU
H N G e b Q O e h C G F U e e E G (Electrodes ) J G O h d E G J .8 h 6
(Fired ) I R d G h (Screened ) H d G b d G d G Z C G e e E G h d G F U
I qdG qdG cCG e dG dG qe q Jo . dG IO e a
Jo .dGh FbdG qe e kefG cCG FN aqJ gh ,kfe
. (RF Applications ) j j O G d G G O O d G J a S S C G m H qdG Jg
LQO e SGh bf a qL H dG qe J ,dG a
S nb f hGj .dG dY ehe dh ,150Ch -55C dc IQGdG

.iNCG GE IQGO e e bdG fH J JQGO H dOe bY (Coupling) QdGh @

50
dG hCG dG Y S f dG qd ,iNCG L e .0.1 Fh 1 pF H
.kf V

eGdG /adG qdG

N e (Ceramic Capacitors) adG FHdG RGdG qe qJ
I dG e FHdG RGda .IIIh ,IIh ,I d kJ ,zk{ FHdG dG HK
eh .IQGdG LQO a k GRe k GQGSG Jo qdh ,dG V zk{ HK d
IAdh zk{ `d kf dY b d ,II dG e FHdG RGda ,iNCG L
III dG eCG .IQGdG LQO a QGSG e dY IQH qJ dh ,dG
.bCG dG GP UdGh HfCG d q oa zk{`d

, (NPO ) L d G h d d G d G e G S I d F H d G R G d G J
jdG jJ eH edG eGdG IOe qJo .BYh COG `pd q dGh
d (S ee) ddG jJh (HjEG eeo) (Magnesium-Titanate)
Ie FN CG kY .IQGdG LQO a k GRe k GQGSG jo FHc RY
H hG`J Fa QG`SG GP jQG`M `ee dh ,GOOdG e S`SCG H
RG d G g J .125C d E G -55C e d G V 30 ppmC h 0 ppmC
hdG QqdGh DC dG QqdG GQGd dH ddG a mqJ C HK H
dG dG GP (MLCs) eGdG IOqdG dG e Jo AC.
. T d Gh f d G GQ G d G a zk { H d

FHchqa j kdY zk{ Y HH II d FHdG RGdG qJ

jQdG jqfS a VEG Jh . jQ dG f J e q e (Ferroelectric)
`c d Y j O e e zk { F H d G H d G d G f J h j Q d G f c Q Rh
LQO e ShCG ie V J qdG J cqdG g .cCG hCG 8000
JOqdG Z5U (BZ)h X7R (BX) II d FHdG RGdG qJh .IQGdG
qJ Y dG a 15 H S b LQCJ dh e X7R `dG EG .eGSG
IdG qddG e S b Jh .125C dEG -55C f e IQGdG LQO
e bCG k GM a Z5U cqe eCG .(AC) HhdG qddG e OGOJh (DC)
51
V dG a -56 h dG a +22 f iqJ dG IQGM LQO -S GJ
. 85C h 10C H hG j I Q G d G L Q O a f

Ceramic ) adG UGbCG e e III d FHdG RGdG QqW d

dh (High Volumetric Efficiency) dY qM IAc od (Disk Capacitors
da III dG qd CH kY .dY Oqe eYh HJ ehe aqJ Y
.V J
:TCG H eGdG FHdG RGdG Jo
. (Single-Layer Disk ) I M G h W h P U b - 1
. (Tubular ) H f C G - 2
. (Monolithmic Multilayer ) d G j O M C G I O e W - 3

qdG jOMCG dG GP eGdG dG

bbQ GP e Y IQY g eGdG dG CG 14-1 dG jo
(MLC ) (Monolithic Multilayer Ceramic Capacitors ) d G I O e e G S
M a qdG e Ic e V dEG dP Ojh ,dY M IAc aqJ
MCG e SGh H (MLCs) qd Joh fdG dG qUJo .V
LCG e eCG OH a qdG g QqWo bh .e FN e dGh
dG cdG a IH Jo a ,(Hybrid Circuits) dG GQGdG
Hh kM cCG qdG H eGSG feE dPh (Surface Mounting)
dG dG e V kb qdG g eqDJ dc .HQe jj J
M C H d G j Y h e S a J h , e h d G h (Residual Inductance )
Jo ,dP dEG aVEH .jQGdG e dG e SGh Y eh IO e
dh dfdG H UdG J e ehdGh d bCG kb g qdG
bdG GQGO a (MLCs) qdG e dG Gg jo .HQe GjH
.GOOdG QNGh

e eGS FGT e (Sandwiches) qH W T Y (MLCs) `dG Jo

,20 m CG 0.8 mil cH (IRdG Z) AGdG jQdG -jfJ IOqe
52
qd (Silver-Palladium) dG jOH e jM IOH (Imprinted) edG
,ch ,qUQ j ,(Monolithic Chips) dG jOMCG bbQ dh .FdG
j e F G T e W 40 O j e , F H d G d G a N K e h , J h
.qdG dG

eGdG IOdG dG GP qdG GWCG J Y J

d fdG dH aW LQCG UH hCG GQGdG GdCH dG jOMCG
j b h C G (Tin ) j d G h , (Nickel ) d G h , d G j O H I O H d d G d G
aVEH eEG edG qdG Jh .bbdG jf Y (Lead Tin) UUdG
UJh (IOdG) UCG dM a J hCG dRY IOqH Wnh bbd GWCG
.IQGO Md a Te H
a IOdG dG jOMCG eGdG IOdG dG GP qdG J
Surface Mount) dG cdG J ah dG jh dG GQG dG
L Q H h 232C I Q G M L Q O Y j d G d Q f G J a . (Assembly

e GOhdEG
jOH -a

:jOdG a e GWCG eGdG FHdG RdG W

-jbh dG FU JdG fJ jQ dG IO e e
d UUdG dG jOMCG H

.dG eGdG IqdG dG GP qdG :14 -1 dG

53
IOdG qdG MCG EG .(Wave Soldering) LdG qd 282C IQGM
qJ ,2.0 1.3 mm CG (0.08 0.05 in) q`J `dP Y `eCGh .jQe
CG) 0.05 0.225 in h ;1206 qJ ,(1.6 3.2 mm CG) 0.125 0.063 in h ;0805
,3.5Fh 10 pF H jQdG (MLCs) S b hGJ .2225 qJ (5.7 1.3 mm
.bCG c 50 V dEG J dah dG a 20 dEG dG a 1 e hH qJh

eGdG /adG UGbCG GP qdG

g (Ceramic-Disk Capacitors) adG /eGdG UdG GP qdG EG
dG Hjo H ,e eGS Ub H J ,dG qYT e
GWCG a HJ ceCGh FU qod eGdG UdG L Y dG
q Jo hCG
JGQ a qdG r q J GWCG UJh UdG g N H .qYdG
.Gh Z d q J hCG (Epoxy) c jEG hCG (Phenolic Resin) da
.dG GQGO a dG e dG Gg jo

adG /eGdG HfCG dG

Y IQY g (Ceramic Tubular Capacitors) eGdG HfCG qdG EG
q a H LQdGh NGdG S jo eGS /aN fCG e W
q q
a qadG UGbCG e e qdG g M d .U d
UdG Vh MJEh MdG a M aJ LCG e dG cdG GQGO
.JGdG e bGh W VH qdG g jM qJ .kqdBG /kJeJhCG

dhdEG qdG
q dG J M (Electrolytic Capacitors) qdhdEG qdG QJo
High Volumetric ) d Y M I A c ) e M q bCG ah dG dY HdG
qJ .d Y (CV) M S f q U dG g Y jo .((Efficiency
j M ,(Electrochemical) Fchc dSCH dhdEG qdG
@
jqcoh bbQh dCG ee Yh a cCG F H dG R dG

.dG fGSCG hCG jqhc IU LCG ,jqco: Pellets jqco @

54
,qee J M dH qfdG bbdG (Etched) nJo .ddG (Pellets)
oU eEH H d .Iqe 20 dEG 6 e VdG MdG IAc dH ja
FU Y fqdG bdG IcDdG dG SGH dY M S f
SCG dh SEG hCG ee J H jqodG qoU dch .qdG
.k GL SGh Ve

qdG a e cCG g dhdEG qdG a QdG qJ Ea dP e

edG FGdG OLd dP Ojh ,(Electrostatic Capacitors) qJShdG
L Q O O j O R G e Q d G G g O G O j h . (Electrolyte ) F H d G d G a h b b d G a
q d EG .IQG dG LQO e Q fG d a J M a IQG dG
dEG OqDj e ,JShdG qdG e fQdH YCG IQb eGY dhdEG
Equivelant Series) zdG Y a dG eh dG{`H jo ,(Loss) a
. (Resistance - ESR

dhdEG dCG e
e (Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors) dhdEG dCG qe Jo
dCG bbQ e jT H dhdEG a Ye bQh UGa e H W
IQGO hM e QdG UGa J .15-1 dG a qe g g c ,qdG
CG H dCG e Y a OGdG W NqJo .OfCGh OKdG bbQ H b
e qLQdG UdG Uh j .(Jelly-Roll) eodG IdG jW Y qd j
QdG Qqj .d (Outside Terminals) LQN GWCG hCG HGe dEG GOhdEG
cCG e bQ FHc RY W kKeo ,dG He Y (DC) dG
IQTEG OqJ .OKdG g bbd edG dhdEG j .OfCG Y dCG
.dhdEG dCG d LdG HpdG (+) Le

jo d ;b QSCH dY M - S f qdG e dG Gg aj
qdG d EG K .V Y eheh (DC) dG Qd dY qJ LQO
.bdG e b S Jh ,(Limited Shelf Lives) d IOqe k GQYCG

55
 FJ a jdG ZEG db

d d j f dCG e UJ dCG
GWCG hCG HGd
MEG M

q e d

dCG e IY

OfCG :qe dCG bbQ

OKdG : e dCG bbQ
Ua GQhCG

.dCG IOe e dhdEG e 15 -1 dG

SGh f e dG YT hCG jQe H jQ dG G M dG aq J
e ,2200 F h 4.7 F H kYT cCG dG hGJ .dGh MCG e eh
j dd ,(Polarized) e qdG g 50 VDC dEG J J da
.Jo d IQGdH qdG UJ Y QYG H UdG g NCG

I aq e (Nonpolarized) dG Z dhdEG dCG q e EG

dG TdG a eGSc ,(AC) hdG QdG GQGO a G S d
qe U J .(Speaker Crossover) Y j dG Q dGh (Audio Filtering)
jOfCG HdG jo .jOhdEG HdG UH dG Y e
IQGdG Y he a jOKdG HdG eqCG ,IQGd qLQdG UdG
,10 F h 1 F H qdG d jjdG dG hGJ .RY SGH LQdG
. b C G c 50 VDC d E G J J d a e

dhdEG dfdG e
:W H (Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors) dhd
E G dfdG qe J

56
 . (Wet Foil ) W d G b b d G - 1
. (Wet Anode ) W d G O f C G - 2
. (Solid Anode ) d G O f C G - 3
qe GjJ e YCG M - S GjJ IkOY ddG qd
cCG ,qdG FHdG RdG HK eCG .JGP dG nd dhdEG dCG
L h . d C G c C G F H d G R d G H K e J H c C a , (Ta2O5 ) d d G
UGeh ,jW jJ IQH qJ Yc gh .e ddG qe
- S f dh ,dG IQGdG LQO e SGh fh ,Ie J
e fQdH ZCG a dP eh .qdhdEG dCG e e YCG M
.bCG jjJ da dh f jdG GP dCG qe

WdG ddG bbQ e

H kjJ (Wet Foil Tantalum Capacitors) WdG ddG bbQ e Jo
qdG e dG Gg qj .dhdEG dCG e H Jo dG jdG
Joh ,ddG e Y a dG qVJo .300 VDC dEG J b da
b K d G G P d G a (Aerospace ) d G A d h d G G S d
.ddG

WdG ddG OfCG qe

Wet ) WdG ddG OfCG qe dCJ ,16-1 dG a gX g c
H jJ j ,een dJ jqco OfCG e (Anode Tantalum Capacitors
ZGa a a Jh ,db a (Binder) U IOqe e YdG ddG e
U IOqd hCG jqco dEG dJh dG IQGdG pJo .2000C IQGM LQO Y
cCG IOe e bQ AZ j ,dP H .Ic dqa M e GP SEG
Y .dhdEG j K eh jdG Y Fchc YH d dG
K dG d M -S f OGOJ ddG e hCG a YhCH VdG
.WdG ddG bbQ e e cCG Ge

57
 dG e W
Pa fCG ddG e fCG
MEG d
J Y MEG LR

jPa M ddG e aGQ

We MEG
dG e Hb

a Y
IcCG SN ddG
qdG ddG e OfCG
FS dhdEG

dG e Ye
f OY
jbh

.WdG ddG e dhdEG qe 16 -1 dG

dG ddG OfCG e
Solid Anode) dG ddG OfCG qe kjCG Jo ,17-1 dG j c
q
bQ AZ SJ kFc j .ee (Pellet) jqco OfCG e (Tantalum Capacitors
, F H d G d d G c C G R Y Y (Manganese Dioxide ) d G c C G f K e
W Jo OKdG UJ cEh .U OKch dhdEc j dG
e Iae J bCGh kYT ddG qe cCG EG . k Ue AkWh HdG e
d SH JGQ a db hCG qdG J j .YT hCG jQe GWCG
cCG jM ad ddG e Y NGO VJ j qdG H .bGh ZCG
jJh WCG H g dG ddG OfCG qe J .dG AGLCG e
,680 F h 0.1 F H dG b hGJ .ddG qe e NBG m f CG e Qd bCG
e C G . b C G c 5 0 V d E G J d a h , d G a 2 0 h d G a 1 0 H h G j h H
.10 F h 1 F H hG J a k SG cCG GjdG

58
 q dG O fCG
ddH IOe e W
cjEG

HdG e W

dhdEG
dG fe Z

OKdG W

OfCG W

.cjEH e U bbd ddG IOe e qe 17-1 dG

dG ddG bbQ OfCG qe

Solid Anode Chip ) dG ddG bbQ OfCG qe CG 18-1 dG jo
qVJ dh dG jQdG qdG SCG H Jo (Tantalum Capacitors
GP bH Y H e a Uh d ,cjEG IOe e aW Z Y db a
h H ,100 F h 100 pF H S b h G J . g G Q G O a h C G S c J
. b C G c 50 V d a h , d G a 20 d E G d G a 5 e S
OKc S
cjEH e Y

dG HdG

Iqe dJ fGSCG
(L dhdEG)
OfCG fe S
.ddG bbQ qe 18-1 dG

59
 IqdG qdG
e S b qJo e g (Variable Capacitors) IqdG qdG EG
ZCG a qdG g Joh .Qe ZH hCG Qe OY IQGOEG N
:U e fh ,jjOGdG GOOdG GQGO a
. (Tuning ) H d G -1
.(Trimmer) HqdG -2
hCG ,eGdG hCG ,SdG IOe e qJ CG FHdG dRGd jh
.AGdG hCG ,LdG

HdG qdG
RY GP Iqe qe Y IQY g (Tuning Capacitors) HdG qdG EG
b dLEG d iNCG FU V J FU e fqe FGgh FHc
e FU IY e fqe IMGdG HdG dG CG 19-1 dG qj .dG
g NGJ H Qe OY Y eo (Rotor) QGhdH J dCG
cqeh (Stator) cdH J dCG FU e IXe Ye e FdG
.(Rigid Spacor) U Yeo Y

hCG NGdG dEG IQGhqdG FdG J dH QGhdG QdG OdG QGjo eY

e j dG Vh a dG EG .ee hO e cdG FU H QdG dEG
b hGJ .NGdG Fd dG MdG e ITe Se gh ,dG b
jOGdG e a qdG g J .500 pF h 1 pF H qdG d dG
.(Oscillators) HHdGh (Transmitters) jOGdG Seh ,(Radio Receivers)
QGhdG FU

QGhO OY

cdG FU .dG qdG :19-1 dG

60
 HqdG qdG
qe IU Iqe e g (Trimmer Capacitors) HqdG qdG EG
hCG LdG e hCG ,SdG e hCG ,eGdG e hCG ,AGdG e FHc RY e
GOOdG GQGd bdG dG a qdG g Jo .OGdG e gZ e
TCH qdG g qJ .100 pFh 2 pF H S b hGJ .jjOGdG
ZH IQGOEH FdG H dG adG H dG b J jh ,e
.QdG dG

KqodG
h dG Q dG IQGO a (Inductance) q d ahe knb KqodG J
iNCG TCG hCG fGSCG M qe H Sf S H KdG Jo .(AC)
I O e N O E G j W Y d G b I O j R J . (Toroid ) M h C G (Coil ) e d
jqdG hCG jdc dG NGO (High Permeability) dY e jPf GP
1 H e bCG H b hGJ qM GP jQe Kqe edG J .(Ferrite)
eCG ,jjOGdG GOOqdG GQGO J a IdG qKdG Jo .10 H dGMh
GP KqdG Jo a .dG dG GQGO a a e IdG
Linear ) q dG bdG jqe a (Filter Chokes) qTdG fGc YCG dG
Ye b a (Perfect Inductor) ddG KqdG J .(Power Supplies
ehe (Real Inductor) dG Kqd a , aU (Inductive Reactance)qM
qdG b jJh V j ,iNCG M f e .(Finite Resistance) ge
IPqdG d jH hCG dG d OY H Ohe H IqdG Kqd
Y hCG (UHF) ddG a GOOqdG Y .LQN dEG hCG dG NGO dEG dG
S e qKdG qJ (Microwave Frequencies) jhdG LdG GOOqJ
.dCG hCG SdG e b

FHdG qdG
Primary) d hqCG IQGO e F H dG b dG (Transformers) dG J
q
e G Q G O I Y h C G (Secondary Circuit ) j f K I Q G O d E G G Q G O I Y e h C G (Circuit

61
eh MGh dhCG e e bCG Y qdG qj .ehdG dG N
Uh e g d .e q d M ae dhe S e fK e
GQGO hCG jfdG GQGdG Hh NdG GQGO hCG dhCG GQGdG e CG H FHc
. J Q G d G c H G O O d G a J C G j h , (Output ) d G

M qj ,d dhCG dG Y (AC) Hhe da J j eY

G g . N d G d a O O J h j O O H J T J h (Core ) d G a e h c
ddG J .da aW H qjh fdG dG SCG j dG a qdG
dG d OY Hh dhCG dG a ddH fdG dG a J dG
e GfCG Kd J keSQ 20-1 dG qj .fdG dG d Od dhCG
.Y H edG dG

OY M ,(Step Up Transformer) aGQ qe CG- 20-1 dG a j

a ddG J dd ,dhqCG dG d OY V g fdG dG d
aN qe a dG g dch .dhqCG dG a ddG V fdG dG
d OY M , - 20-1 dG a qdG (Step Down Transformer) ddG
dG a ddG J dd ,dhqCG dG d OY f g fdG dG
- 20-1 dG a qdG ddG dG eCG .dhqCG dG a ddG f fdG
da K ajo ,(Multiple-Winding Transformer) dG Oe qe a
d hqCG dG d OY H dG Y J k jCG gh , e N
.fdGh

Law Of Conservation of ) b d G f G f b d G g TC G L J
ddG b V UM hH qdG a fdG Gg Qjh .(Energy
.bd Ga e g c GPEG EG ,fdGh dhqCG dG a IQdG hCG QdGh
dG a dG IQdG kjJ OJ dhCG dG a NdG IQda ddHh
e e cCG OLh M a jfdG dG GQb e dLEG hCG fdG
.MGh fK

OJ qd fdG dG aW H ddG fc GPEG ,dG S Y

62
a FHdG QqdG IT S ka dhqCG dG aW H ddG V
AHE dPh ,dhqCG dG a FHdG QdG IT f d fdG dG
dG e Y .kHK ,IQdG hj dG ,QdH ddG V UM
I Q d G h J C G d G I Q d G Y f C , d G a 100 I A c H J C G d d G
,dG a 90 dEG dG e IAc qj bdG Ga CG H dh ,NdG
G a d L E G E G . d G a 10 `H N d G I Q d G e b C G J d G I Q d G E a
dGh ,ehCG ehdG a dG e UM Y j qdG a bdG
d G f d G h , (Eddy-Current Induction Loss ) d G e G h d G Q d G f
q
qdG j dG dGh ,(Molecular Friction) (jL MG) (Hysteresis Loss)
.odG QdG HSG a

Ic d IU d IU d Ic d

dhqCG
fdG
() (CG)

()

qe - ,aN qe - ,aGQ qe -CG : dG q dG R eQ 20 -1 dG

.dG

63
dG qe eCG ,QdG hCG ddG qJ hCG a J q dG e EG
d d G I Q h d H O J Q J I T h d a J f E a (Isolation Transformer )
dG d CG dEG dP Ojh ,(ehdG a dG ASH) dhqCG a QdG ITh
dG fG J fCG g qdG d SSCG dGh .f dG OY
dG dEG dhqCG dG e (Unwanted Electric Noise) ZdG Z FHdG
.dG eqDj e ,fdG

qdGh ,IQdG e g fhdEH k Gc JdG qdG EG

L Q qJh .jjOGdG GOOqdG qeh ,dG qdGh , dG
GMH jjdG dG Y jh fdG a ddH QdG IT V UH
jcCG a dG q dG Qq J .(W) G d H hCG (VA) eCG -d dG
jdG jqdG H CG EG ,100 W hCG 100 VA e q bCH fhdEG dG
.1 kW h J j j J I Q H e J (Switching Power Supplies ) b d
q
d Q LEG dO H H g (MIL-T-W7) j dG j dG EG
d h , (Mil-Spec Transformers ) S - d G d d G (Workmanship )
qEa ,iNCG L e .jQdG GMdG YU a SGh H kjCG J
q dG e kjCG g Ie (AC) hdG QqdH JdGh jQdG dG
National Organization For) H dG edG GOTQEG Hd W dG
a N h C G C N C G h M C (Conformance To Recognized Safety Guidelines
jM fG hCG (Electrocution) FHc U M dEG ODj b qdG g
. (Fire )

IQdG e
hdG AH`dG N jJ (Power Transformer) IQdG q`e j
d E G j d S e d a d E G 60 Hz d E G 50 Hz e O O d G P (Line Power AC )
QOd jQe GMh H IQdG qe qJ .e (DC) Ie da
, (Stereo ) j d G h , R d G Y c d G H a c , d G b d G
Ye e q dG q jh .(VCRs) jdG adH fjdG q d G h
64
 M S d Gh zI { hC G zE { d G GP P d G e hC G j d G e b Q F U
jdG jdG a IQdG qe J .(Toroidal Bobbins) M GH
a C dPh jqdG e q d M adGh 50 kHz dEG 400 Hz qJ dG bd
e Y dG da e qj jdG q d G F U e (Reactance Loss ) Y d G
.400 Hz Q j

JdG hCG dG dG
(Audio or Voice Transformers) J dG hCG dG q dG H J
g YSHh . ShCG GOOq J f Y J fCG EG , IQ dG q H
e je jJh ,e IY hCG e a dG QdG jJ qdG
U h h ,(Matching Impedance) b h d e A G e I L C c J h . Q d G h d d G e
d j f C G d E G I Q T E G Q J . (Filters ) T c h C G , (Coupling ) f Q J
q
.dG qdG a Qqjo CG 20 kHz h 20 Hz H dG GOOqdG e Oe

dG qdG
(Minature) qe q e H H g (Pulse Transformers) dG qdG
,bd (Fast Rising Output Pulses) JQG jS N f qdJ feEH
: dG d fh dEG I LCG eh . dh ,(Counting) OG dh
Silicon)`dH dG fdG d H dG) (Thyristor) QjdG
q
jd edG HdGh (Triacs) j dGh (Controlled Rectifiers - SCRs
. (Photographic Flash Lamps )

dG Md GQGO qe
(Circuit-Board Transformers) dG M d GQGO q e U J
e v c qdG e dG Gg qj .cdG GdCG GQGO a eGSE
d .qdG dG qdGh ,dG dG qdGh ,qdG IQdG qe
,21 -1 d G a i f c h ,
k a ,eg FNh FXh qdG g
H e k GL jb H SqJ CG (Circuit Cards) bdG IQGd J
65
JGH MEH qJh dG g q J .d dG ceCG a dG
Pin ) j H E G j f d G d . (Moisture ) H W d G h Q d G e j d c j E G
J GOqS NBG dh ,dG Md GQGO a dNOE (Terminations
. (Surface Mount ) d G c d G G Q G O a (Pads )

IOe d IH

jdG e dG bbQ

Ib QWEG
GWCG
.cdG Md IQGO qe 21-1 dG

jjOGdG GOOdG qe
d (Radio-Frequeny Transformers) jjOGdG GOOdG qe qoU d
I dG GOO dG e H . j jOG dG GOO dG f a q d H
FGg q d GP GH Y qdG g q Jo ,(Low-Frequency Transformers)
.GOOqdG e dG Gd dqa Z jdG bbQh jqdG JOe e v c C dPh

dG qdG
qeo M T d d M (Toroidal Transformers) dG qdG q j
dG Jo .fGSCG T M UGe H jWh bQ fe jT H
j d (Special Machines ) e B G G S H
q dG M jfdGh dhqCG
da cCG dG qdG EG .dMh qdG q dG a N e dG
G P (Laminated Core Transformers ) b d G F d G q dG qe e NCGh
.(Audible Chatter) UG GUCG QhU J kjCG gh ,f jdG

66
 qTdG
GOOqdG H Qh H J GQGO Y IQ Y g (Filters) qT dG EG
HZdG Z GOOqdG e dG Y UdG g YJ .gZ Jh IOdG
IOqe Gb dEG (Wide Frequency Bands) GOOq dG e j Y n M o ah
Qe dEG (Passive Filter) qdG Z uTdG j .(Multiple Channels)
c CG AYEG j ,(Input Power) NdG bW Oqj fCG H dh ,bd
Y jo .kqVh k GOqe OOqJ f qdG Z uTd EG K .ddG hCG Qd
Insertion) zNOEG a{ SG qa Z uTH TdG f IOdG IQTEG
. (Loss

F X H J CG (Active Filters) d qdG uTd j ,fQ d H

,GOOqdG e ShCG f V FXdG H J fCGZ dqdG Z TdG
CG e ZdH .(Current Or Voltage Gain) ddhCG Qd c eCJ joh
.dG Ic Kqe dEG J fEa bd Qe dEG J dqdG qTdG
.dqdG Z qTdG e NCGh UCG J CG dqdG qTdG eEH ,dd
(Analog and Linear z q dGh KdG edG GQGdG{ :edG dG fG
.Integrated Circuits)

SSCG TdG GfCG

:qTdG e qSSCG GfCG HQCG g

QhH j dG (Low-Pass Filters) dG GOOqdG QGeEG uTe - 1

q c jh ,(Cutoff Frequency) dG OOqJh dG H e GOOqdG
e YCG g e
.dG OOJ

c Qhe j dG ,(High-Pass Filters) ddG GOOqdG QGeEG uTe - 2

Y H j a ;bdG QhH jh dG OOJ e UCG GOOqdG
.dG GOOqdG QGeEG qTe

67
Oqjo GOOdG e kqe kbf Qqjo ,(Band Pass Filter) bf QGeEG qTe - 3
.OqdG dG QN GOOqJ CG Qhe jh ,dYh e b JOOqH

ILGdG GOOdG L j ,(Band-Reject, Notch Filter) K qTe - 4

.jOOdG jg e bCGh YCG g e c Qqjh ,ddGh dG dG OOJ H
.bdG QGeEG qTe Y H j dG TdG CG CG

qTdG J
dG Y Jbhe V UM C dH qoS ,(k) z{ qTdG HK
e Y (k) z{ HdG Gg qjh ,kHK j RG dG Y J bh H
Gg J jh .jnpS hCG qM Ye bhdG g J b .GOOqdG
.qTd SSCG GfCG e f CG fCG Y uTdG

qTdG Y dqe f g ,(m-Derived Filters) (m) z{ q dG qTdG ` CG

f g HdG Ggh ,(m) z{`H jo NBG HK Y Jj qdh ,z{ HdG
z{ dG qTdG jo .(Infinite Attenuation) gdG FdG OOqd dG OOqJ
HdG qTdG e (Roll Off Curve) QfG a kLQqJ cCG e hCG k GOqM kgJ
q dG TdG qjo .cCG bCG OLh H dPh ,(k) z{
e fCH z{
.kjCG SSCG TdG GfCG

e dG G g jo ,(Butterworth Filters) Qhh dG T e `

k GOqM kgJh QGeEG d (Flat Ripple) q e qJ GP HSG qTdG
f qTdG Gdh .H UdG dG OOqJ Y QfG a kLQqJ cCG eh
d j .jjOGdG GOOqdG dEG (DC) qdG QqdG e j SGh J QGeEG
GOOdGh ,ddG GOOdG QGeEG qT e fCG Y q J CG qT dG
e aCG g QhhdG qTe CG kjCG cf .bdG QGeEGh ,dG
dG qTe e fQdH (Transient Response) IHdG HSG M
. (Chebyshev )

68
 dG

NdG dG

dG

.bW qd (PI) qTe 22-1 dG

:ddG d kah OqJ CG qTd jo

UdG d He Gqe (Chebyshev Filters) dG qTd ` CG

e J fC H Y q J fCG EG ,(Butterworth) QhhdG qT H
e eqDd (Amplitude Ripple Response) LqdG HSd ddG YJG
qTe QJ SCG d .dG OOqJ Y QfG a kLQqJ cCG OOqJ
GOOqdG QGeEG qTe e Jo dG ,z{ HdG qT c dG
.qdGh ddGh dG
dG VjdG dd k Gf SG GH ,(Bessel Filter) pH qTe qoS `
f IdH qTdG Gd dG OOqJ Ge J h .d SG
.QhhdG a IadG
f CG EG ,J qTeo (Elliptical Filter) gEG qTdG jo ` `L
Te e fQdH L qdG H S d YCG Y JG j a QG eEG
.J

o dG HbCG OY N e cCG bH qT dG J j ` O
OH O M
Jo ) .qTdG a IOLdG (qdG hCG Kqdc) YdG cqdG
OJo ,iNCG L e .(YdG cqdG e d fC bCc ehdG
OH fG QqdG dG hCG gdG e a (Steepness) QGfG IqT

69
d qTCG QGfG dG bCG P Td ,dG S Y .kjCG bCG
.dG GP Td e gdG

ddG Z TdG
eh dG e T Y IQ Y g (Passive Filters) qdG Z T dG
.dG Jh qe jOOqJ bf QhH d qe qdGh KqdGh
g q oU bh . dG OO H fOCGh YCG dG q M IkO Y q jo
QdG e c bhe d bheh Nd bhe HJ c qTdG
.(Decibels) SdH dG OOJ Y LQqdG QfG hCG gdG Sj .dGh
en dEG j fCG LQd IqH Qj LQqJ e ddG gdG P qTd
. (Vertical Slope ) d b T

Jeh ,T V KqdGh dG UH qTdG qJ

MCG g kYT cCG HQCG TCGh .FT iNCG k GReQh kaMCG VJ
qTdG Y jH UdG ceCG OqJo .(Ladder) QOh (pi) ,(T) ,(L) qLCG
j (L) qTdG e .(e ddG hCG dG GOOqdG jd ,
k e) Yfh
eCG .(T) dG T d (T) qTodGh ,Se dh (L) dG T Y
,22-1 dG a qe g c ffdG dG T e a (Pi) qTdG
.QdG T NCa QdG qTe eCG

bCH ddG GOOqdG Jh ,(AC) hdG QqdG QhH qdG L J

.(OOqdG e kqY jdG YdG SJ) .dG GOOqdG e fe
fEa ,FHc RH e Ue U e fqe dG CG H ,dh
QhH KqdG J HdG a .QhdG e (DC) IqdG GQqdG J
GOOqdG q X a HhdG GQqdG QhH J c dH IqdG GQqdG
fd Hb qCG EG ;S qe e fqe fd dP Ojh k GL dG
e kjqOW SJ qdG YodG C OOqdG e kjqOW SJ HhdG GQdG
OOqdG - HSG Ge d qdG Z qTdG J , d d H .OOq dG
.qdGh Kqd

70
 TdH UdG dG
Characteristic ) qTdH UdG dG Ge ,23-1 dG qj
nb Y e c a aCG Q dG o jh , S SCG HQCG (Filter Curves
Y c `H fdG dG Y bGdG Jh ,qTd dG GOOqdG
.dG GOOqJ

(Hz) OOqdG (Hz) OOqdG

() (CG)

(Hz) OOqdG (Hz) OOqdG

()
(O)

QGeEG qTe - , dG GOO dG QG eEG qT e -CG : qT dG G e :23-1 dG

(K) bf jEG qTe -O ,bf QGeEG qTe - ,JdG GOOdG

bdG jJ Te
Z qTdG GY J (Power Supply Filters) qTdG g QJ
SS cCG dGh LqdG Lh , dqdG hCG q dG bdG jqd dqdG
Line) FHdG dG qTe j .(Raw DC Output) dG dG Q d
q
dG hCG (RFI) NGdG jjOGdG GOOqdG ,24-1 dG a c ,(Filter
hCG a qdG hCG (AC power) hdG Qd IQdG N e (Transmitted)
e GfCG g dEG jo .(Host Product) dG dH (Conducted) Ue
JdG ILCc ,jdG bdG j qH IGqdG dG a qTdG
qJ dG (FCC) dGQdG JG d fGb HJ CG j dG ,dG
.10 kHz a (EMI/RFI) jjOGdG GOOqdG NGJ e

71
 N

OdG
. b d G j d d G T e : 2 4 -1 d G

dG qJdG LdG qTe

g (Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Filter) dG qJdG LdG qTe EG
- qdG) qTdG e j CG j dG (Solid State) HU dM qTe
kHSGh k GRe kYJG qTdG g eqDJ .dqdG Z jdG ((LC) qdG
(Bandwidths ) L d G b d G e S G h V Y i e Y (Phase Response ) Q d
Vhc OqGe e dG qJdG LdG qTe qJ .jOOqdG bdGh
a J h . J Q G d G h (Lithium Niobate - LiNbO3 ) j H d G d e , (Piezoelectric )
f V IQGdG LQO a k GRe k GQGSG JQGdG IOqe e dG qTdG
UdG q a jHdG -dG e qdG qTdG eCG ,jY OO J
High) mY NOEG a TdG d ,LEG .JdH ehdG fQdG
e dG Y qe OLh eGSG j d d ,(Insertion Losses
J d G L d G I L C G { :17 d G f G ) . I Q T E G a I O d G I d G I O S
.(zbdG qeh fhdEG q dG{ ,zdG

QqdG OOdG je
qe gh (Crystal Frequency Standards) GOOqd jc GQqdG Jo
.kHhe k GQJ LGJ eY dY GOOqJ Y (Resonate) qJ Vhc OGe e
GQGO e GOOqd cCG k GQGSG j JQGdG GQqd jH QdG dG EG
a GQqdG qVJ .(Coil-and-Capacitor Tank Circuits) fRdG qdG -dG

72
g c ,iNCG Ld hCG bd GOOqJ dd dG YT fe Y
.25-1 dG a qVe

Y Sjh (Precise Thickness) bdG dY cH JQGdG bbQ qJ

aH GOhdEG Gg Uj .jOhdEG d fe AZ bbQ c S
JQGdG bbQ CGJ (AC) he QqH JQGdG iqj eY .IYdG Y Gj
Y fQ bdG QqdG jo , k e .bbdG cS f Oj OOqH RGgH
YCG GOOdG hGJ .dG GQqdG Y qJ dG J e YCG GOOqJ
Gg Ye hCG aGdG dG Jo 20 MHz h 15 MHz H QqdG JQGd
jJ GQGc edG a QqdG JQGdG j .dY jjOGQ GOOqJ OOqdG
F f G T c J a , d P d E G a V E H . (Oscillator Tank Circuits ) f Q
. (Q Factors ) d d G J O L e G Y H d P h (Selective Filters )

RY
SHO

ee eYO

fe IqY eYO

ba OhdEG
dG OfCG
QdG JGQdG

.jqQdG edG :25-1 dG

73
74
 f d G dG

dG edG fqdG

jdG

ddG dG QjfGJ eT If
(Field-Effect Transistors )
ddG fQR GQjfGJ bdG IQTEG GOjGO
(Galluim-Arsenide Transistors) (Small-Signal Diodes )
I Q d G G Q j f G J (Rectifier Diodes ) e d G G O j G d G
(Power Transistors ) q
dG FdG dRdG HGdG GQjfGJ IQTEG jdG GQjfGdG
(Insulated- Gate Bipolar Transistors- IGBTs) (Signal-Level Transistors)

UdG jqOMGC GQjfGJ dG FK U dG GP Q j fG dG

(Unijunction Transisotrs - UJTs ) (Bipolar Junction Transistors - BJTs)

(Thyristors ) G Q S j d G hOdG dQGO GQjfGJ

(Darlington Transistor Pairs )

75
 eT If
IQGO a qe g (Active Electronic Component) fhdEG dG qdG EG
dG Gg a .XH d (External Power) qLQN bW dEG j qFHc
FdG e u dG Y dG ddG fdG M Tf j S
GQ S j dGh ,(Transistors) GQ j fG dGh ,(Diodes) (GO jG dG)
d G (Integrated Circuits ICs ) e d G G Q G d G d E G a V E H , (Thyristors )
GQGdG edG dG hj .YdG dG Gg a e AmGLCG a coS
SdG dG b jh ,(Analog And Linear ICs) KdGh qdG edG
U dG f G cGPh (Digital ICs) bdG e dG GQG dG V e
e VG e q o a Y HG dG dG eCG ,(Semiconductor Memories)
jh dG q dGh (Microprocessors) jh dG d o d H
. (Microcontrollers )

bdG IQTEG GOjGO

(PN Junction) PN U h j f (Small-Signal Diodes ) b d G I Q T E G O j G d E G
dG a J dG ,GQTEG Vbh jJ j dG ,dG IOe e
j gh , (N-Type) ddG fh dEGh (P-Type) LdG fhdEGh
u dG) OjGdG Gg q j .GQ TE d (Clipper) q eoh (Rectifier) qc
dG dS e H joh .(W) Gh 1 a e dEG J b bW (FdG
S j H (P-Type Wafer ) d G L e G a G h Y (N-Type Region )
dP H aGdG jo .dG JOdG H (Junction) Uh hCG (Interface) H
CG - 1-2 dG e jo .(Die) ddG jf Y qUe GWCG e qVjoh
a (N-Type) dG ddG IOdG eCG OfCG g (P-Type) dG LdG IOqdG qCG
b G e Y h C G (Holes ) d G h C G d G e F a Y O f C G j . O K d G
jh ,FHdG QdG Ud fhdEH CqJo CG j (Vacant Sites) ZQa
- 1-2 dG jo .fhdEG e Fa Y ( dG d dG) O K dG
QdG fG JG dEG jo dG JG CG ia ,OjGdG Gd edG dH

76
(Electron Flow) fhdEG aqJ J ce gh ,(Current Flow) aGdG
.cdG JG P dH qdG

VQCH Ujo hCG OKdG Y dS dah OfCG Y Le da qJo eY

fhdEG aqJ .(Forward Bias) eeCG RfG dH OjGdG j ,(Ground)
aGdG FHdG QdG qCG ZQ ,OfCG f qK eh PN UH k GQhe OKdG e
M f e h . O K d G d E G O f C G e c d G J H j (Conventional Current )
AdG Uhn Y (Reverse of Back Bias) Y H OjGdG Rj ,iNCG
a qeo g c VQCH hCG Le dH OKdG AdGh dS dH OfCG
aq J Y hCG b aq J g j S h dG d k ah .2-2 dG
O j G d G j S Y H R f G d M a h PN. Uh Y f h d E d
G P P S G e J G H , (Mohms ) h C G e I Y J e h e e
k RY
.(PN) UdG M qJ dG (High Resistive Depletion) ddG ehdG

L dG q joh .(PN) OdG OjGd dG dG CG - 3-2 dG qj

,eeCG RfG KCJ dG f dGh dbdG AdG oa ,dG We
(Reverse Bias) dG RfG KCJ Roa QdG dEG dG aCG AdG eqCG
.OjGd
OfCG

K OfCG

fhdEG

Uh OKc
aGdG QdG fhdEG aO

OKc
() (CG)

. P N O j G O : 1 -2 d G

77
 PSG e
dG LdG IOdG dG ddG IOdG

LdG dG hCG OfCG ddG dG hCG OKdG

K fhdEG
Uh

. P N f U h O j G d P S G e : 2 -2 d G

zfR{ GOjGO
g ,(Reference Diode) LdG OjGdH jo e hCG (Zener Diodes) fR OjGO
Reverse ) d G R f G M a a d Y e (PN ) f S U h
dG ddG J eY qe (Voltage Conditions) qdd hT a hCG (Bias
QdG QdG hCG Qf H jo e j k q e k Gq M (Reverse Voltage)
e idG dG a IgdG dG zcQo{ a qdG ,(Avalanche Breakdown)
(Reverse Voltage) dG qddG g J ,dG g H e . - 3-2 dG
.(Reference Voltage) Le dc d mc H HK

e bCG da Y (Sharp Reverse Knees) IOM Y kcnQo fdG GOjGO Jo

PSG e a fhdEG e Ic qc qnJo .(3-2 dG fG) 3 V
g c ,c (Current Reverse) Y QJ aJ qjo qe ,JGQqP e HGJ
.dG a OLdG dG e (Vertical Dropoff) HdG dbdG AdG a qe

(Stable Voltage References) dd Iqe qLe g fdG GOjGO EG

.FHdG Qqd SGh J e HK J OjGdG jf H dG ddG C dP
(Voltage Regulators) dd c Y H GOjGdG g Jo
Specified) k GOqe ie iqJ dG ddG QGeE hCG (Clipping) bdh
(Transient Voltage IHdG ddG HH Jo fdG OjGO GfCG H .(Level

78
Circuit-Protective ) IQGdG - j M I LC c Jh ,Suppressors - TVSs)
Unwanted ) I L e Z h d Y N O d a C G Q G e E G Y J Q b H (Devices
q
dG a dH VdG Gg dEG dG qj S) .(High-Input Voltage
a { (Transient Voltage Suppressors - TVS ) z I H d G d d G H c b { 30
.(Component And Circuit Protection) zIQGdGh qdG jM
OKc

eeCG QdG

eeCG ddG
OfCG
SfG QdG
() SfG ddG
(CG)
dG RfGh (dG) eeCG RfG -CG :PN OjGd GdG ndG :3-2 dG
.fR OjGd edG SdG - ,(QdG)

OdG OjGdG Y j gh ,fR OjGd edG SdG - 3-2 dG qj

LdG ddG hGJ .e dG S dG a O fCG NC j dG zS{ dH
I Q H h 200 V h 1.8 V H f d G G O j G d (Nominal Reference Voltage ) d G
Y a GOjGdG g qVJ 50 W dEG d JJh 250 mW`H CGJ jjJ
dG cd q jo Hh ,SdGh ,dGh ,LdG e Yq e
300 V h 5 V H TVS G O j G d j j d G d d G h G J . (Surface Mounting )
Peak ) I Q d G b Y 1500 W hC G I d G d H 5 W d E G J b I Q b J h
I Q T E G e a d G G O j G d G e Y d G j g e E H C G e Z d H . (Power
(Regulators ) q eo GOjGc qjo fCG EG (Small-Signal Region) bdG
Small Signal ) b d G I Q T E G G O j G c J H (Suppressors ) H c i N C G h
. (Diodes

79
 JT LM GOjGO
U e f O jGO g (Schottky Barrier Diode) J T L M O jGO EG
Metal) f e e J eh U e f W e e (Semiconductor)
q
. (Non Linear Rectification Characteristic ) q N jJ qUN eqDj ,(Contact
(N-Type ) d d G d G O G e f h d E G ) (Hot Carriers ) N d G e d G J
UdG d J T L M e (P-Type) L dG dG OG e) Kh (
Diode ) O j G d G I Y b g d G (Metal Coating ) f d G d G J H J h
q
e f C G E G , d G g a (Majority Carriers ) j c C G e M J a . (Base
b C G e d (Storage ) j J h C G (Injection ) M g j C G Q h d G
g YJoh .(Switching Speeds) jdG YS e qd (Minority Carriers)
.zJT GOjGO{ hCG zNdG edG GOjGO{ kjCG GOjGdG

a (Schottky-Clamped Transistors) edG JT GQjfGJ Jo

a (Transistor-Transistor Logic - TTL ) d G Q j f G J - Q j f G d G U J
J T O j G O L M V e (IC Families ) e d G G Q G d G Y e H
j J Y S O j O R G d d H h , (Transistor Saturation ) Q j f G d G Y T E G d
G Q j f G J H G H C G d E G I Q T E G Q J . (Transistor Switching ) Q j f G d G
UdG d dG KCJ GQj fG J CG ,(MESFET) ddG fQR
.JT LM GOjGO dG a g ,fdG

QcQa GOjGO
ddG qdG q dG O jG H (Varactor Diode) Q cQ a O jGO jo
Y R f G h P PN U h g h . (Varicap ) ` H h C G (Voltage-Variable Capacitor )
Variation Of ) U d G S J Y Y j M (Reverse Biased PN )
q
(Dopant Profile) e FGT J .kjCG Y RfG e (Junction Capacitance
d G d G h d G a d G G g d d P h (Depletion Layer ) P S G W a
. (Series Resistance Losses ) d G Y h d G a d G e f O C G d G

80
Dopant) H TEG c J U e f I Oq e e Q cQ a O jGO jo
WdG a HTEd cCG cdG Qj M ,IOdG a Qqj (Concentration
RfG Y UdG S a dG e IOSG dG e .Ud IQhdG
NGO ehe QcQa GOjGd J e IkOY .UdG e U H dG
d M a J e Y , (PN ) U h C G H (Low Internal Resistance ) V
Fa U dG CG Hh ,(Pure Capacitor) f qc J ,Y RfG
Y H qJ (Junction Capacitance) UdG S Ea ,(Abrupts Junction)
. (Reverse Voltage ) S f G d d G d H d G Q d

YdG J CG EG ,(Silicon) dG IOe e QcQa GOjGO e qJ

High) YCG GOOd HSG Jo(Gallium-Arsenid) ddG fQR IOe e
Low Power ) d G I Q d G G P Q c Q a G O j G O J . (Frequency Response
ILCG a (Voltage-Variable Capacitors) Iqe da GP qc (Varactors
, (Phase Shifting) Q d G M G R E G Y J h , (Electronic Tuners ) f h d E G d G
L dG GQGO a hCG (UHF) k G L d dG GOO dG a (Switching) jdGh
GOOqdG Ye Y GO jG dG g J c .(Microwave) jqhdG
dG d dG S e a (Very Low Frequency Multipliers) k GL dG
.dG qJoh qa (Solid-State Transmitters)

Y 1 Wh ,2 GHz Y 7 Wh ,1GHz Y 12 W jqQdG QcQa GOjGO aJo

d G a 80 h d G a 70 H I A c Y d G J h .20 GHz Y 50 mW h ,5 GHz
OOqJ f Y QcQdG OjGO VJ Y OHCG J .2 GHz 1 GHz Y
. (Power Dissipation ) j d G a J Q b Y h (Operating Frequency ) d G

eudG GOjGdG
QqdG (Convert) jJ Hb Y OjGO g (Rectifier Diodes) udG OjGdG
hCG ,cCG hCG (1 A) MGh eCG UJ feEH ,(DC) e QqJ dEG AC hdG
IOqe e kdM eqdG GOjGdG e Joh .cCG hCG (1 W) MGh Gh IQb OqJ
d E G d G h C G d I c (PN ) U h I d G L C G d . (Silicon ) d G
81
qVJo .(Power Dissipation) bdG jJ Y JdG dG QV e fOCG dG
Y eudG GOjGdG Vh jh ,e ILCc IkOY eqdG GOjGdG
. (Power Handling Ability ) I Q d G e W d G Y H b e j J c R G e
jqQe qLLR Y a 6 A e bCG jdG GP eqdG qVJ e IkOYh
dEG 8 A H e GjdG GP eqdG VJo H .SH Y a hCG dG
Copper ) S f d C G e (Flat Plastic Cases )
q q e S H Y a 20 A
e dEG e e qH c hCG (Heat Sink) IQGd GOqc J (Tabs
qCG M a .IQGdG jqd cCG jRJ b e (Metal to Metal Interfaces)
qfe Y a IkOY qVJ 75 Ah 12 A H JGjJ hGJ dG eqdG
Threaded ) d d I c e e T Y S S C G e d G d . (Metal Cases )
q
. I Q G d G j d c C G S Y I T e d G d (Base Studs
:g eqdG GOjGd gCG cCG FHdG GjdG qEG
.(Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage) VRRM I Q d G S f G I hQ d G d a

.(Average Rectified Forward Current) ,IO qdG eeCG QdG Seo

Peak Repetitive ) IFSM Qd LdG JQG Y IQdG eeCG IhQdG da
. (F o r w a r d S u r g e C u r r e n t
e (Standard PN Junction) jQdG PN Uh GP eq dG EG
dEG j NO OOqJ Y J dG (Linear Power Supplies) q dG bdG jqd
Switching) bd jdG jqdG a (Inefficient) dqa Z dh ,300 Hz
dG JOSG Id f cCG hCG 10 kHz OOJ Y Jo dG (Power Supply
ed dGh OqdG edG g g IOSG Iqeoh .(Recovery Time)
- Kh fh dEG - (Minority And Majority Carriers) bCGh jq cCG
eM GJo CG j .(Input Signal) NdG IQTEG HSG J H efd
. (Full Blocking Voltage ) d d e d G d G M b b C G

Uh eqd Ea (Slow Recovery Time) AdG JOSG eR e ZdHh

Y J C G a , (Reverse Current ) b C G S f G G Q J j Q d G (PN )

82
qda qJ CGh ,(Higher Junction Temperatures) cCG qUh IQGM LQO
(Fast Rectifiers) jdG eqdG e (Higher Inverse Voltage) cCG qSfG
.(Speed Limitation) YdG a jdG Y d qodG
Y YCG IAH J dG jdG dG eue e GfCG KK Lj
.(Higher-Frequency Switching Rates) YCG GOOqd jJ GjJ
.(Fast Recovery Rectifiers) jdG IOSG eue -1
Ultrafast- Or Superfast-) k GL jdG hCG YdG We IOSG eue -2
.(Recovery Rectifiers
.(Schottky Rectifiers) JT eue -3

jdG IOSG eue

qeo (PN) Uh ue g (Fast Recovery Rectifier) jdG IOSG ue
dEG gdG GQqP OqDJ .dG e IcQ a gP GQqP (Diffusing) QfH
eR e qJ d bCG eM (Recombination) OJG (Accelerate) QJ
d j dG Y S hG J .(Reverse Recovery Time) SfG IO SG
50 Ah 1 A H hGa ddG Jqe eCG .(ns) fK ff 750h 200 H edG
q
Forward) eeCG ddG g Oj e IkOYh .1200 V dEG J jjJ dah
1.1 H h G J d G j Q d G PN U h b e Y C G C G ,1.4 V b (Voltage Drop
dGM dEG J MdG idG (Junction) UdG IQGM LQO qEG .1.4 Vh V
.jQdG (PN) Uh eqe IQGM LQH kfQe b bCG g dG gh ,25C
.600 V dEG a jdG IOSG eqd SfG da bCG eCG

k GL jdG IOSG hCG YdG We IOSG eqe

Ultrafast-Or) k GL j dG IO SG hCG Y dG W e IO SG O jGO EG
SfG IOSG eR GP PN Uh ue g (Superfast-Recovery Rectifiers
bbQo a JdG hCG gdG QfG kjCG j . f K f f 100h 25 H hG j
OJG IOYEG Y q od qdG e qj dG (Silicon Wafers) dG

83
bdG jd eqdG e dG Gg q jo .bCG eM (Recombination)
. 48 Vh ,24 V ,12 V b GP N qdH

JT eqe
,PN Uh H Ue f -e Uh (Schottky Rectifiers) JT qd
Gd dG dG CG H .bCG d eM Y j a dd
Z c EGh ,IOSG eR Ea ,MGh fe OhdEH IkTe qeo qdG
Recovery) IOSG QJ Ea CGdG M eh .fKff 10`dG Rhj ,Oqe
qe e q bCG qeeCG da JT qe aj .qdG Uh Y Jf (Current
I A H d h b C G j J b W d h ,1.3 V d E G 1.1 V H H 0.8 V d E G 0.4 V e , (PN )
Blocking ) d G d G d H J J I M Gh S I e e d G d C G E G . YC G
q q
dH JT eqe e lH aqj b dh ,50 Vh 35 V H hGJ (Voltage
,(Transient Protection) IHY jM JT eqe J .200 V dEG J qU
eqe qJ QJ e YCG (IRRM) hCG (Leakage Current) qJ QqJ eRjh
dG AGqL e d kVqe eqdG e dG Gg j e Ggh .PN Uh
C G j . (Thermal Runaway ) ( Q G d G d G ) h C G (Over Heating ) d G
,bd jdG jdG N MGe e RGdG Y JT eqe VJ
.bCG hCG da 5 jdG GP (Output Terminals) jdG N e Jo M

IQTEG jdG GQjfGdG

Semiconductor) Ue f qe g (Signal-Level Transistors) QjfGdG
j dG hCG dGh (Amplification) dG Y QO b G WCG K K (Device
Solid-State) dG ddG pd kSSCG g QjfGdG Gg ,dG a .(Switching)
.(Triode Vaccum Tube) GWCG KdG dG (Analogy
:GQjfGd SSCG J g
. (BJTs ) d G F K U d G G P G Q j f G d G
. (FETs ) d d G d G G Q j f G J

84
IQTEdh IQd e fqc d GQjfGdG g qoU d
edG GQGdG a GQjfGdG g e dG GfCG Joh .bdG
(BJTs) dG FK GQjfGdG GSG jh .qdG hCG KdG ,bdG
Low Frequency) dG GOOdG GQGO a IdG IQTEd dG
J d G (FETs ) d d G d G G Q j f G J C G M a , (Circuits
NO bhe GP GQjfGJ eo JUGe HJo dG IdG IQTEd
a S G F T (BJTs ) G Q j f G J G J h . (High Input Impedance ) m Y
Low Frequency) dG GOOqdG GQGOh (Linear Circuits) q dG GQGdG
Metal Oxide ) d G U e f c C G - e G Q j f G J e C G , (Circuits
High) ddG GOOqdG jJ a eGSG q a (Semiconductor MOSFET
. (Frequency Switching

dG FK UdG GP GQjfGdG
Bipolar ) fdG dG FK QjfGdG IOY QjfGdG e q jo
d G Q j f G c a V E G H j J Y E G , (Junction Transistors - BJTs
. (MOSFET ) U d G f - f d G c C G Q j f G J h C G , (JFET ) d d G
- L e - d S ) C G NPN g j H (BJT ) G Q j f G J J j
e ke 4-2 dG jo .(Le - dS - Le) CG (PNP)h (dS

YdG dG cCG fK
IYdG dCG e eJ

IYdG e uodG fhdEG aO

.NPN dG e (BJT) dG FK QjfGJ :4-2 dG

85
Silicon ) d G H T E G Y g zN { d G j h , (NPN BJT ) Q j f G J
fCG kMUG j e ,(N-Type Material) d dG dG e IO H (Doped
Negatively Charged) d dG dG GP fh dEG a IO jR J
LdG dG e IOH dG HTEG Y qTDa P dG eCG .(Electrons
dG GP dH eo fCG j e ,(P-Type Material/ Positively Charged)
. (Positively Charged Holes ) L d G

NPN Q j f G J a (P-Type Base ) L e f I Y d G Y d a J Y

Y (N-Type Emitter ) d S f Y d G e f h d E G a J a d P j
aGdG QdG qj) .(N-Type Collector) dS f u o dG dEG I Y dG
(BJT) Qj fG d .(c dG J H (Conventional Current) O YG
e d G S J j P E G , (Vertical Topology ) d b T H Y C G d G a O L d G
VdGh Yd fdG ed IQhdG Le f IYdG Y fdG
bQ W g (Collector Contact) uodG eJ H ,dS f YdG a
.(N-Type Collector) dS f uodG e dG AdG a cJ fe

k GQhe uodG dEG YdG e aqdG (NPN) QjfGdG fhdEG J

H jEG R fG M d M a EG (P-Type Base) Le f IY dG Y
u odG eJ Y Le d a Jh I Y dG e d (Positive Bias)
, L d G R f G G g e a J d G , d G N J d P Y . (Collector Contact )
d E G Y d G e e f h d E G a J H , (Emitter Region ) Y d G e
dfG J (Injected Electrons) fdG fhdEG e qEG .IYdG e
.ee Y qJo K eh ,dS f uodG e dEG IYdG e Y

,(NPN BJT) dG FK QjfGd kq e ke CG - 5-2 dG qj

d G J G j .Q j f G d G G d d G e d G - 5 -2 d G V j h
IYdG e L q d G (Conventional Current ) O Y G a d G Q d G a J J G
. (N-Type Emitter ) d S f Y d G d E G (P-Type Base ) L e f

(PNP BJT ) QjfGdG e fdG d kq e ke CG - 6-2 dG j

86
H TE Gh H SG C G M d G j . d G e Q - 6 -2 d G V j h
(PNP - BJT ) a d G J G j P E G , c e PNP h NPN Q j f G d G Y f
N-Type ) d S f I Y d G d E G (P-Type ) L e f Y d G e a d G a
. (Base
dCG e eJ
cCG f K
YH IYb YH dG

IYb

qe
qe
() (CG)
. e d G ( , d G A d G ( C G : N P N d G e d G F K U h h P Q j f G J : 5 -2 d G

dCG e eJ
cCG f K
YH IYb YH dG

IYb

qe qe
() (CG)

.edG ( ,dG AdG (CG :PNP dG e dG FK Uh hP QjfGJ :6-2 dG

hOdG dQGO QjfGJ

g ,7-2 dG jo c (Darlington Transistor Pairs) QjfGdG Gg EG
QjfGdG YH qUj M ,(BJTs) dG FK QjfGJ e hR Y IQY
QqdG a kc (Configuration) dG Gg eqDj .fdG QjfGdG IYH hCG
T d G G b H O d G Q j f G d G j d G d P e Y C G (Current Gain )

87
 . h O d G d Q G O Q j f G J e Q : 7 -2 d G
QjfGJ Y a qVjh Oe db Y hdG Gg qjo .(Direct Coupling)
e G S G Z C G j . (Three-Terminals Transistor Case ) G W C G K K

q dc ,(Linear ICs) q dG edG GQGdG a GQjfG dG d

Power) IQ dG q e N MG e ah (Operational Amplifier) JdG
g d Q G O Q j f G d I O d G d G c C G h . (Amplifiers Output Stages
Y H e ,h e Y dG ND j .(Emitter Follower) HJ Y c Y
IYb Y NdG ehdG b aJoh ,(Ground) VQCG dEG fdG QjfGdG
YdG OdG QjfGdG IQGO a IOLdG J e cCG dEG hCG QjfGdG
. (Single Transistor Emitter-Follower Circuit ) H d G

ddG dG GQjfGJ
Q j f G J g (Field Effect Transistors - FETs ) d d G d G Q j f G J E G
(FET ) Q j f G J E a (BJT ) Y Y h . (Voltage-Operated ) d d G Y j
I n p u t ) N O e h e j q f C G M a k G L b ( I n p u t C u r r e n t ) N O Q J j
dG :Yf dEG ddG dG GQjfGJ Jo .k GL dY (Resistance
-e QjfGJ fdGh (JFET) ddG dG Uh QjfGJ qj hCG
QjfGJ SH jo e hCG ,(MOSFET) ddG dG Ue f cCG
d E G Q h H (FET ) Q j f G J j . (IGFETs ) d R d G H G d G P d d G d G
QjfGJ g ddG dG QjfGJ EG .N fh P f fqe :U
Q J C ,(BJT) dG FK QjfGdG H ,(Unipolar) dG q O MCG
Charge ) d G e M e a M G h f e j (Drain Current ) d G
q
I d G a d G h (N-Chanel FET) ,N I d G a f h d E G J a : (Carriers
.(P-Channel FET) ,P
88
 c C G - d G G Q j f G J h (FETs ) d d G d G G Q j f G J J
C G E G . (Discrete Transistors ) e G Q j f G c (MOSFET ) U d G f
G P d d G d G G Q j f G J d Y G b (MOSFET ) L d J
a h ( d G G g a z I Q d G G P G Q j f G d G b f G ) (Power FETs ) I Q d G
cCG -e :Yf edG GQGdG CG cdH jdGh .edG GQGdG
e Y . (PMOS ) L e U e f c C G ~ e h (NMOS ) d S U e f
HG H a (PChannel) L dGh (N-Channel) ddG QjfGdG Jb eJ
.(CMOS) qe Ue f cCG -e Jo f IQGdG

.((Digital Logic) zedG GQGdGh bdG dG{ SdG dG fG Sd)

(JFETs) ddG dG GQjfGJ Uh

Ib e e AL gh ,(JFETs)QjfGdG Gd ke CG- 8-2 dG qj
h C G Q f G J h (P-Type ) L e f I c Q a g Q f G J , (N- Channel ) d S
(N -Type ) d S f I b a (P- Type ) L e f e e (Implanted ) Q R
T e H d G S J j C G . (P-Typed Gate ) L e f H G H d
AGLCG d (Drain) dG W eh ,(Source) dG ,(Gate) HGdG Y
Ea (Symmetrical Structure) IXe H (JFET) `d CG Hh .(Contacts) peoJ
Y O Y H , K e h . (Interchangeable ) j d H b d G h d G e
k c
j (Power Source) b dG Q d (V+) L dG dGh VQCG b e
.gJG a QjfGdG

Positive) Le da j eY adH (Drain Flow) dG QqJ CG j

(Negative Voltage) dS dah ,(Drain Contact) dG peoJ Y (Voltage
.(Gate Contact) HGdG eoJ (a) a e (Source Contact) dG eoJ Y
IdG ehe J (Positive Biased) L e R fG HG d c M a
HGd c GPEG eCG .(Drain Current) dG QqJ OGOjh (Channel Resistance)
kY (PN) Uh RJ ga d dH (Biased Negative) dS RfG
Charge ) d G e M e Z e (Depletion Region ) P S G e J h
I b e H b C G g (N-Type Channel) d S f I d G H T E G C G H . (Carriers
89
OGOJh VY a ,IdG PSG e J ,d Le f
H dG QJ j HGd ddG ddG RfG IOjR Yh .ehe
dH dG QJ d ODj dG HGd ddG RfG b qJ .ec
qj .(Gate Cutoff Voltage) dG HGH da hCG (Pinch Off Voltage) q dG
d S I b Uh P d d G d G Q j f G d d G e d G - 8 -2 d G
. d S f I d G d E G L e f H G d G e d G j . (N- Channel JFET )

P- Channel ) Le Ib Uh P ddG dG QjfGJ Ge HJ

P d d G d G Q j f G J G e e , - 8 -2 d G a d G , (JFET
f IcQ a J .dG QqdGh ddG qb ASH dS Ib Uh
f IdG a dS f HGH e QJo hCG J K eh Le f Ib dS
dah dG Y dS da J j eY .ddG HGdG d LdG
cCG dS b HGd c M ah ,dGh dG H QJ aj ,dG Y Le
.d dH Le HGdG b fc M a QdG j H ,QdG aJ OGOj
jh .Le Ib Uh P ddG dG QjfGJ O- 8-2 dG qjo
.ddG HGdG dEG LdG IdG e dG
e HGH U
U cCG fK
dG

HGH
dS Ib
Le f e IcQ
e
() (CG)
e HGH U
jJ

HGH
Le Ib
Qe dS f e IcQ
(O) ()

, e d G ( , - d S I d e L e I b U h P d d G d G Q j f G J ( C G :8 -2 d G
.edG -(O ,Le Id e (

90
 UdG f cCG-e ddG dG QjfGJ
(Metal-Oxide Semi MOSFET Conductor FETs - MOSFETs ) Q j f G d G j
dG qjoh .(JFET) QjfGJ ejo e cCG (Input Impedance) NO bhe
e dRY W OLh Mf .dS Ib (MOSFET) QjfGd ke ,CG- 9-2
d G e Y C G A d G Y J J (Silicon Dioxide ) d G c C G f K
peoJ e kFHc HGdG Jo .dS f dGh dS f dG H bGdG
,- 9 -2 d G e C G . J b G d G d G - d E G - d G I b e h H G d Gh d G
QjfGJ Yf EG .dS I b (MOSFET) QjfGd dG edG qa
Depletion ) P S G f h (Enhancement Mode ) j d G f g (MOSFET )
, N H T E G U - e I b (MOSFET ) Q j f G d P S G d . (Mode
.HTEG d d jdG f a
dG eJ

HGdG eJ
dG eJ

e cCG fK
dG

e I cQ
Le f

(CG)

,e (CG :MOSFET QjfGJ :9-2 dG

.edG (
()
MOSFET GQjfGd jdG f
Gate ) HGdG IQTEG RfG dEG U -e Ib Icd ddG bhdG OqDJ
QjfGd jdG f dM j e ,QdG aH d (Biased Signal
.e IkOY (MOSFET)
91
g jdG dS Ib (MOSFET) QjfGdG a IcdG qCG CG-10-2 dG j
cqe H (Dopped) He dGh dG We CGh Le f dG e
,(Metal Gate) qfdG HGdc QjfGdG Gg AGLCG J .dS f H
W GPEa ,(Capacitor) qc L IdGh ,(Insulation Layer) dRdG dGh
,dG S Y .dG Y T IdG a SCG qJ RfG HGdG Y
hjo HGdG RfGh ,dG dd dH Le dG da b J eY
.Qd aJ CG g j a ,k GU

(fhdEG) dS T eM dd f Jo Le HGdG fc GPEGh

q j LdG RfG a aVEG OjORG EGh .dGh dG W e H

dG H -dS f Ib qd dG cGa ,IdG a cCG fhdEG

QqH HGdG da qJ Gd ,dG QqJ b Y IdG ehe J .dGh
Gg qoS a ,HGd kLe k GRfG qj IdG Ue jJ qCG H .dG
. j J f h P (MOSFET ) Q j f G d G
e HGH U

dG cCG fK

e Ib
Le f e IcQ

(CG)

HGH

e
()
.edG - ,e - CG :(MOSFET) QjfGd dS Ib a jdG f :10-2 dG

Enhancement) jdG - f QjfGd dG edG -10-2 dG jo

92
 q d G j . d S f (Mode MOSFET E-MOSFET
S H H U d G dbdG
dG SHH dUdG dG dG eqCG ,zHGdG{ (Gate Pin) HGdG
dG SCGQ j .HGdG Y da J j M Ib QX Y Y a dGh
dS f IdG dEG dNO M dS f IcQ e adG QqdG JG dEG
.dG

S d G d G f d S f (E-MOSFET ) j d G - f Q j f G d
H T E G I O e C G A S H , L e f (E-MOSFET ) j d G - f Q j f G d
dh kjCG edG Hj c .dG ddG d dH eCG dch ce
.kce dG JG j

QjfGd PSG f
(Depletion Mode MOSFET - DMMOSFET) QjfGd PSG f j e IkOY
IdG a HTEG H dPh HGd RfG CG UdG a Y j h kMe
. (Source-Drain ) U - e
e HGH U

N f Ib

Le f e IcQ

(CG)

HGH

e
()

. e d G - , e - C G : (M O S F E T ) Q j f G d d S I b a P S G f : 1 1 - 2 d G

93
dG a qdG ,dS f PSG - f (MOSFET) QjfGdG a
N J e - d G I b h ,L e f S e g I c d G ,C G- 11 -2
H (MOSFET) GQjfGdG e dG Gg qoS .LdG dG e HTEG
d M aS dG QqJ Ea d dH kLe dG c GPEG fC PSG
,qfdG HGdc QjfGdG Gg AGLCG J .k GU HGdG da RfG c
T IdG a q j HGd RfG Ca ,c dS f IdGh ,dRdG dGh
.ce b GP

,Le dG dah - HGdG RfG e c c M a ,dG S Y

R f G J j f C G E G , J f Q j f G c (MOSFET ) Q j f G d G j
qj ddG HGdG RfG EG .(Pinch Off) d hCG QdG jE HGd dS
e H a S dG ddG dG Ib a (dG) Le T eM
dG b dEG ddG RfG j eYh .IdG ehe e jd fhdEG
.dG QqJ bj ,(Pinch Off Value) q dG

f (MOSFET) dS Ib QjfGd dG edG ,-11-2 dG qj

q d G A S H j d G f (MOSFET ) d S I b Q j f G d G e Q j f E G . P S G

. q e Z fEa IdG qjo dG

S d G d G f P S G f (MOSFET ) L e I b Q j f G d E G
L h H T E G O G e C G A S H P S G f (MOSFET ) d S I b Q j f G d
.ce dG JG dh edG T a Hj dch .ce dG dG

ddG fQR GQjfGJ

(BJTs) dG GQ j fG J Y d S dG TCG q of d
ddG YdG e IO S d dPh (GaAs) ddG fQR a (MOSFET)h
H dGSG Y JdG ddG (Operating Frequency) dG GOOqdGh
Compound) Ue f cqe IOe g ddG fQR IOe C .(GaAs)
c (Natural Oxides) W GcCG qJ a ,(Semiconductor Material

94
 d G I L C G M (Alter ) j J Q h d G e L e , d G H j
e dG G d e J K K j J J . e J d SCG Q H
:GQjfGdG
. (MESFET ) U e f - e d d G d G Q j f G J - 1
. (HEMT ) f h d E d j d G c d G Q j f G J - 2
Heterojunction Bipolar ) I j d G U d G hP d G F K Q j f G d G - 3
. (Transistor - HBT
HGdG W

U
ehCG eJ

Qe PSG e
UdG Ib
fhdEG aO
dRY f IcQ
fQR ddG e
GaAs

.(MESFET) Ue f-e ddG dG QjfGJ :12-2 dG

Ue f -e ddG dG GQjfGJ
H (MESFET) Ue f -e ddG dG QjfGJ jo
H H J ,edG GQGdG a hCG e dZ fQR QjfGc c
f Q R I c Q Y T e H f d G H G H S J J d h , (MOSFET )
J T O jGO L M d dPh ,12-2 dG qj c ,He d dG
d I c d G Y S J J d G G c C G d h . (Schottky Barrier Diode )

95
pM g (dGh dG H IcdG) fdG HGdG W EG .UdG Yh
.edG GQGdGh ddG fQR GQjfGd dH

,dG GQjfGdG e a 1 m h 0.5 m H IOY HGdG W Oqj

H G d G H C G E G . e d G GQ G d d H e h j e 0.2 e b C G d E G j b h
900 m H e dGE j PGE dW dGE dH H cCG VY IOY d (Gate Structure)
(Interdigitated) qHJ H (MESFETs) GQjfGd J CG j .1200 mh
eh .(Comblike Structure) e H (Multiple Gates) IOqe HGHh
a dqdG WdG HTE (Ion Implantation) f jCG QR q jo i NCG L
0.2 m h 0.1 m H ddG HT E G e cS hGJ .(MESFETs) GQjfGdG
. Y T c C G (D- MESFETs ) P J ` S G f (MESFETs ) G Q j f G d d H
k
GQjfGc (GaAs) ddG fQR GQjfGd iNCG GfCG jJ kjCG J
jdG f (JFETs) GQ j fG Jh (E-MESFETs) j dG f (MESFETs)
a (D-MESFET ) h (E-MESFET ) e O j f C G d E G I Q T E G Q J . (E-JFETs )
(E/D) PSGh jdG d dG dG d (ICs) e e GQGO
. (Enhancement Depletion Mode Logic )

fhdEd jdG cdG GQjfGJ

High Electron-Mobility) fh dE d j dG c dG Q j fG J EG
dG ddG fQR GQjfGJ e f g ,(Transistors - HEMTS
W Y dG Gg qj ,13-2 dG qj ch .ICs eodG edG GQGd
dG Gg .(GaAs) IcQ Y qjoh (AlGaAs) ddG fQR dCG e
M jh ,QjfGdG AGOCG q jo (Heterojunction Design) IjdG Ud
. (MESFET ) G Q j f G J e e g e Y C G e e i H

IjdG UdG GP dG FK GQjfGJ

Heterojunction Bipolar) Ij dG U dG hP dG F K Q j fG dG
.Ije Uh a qe dG FK (GaAs) QjfGJ g (Transistors- HBTs

96
I j dG U d j dGh P SG f eO L d J j J J
M e a R L Y d d P h , (Hetero-Junction E/D - Technology )
Large Scale) SGdG edG dG P bQ (Cost-Effective) - dG
Very Large Scale Integration - ) k G L S G d G e d G d G h C G (Integration - LSI
,bGdG a .edG e kdY i k e J 14-2 dG a qdG dG EG .(VLSI
Uh Y d U N d SCG dEG (HBTs )h (HEMTs) e c j
.(Precise Sharp Heterojunctions) IOqMh - bO Ijeo
ehCG eJ
e HGH U
N+ GaAs N+ GaAs

e Z Ye AlGaAs
He Z GaAs bbQ
jH fhdEG RZ

dRY f ddG fQR

. H E M T f h d E d j d G c d G Q j f G J : 1 3 -2 d G

GaAs AlGaAs
YH
qe IYb IYb

P+ GaAs P+
N GaAs
N+ GaAs

RdG f ddG fQR

cCG QR We
HdG QdG We

. H B T I j d G U d G h P d G F K Q j f G J : 1 4 -2 d G

97
 IQdG GQjfGJ
cCG hCG Gh 1 dEG J b knb (Power Transistors) IQdG QjfGJ qj
Normal) dG Y N cCG hCG 1 A H k GQ J j hCG IQ dG e
q
. j C G h O (Operation

,(Amplification) dc dG e jdG a IQdG QjfGJ jo

GOOq dG j Jh ,(Switching) ( j dG) dGh ,(Oscillation) H H dGh
I Q T E G Q j f G d S d G T C d K d G G f C G h . (Frequency Conversion )
:g IQdG QjfGc dG bdG
. (BJT ) d G F K Q j f G d G - 1
. (Darlington Pair ) h O d G d Q G O Q j f G J - 2
. (MOSFET ) U d G f c C G - e d d G d G Q j f G J - 3

dG FK IQdG GQjfGJ
d He Sg T (Power BJTs) dG FK IQdG QjfGd
d h . (Discrete Small Signal Transistors ) d G I d G I Q T E G Q j f G J
e , (Vertical Geometries ) d b T S g T C G (Power BJTs ) G Q j f G J
J d G I c d G e Y C G A d G Y (Emitters ) Y d G h (Bases ) Y G d G J
Yh .(PNP)h (NPN) IQdG GQjfGJ e Yf g .(Collector) qc
L J E G Y Q O b a (Power BJT ) Q j f G d d Y J Z e Z d G
dG e c QjfGdG Gg Y CGW .L Hh hdH FXh
,dG d QGMh FHc f OLh eqDJ dG FdG IYGd
H dG dG g J j .JSh JM m T d CG kY
jQ qdG IYdG JG G S H hCG ,(Diffused Layers) IdG JW OY
c H g IQdG GQjfGJ qJo .H dH hCG ,(Epitaxial Base)
F dG TCG H e .(Planar) m eo H hCG (Mesa) (Ge) I U
:j e dG FK IQdG QjfGd
. (Single-Diffused (Hometaxial) ) ( f d G ) O d G Q f G
98
Epitaxial Q H G e h , e h , G e ) (Double-Diffused ) F d G Q f G
Multiple Epitaxial Oqe QqH Geh ,(Epitaxial Planar) QqdG eh ,Mesa
. (Mesa
. (Triple-Diffused, Mesa And Planar ) e h G e K d G Q f G
.(Epitaxial Base) (Ge) jqQdG IYdG
.(Multiple Epitaxial Base) (Ge) IOqdG jqQdG IYdG

A J f S g T e , (Die ) d d G e J d G A d G a (Mesa ) G d G J
.(Silicon Collector Substrate) fdG uodG IcQ a YdGh IYd
(Selectively Chemically Etching) bdG FdG dG jW Y GdG qJ
Completed Double-Diffused) edG hOdG QfG GP ddG jGhR Jo h
q
GdG J CGd kah (Planar Transistor) odG QjfGdG qjo .(Die
IOLe qe IcDe W J IYdG - uodG Uh SH dh ,f
(Topologies ) A G L C G g e d G I Q d G G Q j f G d . d d G S Y
,(Switching Speeds) e (jJ) b YSh ,e da Gj J
Leakage) J GQ Jh ,(Saturation Resistances) e TEG eheh
q q
FdG UdG GQjfGJ g keJ cCG GQjfGdG EG .e (Currents
,(Multiple Epitaxial) IOq dG jQ q dG (Structure) dG GP gh dG
. (Double Diffused ) h O d G Q f G h

j H (Power Bipolar Transistors ) dG qFK IQdG GQjfGJ Jo

:ddG ed HdG dG
Collector to ) YdG dEG uodG e (Voltage jjdG qddG
Rating )
. (Emitter
.(Current Rating To Collector) jdG uodG QqJ
. (Rating Power ) j j d G I Q d G
. (Switching Speed ) ( j d G ) d G Y S
. (Gain-Bandwidth Product ) J d G d G V Y c

99
 . (Rise And Fall Time ) d G h O d G e R
. (SOA ) (Safe Opertaing Area ) d e B G d G
.jQGdG FdG
GP hCG (Switching-Regulated) qdG jdG GP bdG jqe T Y f
GQjfGJ Y dG (Switch Mode Power Supply) (jdG) dG f
a GOOJ `Y (Switching) (j`dG) `dG Y IQOdG `dG `FK IQ`odG
c C G d a J Y k GQ O b Q j f G d G j C G j d G G g d h .10 kHz
Collector Current) eo QJ jJ j CG jh .NdG da e JH
q q
. b d G d e g e Y C G e B G Y e h (Ratings

dY (Power Density) IQb ac Y odG FK QjfGdG j eY

H qJ eY j ,(Second Breakdown) mK Yh Qf VYo j
YdG H ddG Jh QjfGdG bbQ NGO (Thermal Hot Spot) jqQGM
e a QdG cqj PEG ,YH IQdG jRCG GPEG EG 25 V dEG 1 V e uodGh
.jo hCG QjfGdG jo M IQGdG LQO JJh IU

IQdG QjfGJ Hb jo fH SH (SOA) eBG dG e OqJo

Y j dG fdG dG fEG .ddh Qqd dY knb fBG H J CG Y
q
YdGh uodG H qddG d dH (Collector Current) uodG QqJ J
IdG ddG e v c Oqa dG eCG .(Collector To Emitter Voltage)
QqdG -ddG OhM dch ,(Pulsed Operation) dG TGh (Steady-State)
(Combined Limitations) dG Gj dG Y J dG (Voltage-Current)
bCG jdGh ,jdG QqdGh jjdG ddG e
x c H Vh dG
Q f G G j J h Q j f G d (Maximum Allowable Dissipation ) H d G
.QjfGd fdG

hOdG dQGO IQbo QjfGJ

Y (Power Darlington Pairs ) hOdG dQGO IQb QjfGJ j

100
NGO qeo QqH fe (Power Bipolar Transistor) dG FK jQjfGJ
jo .ddG f a (Emitter-Follower) YH -HGc (DC Coupled Internally)
eqDj .LQN GWCG KK e IMGh Y a qVjh
k e q dG G g
g e YCG (Current Gain) QqJ ch YCG NO ehe dQGO QjfGJ
.(Single Power Bipolar Transistor) MGdG dG FK IQodG QjfGd

UdG f cCG -e ddG dG IQb GQjfGJ

f E G P E G , d Y N O b h e b (P o w e r M O S F E T s ) G Q j f G d G e G f C G d
dhe (Gate) HG H e (Voltage-Controlled) qddH e QjfGJ HH
He d dh ,IdG IQTEG (MOSFET) QjfGJ e Ho HJ .kqFHc
qj c ,a MGh Uh ,IOqe HGH kjCGh ,(Multiple Sources) IOqe
(jdG) dH SCG QjfGdG Gg jo iNCG fQd kJh .CG-15-2 dG
ec T jJ d dPh (Bipolar Transistor) odG FK QjfGdG e
e jdG f P IQdG QjfGd e g dG a qdG qdG EG .jqcCd
,GQjfGdG g e .(Enhancement-Mode Power MOSFET) dS I b
d b T S g T a J , I d G I Q T E G (M O S F E T ) G Q j f G J H
e YCG AdG a fqe HGHh Heh U IcQ e (Vertical Geometry)
.qdG
dS Ib

U QdG fe dG e HGH cCG HGH

OdG

HGH

e
dG QJ dG fe
()
(CG)

.edG ( ,e (CG ,(MOSFET) IQdG QjfGJ a jdG d dS DMOS Ib :15-2 dG

- 101 -
H qJ fEa dGh HGdG jf H da J Y e ZdG Y
M J HGdGh HdG H ddG J eY dh ,k GqL dY bhe
dGh dG H ehdG b J dEG OqDj e ,(MOSFET) `dG a FHc
OYG a dG Q q dG a H dP j .(Drain-To Source Resistance)
a J) . d a Y J e Y dG e k GA H (Conventional Current)
.(dG dEG dG e CG ,QqdG ad cdG JG a fhdEG

f (MOSFET) IQdG QjfGd dG edG -15-2 dG qj

O j G d e Q Y j P E G , (DMOS ) j W N e d d G I d G P j d G
dG a IOLdG PN Uh Y qdH ,(MOSFET) e RGdH Ve
.QjfGdG Gd SdG

LdG IdG P jdG f (MOSFET) IQdG QjfGJ J jo

SdG HTEG WHh qH j dh ,ddG IdG GP QjfGdG
Conventional ) O Y G a d G Q d G a j . (Doped Regions ) ( H T E G W e )
q
a fhdEG aJh dG dEG dG e fqdG g a (Current Flow
.cdG JG

jg U a e dG (DMOS) dbdG FdG QfG Y M

V-Groove Process-) dG Y GSG e IQodG GQjfGJ e YdG
G b j J j h . V d G d G S a e G S G f G d G , (VMOS
Source ) e N c O h M Y (Double Diffusion ) F d G Q f G S G H I j Y
Jh dRY cCG HGH W GdG L q J ,15-2 dG qj c .(Cell
dG jN L qUJ K .GdG a Ice fS IOe HGH
.(Source Terminal) dG jf QhH qj ,dCG e AZ SGH RGdH

HGH (DMOS) QjfGJ dGb S Y qJ ,HdG a fcP c

f qS T HGdG g NCJh ,(Multiple Silicon Gates) qfS IOqeo
dqCa dG jdG eCG .(Hexagonal Pattern) kSGoS kHW hCG (Basket-Weave)
L IcQ Y dG e J e dG SGoS hCG e Gb e
102
edG IQhS dEG G g a dG O jh ,(Substrate Drain Body) dG
j J b (Density ) a c b J e G d G J d G , (Integration Process )
. (Square Inch ) H e f E G d N e f Y

I c Q e d G a 60 H (Vertical DMOS ) j O d G (DMOS ) Y J

QjfGdG U dSC dG HS a dG Y fc e Y dG
(MOSFETs) GQjfGJ q J .(Planer MOSFET) idG (MOSFET)
dbdG Wdh ,dY GOOJ Y J dG bdG jJ Jd SGh H
(DC) dG QqdG jd (Inverter Systems) dG jdG fCGh (Chopper)
Gdqeh ,(Motor Speed Control) cdG YS qe a (AC) hdGh
dG a GdqdGh ,(Induction Heating) qdG qd ddG GOOqdG
Y Hh ,(Audio Amplifiers) dG q dGh ,(Ultrasonic Generators)
.(AM Transmitter) dG qdG
dG e HGH
OdG
cCG

SJ
OU
IcQ
qe

(CG)
qe

HGH

YH
()

. e d G ( ) , e S Q ( C G ) d G d G F d G d R d G H G d G Q j f G J : 1 6 -2 d G

103
 dG FK dRdG HGdG QjfGJ
Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor) dG FK dRdG HGdG QjfGJ j
(MOSFET) I Q d G F N H , W H Q C G e d D e Q j f G J g h ,( IGBT
hR NGO (MOSFET) QjfGdG a N Ib PNP QjfGJ jn .QSjdGh
JFET Q j f G d G N e d d G U J a Q j f G d G d Q GO T e
jdG H ehdG J dEG a VE H ,(MOSFET) da e j e
.QdGh

d a 300 ) d d G d Y G Q G d G a (16 - 2 d G ) IGBT Q j f G J j

.(cCG hCG

UdG OMCG QjfGJ

Uni-Junction Transistor) UdG OMCG QjfGdG CG CG-17-2 dG jo
q
, (Single PN Junction ) I O e PN U h e j d G K K Q j f G J g (- UJTs
Two Base ) S S C G a W d h , Y H h ,N- f I c d d Y e h e h P g h
b d G a Y J d S e h e d C G Q j f G d G G g F N e . (Terminal
Q j f G J Y d G G g Y j . (Oscillator Circuits ) H H d G G Q G d G h
. (MOSFET ) h (BJT )

H H QdG j B2h B1 qSSCG jdG Y Le da qJo eY

e PN Uh P f (E) YdG qjh .N f dG IcQ a dY ehe
J ,Le RfG B1h FdG YdG AdG H qjo eY eCG .N- f IcQ
f e a dG Jo .(Forward Biased) eeCG RfG Me a PN UdG
d P h j S H d G g a e h d G J M ,B1 J H J h N
d d G g j d d f h . (Carriers ) e d G e c C G O Y O L d
(E ) Y d G H b G d G d G [E- B1 ] e J d G B1 h B2 H (Voltage Drop )
dS ehe e qJ dHh .dG g Y QqdG QqdG OGOj H , [B1 ] h
.B2 - B1 dH a qdG eEH

104
(Wafer) aG dG a (Boron) hQ H I QqP Q fG j W Y Y dG q j
.(P-Type Region) P f e d ,ehdG dY N f fdG
gY .aGdG a QSdG GQP QfH dS 1 SSCG e kFJ qSh
qj K eh ,UdG jd IgX Z jFGO M N- dG M J
q a gdG eCG .YdG eeh 1 bQ SSCG qd aGdG S dEG dCG
AGLCG dEG mM aGdG J j .2 bQ SSCG W d aGdG b NGO
.(UJTs) UdG jqOMCG GQjfGH qjo e d IU

aGdG QqdG JG dEG dG jh ,- 17-2 dG a (UJT) eQ j

.N+ h N S S C G d E G P- f Y H e j d G
cCG dhCG IYdG YdG
dG

fdG IYdG
(CG)

()

. e d G ( , e L ( C G : U J T U d G O M C G Q j f G J : 1 7 -2 d G

e (Simple Relaxation Oscillator ) d G N G d G H d G J j

J dG eh .hdGh dG kjCGh ,UdG OMCG QjfGJ N
Variable-Frequency UJT ) m Geo fQ Ph OOqdG qe UdG OMCG QjfGJ
dG q eh dGh ,ehdG aVEG jW Y kjCG (Relaxation Oscillator
. (Potentiometer )

fdG qdG e qdH (UJTs) IQcdG GQjfGdG qJ

105
hOdG SSCG P OjGdH kjCG (UJT) `dG Jh .(Triaces) jdGh ,(SCRs)
. (Double-Base Diode )

GQSjdG
HQCG e dqDe Ue f jJ RL fCG Y (Thyristor) QSjdG qjo
jW Y UJ j (Four-Layer Semiconductor Switching Devices) W
.(Gate Electrode) HGdG OhdG Y qda J

,(Silicon Controlled Rectifier - SCR) fdG qdG :QSdG GfCG gCG e

Silicon Controlled Switch-) f`dG qdG dGh ,(Triaces) jdGh
.(SCS

fdG qdG udG

Silicon ) fdG qdG udG qdCj ,QSdG a dG g c
HQCG d gJG q H qe OjGO e (SCR) `dG (Controlled Rectifiers - SCRs
Bistable Power ) Q G S G F K I Q d G d S e g h (PNPN ) H W
K h U h K Q S d G G d C G 18 -2 d G a i f c h . (Switching
e qddG J e HGdG dEG QqdG qjh .HGdGh ,OKdGh ,OfCG :jf
. (SCR ) U J a O K d G d E G O f C G
HGH OKc
OKc

HGH

OfCG
OfCG
() (CG)

.edG ()h ,e AL (CG) SCRm fdG qdG qdG :18-2 dG

106
dG e eeCG IQGdG f a f CG Y AdG dG e fCG dEG f
Y HGdG RfG b jo e Y ,(AC Wave Form) hdG Qqd LdG
.OfCGh OKdG GWCG H beo jo hCG qdG

RfG d Le (SCR) qdG OfCH UdG ddG J CG jh

j g a ,(Conventional Forward-Based Operations) a dG e eCG
.HGdG d Le da UH (SCR) qdG J eEH

H G H f c E G h d G d M a (SCR ) j M d H C G j h C G Q h j E G e h
SCR jEG qj ,iNCG L e .(Turned Off) dG Y bqe hCG dS ddG
d dG dG - dEG - L dG dG q d a J eqEG dG Y
eeCG QqdG Y hCG ,qJn Y ie dEG (Anode-To-Cathode Voltage)
((SCR) Y bJ) hCG (Shut Off) bEG qCG dEG fh .(Forward Current)
LdG dG GWCG Y (AC) hdG QdG j hCG qj eY IkOY j
. (Gate Bias ) R f G H G H Z H U i d G d d G h

j ,a mMGh mJH QdG qj (SCR) fdG qdG CG d kahh

h dG Q dG L e H hCG (DC) dG QdH dG Y S H
bdG qe Wb a dG eqdG QhH (SCR) j c .(Half-Wave AC)
qJ eqdG g H YSH Ea dP Y k a . (Power Rectifier Bridges )
qeo QqJ e 1500 V dEG J b dY da LQO hCG (Amperes) GeCG BG
dG eqdG CG dEG fh .eCG dG H e bCH (Triggering Current)
dG -18-2 dG jo .bCG hCG 40 A `H QqJo IoT cCG fdG
. (SCR ) ` d e d G

jdG
dG e a j c ,(h dG Q dG O jG J) (Triac) j dG EG
Biderectional Gate) JG F K q J HG H GP Q S j K g ,CG-19-2
q
E QdG V a .AC IQb a Ld qc qJ aqj (Controlled Thyristor
IQT

107
dLEG e dH 95h 5 H hGJ H (Load Current) dG QJ j HGdG
.IQdG
fdG dG
fdG dG

HGH HGH

hCG dG hCG dG
() (CG)

.edG ( ,e AL (CG :jdG :19-2 dG

dG eqdG e K (Equivalent) k Gf jdG j ,iNCG Mf eh

dG q jh .(Back-to-Back SCRs) N - dEG - N f f dG
. j d d G e d G -19 -2

qfdG qdG Je
fCH (Silicon Controlled Switches - SCS) fdG qdG e jo
LdG dG g ,Ff HGH dG QdG hP fdG qdG
HGH Y ddG dG (jo hCG) fdG dG e jjo .ddG dGh
.(SCS) Yn HGdG J Y LdG dG bJo a ,(SCS) LdG dG
d G h (SCS ) a L d G d G J d G d d G d G H G H Y Y
.dG Y bJ ddG

108
 d d G dG

fehdG UdG

jdG

(Solenoids ) G j d d G eT If
(Stepper Motor) LQqdG cqdG q dG
fehdG M
(Electromechanical Relays )
FGdG dG GP FHdG cqdG fehdG JdG
(P e r man e n t M ag n e t El ect r ic M o to r s ) (Electromechanical Switch)
(Resolvers ) d G (Special Switches ) U d G J d G

eT If
fhdEG a S d q dG f eh dG U dG EG
IQGdG q eh Rhh M e H J dG U dG J g (Electronics)
Hc hCG Y NGO a (Circuit Boards) IQGdG GdCG Y cqnod ,fhdEG

109
Gjd dGh ,(Relays) M q dG :dP Y eCG eh .(Cabinet)
IQ dG GP dG Q dG c q eh ,(Switches) J dGh ,(Solenoids)
. (Fractional Horsepower DC Motors ) F d G f d G

fehdG MqdG
,(Remote Controller) Ho Y qdG GfCG HCG e g (Relay) M q dG
(Output Circuits) n dG GQGO Y a (Input Circuits) N dG GQGO Jo
M m
q dG qe d c QJ QGeGE jW Y IH ae e Jee Jh kFHc
q e hCG (Manual Switch) hj e H qj SCG Y (Relay Coils)
.NBG M

Electromechanical Relays ) fehdG M q dG :dEG M q dG Jo

M q e A L b S h . (Solid State Relay SSR ) d G d d G M q e h (EM
Fundamental ) z S SC G f h d E G GQ G d G{ e d G d G a d G d d G
:j d kJ fehdG M q dG J qj .(Electronic Circuits
.(Output Current Rating) dG QJ qe
. (Number of Poles ) b C G O Y
. (Composition of Output Contacts ) d G f e c J j W
. (Packaging Style and Form Factor ) d G e Y h j R d G j W
. (Applications ) d G
:ddG dG Y g fehdG M
q d edG dG
. (General Purpose Relays ) e d G d G Mq e
. (Power Relays ) I Q d G M q e
.(Sensitive Relays) Sq dG M q dG
. (Telephone Type Relays ) f d G M q dG
. (Reed Switch Relays ) d G d G M q e
edG d fehdG MqdG
(General-Purpose Electromechanical Relays) M
q dG e GfCG g Jo
110
qoU dG jdG M q dG e jM f gh ,fhdEG dG a
IAVEGh ,FHdG IQdG J e a GSd ,b e cCG eo
. f d G d G a h , (Telegraph ) G d G h , (Lighting )

(Conventional Coil and Contact Relay) dG peodGh dG M q e dCj

Qeh ,(Electromagnetic Coil) ehc e e 1-3 dG a qdG
,dnH dG (dqdG a dG cdG Qe Armature:) QJeQCG cM
(Energized) bdH dG qjo ea ,kFHc dhe Nh NO GQGOh
GQhO JqJ H QJeQCGh (Hinged) q dG FHdG dG j
Normally Closed) IOY ke j dG dG edG a jo e ,ddG
q
b a (Normally Open - NO ) I O Y d G d G e d G e C G , (- NC
dG dEG IQdG edG q Jo ZEG dM a .JG J H , U dG
a d d G j d G d M a b W F H d G d G j e Y h . (Load )
Y IQdG Jo Ggh ,(NC) IkOY dG dG edG joh ,QJeQCG
,dG FK dG e g dG a dG M q dG CG dEG IQTEG QJh .dG
.Y bdG a e JQGH qdG feEH CG j Ggh
e J f
(NC ) I O Y e
bQh dd b
edG Ia cdG Qe IcQ
dG

c dG Q e
eJ f
a dG
e
ddG
(NO ) W
(QJeQCG)

cM Q e
QWEG ddG GQhO

ehc e

edG d fehdG MqdG :1-3 dG

111
 hCG dG LhOe hCG ,dG jOMCG eEG J eqdG dG M q e e
j dG LhO e G Mh GP k jCG J bh ,(Multipole) bCG IOqe
. (Single Throw Units ) j d G j O M C G G M h G P h C G (Double-Throw Units )
C G j (Double Throw ) j d G F K e E G . (SPST, DPDT, 3POT etc )
(NC) IOY hCG kjOYG dG J eCG .e jW iMEH J edG

q e Y IQdG Jo M edG Vh Y q j a (NO ) I O Y d G h C G

.M q dG
Low Resistance ) e h d G b e e e d G VGZC G M
q e ee qJ
bCG jf Y qJo dG (Silver Alloy Bonded) dG Fc (Metal
b dG dG e dG IQ b Qq J .(Base Terminals) G WCG I Y bh
J h , e C G 5 ` H (Low Level Dry Circuit ) i d G W G h a d G I Q G d G M
q d
Jo IOdG ah .eCG 10 dEG dG g aQ Y dG - jOdG - dG
d N W H ,gdH aqdG IQGdG M q e hCG bdG q dG eeo
dGh SG Y hCG jdG Ga a qj b dG (Oxidation) cCdG
.(Contact Resistance) eodG eheo e QhH jj

qdG g CG EG ,eCG 10 dEG J qe edG dG M q e uJo

dgh .(PC-board Monitor) JdG RL Md a eCG 3h 2 dEG qJ b
TCH J ,GSCG a Mhe jQdG edG dG M q e e OY
k e Jh ,MCGh
:`H UdG QNd kSGh
.(fK dEG j dG) bCG OY
, (Plug in) H dG ,(Solder) dG) (Terminals Form) GWCG T
. (Printed Circuit ) Y d G I Q G d G h C G , (Quick Connect ) j d G U d G
q eo hCG ae) jRdG
.(I
Qqd da 24 ,12 ,6 :ddc a M q dG d FdG ddG qe eCG
d a 120 h ,VDC d G Q d d a 120 h 28 h ,AC h d G h C G DC d G
qY e 20 dGM dEG M q d fdG dG jh .VAC hdG Qqd

112
.cCG hCG (Closure) ZEG dCG H Qqoa m ec m H FHdG dG eCG ,J
b e I O d G d a 50 e c C G G SC G a M h d G M
q dG e Jo
q dG e bqdGh (Under Writers Laboratories)dGh eCdG Ge
. (Canadian Standard Association CSA ) j d j d G

IQdG Mqe
eqdG dG M
q e e f g (Power Relay) IQ dG M
q eo EG
dG Qqd da) 28 VDC a 50 A dEG 10 A `H QqJ ,dY IQb e ed
.(AC hodG Qqd da) 120/240 VAChCG ,(DC

,JdG ILCc dY IQb J dG d MdG g q Jo

dG fehdG M q dG qJh .jjOGdG SdGh ,GQGOGdGh
g Q h H h F d G W d G h C G (Contactors ) e d G H (Heavy-Duty ) d G
IQb Gdqe fCG Z ,IQdG M q e dqJ dG J e YCG bW jJ
.hjGQ SQEG fqeh ,FHc

fdG MqdG
dYh bCG Oqe M q e g (Telephone-Type Relay ) f d G M q dGh
fdG dG jd j (Multipole High -Density Relay) a dG
. j d G d G R L a (Digital Signals ) b d G G Q T E G h C G (Telephone Voice )
dDe he hCG e QJ qe Y MdG Gd dhCG jOdG MG d
(Intermixed) H NGe Jeeh .fK dEG gOY j bCG e
Bifurcated) T dEG qe JGP e jf GP fe fe fCH eh
Mating) HdG edG S c Y J gh .(Self-Wiping Tips
Q X d dPh (Make and Break) dGh U dG M e N (Contacts
.S Y cCdG

FXh f JG a edG jdG IdG M q dG ODJh Gg

Y a RJh ,bCG hCG MGh eCG Hh jdG dG fdG Mq dG
113
 q e
c hCG ,JdG ILC fhdEG GdCG Y csJo (Flat Packs)
.(Sugar-Cube-Sized Cases) qdG qe MCH

SdG MqdG
hCG edG dG M q e d E G (Sensitive Relays ) S d G M q dG J
KCH d qoU bh .(Telephone Type EM) ehdG fdG dG
M q e g M q d G a , (Solid State Logic ) d G d d G e e G Q T E G
.10 mW Y j (Input ) N H j J j e h c

edG NCdG Mqe

M q e G fCG MCG g (Time Delay Relays) edG NC dG M q e
GQGO Y J .ehdG HhdGh IqdG GQd edG dG
jo .(Actuation) dG H (Contact Closure) edG AfEG NCd dBGh
LGjh ,(Industrial Control) YdG qdG a edG NCdG M q e
dG GMhh ,(Flashers) edG ah ,(Interval Timer) Me bqDc
e d G N C d G h G j . (Slow Operate-Slow Release ) A d G Y E G h - A d G
Jo MdG bdG Y dh .cCG hCG bO 120h fK 0.2 H M q d
, (Resistive Capacitive Circuits RC ) N G O e h e - S I Q G O a e h d G b
.50/60 Hz QGe FHc IQb OOJ b e (Counting Down) dRdG qdH hCG

dG MqdG
Movable) kc qe ke (Polarized Relays) dG M q dG j
,ehdG M q d d G d G c d e h c N B G e (M a g n e t
,dG M q dG e Yf dgh .FHdGh dG jdG d dPh
dG M q dGh (Pivoting Core Relays) Q dG dG M q e
M q e J .(Magnetically Biased Polarized Relays) ke IqodGh
(Samarium - Cobalt) jQeS - Hc IOe e e Y dG qdG
M q dG a dG (Ferrite) jqdG e M HQ Oj U H
114
dG qdG ehdG M q dG M f qdG M q e
q jh .iNCG
Miniature) dG JdG ILCG a IqdG fhdEG MdG Y cqjo
,JdG ILCG a q dG M q e Jo .(PC-Board Mounted EM
Home Video) dG jjdG odGh ,YdG q dGh , H dGh
Private Branch ) h C G (PBXs ) U d G d G Y d d G h , (Systems
q
. f d G G d G e g Z h , (Telephone Exchange

dG dG Mqe
ehc Mq e g (Reed Switch Relay) dG dG M q e EG
Flexible Ferrous Metal ) Rh j d G I O e e d f e F G T H J e e
q
HQ joh .qdG e LLR dH q e b H hCG (Strips
ddG NGhCG a Qhe SGH RhjdG IOe e fqdG adG dG
.KdGh IcCG e Y d dPh

MdG dG ee H hCG 1210 `H Qqjo k GL m Y FHc a dj

ee Jo eY hCG 0.75 dEG J dG g CG EG ,ddG NGO
GQhO jd e H dG ZEGh a dG e fEa Gd .dG
. d d G j d G d G d G a (Switching Cycles ) j d G

Form ) hCG A dG dG NGO ILGdG edG TCG TCG eh

I O Y d G h (Single Pole, Single Throw ) d G O e O M C G d G G P , (A
LhOe qSh ,OMCG b d dG ,(Form C) hCG C dGh ,(SPST-NO)
. (SPDT )

NGO a kjQe e IMGh dc 2-3 dG a VdG dG M q d

j d G a W a (DC ) Q J J Y h . (Solenoid Coil ) j f S e
d G e d G (Make and Break ) b h C G U h d d G d G d G
.Jh edG g T Y IkOY HSG Jh .ddG NGO

q `dG `e `j
`aL b - e dc `SG Y `dG M
115
 e b c Y d G H J h , (Dry Reed-Switch Capsule )
a zFdH dG GP dG M q e{ AL fG) .qddG d FdG
.(ddG dG

Gqeh ,dG BGh ,JG Gqe a dG M q dG J

. (ATE ) J e J h C G d G

H j e SGh qc Lj edG Jh TCG qj e a

g c k GL V QJ Nd M q e HSG j dG a dG f
a d G g J d c h . (Thermocouple ) j Q G d G L h O d G a d G
.dG Gqeh dG Je

a ,IMGh b dc Y jOMCG dG GP dG qdG J

dG a cqe cCG hCG b dc dG IOqdG qd CG M
RJh .VDC dG QdG e da 24h 5 H ddH qdG hGjh .f
JdG ILCG Md Y cd IgL d jdG dG M q dG e
. (PC-Board Mounting ) d G
jM AZ

dG
q d

dG dc

(e T) d

ee
dG

dG He dG MqdG :2-3 dG

116
 MdG qdG MqdG
dH e Z M q e g (Open Reed Relay ) M d G d G M
q e EG
.IYdG Y qdGh ehdG dG NGO IOLdG dG dG
Y ,qdGh HWdGh QdG qV qe d q e MdG M q dG a
.e Y NGO Vh jW

WodG qdG MqdG

IQY ,MdG M q dG Y Y (Encapsulated Reed Relays) M q dG g
(Potting) ASG jH e b e dch ehc e e Y
.U Y H qJ dG dG Sd ,KqdGh HWdG e j

LhOe eRc cjCG IOH jh eeCG QWEG Y ddGh dG qjo

q N j O M C G h C G (DIP ) N
J H d d G c a e R d G O h J h . (SIP )
M q e (Potted ) A S G j , b d G e R d G Y j c h . G S G d
CGh IU fe hCG SH jhM a W q e cqe e MdG dG
.JdG Md Y cd IgL d J

FdH dG GP dG Mqeo
H (Mercury-Wetted Reed Relays ) F d H d G G P d G M
q eo j
dPh FdG e b Y J b e dch ehc e
ehdG Qe e j F dG C e dG Z (Reliability) bKh d
cUG hCG JGOGJQG qjoh dG Y eodG jf a (Resistance Path)
a FdH edG dG ee OhJh .(ddG ZEGh dG qY id)
k GqL SGh bf Y beh HK eheo (Low Level Loads) dG MCG
c FdG CG EG .(Contact Load Current) eod dG QJh IQGdG LQO e
SM M q dG g Ea Y LHh .2 ms dGH eodG Z q j ,kHS cP
dG edG GWCG J d Fb VH cJ hCG d Ljh bd
.FdG a e
117
 fehdG JdG
g fhdEd (Electromechanical Switches) fehdG JdG EG
GQGdG ah H J qFHc ee GP IU fehc FSh
GSd RJh ,e eJh TCH g qdG FSh HCG qJh .kjhj
qfe ee Y dG dG j .fhdEG GQGdGh MdG a
Jo .(dd) Hf J dBH Je qfe Y SGH H qjo cqe
Shut) AWEG Y jH ddG jh ,Y NGO ddG qdGh edG
.(Arcing) IQGdG hM e qa (Off

dG dG Y

dd
(fe fH) L
RJQG S

NGO de e Y

HK ee

e ee

W . f e h d G d G : 3 -3 d G
CG dEG IQTEG j .J qe d k q e k GAL 3-3 dG jo
IQdG Je e dG I q eo f g IqodG J dG g e j dG
QodG (Subminiature) dG IjdGh IdG JdG cCGh .qFHdG
:g fhdEG a Y
. (Pushbutton ) d G Q R
118
 . (Toggle ) d G d G
.(Rocker) RGqdG dG
. (Slide ) b f G d G
.(Rotary) QGhqdG dG
. (Thumbwheel ) e H E G I c d G e

IRGqdG JdGh dGh ,dG QGQRCG Je

dG j .JdG GdCGh dG Md GQGd keY JdG g qJo
f d G d G N G O I M a d (Threaded Bushing ) j p
n e L o Y e
dG eqCG .(Ring Nut) M bYh (Lock Washer) MEG a e SdG hCG
N dG Y NJo .(Snap in Bezels) TdG WEG jH a NBG
g U . (Snap in Clip ) b W E G J Q H d R Y A Z a a
IRGqdG JdGh dG QGQRCG e c qJ PEG ,dG IQGO d jd JdG
Y JdG g cqJoh .AdG hCG qFHdG MdG a a SGH ,dGh
Jh .fdG YdG eCd (Circuit Board or Card) bdG hCG qdG IQGO
H (Levers) jdG Yh ,IRGqdG J dGh dG QGQRCG J e
.dG LM TE dPh GdCGh MCGh TCG

qd (Volume Controls) IQdH qdG e dG QGQRCG Je qJ

a J iNCG JdG qCG M a .(Dual Purpose) VdG - LhOe Je
- VG{ H geJ H IQGdG Md Je H csJh .dG jS Jc
d G h e Y I H d d G I Q G O V , (Set and Forget ) z J G h
. J T J h C G d E G U d G j a (Inaccessible )

Jee Yfh M Y JdG g a jdG IQb nb J

H adG dEG aVEH , d H dG (Dielectric) FHdG RdG F Nh
ddG edG je qJoh .(Contacts) edGh (Conductors) UdG
Vjo a ,cCG hCG (VDC) dG Qqd da 50 `H gOa JdG H a
.cCG hCG (VAC) hdG Qqd da 120 qdG iNCG JdG L a IkOY

119
 d 3 A hC G 125 VAC d e C G 5 A `H f h d E G M d J e J Y H h
gqh AV SGH IRGdG JdGh dG QGQRCG Je H AJoh .220 VAC
eo CG EG .(LED) Ad YH OjGO GSH hCG (Incandescent Lamps)
Y j (Illuminated Pushbutton- IPB) gdG Z dG QGQRCG e
fYEG a TDc J e hCG He jf GP JdG e Ye
.FdG

bfEG JdG
de fqe qj J e g (Slide Switche) bfEG dG
ed FHdG UdGh dG eqDJ ,dG J (Sliding Element)
J / I Q G O E H c d (Lateral Movement ) f d G c d G E G . N G d G
.Y QqdG b hCG LQdG IQGdG

e a Jh .dSGh MCGh TCG H JdG g Jo

Home) d dG GhOCGh fh dEG dG I LCGh ,(Radios) G jOG dG
. (Appliances

IQGhqdG JdG
e ee Y j jJ e g (Rotary Switche) QGhqdG dG
IMGh LQO OqDJoh ,jQJ H QdG Gg Qhj .Qe OY Y qe
,NGdG HdG edG e qdG edG b hCG Uh dEG GQhdG e
.LQdG IQGdG Y QqdG b hCG IQGOEG ddHh

IqY e dqCJ PEG ,(Multideck) dG IOqe JdG g GfCG H EG

cdG edG e hme OYh ,HK eeo e x d ,cGe GaGh
Simultaneous) eGdG jdH JdG g J .QdG Y cq dG
. X d G h C G b d G M e d d G F H d G G Q G d G e j d (Switching
BGh ,GjOGdG a IOY FHdG MdG a cqdG IQGhqdG JdG J
. (Automobiles ) c d G h d d G G S G I L C G h f h d E G d G
120
 eHEG jdG Je
IT dEG (Numerical) jOY IT jJ (Encoders) Geqe Y IQY g
cGeo qUGeo Ye T Y eHEG dG Je qJo .bQ FK
. f h d E G M d Y c d K G h C G (Module ) L R e (Stacked Assembling )
bqeo (Thumb Actuated Wheel) HEH J QWEG Y gQhH LR q c Jh
e Y . (Code-Conversion Circuit Card ) O d G j J b H I Q G O Y h 9 d E G 0 e
IQTEG (Output Pin) dG SHO jo dG bdG Y jh RdG jo
. (Equivelant Binary Signal ) d G b d H d G F d G

NOEH YJ qdG Jdc JTh e HEG dG J e EG

q dG I LCG ah ,BG a IO L dG q b dG GQG dG a e dG
. (Process Control ) G Q h d H

MdG edG J
(Switch Contact Arrangement) MdG edG J 1-3 dG jo
FHdG Jqd kah MdG edG IOe QNG j .GSG FdG
Silver ) a S J e d E G e d G d G H j . b d G d Gh
g P H e J e d E G d G d d G J J a , (Alloy
SJ hCG bdG hCG ,eGdG GM kjOJh .(Gold Flashed Alloy) Lgqh
a (Loaded Spring) J Hf hCG ddn jo ,dG Z a DWdG H
jo b ddG Gg CG c .a dG Y jd JdG ee e
.edG Z JEG Y q J (Audible ) S h C G (Tactile ) d H S G

GQdG Joh ,(Dry Circuits) aqdG GQGdH dG ddG GQGO qJ

KqdGh IcDdG OGd he AH (Microampere Currents) jeCGhdG
jo KqdG cGJh cCdG jGJ e dh .eGdG Y cGJ dG
kUN k GL Ie g dG Y Jh ,GdG gdG e bQ H dG
.jW bd qe hCG (Inactive) eo Z dG c M a

hCG QdG ,edG ehe :j d kah JdG M e eY JdG qJo

121
.dG IQGM LQO ,dG ,dG ehe ,FHdG RdG Ib ,edG ddG
ddG IFdG IQGdG LQd kJ dG ee (Derated) Je jJ jh
.qFHdG Je Y dG qH

,dG QdG GQGO a dG H e Oe Z H edG Jo

d H h . (AC Reversals ) d G H h d G G Q d G G Q G O a K C d G G g
q j H
. (DC ) T d G Q d G J e e c C G g (AC ) h d G Q d G J e J e E a

hCG QGM qJ (Resin) JGQ e ,e H JdG jhM qJo

M C G e a Q N G j h . (Thermoplastic ) Q G M S H e G S e
jd OdG QGdG SdG o a ,OG dGh Y dG g c Y
,(Thermosetting) QGdG dG JGQ e c q b C G (Flame-Retardant )
AGLCG qJoh .(Daily Phthalate) da jGdG hCG (Phenolic) qddG OGdc
Sheet) PdG FU e qJo hCG ,(Panel Switches) MdG Jd fdG
JOe e qSdG FdG e hCG ,(Stainless Steel) AhUdG PdG hCG ,(Steel
. (Beryllium Copper ) j d G S f h C G Q S d G ` f h d G

.keGSG dG Je J cCG :1-3 hdG

dG edG dG dG

(CG) Make (1) (1 ) U d G SPST-NO

() Break (1) (1 ) d G SPST-NC

() (2 ) Uh ,(1 ) b SPDT-BM

(O) (2 ) d G b ,(1 ) U d G SPDT-MB

(`g) (3 ) d G b ,(2 ) Uh ,(1 ) b SPDT-BMB

122
 UdG JdG
dG Je
eh qb dc H (Reed Switch) dG dG fe J
j H e d G .4 -3 d G a i f c , (Permanent Magnet ) F G O
dG j dG e j ea ,dG dc dEG kf dH d
.j hCG pdG qjo CG eqEa ,dG Z hCG H qa ddG dG
Contact ) e d G J Y ( j E G hC G d G Y) H S G g J h
q
e qfCG Y dG dc Jo eY EG ,dG Y KCJh (Arrangement
. (Dry Reed Switch ) L b
q
FdH IqodG dG Je
Mercury Wetted Reed-Switch) FdH I eo b dc JdG d
a eCG g c ,AGOCG d FdG e IU qc Y Jh ,(Capsule
dG Mq dG e JdG g HJ .FdH IqodG dG M q dG
J c dbT VH gh cqJo CG j PEG ,dG bd SM fH
dc{ Y edG e je Y d) .FdG a kqc Se dG
q e b fG ,zFdH dG e
.(FdH IqdG dG M

c M JG
dG

FGO ,HK e
b ee
dG dc
. d G e : 4 -3 d G
123
 zg{ KCJ Je
Key ) j J J e Y I Q Y g (Hall Effect Switches ) z g { K C J J e E G
Hall ) zg{ KCJ bW e Y Jh qdG IQdH J (Switches
e (Transistor Amplifier) QjfG J q eh ,(Effect Transducer - HET
. U F G O e h , f S b b Q Y e (Trigger Circuit ) b G Q G O
dG dd e jh (DC) QqJ e mbHp (IC) edG IQGdG qnJo eY
d d G V J G Y d G d G f (IC ) J , (Spring-Loaded Key )
O j h (IC ) H h H U d G d G N e I Q G d G a (Spring Pressure )
. V e e a Q Y d G d G V h d E G (Key Switch ) d G

dG idG GP JdG Md
NOE (Short-Travel Keyboards) dG idG J e M d Jo
Ge e gZh (Tactile Response) qd HSG dEG J dG edG
. (High Speed Data Entry ) I c Y H e d G N O E F d G J d G M d
d J hCG (QWERTY Format) dG HdG JdG Mc qJo eEG a
. (Customized Legend keys ) e R e Q h C G e J e

Short-Travel, )
edG dGh dG idG Je GdCG H J b
Micromotion ) j h d G c d G G P d G A d G J H , (Full-Size Keyboards
Momentary Action) dG fBG i NC H hCG (Flexible Membrane Switches
q
. (Switches

oJn FdG OGdG V dG dG idG GP dG JdG GdCG EG

dBG GhOCG Y hCG Y J b M ,YdGh dG e a GSd
.q J a jdG hCG FdG OGdG Hh IdG

SH AZ Y JdG Md a JdG MCG hCG dG Jo

GP (Key Switches) JdG ae Y (Stretched) njo (Plastic Membrane)
0.005 in QGH jo CG dEG AdG jh .(Micromotion) jhdG cdG
. d G G g (Actuate ) d a (0.13 mm)
124
 JdG IOaQ
JdG d IOqeo GfCG e IMGh g (Keypads) JdG IOaQ EG
Numerical Data Entry into ) b Q f a j O Y e e N OE k UCG qdG
,jOdG dG ILCG a k e J d G e d G G g i f . (a Digital System
,(Pocket Calculators) dG SdG BG ah , S dGh , dGh
RL fH Md e dG L a IOLdG kMe 17 `dG Ye dch
q of M O Y G J d G
. (Numerical keypad ) b Q J e I O a c

e H eEG ,jH FHd eqdG dG a odG JdG IOaQ eqDJ

ddG c ah .W M qe Hd kN qoU e hCG qeohn Qe g
Short or Full) eCG Ibh jW Je Ye e JdG IOaQ J
q
(Short Travel ) e C G I b J e Y H h C G I Q G d G M d a I O L e (Travel
.(Flexible Membrane) pe AZ hCG (Individual Cap) Oe AZ e ee

idG b Je ae e JdG IOad e fe HCG dCJ

j e CG Lh Y V J Yh .(Spring-loaded) dnH Weh
dG Lh H adG pb jh .IQGqdG a OLdG dG eJ a pb
.b C G hC G (0.8 mm) 0.03 in d E G e d Gh

TCGh (Alphanumeric) bQCGh MCG H kjCG FdG JdG IOaQ J

Metalized ) f e q e e dG fqe qJh .IOqe GdCH AdG Y
ae eJ dG (Plastic Blisters) S dG Q H e hCG (Rubber Domes
.Y dG Y IQGdG Md Y IOLdG UdG

GjddG
dqj ,AHdH iqe dhdG SCG e e) (Solenoid) jddG EG
fehc (Actuator) qe g (NGO e j Qe d cM
jM q do e jddG dCj .fe cM dEG FHdG bdG qj
(Spring Loaded Axial Shaft) M dH e OY Y qeo (Iron Core)
125
H NGdG dEG jdG
q dG a ,(Coil Bobin) IH e NGO qjh
. (Energized Coil ) b d H
q dG J Y ddG cM
a . a d G c e j OG e G Y O Y j j d S 5 -3 d G a j
dG a eCG ,(Clevis) NGdG dEG e qT Jo dG e jCG dG
QJ .jddG J Y j hCG QdG dEG (Rod) b aoa jCG
MCG e a ,IkOY FT Z dM g ke KG aqJ dM CG dEG QTEG
.HSG Jg H e a IMGh HSG jddG id aqJ

q dG J e (Rotary Solenoids)
Linear) IQGhqdG GjddG H J
LJo PEG ,fdG M e J dh ,dG CGe M e (Solenoids
Y d G Y j F G O c H d G Q e M (Shaft Motion ) O d G c M
TdG QdH eEG jddG J jh Gg .dG Qe Y FdG jGhdG
.(Rectified AC) qdG hdG QqdH hCG (DC)

d e cT

cdG JG

q d
cdG
.jddG : 5-3 dG
aO b

LQqdG cqdG
,(Stepping Motor) LQqdG qdG hCG ,(Stepper Motors) QqdG qdG EG
NO qj (Incremental Open-Top Actuator) q YJ Me M qe g
Sequence of Step ) L Q e e c M d E G (Digital Pulse ) b d G d G
q
dH fCG EG ,(DC) QJ qe fCG Y qdG Gg qjo .(Index Motions
q c a .(Pulse Train) HdG dG e YH j (AC) QJ qe
Ie

126
e (Motor Rotor) QGhdG dG qj (Step Pulse) LQqe f qdG j
cM L n Joh ,(Controlled Fraction of a Revolution) IQhdG e k G U k GA L
J M , (Linear ) q N h C G (Precise Rotational ) f G Q h O b O c H O d G
b C N C J h O Y e d G O d G d E G (Input Pulses ) N d G f
g e E H C G h d G e h . I Q G d G a (Closed-Loop ) d G W f C G Y j
QRGDe f UY e OY bCHh b Hh bH Y OqDJ CG cdG
. (Closed-Loop Servo System ) d G d G
:QqdG qd J K g
.(Variable Reluctance - VR) Iqeo fe -1
. (Permanent Magnet - PM ) F G d G d G -2
. (Permanent Magnet Hybrid ) d G F G d G d G -3

IqodG fdG GP LQqdG cqdG

k GA L (Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor) cdG e dG G d EG
Oq eoh QGhqO (YdG j dG e) j M A Lh (Wound Stator) kae kcS
SCG O Y H Qq dG jGhR Jo .(Multipole Soft-Iron Rotor) dG
.LQO 15h 5 H hGJ dG (Stator and Rotor Teeth) cSh ceo

Low) V GQhO Y joh , eo Zh U dG G g M EG

q
b G c j g h , (Inertial Load Capacity ) d G d J G P Q b h , (Torque
.ILCGh GhOCG a (Light Duty) qFdG FXd

FGdG dG GP LQqdG cqodG

90 h 5
H hGa hqCG dG Y dG Gg a QqdG jGhR f jj
e e e cS Y (PM Stepper Motor) qdG Gd kjCG ;LQO
.(Low Torque) V GQhO Y jo QGhqO FGO

jJ bO LQOh (Step/s) fdG a LQO 360h 100 H QqdG qe hGJ

.b C G hC G d G a 10 Y J hC G
127
 FGdG dG hP dG QqdG qdG
Ib cCGh SCGh kM LQqdG cqdG cCG e dG Gg jo
.VRh PM cqdG c a aCG FdG H j a .bOh

FGdG dG a kfSCG (PM Hybrid Stepper Motors) cqdG d EG

2000h 50 H fGQhO hY S hGJh .dG cdG dG ah QGhqdG
jGhdG QqJ LQO eqCG .dG a 3 Y J hCG jJ b bO a (oz.in) fEG.fhCG
.cCG hCG (Step/s) fdH LQO 1000 qH QqJoh ,LQO 15h 0.5 H hGa

a IOLdG JdG ILCG qe a IH qdG Gg jo

a h , (Machine Tool ) B G G h O C G h , (Computer-Controlled Robots ) H h d G
.(Process Control) IQhdG a qdG

FGdG dG GP FHdG cqdG

FGdG dG GP dG QdG cqeo
Permanent Magnet DC) FGdG dG P q dG Q dG q d EG
cM Qe ado ,6-3 dG a dG AdG a gX g c ,(Motors
fC dPh odG WfCH qdG of a Jo gh ,(Armature Wound)
cqdG g SG j .(DC) QdG GQTEG SGH bH H qdG j
. (Robot ) H h d G h (Machines Tools ) I L C G G h O C G a

fLdG Z dG QqdG cqe

a j c , (Brushless DC Motor) fLdG Z qdG QdG qe GE
a QdG JG jJ CG) (Commutation) MJ j dG qdG g ,7-3 dG
Switching) GQjfGdG Z SGH (edG IQGdG a gJG Md ddG e
.(Hall-Effect Sensors) g IgX q e qd fhdGE H (Transistors

,(Brushing) fLdH odG cdG cqdG e dG Gg j

128
a j dG ceCG a qfLdG jdG hdG QdG cqd k jH a
q d G h C G (Flammable ) T d H d G O G d G O L h
, (Explosive Materials ) I
.Td IYdG fLdG OLh d dPh

QGhqO FGO e dh ,dG MCG fLdG Z dG QdG e jjo

.(Wound Field Stators) adG GP cGd Mh (Permanent Magnet Rotor)

cM Qe
(QJeQCG)
UJ
cdG Qe
M
q e

adG
FGO e

eM
LdG
OY fLdGh
Ff AZ RJQG hCG OSEG Qe

.FGdG dG hP dG QdG qe :6-3 dG

cdG
cdG SCG
dG jf

OY YGdG adG g ddG

QGhO
dG HW dG
FGdG
. f L d G Z h d G Q d G c e : 7 -3 d G

- 129 -
 dG - adG TdG QdG cqeo
TdG QdG qeo e dqCj dG AGLCG Ea ,8-3 dG a j c
d Y (Armature ) c M Q e : g (Shell-type DC Motors ) d G - a d G
f c M Q h e h (Hollow Ironless Shell ) j j M Z a L a U d N
S d G h C G d C G e e Y e a d G E G . (Cup-Type Armatures ) j h c
qj .(Fiber Glass) d LRh (Polymer Resins) jdH JGH qUeh
Rapid ) j S h Y J H (Operating Speed ) d G Y S I O j H d G G g
q
a N h (Low-Inertia ) J G d G Q d d G d G H d P h (Accelerated
.RdG

d Y k G L a a c e (Air Gap ) F G g a a c d G Q d G Q h j
qdG Gdh .dM qdG FGdG dG H qj (Very High Flux Density)
.(Commutation) GQhdG a YJo J (DC) QJ fLa

dCG e aU
dG

e AGg

dG jf
e e AGLCG HQCG
cS FGO dG
fLa

.dG adG TdG QdG qe :8-3 dG

130
Closed Loop ) IQRGDdG dB dG WfCG a cdG g J
.k GL jS H idG GQhdG YS J CG j M (Servo System

dG UdG TdG QdG cqe

eGYh (Disk-Type Armature) Ub cM QH qdG Gg Ohqd k Gf
UdG TdG QqdG qe SG Y WCG ,(Flat Form Factors) S T
e (Rotors Parts) IQGhqdG qdG Gg AGLCG dqCJ .(Disk Type DC Motors) dG
e U kUGbCG qJ ,(Polymer Resins) jdH JGH Je Sf e
. (Rigid Glass-Fiber Disks ) d G L d G

Very ) V J GP Q b b c d G d j d G Z c d G Q d E G
(High Flux Density ) d Y a a H F G g a a Q h j g h . (Low Inertia
d G M e (Round Permanent Magnets ) F G O F G O e Y J f
.IOLdG fLdH cqdG g cM J jh .jhd NGdG

YdG IQGdG Qe cqH Jo UdG cdG fc HdG a

cqdG d cdG QhdG fc PEG ,(Printed Circuit Armature Motor)
dh ,(Printed Circuit Boards) YdG IQGdG GdCG oU jW H Jo
.(Punched Coil Process) qdG dG IQhH jdG g dSG e YS
q dG cdG{ qJo UCa BG eCG
C d P h (Pancake Motors ) z
GJh .IU b dEG W H idG dc qeh FGO jhM T
AL a (Motors Mass) qdG c cJ a Gg ej dEG e dG g
AGLCG dEG qdG HH j e ,(Front Bell) eeCG SdG e jb U
.(Supporting Brackets) Sb feh qe hO e (Flat Surface) q eo
qdBG d aCG UdG TdG QqdG cd UdG g J dd
J M Hh dGh (Servo-Controlled Machine Tools) qdGh IQRGDdG
. (Space Limited ) I O h e d d G M d G

131
 odG
f Y j ,QGhqO fehc qe HH (Resolvers) odG jo
.(Senses Position) bdG q d (Servo Controlled System) IQRGDe qJ

(Rotor) IQGhqO AYCG e dG dqCJ ,(Synchros) eGdG a ch

QGhqdG hdG jf NO Y VqdG (AC) QqdG IQKEH J (Stator) cSh
,90 LQO J QGH kFHc H Y J da a ,(Pair of Rotor)
e LQdG IQTEG a ;cdG FdG jf e ddG g N d
LdG S ihJh ,(Carriers-Frequency) edG LdG OOqd jhe cdG
be jhGd (Cosine) dG Lh (Sine) jhGdG L e kSJ (Amplitude)
. (Angular Position of the Rotor Shaft) QGhqdG OdG

. d G M e (Electric Motors ) F H d G c d G e d G H J
Slotted) e FU Y a e (Stator Winding) cdG a d J PEG
Brushless ) f L d G Z d G a , J M f e e C G . (Laminations
SGH (Primary Excitation Voltage) dhqCG qddG Vqe b Y (Resolvors
.(Transformer) qdG

H (Phase Angle Difference ) Q d G j h G R Y J d G d G d G J

QGhqdG e Nh (AC Reference Excitation Input) hdG QdG qe NO
QdG MGREG bJ fQH QGhqdG be Y qdG jh .(Output of Rotor Coils)
U dEG bdG b qJ K ,NGdG J e dG IQTE (Time-Phase-Shaft)
Zero ) G f G f W J H d G O Y J f h d E G I Q GO O L H b Q
q
. J Q T E G d (Crossing
:bQ b dEG LdG dG jd W K dg
. (Tracking ) f B G d G e -1
. (Successive Approximation ) d d G j d G -2
. (Time Phase Shift ) Q d G M G R E G b J -3

132
 HG d G dG

SSCG pHndGh
u nodG GQGO

jdG

u n odG J W
eT If
(Amplifier Operating Methods )
u n odG (Amplifier Circuits)
(Differential Amplifier) VdG u n odG GQGO
u n odG
(Operational Amplifier) JdG u n odG b
(Amplifier Coupling )
(Oscillators ) HpHnodG (Amplifier Bandwidth) dG f VY
(Oscillator Examples) HpHnodG Y eGC (Amplifier Frequency) dG OOJ

eT If
fCG IY a Jh e GQGO g HHdG GQGOh dG GQGO EG
e qoU ,AdG a .jdG fhdEG a FXdG e jdG ODJh qJ
dEG jJ Jh (Vacuum Tube) qdG q dG Q X X a GQG dG g
GdG a dG H Y CGW jJ e ee GQGOh GQjfGJ
GQGO kjM dG G g h j . Zq dG e pdGh QG S fG dG H
133
GQGd Hh (Transistorized) GQjfGdH IqdG
u n odGh HHdG
HJh J dG edH IqdG dGh HHdG eCG .edG
LdG Weh (Ultra High Frequencies UHF) dG Fa GOOqdG Y
LdG LdJ{ HdG dG a Jo a (Microwave) jhdG
.zddG a GOOdGh jdG

(Amplifier Circuits)
u nodG GQGO
(Magnitude ) Q G e I O j R Y Q O b R L h C G I Q G O C G g (Amplifier )
u n odG EG
CG hO e (Time-Variable) edG e Iqe IQTEG ie (Power) IQb hCG
Amplifier) u n eo GQGO e J ,dM .LdG T a gq J
Y (Low Power ) W G d G I Q d G h (Low-Frequency ) W G d G G O O d G (Circuits
u n eo kjCG Lj dP e .Y a edG GQGdGh GQjfGdG
.dhQdGh ,fehdGh ,dGh ,ZqdG eu dG

:`d kah dG GQGO qJ

.dG
.IQGdG T
q e e c C G O L h M a (Coupling ) f d G U d G
.M
u n odG GQTEG M a OOdGh (Bandwidth) dG VY
.
. (Operating Mode ) , (Bias ) R f G h C G d G f

J dG dG GQG dG e j d H f SG Y dG jo
fqe dqdG Jfqe Jh ,edG GQGdHh dG QjfGdH
dG KC J GQ j fG J Uhh (BJTs) dG F K GQ j fG J
dG KC J GQ j fG Jh (Field-Effect Transistors - JFETs Junction)
. (MOSFETs ) U d G T c C G - e

ddG
u n eo jJ .IQdG hCG ddG d eEG
u n odG J jo
jh .QjfGdG Ge H dPh e qe IQTE ddG ie e

134
(Voltage Drop ) H d G d d H u n od (Output Voltage) dG da jJ
I c b G S G Q h d G e d d H h , (Output Load ) d G M j f H
, j J e , J f E a I Q d G e e C G . (Impedance ) d G b h d k G L
mc M dEG bhdG b J dEG OqDj e ,dG a j mY QJ fE
b M dEG e bhdG J CG j dh Y N QJ fEH j
J IQdG u n eo Y kjCG j .k Gc qJh IQTEG Y kS KDj
c i N C G e U d c . (Current Amplifier ) Q d G e
Square-Waves) H dG L dG eh ,(Buffer Amplifiers) dG
e k jCG J .(Frequency doublers) OO dG Yeoh (Amplifiers
VQCG dEG SSCG HHO hCG Jjf IOY j d k ah GQ j fG dG
. (Returned to Ground )

QjfGd dG-YdG e
NPN Transistor Common-Emitter) NPN QjfGd dG - YdG e a
NdG npe e kce YH Ff j ,1-4 dG a qdG ,(Amplifier
H e NDoa dG IQTEG eqCG ,VQCGh IYdG H NdG IQTEG Jo .dGh
u n odH kjCG J dG ,dG g aqJ .VQCGh dG
GP
(Medium ) S h N O b h e , (Grounded Emitter Amplifier ) . V Q D d G Y d G
.QdGh ddG a kdY kc aqJ c ,dY N bheh ,dG

dG da
NdG da

N P N Q j f G d d G Y d G e : 1 -4 d G

135
 QjfGd cdG-IYdG e
NPN Transistor Common-Base) NPN QjfGd cdG-IYdG e a
NdG pe e e YdG Ff j ,2-4 dG a dG ,(Amplifier
H e NDoa dG IQTEG eqCG ,VQCGh YdG H NdG IQTEG J .dGh
VQDdG IYdG GP dH dG g kjCG J .VQCGh dG
. (Grounded-Base Amplifier )

dG da

NdG da

N P N Q j f G d c d G I Y d G e : 2 -4 d G

QjfGd dG-qdG e
NPN transistor Common) NPN QjfGd dG-dG e a
e e dG Ff j ,3-4 dG a dG ,(Collector Amplifiers
dG IQTEG eCG ,VQCGh IYdG H NdG IQTEG J .dGh NdG npe
Power) bdG jqH k Ue IkOY qdG j .VQCGh YdG H e NDoa
j H , M G h e b C G g Y d G d E G I Y d G e d d G c E G . (Supply
.V N bhe e dY NO bhe dG Gg aj .qdY QdG c
qodG hP dG hCG (Emitter Follower) HdG YdH jCG dG Gg jo
dQGO QjfGJ{ k jCG fG) .(Grounded-Collector Amplifier) VQD dG
. ( f d G d G a (Darlington Transistor Pairs ) z h O d G

136
 NdG da dG da

NPN GQjfGd dG qdG

u neo :3-4 dG

KCJ QjfGJ Uh a S Id dG dG e
(JFET) dG
dG KCJ QjfGJ Uh a S Id dG dG e a
j ,4 -4 d G a d G , (N-Channel JFET Common-Source Amplifiers )
HGdG H NdG IQTEG J .dGh NdG pe e kce dG Ff
bhe u n odG Gg aqj .VQCGh dG H e NDoa dG IQTEG eCG ,VQCGh
.MGh e cCG da ch ddGh SdG H N bheh ,dY NO

dG u n eo :4-4 dG
NdG dG Uh a d S I d dG
.dG KCJ QjfGJ

dG KCJ QjfGJ Uh a S Id cdG HGdG e

dG KCJ QjfGJ Uh a S Id cdG HGdG
u n eo a
j ,5 -4 d G a d G , (N-Channel JFET Common-Source Amplifiers )
dG H NdG IQTEG J .dGh NdG nne e kce HGdG Ff
137
CG
u n odG Gd j .VQCGh dG H e NDoa dG IQTEG eCG ,VQCGh
J dEG OqDj dch ,dY N bhe dEG e NO bhe qj
.ddG GOOd

dG

NdG

.UdG dLEG KCdG QjfGJ a dS Id edG HGdG

u neo :5-4 dG

dG KCJ QjfGJ Uh a S Id dG dG e
dG KCJ QjfGJ Uh a S Id dG dG u n eo a
j ,6-4 dG a qdG ,(N-channel JFET Common-Source Amplifiers)
HGdG H NdG IQTEG J .dGh NdG pe e kce dG Ff
e u n eo qj dc .VQCGh dG H e NDoa dG IQTEG eCG ,VQCGh
h C G (Low Input Capacitance ) W G h N O S O L h Y d G G g j . H J
.Ic NO GQTEG e edG eCG j eY

NdG dG

. d G K C J Q j f G J U h a d S I d d G d G e : 6 -4 d G
138

u nodG b
GbEG jd kah MGdG OdG dG GP u n o dG J
Resistance) S - eh dG bn dG g J .(Amplifier Coupling)
dGh ,(Transformer Coupling) qdG b hCG ,bhdG hCG (Capacitance RC
. (Direct Coupling ) T d G

S -ehdG b
d G d , (Resistance-Capacitance (RC) Coupling ) S - e h d G b a
dG a dG ,S-ehdG b d .IkOY dY ehe (Output Load)
dh ,kf SGh GOOJ f V OOd HSG a IL Ge ,7-4
Ye a IOjdG J .Jh dG Gg a e H c j
GOO dG Y dG H (Coupling Capacitor) dG b (Reactance)
Ye a VfG Y a ddG GOOdG Y dG g eqCG .dG
d G g c , M G d (Interelectrode ) d G O h d E G H d G (Reactance )
. (Stages ) M G d G H d G U d (Stray Capacitor ) I O Q d G d G a

.S -ehdG b
u neo :7-4 dG

qdG pbn
ddG IQGdG NH IQGO N b j , (Transformer Coupling) qdG b a

139
dG IOjR j .qdG b u n od
k e 8-4 dG qj .qe SGH
IkOY dG qe jo .(Step-Up Turns Ratio) aGQ qd jdG f aH
ah (Tuned Radio Frequency Tuned RF) dG jjOGdG GOOdG a
.(Intermediate Frequency Amplifier - IF Amplifier) SdG GOOdG un eo

.qdG b
u neo :8-4 dG

TdG dG
Output of ) dhCG MdG N jo ,(Direct Coupling) TdG dG a
d j . (Input Second Stage ) f d G M d G N O Y I T e (First Stage
Lj dh .dGh hdG QdG e c GQTEG jo CG dG QdG
Me a eEGh (Coupling Network) GbEG T a eqEG GQGdG e e Ye
. (Coupling Capacitor ) b e d E G L d G j J (Amplifier Stage ) d G
.dG GOOdG GQTEG d c H dG QdG u n eo J

dG f VY
k LEG (Amplifier) pn odG J
(Bandwidth ) b ` f V ` Y ` N e
IQGO dG `d .(Untuned) ` J Z hCG ,(Tuned) J f c EG
dGh ,ke `KG `Y hCG (Output) `LN hCG (Input) NO Y (fQ) `J

140
dG Gg ce EG .GOOdG e kf kV kbf EG Qqj dG g dG Z
IQGO a Q IOdG eY Y a dG VY eCG .dG IQGd fdG OOdG g
GOOdGh jjOGdG GOOdG J a e dG e J .dG
edG OOqJ dEG podG J j .RdGh jOGdG ILCG e a SdG
SG H H a J j dG ,IOG dG IQ TE d (Carrier Frequency)
Y dG dG d fdG GOOdG J j .dG dG
bCG M a IkOY dG j .IQGdG a (Inductance) dG hCG dG J
.OOdG Gg Y OHG Y j K eh fdG OOdG Y

ie EG .GOOdG e qe f CG dEG dG Z dG J j
Stray) IOQdG dGh IQGdG fH Oe J j dG GOO dG
e ShCG ie qJ CG dG Z un od j dh .(Capacitance
.dG un odG e fQdH GOOqdG

dG OOqJ
Y qa ,kjCG OOdG dEG kf (Amplifier Frequency) u n odG qJ
GOOqdh ,(AF) dG GOOqdh ,(DC) dG Qd u n oc ,dG S
u n od j .jjdG GOOqdh ,(RF) jjOGdG GOOqdh ,(IF) SdG

J Y dG un odG jh ,(DC) QdG GQTEG qj CG (DC) QdG

j . 20,000 kHz h 20 Hz H hG J d G d G GOO d G f V GQ TE G
j dG ddG GQTEG q J CG (Video Amplifier) jjdG d kjCG
e SG H J SG d G GOO d G b f d h .200 MHz d E G gOOJ
f V EG qJ ddHh IkOY Iqe fC SdGh jjOGdG GOOdG
.kf U e

dG J W
Class ) h (Class A ) :a e e a ,Jd kah dG g qJ
Amplifier ) d G f d S C G Y J g h , (Class C ) h (Class AB ) h (B

141
H dG a OJ .e a d R fG h Th (Operating Methods
(Sinosoidal ) d G N d G I Q T E G R f G S G H I d G (Quiescent Point ) d G
.9-4 dG qj c ,dG IQTEG da (Magnitude) QGe SGHh

ejdG dG
Eb - Ic

e
A dG B dG e

C dG e

.A, B, C d G
u neo Y :9 -4 dG

A dG
u neo
dG a IQd c qdG (Class A Amplifier) A dG u n eo EG
H (Operating Curve ) d G f H e c e a R e ,10 -4 d G
CG IQTEG e j a ,NdG IQTEd ec 360 IQhO N dG QJ aqj
dh ,dG IQTEG jJ a QGe bCH dG e dG g J .ee
H (Operation Mode Efficiency ) d G d U C G I A d G j H d H
fCG a SGh H A dG u n eo J .e H QdG aJ
.IQTEG jJ a QGe bCG Y d IdG IAdG J M dG

142
 NdG

. A a I Q d G e : 1 0 -4 d G

B dG
u neo
Push-Pull ) S - a O c d G ,(Class B Amplifier) B d G e
a j d d H h , (Cut Off ) d G Y R e ,11 -4 d G d G a (Amplifier
e Y e C G .N d G I Q TE G d a e a 180 C G I Q hO f d G M d G Q J
B a u n odG j ddHh .dG QJ aj a NO IQTEG CG dg j
dG dG q J G d .(AC) hdG Q d N dG IQ TEG L e f
B a e e OLh q CG EG .IQTEG a qJ CG Od A dG e un eo
e q c j M ,e Z k S G e D j (Push-Pull ) d G - a d G I Q G O a
.IQTEd cdG dG

NdG

. B a S a O e : 1 1 -4 d G

A- B d G
u neo
d G Q J a j ` H (Class AB Amplifier ) AB dG e RfG j

143
. e c I Q h O e b C G N d h (Input Cycle ) N d G I Q h O f e c C G N
Y B a u n och ,IdG GQTEG Y A a u n oc
u n odG Gg j
dG qdG H aGdG eqDJ AB dG un eo Ea dHh .IdG GQTEG
n od ddG IAdGh A dG un eo a
.B dG u

C dG
u neo
a j j O G d G G O O d c d G ,(Class C Amplifiers) C d G
u n eo EG
Q J a j H , (Cut Off ) d G H e d E G R e ,12 -4 d G d G
I Q h O e (Positive-Going Peak ) L d G I h Q d G d E G U d G N a d G
d h , (High Power Output ) d Y N I Q b A Y E G Y Q O b
u n odG Gg .NdG
j a dd ,IQTEG a c qJ hM dEG OqDj f bdG a
GOOdG d k GL Se dh .dG fCG J a GSd
J (Inductance-Capacitance Circuit ) L - S I Q G O O L d d G j j O G d G
. (Output ) d G Y e c (Sine Wave ) d G - L e A H I O Y E G

. C a j j O G d G G O O d I Q d G e : 1 2 -4 d G

VdG
u nodG
,13-4 dG dG qjo c ,(Differential Amplifier) VdG d
Y (Applied Voltage ) d G d d G H d G U M e S e N b
dG un eo g NBG SG dG Gd YCG g eh .(Two Inputs) NO
144
H J CG J JdG
u n odG H EG .(Difference Amplifier)
. (Differential Mode ) V J

dG

NdG

.VdG
u n odG :13-4 dG

JdG
u nodG
c u n eo g (Operational Amplifiers) (op amp) JdG u n odG EG
,(Voltage-Feedback High-Gain Amplifier) dd YLSG j J hP m Y
SGH HSGh c Ge OJ .k Ge jo c YLSG jJ jh
JdG dG jo .GOjGdG hCG dGh ehdc LQN fqe
dG q dG GQGdG e dG GfCG e jdG a SSCG GQGdG e
JdG dG qj .(Monolithic) dG jOMCGh (Hybrid Linear Circuits)
m Y da H
j d (Front End ) e e C G e d G a j f C G c ,109 d E G j
un odG eQ dEG d 14-4 dG fG) .dG (Sensors) dG e
.(JdG

Z NBGh (Inverting) cY NO gMCG NO JdG un od EG

d G , c d G N d G Y ( - ) d d G I Q T E G J h . (Non Inverting ) c Y
u n odG H qJh .dGh NdG H 180 (Phase Shift) QW MGREG eqDj

145
Negative Feedback ) d d G Y L S G j d G M (Gain of The Amplifier )
IQTEG J .dGh cdG NdG H e hCG/h he e fqdG (Loop
.dG e (In Phase) QdH kHJ eqDjh ,cdG Z NdG Y (+) LdG
IMGh bd jqe qJ JdG u n odG H CG dEG IQTEG QJh
.dS iNCGh Le

Infinite ) g e N O b h H (Ideal op amp ) d d G J d G

u n dG j
o q
Infinite) me Z Hh ,k GU h J N bh Hh ,(Input Impedance
dh .(Infinite Bandwidth) me Z OOJ f VY dEG aVEH ,(Gain
IQGO LJ dh GqdG g e c dEG JdG u n odG J b kY
d J CG JdG u n od j ,iNCG L e .GqdG g L M
jh ,(No Current) kdZ QdG Gg aj ddHh ,k GL dY NO bhe
bhe eqDa JdG u n odG e NBG dG eCG .k GL k b IQd cSG
f V Y h , (100 dB d E G j ) k G L Y c Q X d E G O D J k G L V N
. (MHz J g e I Y a e d E G j ) S G h O O J

cY Z NO

cY NO

.JdG
u nodG eQ :14 -4 dG

Analog ) dG qKdG GQGdG e jdG a JdG u n odG j

,(Differentiators) VdGh ,ADCs bdG dEG KdG qc (Circuits
Gdqeh ,(Oscillators) HHdGh ,(DC Amplifiers) dG QdG eh
d G j O M C G e d G G Q G d G E a , f K M f e h . (Sweep Generators ) d G
. (Dual-In-Line Packages-DIPs ) F K R Q a a J c C G h C G u n eo Y J

dG - 1 :g JdG
u n odG Y IdGh FdG dG GQGdG EG
146
Noninverting) c dG Z
u n dG - 2 ,(Inverting Amplifier) c dG
o
. (Summing Amplifier ) e d G d G - 3 , (Amplifier

cdG
u nodG
qUj ,15-4 dG a qe g c (Inverting Amplifiers) cdG u n odG EG
ehe pUJh ,cdG u n od LdG IQTEG hP hCG ,cdG Z NdG
e h d G e C G . (O u t p u t T er m in al s ) d G j f h c d G N d G H R 2 Y L S G
.(Inverting Minus Terminal) cdG ddG jdGh (Vin) NdG dH qUa R1
.NdG IQTE dH dG IQTEG da a SfG UdG g Y j ,ddH
.cdH kjCG IQGdG g Jo .180 OJo QdG a MGREG g Jh

NO da
N da

.cdG
u nodG eQ :15 -4 dG

qcdG Z dG
i j (Noninverting Amplifiers ) c d G Z u n odG CG ,16-4 dG qj
R2 h R1 e h d G e C G .(+ ) c d G Z N d G e T e H N d G I Q TE H
.IQGd (Feedback Network) YLSG jJ T eqDa

e c d a E a (Virtual Ground ) g d G V Q C G U d G O L h H h
d a J h ,Vin N d G d a h J ( + ) c d G Z h ( - ) c d G N d G
.cdG Z dG a QdG a dG da e He NdG

147
 NO da
N da

. c d G Z d d G d G : 1 6 -4 d G

edG
u nodG
(Summing Amplifier) edG u n o dG GQGO CG 17-4 dG qV j
(Negative Sum) d dG dG e (Proportional) kjOW Sj H qJ
dd ddG d kjhe dG dG a Gg jh .NdG dd
. j h e R1 h ,R2 h ,R3 h ,R4 e h d G b f c G P E G V1 ,V2 ,V3 d G N d G
jhe d aGdG ehd b e Ne aVEG dM a kU Gg jh
fSG a jhe Z ehe aVEG dM a eCG .IOLdG ehdG d
.(Accurate Sum) bO L dGE Ud qe (Scale Factor) Sb eGH

N da

.edG d dG dG :17 -4 dG
HHdG
IQb jH (AC) N IQTEG fEG Y IQOb IQGO g (Oscillators) HpHnodG
qL eEG J CG H H dG d j .(AC) Q J IQ b dEG (DC) Q J
148
jjOGdG GOOdG HHe J .(Nonsinusoidal) L Z hCG (Sinusoidal)
,(Sine Wave) L L e (Audio Radio-Frequency Oscillator) dGh
IOqdG GRGgG HHe fc GPEG eCG .(Sinusoidal) L J ddHh
H H e hCG (Flayback Oscillators) GOG JQG H H e hCG (Multivibrators)
Q d G S h C G , (Square ) H e G R G g G J f E a (Blocking Oscillators ) f G d G
qj .(Nonsinusoidal) L Z d d H gh (Pulsed) f hCG ,(Sawtooth)
j .HHd SSCG OdG Vj H L Hd ke 18-4 dG
(Phase-Shift Network ) Q d G - M G R E G T Y (Output Amplifier ) u n odG N
Input) u n o dG NO dEG LGQOCG O j q K e (Closed Loop) e M a
I Q T E G J H d G I Q T E G g Q d G - M G R E G T J h . (Amplifier
g NdG GQTEG jj e iNCG NdG GQTEG e He QH Nd IFdG
N O I Q T E G j H d G C G d G e . (Augments the Assumed Input Signal )
Amplifiers ) u n odG bW qe jW Y N IQTEG dj qfC dPh LQN
S N d G d E G I F d G I Q T E G e a k G L k G U k G A L E G . (Power Source
ac IQb hCG bW c J CG IQTEG g Y j dh ,HHd Vj
Loop ) d G c Y j d d .I Q G d G a J a d G b d G q dh Vqd
. H c C G h C G k G M G h h j C G (Round-Trip Gain ) G Q h d G M Q c h C G (Again

dG QW MGREG hJ CG Lh gh HHd K T g ,iNCG L e

d G G S G j f C G d P e f . (360 h C G ) k G U (Loop Phase Shift )
.e dG hCG Qd MGREG hM Y bJh HHdG IQGO a TdG
RfG T
QdG

c
1> dG
jdG Qe dG
YLSG

. S S C G H d G I Q G d d G S d G : 1 8 -4 d G
: C G , H H d (Barkhausen Conditions ) R c H W H W d G G g j
149
 . H c C G hC G 1 O j d G c- 1
.360 h C G k G U O j d G Q W M G R E G- 2
,k
u n eo j CG IQGdG a qdG RdG Y j WdG jg eCd
.A d G Y H k GR e j C G j h

aUdG HHdG a SSCG dqdG UdG MCG ZqdG eu dG fc

u n eo VH GQGdG J YCG PGE .dG Gg a k J V dGh
MdG eh .(Operational Amplifier) JdG u n odG J dG ,QjfGdG
MGRGE qJ QjfGdGh qdG u dG un eo J d dG GQTGE CG
Feedback) LSG d QhdG e a ,NdG GQTGE e 180 Oj QW
Conditions For) HdG hT cGd dPh 180 QW MGRGE OLh eCJ (Loop
(Oscillators Output Frequency) HdG N IQTGE OOJ Y j .(Oscillation
.(Stable) Ieo J CGh ,(Drift) GfG Y

ddG GOOdG Y PEG ,HHdG e J CG fhdEG UdG d j

SGH qJGdG HHdG a jQhdG YLSG jdGh dG eCJ j
j . N G d G H a (Inductive and Capacitive Effect ) d G h d G G K C J
J CG (Klystron) h dGh (Magnetron) hdc IQdG epd
jhdG LdG f ah (UHF) GOOqdG Y HHeoh un o c
,(Semiconductor) UdG T RdG Ea ,dP dGE aV E H .(Microwave Bands)
d eqDj SdG T C H H dG Y QO dG ,(Gunn Diode) Z O jG c
.IYe LQN fqe CG hO HHd jQhdG jdGh dG FdG
.(zddG a GOOdGh jhhdG LdJ{ HdG dG fG)

HHdG Y eCG
jOGdG OOqdG HHod UdGh dG SdG e jdG g Vj
dEG fh .dG Z HHd dch keGSGh IT cCG dGh dG
dd dPh ,GQjfGJ g dG SdG a edG u n odG CG
d jdG eGSG e dh ,GQGdG J qd QdG a a
150
j dc .SSCG dqa Uc JdG u n odG Y j HHdG
J a d G e c O L h d E G k G f h . (IC ) e e G Q G O H
.d Qe J SQ keY Lj ,HHdG g

qdG YdG HodG

dG a qdG , (Tuned-Emitter Oscillator) qdG YdG HodG EG
j J e , L L e GP j jOGQ GOOq J H e g ,19-4 dG
Inductance-Capacitor (LC) Resonant) M -S GP fQ IQGd Y L SG
q
(Variable Capacitor) C3 I e e h L2 e f d G f d G I Q G O G b E G J . (Circuit
q q
i N C G L e h . (Coupled to Emitter ) d G h C G S d H d G C Y d G e
YLSG jdG AfEG Oj AKCG g ah ,VQCH kfL IYdG qU J
a L1 d (Closed Coupling ) d G d G Y J d G (Regenerative Feedback )
dG c j .(Tuned Circuit) dG IQGO a L2 e (Collector) qdG IQGO
HdG OOJ Oj .H QdG aGH IOdG YLSG jdG eCJ Y
fRdG e bdG GbEG j eY HdH CGJ S .qdG fdG IQGO SGH
Q1 Q j f G d G Y j L1 d G Y Q1 Q j f G d G I Y b e j L e (Tank )
MEH fGbEG J pdG CG H .HdG Y d ac IQH YdG qj CG
fj LdG qJ Th gOOJ QGSG E a OO dG j J IQGO fR N e
.V

.qdG YdG HodG :19-4 dG

151
 dG qdG HHe
dG a qdG , (Tuned-Collector Oscillators) qdG qdG HodG EG
j J e , L L e GP j jOGQ GOOq J H eo g ,20-4 dG
qd f dG dG e f dG IQG dG EG .LC qfQ IQGd Y L SG
IYdGh , qdG IQGO a GO L e ,C3 IqdG dGh (Transfomer T1)
e IOdG YLSG jdG Y dG J bh ,VQCH kfL dUe
T1 dG qd QdG aGJ jCG J . (Transfomer T1) d dhCG dG
q q
Oa HdG OOJ eCG .HdG YLSG jdG eCd T1`d dhqCG dG
G b E G Q a H J d G h (Tunable Resonant Tank ) d H d G f d G f R N e
jJ IQGO fRN e MEH fGbEG J pdG CG H .Q1 IYb e fRdG e bdG
.V fj LdG J Th gOOJ QGSG Ea ,OOdG

dG

.qdG qdG Heo :20-4 dG

zSH{ HHe
fQ IQGO He g ,21-4 dG dG a dG ,qdG HodG EG
Peirce) zSH{ He j .L Le GP (Crystal Resonant-Circuit) jQqH
q

152
Very High Q) k G L d Y Q H F Vh c JQG c IQ q H (Oscillators
Series Resonant ) d G Y f Q I Q G c J (piezoelectric Quartz Crystal
IQqH aJ .(Q1) FET QjfGd (Drain) dGh (Gate) HGdG H (Circuit
dG b e dG a 0.01 `H QqJ b Y HdG OOJ Y JQGdG
(Active Element) qa c (FET) QjfGJ GSG EG .(Nominal Value)
:HjEG d IQGdG a

IQqd GOe M (FET) QjfGJ HGd ddG bhdG J , k hCG

.Q1 J O L e d d H j h

e IQqdG J j e e (FET) QjfGJ U da EG ,kfK

Q f d d d G d d G h C G (Over Excitation ) I Q S G a Y j b Y C G
Y e d E G z S H { H d G j , i N C G L e . (High-Voltage Breakdown )
qdG YdG IQqd eqDa ,Q1 QjfGd dGh HGdG H HJ jS
d G C G c d H j L .180 ` H Q W M G R E G e C d j Q h d G (Inductive Reactance )
. (RF Choke ) j j O G d G G O O d f N g L1

. z S H { H e : 2 1 -4 d G

zJQg{ HHe
g ,22-4 dG dG a qdG , (Hartley Oscillators) JQg Heo EG
.(LC) qfQ IQGd YLSG jJ e ,L Le GP jjOGQ GOOqJ He
d G f d G f N I Q G O a I M G h J e h (Tapped Coil ) e e d h

153
dG a jdGh YdG jh .Q1 QjfGd IYdGh qdG JQGO J
qdG e q c QH .(Ground Potential) VQCd FHdG dH qUe
b e C G , (Single Resonant Circuit ) I M G h f Q I Q G H Q1 ` d H d G I Y d G G Q G O h
qe j .dG a jdG be N e Ooa (Base Drive) IYdG GqS
C G M a 180 `H Q W e C d d Ph f d G I Q G d H d G a d G Y Q1 I Y b h
(Mutual Coupling ) d O d G d G G b E G Y j Y L S G j d G A f
dJ JQg HdG YSH CG of CG j ,k GNCGh .L1 dG Fd
.(UHF) GOOJ dEG J qL - Le GOOJ

dG

. J Q g H e : 2 2 -4 d G

zdc{ HpHneo
Heo g ,23-4 dG a qdG ,(Colpitts Oscillators) dc Heo EG
He j fEG .fQ IQGd YLSG jJ e ,L Le GP jjOGQ GOOJ
dEG qj Q1 (Transistor Amplifier) u n odG QjfGdG YH CG ASH JQg
, I O Y . (LC Resonant Tank Circuit ) f d G R d G I Q G d d G f L e f
GPEG HdG OOJ J jh ,dG IQGO IYb H qUdG C2 dG J

154
Capacitive Voltage) jdG ddG e jo c .Ieo C1 dGfc
q q
QdG e d YLSG jdG jJ j .HdG QdG MGRGE C2h C1 (Divider
Coupling) C3 dG dG N e Q1 I Y b dGE IQG dG R N a a dG
.(UHF) ddG a e GOOdG dGE j qL Le OOJ dJ jh .(Capacitor

dG

. d c H e : 2 3 -4 d G

qdG HHdG
He g ,dG a q dG , (Clapp Oscillators) qdG Ho dG EG
He j fEG .qfQ IQGd YLSG jJ e ,L Le GP jjOGQ GOOJ
R d G I Q GO a d G Y C1 L1 f Q I Q G H d SG K d G C G A S H d c

dG

.e He :24-4 dG
155
 QjfGdG (Output) N eCG ,HodG OOqJ b L1h C1 OqJ ,IkOY .fdG
kjCG HdG Gg YSHh 180 `H QW MGREG eCd IYdH a Q1 dG
. (UHF ) d d G a e G O O d G d E G J L L e G O O J d J

QdG MGREG pHeo

g ,25-4 dG a dG ,(Phase-shift Oscillator) QdG MGREG Heo EG
- ehe IQGd YLSG jdG Y J L Le GP S GOOqJ Heo
- ehe Th A dG e un eo QjfGJ e IQGdG dqCJ .fQ RC e
Identical Cascaded RC) He be Ye K e J e
q
QW MGREG YdG g e IMGh c Jo .C3R3h ,C2R2h ,C1R1 ,(Sections
gQhH qJ dG dG e Q1 N j .He YLSG jJ 180 `d 60 `H
GOOH IQGdG jh H fCH HodGGg j iNCG Mf eh .Q1 IYH
IkOY HdG Gg j .(Good Waveform) Ld k GL k T jh Iqe
HHodG MCG fCG dEG IQTEG QJh .HK GOOJ dEG J dG dG a
.dG HodG GQGO e kYT cCG

dG

. Q d G M G R E G H e : 2 5 -4 d G
za{ Ib HHe
g ,26-4 dG a qdG (Wien-Bridge Oscillators) a Ib Heo EG

156
e(RC) e - ehe YLSG jJ e jQjfGJ e Heo Y IQY
J . (Frequency Determining Element ) J G O O J O j d G d G , a L
dG hM EG .e OmOJ Y fRGe j dG hdG QdG Y a Ib
a QjfGdG un eo OLh kjQhV j YLSG jdG T a (Loss)
Q d G a a G e N I Q TE G e D j Q2 h Q1 C G f C G j h .Q2 h Q1 M e
qf qL N Le aqj fCG HodG Gg Ge e cfh .NdG IQTEG e
MCG g QdG MGREG Heo CG dEG kjCG IQTEG QJh .k GL e N OOJh
.dG HHodG GQGd kYT cCG HHodG

dG

.a -L Heo :26-4 dG

fdG HHodG
g ,27-4 dG a q dG , (Blocking Oscillators) fdG HodG EG
eR Ia J ,b bh a bdG dY f dJ j ,L Z Heo
Gg jo .IQGdG a IOLdG dqdG UdG dN qJ hCG J jW
Qch ,(Synchronized) eGe hCG (Free-Running) qM - Hc HdG
j H qch ,(Steep Wave Front Pulse) d eeCG LdG QGf
Q1 MGh u n eo QjfGJ Y Y a HdG Gg j .AC dEG DC e QdG

157
T1 Gb E G j d G d G H H j Q d G Q1 Q j f G d G Q j e Y . a
O j d G Y Y H J C G C1 d G a j e e C G d E G Q j f G d G I Y b
IYd dS RfG jQJ H OGOjh .(Forward Bias Diode) keeCG RdG
gY qe b dEG UdG M C1 T jh .C1 n rjo eY HdG N
f e MGh Ad QGfG dqj .QfH HHdG CGJh qdG QJ jo
jH C1 dG CGJ gY .qdG Qd jdG dG dEG dP Ojh dG
YLSG jJ J .jL e HHdG OJh IYdG Y dG ajo M pT
QdG q S Le fdG HodG dqj ddHh .IYd SdG QdG MGRE
dG TCG e q pU NGO fhdEG M d S e (Sawtooth)
. (Cathode-Ray Tube )

.fdG HdG :27-4 dG

158
159
 e d G dG

SSCG fhdEG GQGdG

jdG

(Rectifier Circuits ) j d G G Q G O eT If
(Rectifier Bridges ) j d G W d G (Flip Flop Circuits ) H d G G Q G d G

u eo (Schmitt Trigger Circuit) T b IQGO

(Solid-State Relay) dG ddG M

u eo QGSG jOMCG ,IOdG GRGqdG

dG ddG IQdG M
(Power Solid-State Relay ) (Monostable Multivibrator )
dG bn RL
(Charged-Coupled Device - CCDs )

eT If
c e QuW dG QOdG fCG Y SSCG fhdEG GQGdG H gH
H IQcdG SSCG GQGdG Y qjh .GQGd odG edG e
d G J h C G , (Wave Shaping ) L d G J Y j e a , d G
g e QqJ bh .(Signal Conversion) IQTEG jJ hCG ,(Pulse Forming)
159
UdG GQjfGH eEG Lh dG eu dG M a kM GQGdG
a U d G G Q G d G e c E G . (FETs ) d G K C J G Q G H h C G (BJT ) d G F K
c h , (Monolithic Integrated Circuits ) d G j O M C G e e G Q G c B G a G e
e kH CG dEG IQTEG QJh .cCG hCG JQGO Y J g (IC) RQo e
g ,zSSCG HdGh qdG GQGO{ HGdG dG a cP dG GQGdG
.SSCG fhdEG GQGO kjCG

dG

.Hb IQGO :1-5 dG

H
q dG GQGdG
IQGO e ,1-5 dG a qe g c ,(Flip-Flop Circuits) H q dG IQGdG dCJ
JdG ddG GP ,jQjfGJ e fqe ,(Multivibrator) RGgG IOe
Y Q2 b j M a Q1 Q j f G J j , d h C G d d G a . (Stable States )
j d G j h . Y Q2 UG j M a d G Y Q1 b j M M e a h . Y
d d G d G I Q T E G J h , (Trigger Signal ) b I Q T E G S G H J Q T E G J g H
f J CG H q dG IQGd j ,Qqdh d .dhCG ddG dEG IQGdG IOYEH
HCG fd e H q dG GQGdG qJo .NdG f e hR d IMGh N

160
 J P E G , (Toggle Switch ) F H c a J c J a , I c G d G G Q G O G f C G
HdG GQGdG J c bh .IjL b IQTEG qJ qM f ddG a
Bistable) QGSG FdG RG gG IO dG IQG d H a a , JG e O d
Tigger) dG IQGO hCG ,(Eccles Jordan) OQ L cEG IQGO hCG ,(Multivibrator
D) :g SSCG H q d G G Q G d G e I d G h d G H Q C G G Q G d G h . (Circuit
fqe gh ,(T Flip-Flop)h ,(R-S Flip-Flop)h ,(J-K Flip-Flop)h (Flip-Flop
MGREG q eh ,(Binary Counters) FdG GOGqdc k GJ cCG GQGd FH
Flip ) z H q dG GQGqdG J{ fG ,jEG e jd( .(Shift Registers)
G Q G d G h b d G d G G Q G O { d c h .9 d G a (Flop Circuit Variations
. (Digital Logic and Integrated Circuits ) z e d G

zT{- b IQGO
FK b IQGO fCG g (Schmitt- Trigger Circuits) dG IQGO Y jo
L e d E G (AC ) h e Q J N O G Q T E G j J Y J h , (Bistable ) Q G S G
f Y d G Y J . (Switching Action ) j J m d f dG Y Hqe
aJ .NdG IQTE ddGh LdG LQCdG e c a ke IOe qeo
(Threshold Voltage ) Y d a d d G i J M (Off ) d G d M Y I Q G d G
dEG QGfG jT H dG da JJh ,IQGdG Jo eY .dG IOe
dG da e bCG dEG NdG da J eY dG g qJh .HK b
GO eh .jS H dG f dEG dG da OJ ,k GNCG .kHS IOdG
J jh .jL e QS HSG Ea kqe j (AC) QdG Le T
(Rectangular) e hCG (Square Wave) Hqe Le dEG LM g J eY
T jd IkOY zT{ dG GQGO J .HK (Amplitude) JH
Sequare or ) d G h C G H d G d G d E G (Sine Waveform ) d G L d G
. (Rectangular

161
 dG

.zT{ dG GQGO :2-5 dG

QGSG jOMCG ,IOqdG GRGqdG

a (Monostable Multivibrators - MM) QGSG OMCG OqdG RGdG j
j . (U n s t a b l e ) I e Z i N C G h (S t a b l e ) I e I M G h , d M Y Y
N ddG g Y J M Ie Z dM dEG IQGdH aJ b IQTEG GSG
.HSH (S1) dG CGj h QGSG dM dEG OJ CG b ,ke OqJ Ia

dG

.QGSG OMCG OdG RGdG :3- 5 dG

162
hCG (Monomultivibrator) OMCG OqdG RGqdG J RGqdG IQGO Y kjCG J
g IQGdG g CG dEG f .(One-Shot Multivibrator) QGSG Mh OdG RGqdG
.(Nonsinusoidal Oscillator) dG Z pHnodG GQGO iMEG

dG -bn ILCG
MGREG e Y IQY g (Charge-Coupled Devices - CCDs) T bn RL
J dG dG iMEG Y j ,(Semiconductor Shift Register) qUe T
We N T Y (CCD) `dG sjo .f RdG a f qNh j J
e (FET ) d G K C J Q j f G J J M G e a (Interconnected String )
(MOSFET ) hCG (Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) - qU e T cCG - e
dG a (MOSFET) hCG Y da qJ eY .IMGh IcH cQdG
d ddG dG EG .T J Y jo qe jS PSG e qJ
IMGh c MGdG H qa gQhH qJ dG j ddG MGdG a
. (4 -5 V d G d G Y W G ,CCD Y S ) . I M Y

fK H I q e (P ) L e f f S I c Q e (CCDs ) I L C G d C J
Metal-Gate ) H G H - e G O h d E G S J j . d R d G (SiO2 ) d G c C G
, d R d G d G O G e G Y U V d G H e H Q e L (Electrodes
Ea Le f e g IcdG CG H .MGh da -IQTEG QH qUeh
I c Q S G e E H h , (Minority Carriers ) b C G e M g g f h d E G
.bCG eM (Holes) dG Jo gYh ,(N) dS f

Y dG ddG bH e cCG dS dd (Gate 1) 1 HGdG VqJ eY

( (Well ) H j h C G ) P S G e J 1 H G d G e d G d G Y G H C G
e Ye ,hdEG T , dG g J .HG dG J IR c dG a
g e cCG dS 2 HGdG Y ddG UCG e GPEG dh .fdG edG
.4-5 dG a seo g c dG dEG dGh dG J 1 HGdG a Y
H iNCG dEG HGH e qd ddG Y Qj eY dG g Jh
qfCch RdG W Y jW fdG n o dG Jo gYh ,q eoh H qe
. (Bucket-Brigade Sequence ) e A O c

163
a qdG ,(CCD) `dG a dG d dG GAdG q J j d
d G . J Y J , ( F G h C G (CCD ) I L C G Y I d G ) 4 -5 d G
e L h O e W G P i N C H (Metal Gates ) f d G H G d G G S G g h C G
I b O L h a f d G d G e C G . (Double-Level Polysilicon ) S d d G
j (N ) d S f f d G d G A f C G M d G e . (Buried Channel ) a O
hCG ,(Implantation) QdG SGH hCG ,(Epitaxial Growth) QqH f jW Y eEG
e c qSJ CG b Le f dG e IRcQ Y ,(Diffusion) QfH
.R dG (SiO2) dG cCG f Kh (Conductive Gates) bdG HGdG
. (Buried N- Type Channel ) a O d S f I b d G g Y j d d H h

hCG (Analog) KJ IQTEG eEG J CG (CCD) `dG a fqdG dG o d j

q H CCD `dG jo ,bQ IQTEG dG J ea .(Digital) bQ IQTEG
,MGREd q oc qj fC dPh (Dynamic Shift Register) ejdG MGREG
dEG LHh (Volatile) je fC (Dynamic Memory) ejO IcGP joh
(Digital Memory ) b d G (CCD ) ` d G I c G P E G . (Periodic Refreshing ) Q h O T f E G
F G Y d h G P J C G H (Block-Access Oriented ) L q e dh c g
e R b Y E G N O E G j d G G g e h . (Random-Bit Accessed ) F d G b Q C d
c j N d G C d P h , I Q T E G Q e a (Controlled Time Delay ) W e
bYEG V j ,NBG H .(Clock Pulses) bqDdG f e Ff OY H
.(Clock Rate) bqDdG f qe jH edG

eR bYEG c GQGdG g a KJ GQTEG fdG dG qJ

,(Adaptive and Fixed Filters) qeh H K qT ch ;(Delay Lines)
Optical Imaging) dG jdG och ,(Matched Filters) He qTch
kj H (Carriers) eM T Y dG d J dG e .(Systems
.f RdG e de GOOqH Ad RdG jH (Optical)

dG ddG qod SSCG dG g (CCD Array) hCG (CCD) `dG ae EG

G e ch (Miniature Solid-Stable Video Surveillance) bG dG j a a
(Camcorder) jjdG GedG a jjdG fqdG e kjCG gh .jdG
164
(Scanned ) e f e E G (CCD ) ` d G a e G e e h . b d G G e d G h
GQTEG dEG dG (Light Intensity) AdG IqM fCG a GdG q d
Cell) jdG jRJ ac Ea GdG d kJ .fjJ IQU fE FHc
q
qUdG TCG ILCG a jRdG ac e cCG GqdG e (Packing Density
GOOqH dG Y QOb gh ,k GL b bW (CCD) `dG j dc .iNCG
Charged-Coupled Device) zdG pb RL Gec{ 19 dG fG) .dY
Television) zSG Ld Jh f j dG dG{`H S dG ,(Cameras
. ( (Broadcasting and Receiving Technology

fe GOhdEG

d R d G SiO 2 W fS IcQ

a fe cM T
ec bW H

dG JG

.(CCD ) dG pb RL :4-5 dG

jdG GQGO
MGh (Rectifier Diode) qe OjGO e (Rectifier Circuits) jdG IQGO J
J EG .(DC) dEG (AC) e QJ qe hCG qc Jh ,GOjGO IY e hCG
Single Phase) Q dG jO MCG e d k eG SG cCG dG GQG dG
q
: d d G d G Y g b d G Q O d (Rectification

dG a dG (Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit) LdG f qdG IQGO -1

.C G- 5 -5 d G

165
Full-Wave Center-Tapped) LdG ec dG cdG dG IQGO -2
q q
. ( - 5 -5 d G ) , (Rectifier Circuit
(Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Circuits ) LdG e c e I b IQGO -3
. (6 -5 d G )

hdG QdG GQGO a QdG qKdG eqd keGSG cCG JQGdG EG

: g AC
Half-Wave Three Phase Rectifier ) LdG qf QdG KK qdG IQGO -1
(Circuit
Full-Wave Three Phase Rectifier LdG ec QdG KK qdG IQGO -2
. (Circuit

DC dG

DC dG

qdG cdG qdG ( ,LdG f qdG (CG :QdG OMCG qdG GQGO :5-5 dG
.LdG ec

DC dG

.LdG ec QdG OMCG qe Ib :6-5 dG

166
 jdG WdG
qVe fqc GSCG a Ia dG (Rectifier Bridges) jdG W b EG
,QdG jOMCG ec Le jd qUe jJ GOjGO HQCG e fqe IQd
qe aJ dEG aVEH ,ec Le jd qUe eqe GOjGO S GP iNCGh
c e Jh bdG aJ a ke qe Le fdh .QdG KK (AC)
C o n s e r v e ) I Q G d G M Y a J c , (D i s c r e t e D i o d e ) d G G O j d G J
.Y bdG a IQGd GOjGdG jJ e q Jh (Circuit Board Space

LH qdG OjGdG qdG db HH dG bdG GP WdG qJo

J K e .fe aW WCH (qa Z LR CG) (Glass-Passivated) qeo
L h O e R Q h C G (Flat Packs ) j e Y d (Epoxy ) c j G I O H d b
iNCG jW dgh .qdG IQGdG e (Dual-in-line packages DIP) q N
K eh eqdG Wd adG LLdG dG UJ gh ,WdG g d
.(Heat Sinks) jQGM qc J Sf YhCG NGO dRY OGe a VJ
.qdGh HWdG e qdG Y dG a Ic gCG VdG d

GP edG WdG eCG .A 40h A 1 H eqdG Wd jjdG dG hGJ

UJ GP jf e qLQN HGhH qa cCG hCG eCG A 20 jjdG IQdG
e W d G f C G d C J a . (Wire Wrap ) a d G H h C G , d H h C G , j S
j dG IO dG q e e hCG (Pairs of Schottky) J T e e e GhRCG
Switching Power) jdG IQdG j q e GQG d (Fast-Recovery Rectifiers)
j ,k GNCGh .fe hCG SH IOe e jQe Y NGO Ve ,(Supplies
a JGqe q Joh ddG ceCG UGdG V ke jqdG Wb a
b e qJ hCG ,(Under Writers Laboratories - UL) dG qSDe e
. (Canadian Standards Associations - CSA ) j d G j d G L

dG ddG Mqe
I Q G O g (SSR ) e d H j d G (Solid-State Relays ) d G d d G M
q e EG

167
IQd Ue T qH fhe (Trigger Circuit) Mb IQGO J fhdEG
g M q d G g . Q S j K h C G Q j f G J e E G , (Power Semiconductor Switch )
GQGO AH Y kVY cd gLh Ieh qVeh ke qe e
Mq neo 7-5 dG qj .IQGO Md Y ce e UY e dDe fhdEG
KK e M q d G G g d C j h . (AC ) d E G (DC ) Q d G j J Y Q O d G d G d d G
:g ,Xh bCG
(LED) Ad YH OjGO e dDe gh ,(Optocoupler) dG npdG -1
. (Phototransistor ) F V Q j f G J h
Trigger ) b I Q G O h C G ( Z e r o - V o l t a g e Detector) dG da e -2
. (Circuit
(Solid-State Load Switching Device ) d G d d G j J - M R L -3
.(QSjK hCG QjfGJ)

-M Rc j dG ,(Triac) jdG Y 7-5 VdG dG qj

fehdG M q d G Y SSR ` d G j . (Load Switching Device ) j J
M k c d h d G h d G M e (EM )
q e qjh .IQdG a kc aqj e
:g Se H fehdG M q dG Y dG ddG
. YC G b K hh , WC G J Y -1
. e i e G Q G O e (Compatibility ) a C G a G J -2
. (Higher Switching Speed ) j d G a Y C G Y S -3
. (Shock ) e d G h (Vibration ) G R G g G V T C G e h e -4
hCG (Bounce) OGJQG hM dEG ODJ b (Contacts) qSJ We OLh Y -5
. (Delay Response Time ) H S G e R a N C J Y j (Chatter ) U G
b e e d G a Y J f (Arcing ) F H c I Q G T h M f e E G G f G -6
.QfG We hCG ,kjM hCG ,(EMI) kehc k NGJ dqj

168
 FV QjfGJ GOGJQG qUe

dG IQGO jJ dG
dG IQTEG dd
dG QdH U

.(SSR) dG ddG Mqe :7-5 dG

c g (SSR ) Mq d G Y (EM ) M
q dG a j dG IMdG IdG EG
.kf JdG (SSR) M q d d G d H f Q e d d G (SSR )
Q d G (Switching ) j d S e a , I j Y J d G d d G M d E G
Silicon)dG e We e e O Lh J M (AC) hdG
q
n p
d k G X c e H RG dG Y Y V e (Rectifier SCR
qj e Ggh ,a e (Electrically Triac) FHc j H hCG ,(Back-to-Back)
Power ) d G F K I Q d G Q j f G J e c e E H C G M a .7 -5 d G
. (DC ) Q d G j C G (MOSFET ) Q j f G d G h C G (Bipolar

H dG GMEG jd hCG NdG IQGd kah dG ddG M q eo qJo

NO GQGO H kFHc k Y dG (SSR) qMeo J .dGh NdG
CG EG ,(Optocoupler) dG G bEG e f IQG dG V e L Nh
q o dG J (Hybrid) dG M
hCG (Reed Relays) j dG M q odG
.dP e k H (Transformers) qdG

:Ye N a dG ddG M
q eo J j
F H d G d d G b j J Y I Q O d G , (AC ) h d G Q d G I Q b M
q eo -1
e 75 A h 2 A H h G J Q J b Y 530 VAC d E G 24 VAC e ,VAC H h d G

169
 H h e N O d a h C G , (32 VDC h 3 VDC H h G J ) DC I e N O d a
dG e We eqe hCG jGJ OLh e (280 VACh 90 VAC H IkOY)
. (SCR )

FHdG ddG b jJ Y IQOdG (DC) Ie IQb M q eo -2

e 40 A h 7 A H h G J Q J b Y 500 VDC d E G 100 VDC e ,VDC I d G
. (Power Transistors ) I Q b G Q j f G J S G H DC d G Q d V O L h

d G (AC Low-Power Relays ) h d G Q d d G I Q d G M q eo -3

d d G b j J Y I Q O d G , (Circuit Board Mounting ) c d G G d C G G Q G d
0.3 A H h G J Q J b Y 240 VAC d E G 60 VAC e ,VAC H h d G F H d G
. (Triac Switches ) j d j G J O L h e 4 A h

q dG ,(DC Low-Power Relays) dG Qd dG IQdG M q eo -4

j J Y I Q O d G , (PC-Board Mounting ) J e d G a c d G G d C G G Q G d
GQ j f GJ O L h e 3 A Q J b Y 60 VDC j d F H d G d d G b
.IQdG
p
q e gh ,(Input/Output Modules) pNnh NOn GMh -5
IQd Iqe M
GQGO GdC M q d G e d G G g j h , (DC ) h (AC ) j Q d d G
(Computer Interface) SdG ILCG a dG dG eqD J dG c dG
.YdG (Actuators) qdGh (Sensors) q dh

q dG npdG
hdG Qd dG ddG Me a
Optocoupled AC ) hdG Qd dG ddG M p
q eo a dG ndG EG
jh ,(Optocoupler) H npe Y j ,U dM M q e g (SSRs
j . a d G j f a (DC ) h C G (AC ) N O I Q T E G e E G N O G j W Y H d G
Optical ) j H I Q T E G S Q E G h U H (IRED ) A G d G J T C d Y d G O j d G
H dG dG eqDj , He (Photodetector) FV e dEG (Signal
kFV k GQj fG J j CG F dG q d j .(I/O) dGh N dG

170
.(Photocell) FV qN hCG ,(Photodiode) kFV k GOjGO hCG ,(Phototransistor)
dG dEG dG QJ jd RdG Nn FdG qdG e n dG IQTEG J
.HdG

hdG Qd dG ddG Mqeo GbE dG MqodG

Reed Relay ) hdG Qd dG ddG M q eo GbE dG M q odG EG
e eqDj dG ,(Hybrid SSR) g U dM M q e g (Coupled AC SSRS
d G , d G h N d G H d G e A S H (SSR ) d G d d G M e F G a
M q d G Y a d G j . (Reed Switch Capsule ) b - e Y e e C J
g a poa ,dG -dG Y j dG (Coil) dG Y IQTEG H
d G e d G (Induced Magnetic Field ) q dG dG dG AKCG
d G d d G R L J d G I Q G d G J d G G g e h . (Reed Contacts )
.dG QJ jd

hdG Qd dG ddG MqoH fodG qodG

h dG Q d dG d dG M
q H o dG q dG EG
M q e FGa e eqDj g M q e g (Transformer-Coupled AC SSRs )
j .qe SGH eCJ dG ,dGh NdG H dG e ASH (SSR)
qd (Primary Winding) dhqCG dG Y NO IQTEG H IQGdG a dG
H (Secondary Winding ) f d G d G a d G I Q T E G J M a , U
.Oe g e dEG dG QJ jd dG ddG RL J dG IQGdG

dG ddG IQdG Mqeo

Q O b (SSR ) M e g (Power Solid-State Relay ) d G d d G I Q d G M q eo EG
. j O d G (SSR ) M q eo J dG J e cCG IT GP GQJ J Y
QJ jH M q dG j .7-5 dG a qdG dG f MdG d
c p
n d k GX J dG (SCRs) dG e We eqe SGH dG
.75 A h 2 A j d G Q d G P j G d G j W Y hC G , c P S

171
j M UdG Y eqdG bjo (SCRS)h jGJ b j CG OqHh
hCG ddG gJG a dP eCj) dG dEG UH ej dG QdG M
(Surge Current) FHdG QdG aO KCJ fOCG dG dEG dP qj .(LdG
S M j J e Y Q J j C G j h . (Load Switching ) d G j J Y
dGh (Tungsten-Filament Incandescent Lamp) gqdG dG e
Cold ) I O Q H e h H j d G C G h d G e h . (Capacitive Loads ) d G
. (Illuminated Resistance ) I A V E G Y e h e Y d G a 10 ` H J , (Resistance
a J Q G O E G J e Y (SSR ) d G d d G Mq e a QV hM f a ,ddH
jo dG ddG FHdG QdG H dPh ,k GU d da b Y IQGdG
.f IQGdG a dG e M

j eY ,(SCRs) dG e WdG eqdG hCG jGdG e c j

hdG Y j .GU dG dEG dG QJ j M QdG UJ a ,Mb
dG hCG (Snubber) GOGJQG qUe J e e dG Y VdG
M C G e J d G h (Bypass Voltage Transients ) I H d G d d f d G
e . (Out of Phase)QdG Y LQN ddGh QdG j eY dG
J e d G S d (AC SSRs ) h d G Q d d G d d G M
q e
,240 V h 120 V H h G J d a Y 10 A d E G j j J G P (Triacs ) c j G J
J HhdG GQdG a k MCG qj CG (SCRs) eqe e hd j dh
.40 kW d E G J Q b

Q d (SSRs ) U G e a Q Y G H N D J C G j d G d G O d G e C G
:a hdG
.ddG dG f
.dG IQGdG LQO f
.IQTEH qdG f
.hdG Y jdGh dG da
. (Input Current ) N d G Q J

172
 V h (Power SSR ) d G d d G I Q b Mq od qdG edG Y Lj
Under Writers Laboratories) dG SDe e bOe Y qJ GQTEG
q
Canadian Standards Associations -) jdG jdG L b e qJ hCG ,(UL
. d (CSA

2 A H hG j j J Q H j d G (AC SSRs) ` d Y d G d G b d
q
a J S b e C G . (Flat Pack ) e V J e GWC G H Q C G O L H h 40 A h
:JBc

q dG HQ kjCG jh .(22.9 44.5 57.2mm) hCG (0.90 1.75 2.25 in)

M
.(Screw) je ee HQCG jW Y IQGdH kjhj

dG QdG GP dG ddG Mqeo

g (Direct Current SSRs DC SSRs ) d G Q d G G P d G d d G M q eo EG
qc ,(Power MOSFET) IQdG QjfGJ Y JQGO J jH b IMh
(DC SSRs ) d G d d G M q eo GQGO H J .(Output Switch) N
TCd (OjGdG) FdG u dG aGJ Y J (Optoisolators) jH RGY Y
Photovoltaic Cell ) F d G F d d G j d G a e e (IRED ) A G d G J
FdG dG e IQGOEG Y adG g e qdJ dG ddG J .(Array
e ,(MOSFET Bidirectional Output Switch) ,MOSFET QjfGd JG
e g d .AGS qM Y dG c a (DC)h (AC) GQH dH j
Dual-in-Line) N LhOe RQ g e a , M q dG d Q e T
,k GNCGh .(Single-in-Line Packages SIP) N jOMCG RQ hCG ,(Packages - DIP
Low ) d G I Q d G hP d G Q d d G d d G M e H G SG J d
j J j e a (Reed Relays ) j d G M d G e (Power DC SSRs
. (Analog Communication Switching ) K d G J G

173
174
 S O d G dG

jdG GHCGh FGdG

jdG

C G dG FGg
jdG FGWh SS eT If
(Basic Wire Antennas and Feed Methods)
(Antenna Arrays ) F G d G a e FGdG IQb fG
(Antenna Power Transfer )
jdG dG FGg ae (Antenna Polarization) FGdG SG
(Long- Wire Antenna Arrays )
SdGh FGdG cY dG VYh dG VY
(Antenna Reflectors and Lenses ) (Beamwidth and Bandwidth )
jdG dG FGg kFHc IdG FGdG
(Broadband Antennas ) (Electrically Small Antennas )
(Special Antennas) UdG FGdG (Directional Antennas) gJG FGdG
ITdG dG FGg
(Direct-Aperture Antennas )

175
 eT If
.jjOGdG LdG SGh SQEG Y QOb qeo g (Antenna) FGdG EG
jh .LhOdG Xh H (Reciprocal Device) dOdG RdH kjCG qjh
SQEG N Y) SdG N e j dG IQdG c SQEH ddG FGdG
qFGdG CG EG .qe SG GP gJG a hCG ZdG JG a (IkOY
edG e c jJ J bh .ddG AGOCG Gg J Y IQOb Z dG
dG LC e GOOqJ Y kjJ de AGOCG Y d dG
.dG

a pVh dhO bJG b a ,FGd dOdG UdG e ZdG Y

QOb FGdG CG hdGh .a SQEG d UJ fhdEG YU e
npJqG bh .dSQEH j dG GQTEG e f GfCG SG Y kjCG
.kjCG dG Gg a FGdG UJ a bJG g eo

j bh .c hCG ,J OOqJ hCG ,JJ SSCG Y FGdG qJo

j M a (1.6 km ) e e c C G d E G d G j j O G d G G O O d G F G g W
H dEG jhdG LdG f V S d q o dG FG dG W
GWCG ah kY FGdG AGOCG Sjo M CG Yh .a fEG hCG GS
FGdG C dPh .jOYG SdG GMh N e dh dSQEG Le
OH YG bh .IMGh H UJ GJ eMCG M e dG
.dG Gg a FGdG UJ a kjCG bJG g

Array of ) Ue ae e hCG MGh jW S e FGdG dCj b

jh .f bdG a jjOGdG OGOdG jnh Sjo gch ,(Conductors
e SQEG RL Nn bn j eY .b fe S W FGg HCG W
IQGO d FGdG CG H dh .FGdG OGeG Y kHjEGh kHgP QdG aj ,FGdG
a ,dG S Yh .fhdEd hme Z kjRJ j QdG aqJ Ea e
Simple Center-Fed) dG , j dG Sh , L dG W f FG g
Current Distribution ) Q d G j R J e j , (Half-Wavelength Antenna

176
Voltage or Charge Distribution ) pdG hCG ddG jRJ e e kjQW (Curve
b Jh d xM bCG a FGdG GWCG Y pdG b J H .(Curve
QdG b J H k GU dG b a FGdG Sh Y eCG ,k GU QdG
.d xM bCG Y

L H FGdG OGeG Y dGh Q dG e c IC g Jh G g

.FGdG M AdG a M ke Y jh ,NdG qJ e (Sinusoidally)

k M dG J a ,ke k e FGdG L M FHdG QdG jh

OOJ c GPEa .LQO 90 gQGe jhGHh jQW Z dG g Jh .kFHc
FGdG M FHdGh dG dG e AGLCG Ea jc kdY dG
(E ) F H d G d G Y j h . d G A d G a Q d G f J h J
M d G d G d G Y j H , (H ) e M , d G
.Y OY JHh d fqdG dG e jQW dG g Jh .FHc
a (Vectorially ) g J G H H e (E ) h (H ) d G e w c ejh
,(Sinusoidally) kL qj MGh ehc M Y d dG AdG
.(Radio Wave) zjOGdG Le{ qjh

Maxwells ) jce Oe a aUe SQEG Gg J dG fGdG EG

Q G d G a , j j O G d G L d G a (Field Strength ) d G I b J h . (Equations
Y H bJh ,d qM bCG a ,(Immediate Vicinity) FGd PdG
hCG (Radiation Pattern) YTEG SQEG f joh .FGdG Y adG e
a d G J e d G I b J c F G d (Polar Diagram ) S G e
FGdG f eY Y o f dG YTEG dG jh .gJGh FGdG Y
qdG dG f{ `H ,H dG dGh ,QTCGh ,fdG GKCJ Y k GH
. (Free-Space Antenna Pattern ) z F G d

dG he hCG , dG (Isotropic Radiator) dG h e q dG EG

j j O G d G b d G S j (Theoretical Antenna ) f F G g Y I Q Y g (Isotrope )
a gX g c ,QdG f M J hc f a gJG L a

177
M FGdG (fdG) ddG Sd k K e Y TE G f j h .C G- 6 -1 d G
FGdG C f VGaG Oqe g dG hJ e EG . j c e f
ad dG dG CGe CG EG .gsdG YTEG fCG H J kL dG
.YTEG jdG AGLCG a le ,kjf c EGh ,gJG

G fCG HCG a (Doublet) F dG hCG (Dipole) dG FK FGdG eCG

dG AdG a kYVe c GPEGh .(Wire Radiator) dG dG hCG FGdG
Torodial Doughnut-Shaped) dG H T M H Y TEG q j fE a
, V Q C G Y F G d G J Q G K D j h . - 6 -1 d G a g X g c , (Pattern
AdG a qdG dG f Y ,OHCGh Th ,J e VQCG Ueh
c a ,qe jGhR a ,dG e a ,FGdG LJ jh .H dG
.OdGh aCG jdG

: d G A d G F G g f C G 1 -6 d G
.dG FK - ,dG hdG - CG
() (CG)

Jg FGg g Sc J FGd ahdG edG gCG eh

a qdG Jg FGg EG .(Marconi Antenna) fcQe FGgh (Hertz Antenna)
L e W f h j H H d G F K F G g Y I Q Y g ,2-6 d G
.dG d (Even) LhR hCG (Odd) jOa nYnn eo b CG hCG dG OOJ

hCG QdG e S
LhOe Uh

(CG)

- CG dG FK FGg 2-6 dG
hCG QdG e S - , e L e f O MCG FG g
LhOe Uh . (F o l d e d ) i e
()

178
 gh ,aCG hCG OY H Vj hCG ,VQCG a FGdG Gg cJ j
qdG fcQe FGg eCG .(jQCJ) VQCG NGO J FHc Uh dEG j
kSb edG Le W HQ dW j (Earthed) VQqDe FGg a 3-6 dG a
f SCG) FGdG QL H SQEG RL Uh j .LdG W f FGH
ddGh QdG Qf kSfG eqDJh ,IBGdG Y g VQCG Jh .VQCGh (e
f g VQCGh FGdG FG e dG LdG CG c .FGdG j dG
.f OOdH j dG Jg FGg e dG LdG
ddG

SCGdG qdG

SQG N QdG

jdG f
VQCG

FGdG IQU

QdG IQU
ddG IQU

fcQe FGg 3-6 dG

FGdG IQb fG
a IU (Gap) Ia Jo ,FGg e (Transmission Line) SQEG N Ud
g h , I d G (Terminals ) a H S Q E G N S U h j K F G d G U e
Load ) M p fe FGdG j g UdG f Y .Y bdG a NdG aW
o
Input) zNndG fe{ ,kjCG fdG g Jh .SQEG N V (Impedance
q

179
 d I d G d G f d j h e f d G g f c G P E a . F G d (Impedance
J h , f d G Y (Standing Waves ) I e L e g J , S Q E G
QJ (Z) FGdG NO bhe OqJh .FGdG dEG dG e IQd b bCG
. f c (RF ) d a C j d G f Y F G d G
c e Y d i e Y C G a (I ) Q d G a L d G f F G g a e C G
.aGWCG Y k GU j H FGdG (Sh)

Y J H F G d G G W C G Y d i e Y C G Y (E ) d d G J h
J Me j (Z=E/I) dOdG J Yh .ce a Jj e fOCG
YCH bhdG J PEG ddG a dG dch ,FGdG OGeG Y bhdG
.FGdG ce a Jje fOCG Y J H GWCG Y d ie

jdG ce fEG jo ce a bdH LdG f FGg jJ Y ddh

jdG Ff a aGWCG a jJ J GPEGh ,(QdH iqe hCG) (Center- Fed)
,M Aa a LdG f FGg Y J GPEG eCG .(ddH iqe) hCG (End - Fed)
Y ( d G c Q YG e ) 2500 ohm h c d G Y 73 ohm d G M b h d G a
.kjCG Se bhe nb SdG dG id jh .GWCG

kH J dG ehdG b SQEG N W Y OLdG FGdG Oj

g bdG g Ea FGdG a j dG dG gJ GPEGh .dqdG bW e
e dG f QJn dG ehdG b qJh .kYTEG AdG a J dG bdG
. (Radiation Resistance ) z Y T E G e h d G { ` H F G d G e I Q d G

FGdG SG

o unjo .dG LdG SG dG AdG a dG FGdG be Oqj
Joh .VQCG dEG dH Ld FHdG dG fqe be SG
kHK SG jn dG GOOdG Yh .kSCGQ hCG kaCG eEG IOY FGdG
b f ,HCG SG e Y , TEG d Jh j h
j ,ddG GOOdG Y ,fCG EG .SodG FGdG Y j dG SG

180
 c j fqe IY dEG J LdG C jS H kfMCGh ,IkOY SG
a ddhn .f dH J GQdG g CG c .ke k GQe e mMGh
e qjh .Y H jRGe fqdG J (Recombination) gOJG IOYEG
kj Hn hCG (Circularly Polarized) k nM dG dH qodG dG Gg
. (Elliptically Polarized )

dG N e FG dG M IQ TEG I b G J V J eE H
bdG H kJ qdG dG Gg jh ,(Polar Diagram) HSG
j F G d G C G V G a G e , L Q O 360 d E G (Circular Plan-Position Graph ) F G d G
YT H dG hCG HdG dG Ib b SQ jh .IFGdG g ce
a e e g J G h (Magnitude ) d G I b b e x c Q X E d P h (Radially )
SQ Y OdG idG a IOLdG dG Ib SQ jh .FGdG e qe
HSG dH q jo (Semicircular Polar Chart) FGO f f H
. (Vertical Polar Diagram ) O d G

dG VYh dG VY
Single Major) FQ IOe Ic hCG qa a FGd YTEG IQdG cJo eY
dG V H I dG d (Angular Width) hG dG V dG q j ,(Lobe
e OY e kfqe SQEG f c GPEG dG g J h .(Beamwidth)
a ODj dG OOqdG ie a FGdG (Bandwidth) f VY eCG .GdG g
jOOqJ hCG HK MGh OOqJ Y FGdG H jh .mVeo H Xh FGdG
OOqJ ie d dG iNCG FGdG eCG ,qV f VY GP IQTEGh
,bhdG NO g dG VY OJ dG eGdG EG .SGh f VY a SGh
V Y h , (Power Gain ) I Q d G c h , (Radiation Efficiency ) T E G d a h
i e h , (Polarization ) S G h , (Beam Direction ) d G J G h , d G
V Y G P F G g e J A f G j h . (Side-Lobe Level ) S Q E G I c L
.kS Oqe f

181
 kFHc IdG FGdG
J dG LndG GWCG e fQe ,IdG OHCG GP FGdG qJ
IU qSh .(Electrically Small Antennas) kFHc IdG FGdH ,H
f VYh kdY Q b d dY YJ e WGh YTEG kehe Jo fC
End-Fed ) j d G F f M G d G d G F G g F G d G g Y e C G e h . V
q
,IdG Jd e GOOqJ Y IOY j dG (Monopole Antenna
e Y h . d d G J G d G a h , (Commercial Broadcasting ) Q d G d G a h
e JQG Gg J j ,ddG GOOqdG a k GOqe k eY FGdG JQG j
WfCG FGg Ea iNCG Mf e .hM H kddn UdG d N
J G j J I L C G a S G h f Y J (Small Loop Antenna ) I d G
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sdG FGdH qj e j FGdG JQG Y Ob dg J eYh

. A d G a U e S Y j U e S g (Slot ) d G h . (Slot Antenna )
e qodG dG dG f g dG g Y JdG FHdG dG jh
jjOGQ Le dd LQdG dG jh .dG OHCH T OHCG P S
f Y dW jj h kqV IOY dG jh ,UdG dG Y k e Ue
.j dG LdG W

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GWCG Y f ehe e ,kjJ dG L k Ge k GQJ QJo (Antennas
s
J FGdG g a IU dG dEG dG f J eY dh .NdG
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eh .Whe hCG dG qeh q e fe FH hCG ,jhj Mhe H
(Biconical Antenna ) F d G h d G F G g F G d G e d G G g Y e C G
. (Bow-Tie Antenna ) T G d G H Q C G F G g h

182
 gJG FGdG
c J N e Directional g J G c C G J H F G d G U e E H
UdG e jdG ,IkOY ,(Directional Antennas) FGdG dh .SodG bW
qJoh .gJG a VGh q J eCJ LCG e Mqe H J dG dG
, (Arrays ) z a d G { ` ` H (Multielement Antennas ) U d G I O d G F G d G
Y keGSG gUY cCG h .YGfCGh UdG OY N e gjGe OJ dG
:g GfCG KK SGh f
; (Dipolar ) d G F K -1
; (Reflectors ) c d G -2
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u d Gh -3
eCG .e e iqjo Le f FGg g adG a dG FK EG
L H J (Parasitic Elements ) W U Y Y I Q Y a L u dGh cdG
UdG g qj dG FGdG qjoh .dG FK FGd YTEG dG
. (Yagi-Uda Antenna ) G O h C G - Z j F G g , d e h . z d G a d G F G g { ` H
,ddG IQdG J a (Driven Array) bodG adG Jo
dG FK LdG f J dG U dG e cCG hCG KG Jh
GfCG KK gh .SdG N SGH Y c ojh .(Half-Wave Dipoles)
:g bdG adG e SSCG
; (Broadside ) d G j Y -1
; ( (End-Fire ) h C G F G d G W j f e S Q E G j ) F d G d G -2
. (Collinear ) ( I M G h e S G a ) e d G -3
dH d qdG iNCG (Array Antennas) adG FGg J
, (Log-Periodic Antenna ) J Q Z d G M d G F G d G : M G h J G a h i b
,(Planar) j dGh ,(Multielement Antennas) IOdG UdG FG gh
. (Phased-Array Antenna ) Q d G a e F G d G h

H , S d G e (Dielectric Materials ) F H d d R d G O G d G e E H

183
Le W jh .FGg hCG kLen k dO J CG ,fGSG hCG U b
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b c GPEG FHdG dG b NGO bdG e jh .(Free-Space)
bCG dEG dG J J GPEG eCG .SdG IQTEG Le W e fQe k Gc dG
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a (Direct-Aperture Antenna) ITdG dG FGg U J eE H
F G d G g E G . S Y h C G , j G c h C G , (Horn ) H h C G Q e c d d G G O O d G
dch ,TCG IOdG UdG fdG SCG e IOSG Y IQOb
FGg e eCG Gg bjh .TEd hCG SQEd dG FHdG RGdG
eh .UdG dG hCG SCG Y c H J dG dG OOdG
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Dielectric) h c R Y Y IQ Y g (Luneberg Lens) f d S Y EG

L C G e j j O G d G b d G c J Y J Q d d P h F G c d G Y Q O b (Sphere
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dG TEG e qdGh ,fCG jJh ,(Gain) dG J Y
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Primary) d hqCG dG
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184
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f E d G L d G H d G c d G j . (Secondary Apertures ) j f d G
q dG bbdG cY GHCG e dG Gg Y eCG Jh .ZdG dG
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c dGh ;(Corner Reflectors) ct dG c dGh ;(Plane Sheet Reflector)
. (Parabolic Reflectors ) g E G

dPh ,ae mbn g a kFL qe cdG WhdG dG FGg EG

L dG e a (Feed Horn) jdG H Y JdG NGdG e d
f e Jd jhdG LdG fCG a cdG g Jh .dG
J V Q C G d G a (Point-to-Point Microwave Systems ) f d E G
d G A V d G h (Broadband ) S G d G d G j G e H d P h , J G d G
.k GL

O h e A a a J j g J G (RF ) Y T E a , i N C G M f e
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dh .T g a d FdG cdG dEG J IBGe dEG cdG ce
Cassegrain) jSc FGg IkT FGdG e dG G g Y eCG cCG
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jdG FGWh SSCG dG FGg

dG e IdG dG jOMCG FGdG
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TEG f Jh QdG jRJ jd Ve qb hP OY FGg g (4-6
.OdG dG a

185
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dG L FGdG
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.dG L FGg 5-6 dG

(T d G H ) F d G F G d G
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.kjJ S c ce Y (Lead-in Connections) UdG NGe VJh

186
 e b

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g ,7-6 dG a qdG ,(Coaxial Antennas)QpdG dG FGdG EG
e d N G O U d (Quarter Wave Extension ) L e H Q S O G e G
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.(Sleeve Antenna) odG FGdH kjCG FGdG Gg jh .(Sleeve

WS FGg

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187
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Le HQ ehQCG

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J dG FGg 8 - 6 dG

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F G d G V j h . (Loop ) W f C G h C G M H U d G e c C G h C G e c
dUe (Variable Capacitor) Ije e SGH (Resonance) qe fQ AGOC
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i e a j , (Pickup ) d G h C G d Y T E G A G O C G b C G h , (Bidirectional )
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188
 jdG N

.WfCG FGdG 9-6 dG

WfCG OQdCG FGg

g ,10-6 dG a qdG (Alford Loop Antenna) WfCG OQdCG FGg EG
Gg jJ j .Le W HQ hJ L GWCHh He WfCG H FGg
, (Opposite Corners ) H d G j G h d G Y (Opposite Phases ) c e Q G W C H F G d G

e
dJ

dGHEG jdG N

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W f C G O Q d G F G g 1 0 -6 d G
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189
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N h a M C G (Transposing ) G H E G N e (Out of Phase Feed ) d G Q N
Y F G d G G g a S Q E G d (Stubs ) M d G j d G A G L C G J h . j d G
,WfCG ie a keJ e WfCG OQdCG FGg TEG f EG .dG
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fhdG FGdG
f e g ,11-6 dG a qdG ,(Helical Antennas) fhdG FGdG GE
he fCG GE ,Fb jhGH Ue (Helix) hM H dG YT
E G FGdG
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d cdG UdG SGH IOY MGh W e fhdG FGdG jJ J
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hM

a 50 hdG b
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(jdG) adG GQP

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. f h d G F G d G 1 1 -6 d G

190
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hP H e a hdG eCG ,e J Le CG W Y M j H
Center Frequency) jcdG LdG W OOqJ e kjJ dG a 15 hJ OHCG
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bdG qodG
Le FGg g ,12-6 dG a qdG , (Horn Radiators)bdG qdG EG
QdG dEG ,e hCG FGO ,Le dO GWCG M SH e jhe
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H ,gc hCG ,dG bdG FGd VdG jodG MCG jGj
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hdG FK GHCG
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191
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jhGR
.LQO 90 `dG (Vertex Angle) pnS

Whe IQJ

Whe IQJ

QdG e jJ N

. h d G F K d G 1 3 -6 d G

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FGg g ,14-6 dG a qdG , (Discone Antenna)FGdG e dG Gg
d cdG UdG jh .kUb qd jQe MCG
u oS hdG FK
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je H Ub

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192
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qdG qodG
a qV T qb jH e FGg g (Slot Radiators) udG qdG EG
q e fe bbQ
(RF ) I Q b U j L e d O h C G (RF ) I Q b Q H d U e
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dG CG GY AdG a OGeG f Y b Fc dG J
FK S fqj dG dG d kjhe j dG e dG FHdG
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qe T

qe T

() (CG)

qe Z T
qe T
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SdG N d RGe e T - CG :LdG dO a qe Z Th , qe T 15-6 dG

N d RGe e T - ,VdG SdG N L e Xe qe T - ,qdG
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193
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ZEG a a MGh Lh e TEG Qj CG fOQCG GPEGh ,qS dG Lh
.dG e zdG{ dG

a dG qb N e Le dO a MGh JH qe T J jh
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Hh kqV
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.kjJ Le W d kjhe dW c GPEG fdH da cCG dG CGSh
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Y cdG dG e RGe H qdG T b c CG-15-6 dG j

dG Y d kYT kq b a ,-15-6 dG eCG .LdG dd jdG LdG
LdG Y qdG T b a -15-6 dG eCG ,VdG d cdG
dO a OLdG dG CG GE .cdG dG e RmGe Hh LdG dd qdG
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ddG HdG FGdG

g (16-6 dG a qdG) (Delta-Matched Antennas)FGdG e dG Gg
, L d G W f d W h j , (Single-Wire Antenna ) d G O M C G F G g
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Le f b FK
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RGe SQEG N FGdG 16-6 dG

.ddG HdG

194
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A d G G g C d P h , F G d G S Q E G N e (Y ) A d G e j d G A G L C G H J
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jR FGg
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.kjJ LdG W f V dW hjh (Horizontal wire Antenna) aCG
N e e MGh JG S SGH MGh W e FGdG Gg jJ jh
.LdG W f V kjCG dW hj dGh S e dsDdG SQEG
L e f FG g
L dG FG g hCG
ffdG jdG
RGY RY

jR je

jR FGg 17-6 dG

dG FGdG
FGdG GfCG MCG g 18-6 dG a qdG ,(Cage Antennas) FGdG Gg EG
U d G e j d G F G d G G d h . (Open Dipole Antenna ) d G d G F K
H d UdG jFGdG dG e RmGeh aCG H dG TdG
Single-Wire ) M Gh S P F K c J d H T f G SC G

195
hCG ,S e mdDe SQEG N SGH Sh e FGdG jJ J .(Dipoles
.QdG e S SGH

Ue
jRGe

e c
Z QdG
RGe
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FGdG ae
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bdG g q H d (Driven Elements ) b d G U d G e b d G U e G Y
. N B G J G a c H b j h M G h J H (Gain ) d G O G O j H

bdG UdG e RmGe H YVdG IdG dG UdG qJ

WCG odG UdG eCG .(Directors) zL u odG{`H bCG TEG JH
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an c bdG ad EG .(Reflectors) zcdG{`H a (Radiation
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,dG H e ,LdG f bdG FGdG e OY cJ J GPEG

qe JH H e Jo ,jOa UY Y f HCG dEG bdG J H
kgJG ke f FG dG f q jo d dG g ah , NBG JG a Jh
,Se H FGdG qJ dG bdG QW V N eh .(Directional)
,dG JG a bdG J ,bH AdG a UdG jJ dEG aVEH

196
 .NBG JG a J hCG ,QdG Y Jh

LdG f dG FK FGg e OY e bdG adG Jo

gJG dG Y dG j H QdG Weh AdG a Ve
:g adG d KdG SSCG GfCGh .ZdG

Broadside ) j dG f dG GP (2 )h ;(Collinear Array) pe o dG (1)

. (End-Fire-Array ) F d G d G a e (3 ) h ; (Array

fGa FGg
f e g ,19-6 dG a qdG ,(Franklin Antennas)fGa FGg EG
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j f H J d G d G a j J J h . (Half-Wave Elements ) L e f
ehQCG Uh jh .dG H e jQW j e ,LhOdG dG
d G F K e I Q h e G h R C G j f H (Quarter-Wave Stubs ) L d G H Q
.kSe k GQWh (Conductive Feed Connection) Ue jJ Uh eCd dPh

Le HQ ehQCG

SQG N
. f G a F G g 1 9 -6 d G

fdG jY qdG adG

,20-6 dG a qe g ch ,(Broadside Planar Array) adG g EG
bdG cqjo H Jqe (Half Wave Sections) Le f AGLCG e Ye g
ie Y kjOY TEd OQe JG bCG j .kqV (Beam) kYT d
LdG b f hJ ae Y IOY dG FK Jh .adG
GPEG (Billboard Array) fYEG Md aH kjCG adG qJh .dG
197
 g a Jh .(Screen Reflector) cY TT hCG f e b b H Y e f c
,gUY H UdG adG Y k GOYG k GL dY c IQb adG
.FGOCG ZJ V jWh UdG g OY dEG aVEH

ee UY

SQEG N . fdG jY qdG adG 20-6 dG

FdG dG ae FGg
ae g ,21-6 dG a qdG (End-Fire Array Antennas) FGdG Gg
Qe W OGeG Y TEd bCG JG a j UY HQCG e q N
c jdG fdG JH dh ,dG j c (jdG e kbfGh) adG
J CG FdG dG ad jh .SG GH IqdG adG dM a
d E G a V E H h . (Bidirectional ) J G F K h C G , (Unidirectional ) J G j O M C G
Ljh .f dG V Jh H e jRGe adG UY Ea ,dP
(Phase ) Q d G f E H e b h e f j C G (Feed System ) j d G f Y
.UdG d dG
SQEG N
dG FK

dG JG NdG GWCG

q dG ae FGg 21-6 dG
.FdG

198
 jQdG FGdG
FGd OGeG g ,22-6 dG a qdG , (Harp Antennas)IQdG FGg EG
q dG e O Y e dC jh ,(Ground Plane Antenna) dG VQCG
c C G W j . d G a W Y a C G U H d U d G j O d G (Radiators )
iNCG dG GWCG bJ a ,dG Le W HQ dEG k W dG g
FGdG Gg H ie Oj .LdG W Ko dGM dEG gbCG W j M
Oqe FGdG Gg H f EG c ,jOdG qdG bCGh WCG N e
.kjCG gJG

RGe Z QdG e c .IQdG FGg 22-6 dG

GOhCG Zj FGg
ae g ,23-6 dG a qdG ,(Yagi-Uda Antenna) GOhCG Zj FGg EG
e FK b Y IkOY jh (Parasitic End-Fire Array) W Ff H
Parasitic ) W c Y e (Driven Half-Wavelength Dipole ) L d G W H
c d G e c C G h C G K K h , d G F d G d G e M G h W Y (Reflectors
idG Y RmGe H UdG g c cqJo .e NBG dG Y dG
e WCG cdG W jh .LdG W HQ hJ YJ aHh ,f
eqDj .LdG W f e bCG a LdG W eCG ,LdG W f
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199
FGg{ `H kaOGJ kjCG qjh ,2.5 GHz dEG J dG GOOdG a e gh .H
. a (Yagi ) z Z j { h C G , z Z j a e { h C G , z Z j
cY
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L
q e

jdG N
dG JG

. G O h C G - Z j F G g 2 3 -6 d G

kFHc RdG - dG FGg

dG a qdG ,(Dielectric-Rod Antenna) kFHc RdG dG FGg EG
a I a e L e Q f G H d G G g j h . Y T E G f h P F G g g ,24 -6
.Hqe RY b jf
LdG dO jJ
RY b

LdG QfG JG
fe b Ia
. R Y b F G g 2 4 -6 d G
H e dEG J LdG Ea LdG W f e bCG dG bo c GPEa
c GPEG (Polyrod) zOhddG{ `H dG qj .AdG dEG dG W jf
RhjdG IOe e kYe c GPEG eCG ,(Polystyrene) jddG IOe e kYe
.(Ferrod) OhsdG qa ,(jdG)

200
 jdG dG FGg ae
dG IOdG FGdG
h C G I M G h L e W d E G I O Y (Single-Wire Antennas ) F G d G G g W j
a jdG UdG TEG f jh .IOY kffe hCG kWe j h ,cCG
Y j .dG OOqJ Le W GMH Sjoh dW Y dG dG AdG
e O Y e (Multilobed Patterns) UdG IO e fCG IO dG SCG
OdG FGdG jh Gg .UdG Le GWCG fCG Od hme UdG
a U d G g e H , (Resistor ) h H D h f E G J d G h , j d G , d G
j d dG dG TEG f CG EG ,dG Y LdG a J dG JG
. (Symmetrical ) k KJ cCG j DhfEG

V `dG FGg
FGg g ,25-6 dG a qe g ch ,(V-Antenna) FGdG g EG
Vh N e qJo (Horizontal Bidirectional Antennas) JG FK aCG
,(Masts) QGS KK Y ,(V) dG H ffpe Z jW FGg S
a e H j h G d G j J j . (Apex ) d G Y Q d G Q N 180 L Q H j J h
e j Q h d G h d G d E G a VE H , U d G G WC G N e (V Array) V `d G

RGY
JG OMCG QfG

He he
f
G
j d

. V ` d G F G g 2 5 -6 d G

201
 jW S c AfEG J GPEa .(kjQWn J) QdG dEG FQ qa aVEG LCG
. (Unidirectional ) J G O M C G F G d G j ( f e Z F G g ) H e h H
k GQOb FGdG j ,(fpe FGg) Me jdG dG GWCG fc GPEG dh
.300 MHz h 7 MHz H h G j e S G h S Q E G Y

dG dG FGdG
e ,26-6 dG a qdG ,(Rhombic Antenna) dG dG FGdG dCj
Jh ,SdH TCG H QmGS HQCG H e jW SCG GP FGg HQCG
jdG d HdG dG c GPEGh .MGh W e IQTEH edG jJ
.adG H (Bidirectional) JG FK HSG dh ,fpe FGda kMe
OMCG j ,(fe Z FGg) He ehH dG dG AfEG J EG dh
Ua oJh .(Terminal Apex) FdG dG f (Unidirectional) JG
FGdG Gd EG .(Major Lobe) kFQ kq a d QW H HQCG GWCG
.kV 40h 20 H hGj H (Dipole) dG FK FGdG c j kc

JG OMCG QfG
He he

RGY
f
dG
j .dG FGdG 26 -6 dG

SdGh FGdG cY
gEG FGdG
Y ,27-6 dG a qdG ,(Parabolic Antennas) gEG FGdG j
202
oT dEG jJh n odG hCG nSodG (RF) bW cH j gEG cY
VQCG JG VGZC IkOY FGdG Gg jo .(Parallel beam) RG e
U d G V G Z C h , (Terrestrial Microwave Communication ) j h d G L d H
e f j d G d G S h , J G d (Downlinks ) d G h (Uplinks ) d G
.(Dish Antenna) zdG FGdG{ `H FGdG e dG Gg qj c .JGdG
gEG cY

RLh IQTEG qe
dG dG
OSEG o Y

S d g E G F G g 2 7 -6 d G
.fjdG

gEG cdG FGdG

nU FGg Y IQY g (Parabolic Reflectors) gEG cdG FGdG EG
Qep M Qhj dG gEG qeo NGO S hP cY (Dish-Shaped)

(CG) () ()

gEG - ,dG gEG - ,dG gEG - CG :gEG cdG 28-6 dG

.fGSCG

203
,NBG FGg hCG ,H hCG jhdG Ld YH FK b Vj eY .HK
Parallel) RGe T H d dG cj ,cd QDdG dG Y
Gg .(hdG cdG SH qTCG g e Y dG j ) .(Beam
.cdG IQDH Y e eOdG GQTEG Jh

: g gE G c d G e e G f C G K K 28 -6 d G j

d G ( C G - 28 -6 d G ) (Full Parabolic Reflector ) d G g E G c d G

(Cut Parabolic Reflector) dG gEG cdGh ,kjFGO kb kYT jo
Vertical) Mh d H TCG k jO Y k Y T q j dGh (-28-6 dG)
Parabolic Cylindrical) fG SCG gEG c dGh ,(Fan-Shaped Beam
Horizontal) MhdH kT kaCG kYT qj dG (- 28-6 dG) (Reflector
hCG ,qe e hCG fe bbQ e FGdG g Y j .(Fan-Shaped Beam
. (Metal Screening ) f e T T

dG Y FGg
kf J dG jhdG Ld q e (Pillbox Antennas) FGg gh
H FGdG Gd gEG fGSCG cdG j .k q N k Y TEG
MGh f QfH d j H JYeh cdG Y jOY jRGe
e (RF ) b W j J J . (29 -6 d G ) d G S G J H G Q T E G e
.cd jQDdG dG Y e H

jRGe FU

H Le dO

gG jT
. d G h U F G g 2 9 -6 d G

204
 jSc FGg
FGg g ,30-6 dG a qdG ,(Cassegrain Antenna) jSc FGg EG
cY S H hCG Y cqe jJ T hP jhdG Ld q e
q Jo .FQ gEG
q e FGR bn f K c Y f (Radiator) qdG L
IQDH Y e qdG QDH J H (Convex Hyperboloidal Subreflector)

e FGR b fK cY
Le dO hCG N

cdG IQDH Je TCG

jJ

fGSdG jdG 30-6 dG

gEG cY .(gEG) ae b cd

f J K eh ,fdG cdG Y jdG H e JBG bdG Jh .cdG

jJ qe cJ dEG LdG dG Gg j .SSCG cdG Y d QdG
. (S u p p o r t B e a m ) Y T e h C G e Y O Y d e , c d G e C G R d G K

jGhdG e cdG FGdG

dG a qdG ,(Corner-Reflecting Antennas) jGhdG e cdG FGd EG

FK b

eYO hCG jQS

. j G h d G e c Y F G g 3 1 -6 d G

205
Jh .(Fb jGhR d CG) Fb jhGH Wj Ue je GP kcY ,31-6
pe eo FK bCG e ae hCG F K b SG H FG dG G g j J
jo CG j .cdG jdG H bGdG jhGdG (Collinear Dipole Array)
Maximum ) d G b C G J j h . f e e hC G f e b b Q e j d G
. (Bisector ) h G d G d G O G e G W Y (Pickup

fd SY
Ico Y IQY g ,32-6 dG a qdG ,(Luneberg Lenses) fd SY EG
dY jjOGQ bW cJ Y JQd dPh FGg fCG Y qe FHc RY e
kNGO kjRJ dG jhdG SdG d EG .jGe c Y dh ,OOdG
.IdG ce e adG J e Gqj QfG eeoh Yn HKh e Z
M a dGREG hCG ,SQEG M a IQDdG Y b d H S dG j J j
e S d G Y Q O d G (Pencil Beam ) d G d G L J j h . S G
.jdG f Ve J N
jRGe TCG

SY

e Le L

jJ H

. f d S Y F G g 3 2 -6 d G

jdG dG FGg
hdG FK FGdG
,33-6 dG a q dG ,(Biconical Antenna) hdG FK FGd EG
,HdG gb J H e Qe Y qe qfe Whe

206
 .jd qdG H Le dO hCG QdG e
l ShCG
l cn Hjoh

hdG IQJ

SQEG N

hdG IQJ

. h d G F K F G g 3 3 -6 d G

Y OY ie a kjFGO hdG FK FGd YTEG dG j

bCG (Vertex Angle) Lao jhGR fc GPEG dG FK FGdG Gg j .QdG
. (Biconical Horns ) h d G F K d H T g h . L Q O 90 e

(M o n o p o l e A n t e n n a s ) d G j O M C G F G d G
ie S Y ,34-6 dG a dG dG OMCG FG dG cs jo

dG OMCG FGg

VQCG dG
jdG . d G O M C G F G g 3 4 -6 d G
QdG e jJ N

207
.dG FK e j kYTEG kf j H (Imaging Ground plane) jJ

jdG dG FK FGdG
dG a qdG ,(Folded Dipole Antennas) dG FK q dG FGdG EG
(Half Wave Dipoles ) L d G f F K b e h R Y I Q Y g ,35 -6
Center ) j c d G b h d G I O j d I O Y H e j d G U J h , j d G H e
e qdG SQEG N a 300 ohm `dG HJ d 300 ohm dEG (Impedance
EG .(Balun) zddG{``H qdG HdG RL SG dEG LdG hO S
f dG FK FGdG a LdG dG e cCG Le S FGdG Gd
.37 ohm b h d G P , (Half-Wave Open Dipole ) d G L d G

SQEG N FK FGg 35 -6 dG
.e dG

FdG QPCG YHQ FGdG

F G g g (36 -6 d G ) (Superturnstile Antennas ) F G d G e d G G g E G

(e)T

Ue T hCG U

hCG jQS
SQEG N
eM .QPCG YHQ FGg 36 -6 dG
fe

208
jGhH cqeo LCG H dG FK UY e GhRCG Y j QdG YHQ
iJo .fdG OdG hCG jQdH dG dG OdG QdG M Fb
d YTEG eCd dPh ,(In Quadrature) kYHQ dG FK GhRCG IkOY
a SGh f Yh GOOdG e SGh ie Y Se H g JG
.(FM) `dG pSeoh fjdG pSodG

SGdG dG GP dG FK
dG a qdG ,(Broadband Dipoles)dG SGh dG FK J
dG jh .(Broadband) SGdG dH SEGh SQEd kN ,37-6
HQCG f e b FK -37-6 dG j a ,kjJ b FK CG-37-6
e hCG (Stiff Wire) U S e eEG onjo dGh ,(The Bow-Tie Dipole) TGdG
FK U j .dG Y OY H YVe q e fe qe
fe FU e ,-37-6 dG a qdc ,(Fan Dipole) Mhe b
Twin ) e C G d G a d G hC G , SQ E G N Uh f e b c J h . q e
,TGdG HQCG T dG FK e k c E G . Q d G d G d G h C G , (Leads
e E H h . f j d G UHF `d G L e S S e , M h d G d G F K h
S qe ,FGg c N Vho GPEG (Signal Pickup) IQTEG dG J
.IU Md H

qUdG FGdG
dG FK MdG adG
dG a qdG ,(Log-Periodic Dipole Array) dG FK FGdG Gg EG
AGLCG GWCG OGOJ .dG FK j dG dG a e f e g ,38-6
QJh .SQEG N Qe e a dG IO jR e g Y Jh g a dG
YTEG dG EG .UdG FdG bCG UY H bGe a UdG
. Q d G f (Backfire ) d G f G J H h , J G O M C G g F G d G G d
.Me ae SG J IOe GfCG e MGh f g FGdG Gg

209
 (CG)

()

d G F G g G f C G 37-6 d G
,dG - CG :dG FK jdG
- h ,TGdG HQCG T hCG dG -
.Mhe dG FK
()

IedG QPCG YHQ FGdG

dG a qdG ,(Turnstile Antennas) edG QPCG YHQ FGdG EG
j Q d G Y W e h a C G b F K e c C G h C G I M G h W e d C j ,39 -6
SQEG N

F G g 3 8 -6 d G
SQEG N F K M dG a dG
dG FK .dG

210
hdG e b FK a GQdG J H IkOY FdG g Jo .(edG)
Y QlOb FGdG Gg EG .(In Quadrature) YHQ Yeo cqHh jhe MGdG
Rd aCG YTEG SG f Ph gJG Oe YTEG f fEG
zFdG QPCG YHQ FGdG{ kjCG fG) . NBG VHF`dGh ,UHF`dGh ,FM`dGh
. ( c d G d d G (Superturnstile Antenna )

dG FK
(WfCG) M c

SQEG N
gJH
FGg 3 9 -6 dG
.ee QPCG YHQ

Whe H cY FGg
e qdG , (Conical-Horn Reflector Antennas) FGdG e dG Gd EG

gEG cdG AL

TEG

dG (a) K

SQEG H

RF NO
H cY FGg 40-6 dG
.Whe

211
Ld dPh ,jFGO a P gEG cdH k e kbH ,40-6 dG a d
c d G I Q D H a I O L e d G b C G c . (90 ) F b j h G H j j O G d G b d G
4 GHz Y j h e L e GQ TE G SGh SQ E G F G d G G g e E H . gE G
L d G d Gh , d G A V d H J d G F G d G G g j Ge E G .6 GHz h
HGhd Se IGOCG e J ,dG dG gh ,ddG dGh ,jdG
L d G S G h S Q E h (Point-to-Point Relay-Links ) f d E G f M u eo
. (Terrestrial Microwaves ) j h d G V Q C G

212
 H d G dG

jhdG LdG LdJ

qodG Fa GOOdGh

jdG
jhdG LdG GQjfGJ eT If
(Microwave Transistors )
edG dG jOMGC jhdG LdG GQGO QdG dG dG Y SQEG
(Microwave Monolithic Integrated (Coaxial Cable Transmission )
Circuits - MMICs)
jhdG LdG fe LdG dO Y SQEG
(Microwave Couplers ) (Waveguide Transmission )
jhdG LdG QW je LdG dO Y SQEG fCG
(Microwave Phase Shifters ) (Waveguide Transmission Modes )
jhdG LdG ge LdG dO Heh pbn
(Microwave Attenuators ) (Waveguide Coupling Matching )
SEG - SQEG e jhdG Ld ddG eMCG
(Transmit Receive (TR) Switches) (Microwave Strip lines )
(Radio Telescopes) jjOGdG HdG jhdG LdG eU
(Microwave Tubes )
` jdG ` jjEG SGH dqdG HHdGG (Magnetron Modulators) hdG eo
(YIG- Tuned Oscillators) fQdGhn
(Masers) GQdG jhdG Ld YdG FdG edG
(Microwave Diodes)

213
 eT If
d G a (Ultra-High Frequency- UHF ) d G F d G G O O d G f j
L d G d G b j h , (1 GHz h C G ) 1000 MHz d E G 300 MHz e e h d G
f j h .30 cm d E G 100 cm e d G G g V b G d G (Wave length )
(1GHz) UHF ` d G d d G O h d G e (Microwave Band ) j h d G L d G
S J h 40 GHz O O d G Y (Millimeter Region ) d G e a f d G O h d G d E G
S a .GdH hCG GdH eEG dG Gg V bGdG GOOdG
C G) 0.65 cm d E G b j h cm 30 g 1 GHz OO d G Y L d G W j , d G
a Jh 40 GHz `dG a qdG f GOOJ CGJ 40 GHz OOdG Y (7.5 mm
,OOdG H UdG U 1-7 hdG pjoh 100 GHz `dG Y dG dG
. (Band Designation ) d G d O h , L d G d G h

f Yh UHF `dG f e dG dG Y jjOGdG GOOqdG KCJ j

dch VHF k GL ddG GOOdG f Y ,jdGh jhdG LdG
UdG Y dSQEGh jjOGdG GOOdG dJ C dPh .dG GOOdG
jJ J Y YaO QGOGQ f hCG c d .e FGH j dG AdG ah
GQGOGQ ,dGReh .qodG Fa GOOdG f a j fdG ddG dG N
.Gg ej M dG Gg V J idG IH dG

b j h d G L d G f G S G g C G Y G Q N G e O Y Lo C G d

.jhdG LdG GOOqd dO e 1-7 hdG

(GHz) OOqdG

LdG W
(cm )
qdG f

214
INCG eb PEG ,dG GOOdG dd bhCG fCG EG ,VdG dG e
Ge a jqdG HCG CGHh .QdG jOGdG SGh d cCG kUa
dG QGOGdG IQb QJ e LfE eRdG LddGh jhdG LdG
.fdG ddG dG N JJh dG

cM UQ a dqa UHF `dG f a edG dhCG QGOGdG fCG fch

dG jg jJ a dqa J d fCG EG ,k e 20 `d G i J a d GF d G
.kU k GeCG GFdG e eeh jOdG GgCG H dG L e ,J h
aCG J ie eCJ Y ddG OOdG GP jhdG LdG IQb cCJh
.GFd IOdG SCG jJ Y JQb dEG aVEH IOUdG GgCd

dG HQCG a d dhCG GdG a jLCG dG HCG OqCG

dY (Magnetron Oscillator) fhdG pHnodH qj e jJ dEG VdG
Ib dG GQGOGd Fe jhe Le fEG Y k GQOb UCG dG ,IOdG
I O d G a G d (Fire-Control Radars ) j Q d G I d H d G G Q G O G Q h , i d G
Specialized Vacuum ) U d G Z d G e d G G SG Y A L K .GF d
(Klystron Tube ) h c h (Lighthouse Tube ) S h j e U e (Tubes
IqJdG jQGOGdG LdG be jJh S jQhV Se GOOJ dd
. (Radar Returns )

, d G M h 1945 e A G H G , f d G d d G d G J d G G d G a
,jdG dG hCG GFdG Y ddG QGOGdG fCG e jdG j J J
jJ e AkGHG dG Sd VQCG jhdG LdG GQGOGQh
fhdEG GAGLEGh ,MdGh ,jQdG IdH dH AfGh qdGh GgCG
jhdG HHnodG e iNCG GfCG e jdG jJ dP YCGh .FbdG
IOQdG dG GS N (Amplifiers) qdGh (Microwave Oscillators)
g qJh .VdG dG e dG M dG e eG dG
Forward and) dG dEGh eCG dEG JdG LdG e U G j dG
,TWTs `dGh fh J SQ dG CG (Backward-Wave Traveling-Wave Tubes

215
 G d G I O e f h c h , (TWTAs ) J d G L d G U
q eh
. (High Power Multicavity Klystrons ) I Q d G d Y

Solid-State ) dG dd jhdG LdG QOe NO M bh ah

d d G N O S S U C a , f h d E G d G G g a (Microwave Sources
a d G f C G a SGh f Yh B G G S G F T TWTAs `d Gh d G
fhch TWTs YqoW c (Phased-Array Radar Systems) QGOGd jQdG
.JGdG Hh H ,VQCG JG a GSd IQdG

VdG d YdG a kjCG jhdG LdG bW Jh Gg

q o dG dG FG W ah (Concentrated Localized Heating) cq dG

jhdG LdG GaCG dEG a VE H ,OG dG d (Accelerated Drying)
Continuous- Wave) Ie Le h H IO hq dG ,(Microwave Ovens)
R d G a d G J I O Y E G h d L P f I G O C G V C G d G h (Magnetron
.YdGh

QdG e dG Y SQEG
V G Z C (Coaxial Cable Transmission ) Q d G d G d G G S G j
L dGh (UHF) qo dG F a GOOq dG fh jOG dG OOq dG b W SQEG
e U e S Y (Two-Wire Cable ) d G h P d G j h . j h d G
SdG jL e IkOY e ,fGSCG fe AH l qe NGO QdG
SGH H Y UdG o Joh .(Woven Copper Wire Braid) hdG
.SdG JGQ e JOe Jo ,(Dielectric Sleeve) FHc Y Z

jGdG Y IQTEG SQEG d QdG dG dG Q NG j

GJ AGLEG N e dG a jGdG H dG jh .d FHdG
g dG Gg jGe gCG e IMGh EG .dG d edG OGdG ah OHCG a
.QdG aqJ V dG jj dG fdG e fCH qJ dG ,Z0 bhdG
LQdGh NGdG UdG H dG dG N e kjCG qJo CG jh

216
dG
q d I O d (Dielectric Constant ) F H d G d G H K e d G b Y h
. (Core Material )

bhdG J eY QdG dG dG a idG IQdG H j

d G h , j O G d G O O d G N h , S d (Characteristic Impedances ) I d G
ehdG SCG e kS a dG c keJ HdG c GPEGh .jhe (FGdG hCG)
Reflection) SfG Y kJf dG c HdG fG EGh .(gdG) dG a
Y , d h ,ohms ` d H Q d G d G d I d G b h d G S J . (Losses
IdG dG sJ .dG H J ,UdG a ehdG Y
.5 ohms `dGh ,75 ,50 bhdG Hd IkOY QdG

d f d G d G Y , Q d G d G d G a (Capacitance ) d G J
eY FHdG bdG jH J dG FHdG RGdGh JUe FNh
,dG J .FHdG dG a e bh a e U dG J
FHdG dG HK Yh ,Ud LQdGh NGdG dG Y ,bhdc
e dG OGOJ ,ddHh .(Reciprocal) jOOqJ bY g bdG g EG EG tpd
a FHdG dG Y sj .FHdG dG HK f d c a bhdG bJ
. (pf/ft ) h C G (Picofarads per Foot ) d G / O G Q a d H Q d G d G d G

IMh a FHdG IQdG ran fCG Y ,QdG dG dG a gdG sjo

F H d G d G h U d G f d G j h . d G e (Unit Length ) W
bJ H gdG M e qJo UdG M IOjR CG EG ,TEG dch
GSH ,HK dG OHCG AHEG AKCG ,UdG M IOjR jh .FHdG dG
b 100 d SdH gdG Sjo .e Y HK GP kFHc dRY OGe
. (dB/100 ft )

bdG SQEG YS QG H ,(Speed of Propagation) QfEG YS s Jo

dG) AGdG a SQEG YS QGe e fQe QdG dG dG a FHdG
Yh .FHdG dG HK e kY YdG g SJh .(dG a 100 J
.SQEG YS IOjH dG FHdG dG HK j dP

217
IQTEd dhqCG SQEG H dG edG g (Time Delay) edG jdG EG
jdG HM J .iNCG f a gjJ hCG gQX Mh e f e
b `d fKfdH S joh j`dG eR e dG bCG dG e dG
, j O G d G O O d G f C G J Y S d G G g j . (Nanosecends Per Foot- ns/ft )
.QdG dG dG QNG idh

(Inductance) qKe QXEG e SdG H H QdG dG dG j

.UN J a GSd SdG dG QN Feh ac b GP
ghdH SJh gUY iMEG hCG IQGdG U e U g KqdGh
a dG YL ,QdG aqJ a qdG ehe KdG Jh .(Microhenries - H)
.ddG J H k GNCe JCj QdG

,29 d G a z Q d G d G d G J { h z Q d G d G d G { f G )
FGdG{ 6 dGh ,zqUdGh dGh SCG :fhdEG GqdG{
.(zjdG GHCGh

LdG dO Y SQEG
Y jjOGdG bdG j qe fe U g (Waveguide) LdG dO EG
gh .QJ aqJ jW Y dh ehc mM T Y Ze e
Two Conductors) npUdG hP SQEG Nh QdG dG dG e jH
Lj .jhe GQTEGh UHF GOOqJ SQE dG (Transmission line
FO kjCG J .FGdGh dG g ,LdG ddG GfCG e SSCG Yf
kFHc dRY U IOe hCG ,AGg H j dG jRGdG fdG FdG mLe
.jdG dCGh ,kFHc dRY b ,

a a CG j H FdG NGO FHdGh dG dG on Jo

GQdG a IQGM H jo b bdG H CG Y .TEG N e IQdG
a FHdG RdG H dG eCG .k GL lV bW fCG EG , dd UdG
WEG j .(Inert Gas) eN RZ hCG AGH IkOY k GAe j ddG C OQGh

218
hCG ,WfCG hCG ,GHCG SGH e dGREG hCG ddG NGO jjOGdG bdG
.(Probes) q pdG

dPh jFGdG Je e keGSG cCG a dG FdG dEG dH eCG

,dG LdG ddG a dG fh SG ie a dG dd
e jcdG gQhe J d EG jFGdG edG J HU Y k a
IQGhqO Ue J bh .Hd eRdG UdG GJ H ,e H
.jFGO Le FO GSG ddG J eY

dP Le H ,kqe k GOOqJ Sjo dG ,LdG dd idG OHCG JJ

(Mode ) f h L d G d O T Y b d G g J h . d G A d G a O O d G
dG OOqd fOCG M dgh .ddG NGO ehdG dG J
kah OOdG Gg b OqJoh .dSQEH njo Le dO c a (Cutoff Frequency)
Le W hjo M ,(1-7 dG a se g c) dd NGdG Vd
.LdG dd NGdG VdG pV dG OOqJ

bdG SJ ,dG OOqJ e YCG (Input Signal) NndG IQTEG OOqJ c GPEa
c GPEG k GQa SdG bdG gJ a ,gJ hO e ddG Y ehdG
LdG dd NGdG JQG Ea ,iNCG Mf e .dG OOJ hO JQTEG OOJ
fc GPEa .IQdG e LdG dO eoJ Hb Oqj fCG EG SdG eCH d
LdG dO VY j .NGdG GQdG H ddG SqJ ,We IQdG
Y J Q G C G c , S d G L P d G L d G W 0.5 d E G 0.2 d G M L P d G
. L P d G L d G J Q G W I e 0.7 d G M

j ,dG S Y ,12 GHzh 8 GHz H OOqJ hGj dG (X) f a

,(2.286 cm) hj NGO VY ,US (WR-90) QH SdG dG LdG dd
d O a d G O O J h j h . (4 in ) (1.016 cm ) h j N G O J Q G h (0.9 in )
. 6.6 GHz G g L d G

(15 cm) 2 GHz e bCG g dG GOOd Le FO SG QOdG eh Gg

219
 j` dG d`e ` M ` M ` j) k G L I ` c `J `gO HCG C `dPh
. ( (Air-Conditioning Ducts )

W V e cCG LdG dO U a AfG b f j CG j

VdG dG j CG j c ,e gJ M qd dPh LdG
WdG dG fh (Dents) GDdG EG K .AfG e M ke dd
da uJoh ,SQEG N a gdG e jJ ddG NGO (Excess Solder)
Standing) abe Le jH J bh ,(Breakdown Voltage) QfG
. a Z e Z (Waves

LdG dO Y SQEG fCG

Electric ) FHc se Y LdG dO a ehdG LdG J
PdG e jdG dgh .jee ,(Magnetic Vector) e seh (Vector
k LEG qJ ,(Vectors) dG d dG
J h , (Modes ) z f C G {
Yf fCG g e .LdG dO OHCGh ,SQEG OOJ e eGY Y g
:g SSCG
(Transverse Electric-TE ) V d G F H d G - 1
dG dG
(H N )
Qe Z Qe
YGOdG

FHdG dG
(E N ) X dG Qe
(CG) Qe
GOdG
FHdG dG Y
(E N )
Z Qe

dG dG
(H N ) dO fCG 1-7 dG
X dG Qe TM11 ( ) TE10 ( C G ) : L d G
()

220
 . (Transverse Magnetic-TM ) V d G d G - 2
Y kjOY hCG kVe GhdG Y j (TE) `dG f a FHdG qodG EG
.QfG JG

JG Y kVe kFGO a (TM)`dG f a dG dG eCG

Y kjOY kFGO FHdG dG j CG j dG c ah .QfG
Y kjRGe dG dG j CG j c LdG dO S Y QGdG
.LdG dO QGL e GhdG

edG j :oS jeQ GSH dG LdG dO a fCG sJo

FHdG dG d) FHdG dG a LdG f GJ OY dEG hCG
e C G , L d G d d j d G d G Y (TM V d G d G h TE V d G
OGeG Y FHdG dG a LdG f GJ OY dEG a fdG edG
LdG dd (TE10) FHdG dG ,CG-1-7 dG qjh .dd udG odG
J (E N) J SCGQ SCH (E) FHdG dG dEG ejoh .dG
Y jOYh ,LdG dO ce b Icqneoh ,(y-axis) GOdG Qd jRGe
. (Transverse Plane ) V d G d G d G h C G x-z Q e

d G d G (H ) N a e F G h O H a (H ) d G d G e C G
d G e j R G e f C G c , j O M C G d G G P (E ) N e Y H J
Ho OGeG Y Le f GJ FHdG d EG .VdG dG
dG Ho OGeG Y (0) J hCG ,(x-axis) (1) dG Qe hCG jdG dG
.(y-axis) GOdG Qe hCG qdG

dG j (-7-1 dG) dG OHCG P TM11 dG dG ah

x-y dG dG V J eh e j H TC H dG
a dG g J) E N e ,C dH T kWfCG Jh ,VdG
k M TM11 f j .(x-z idG IGRGH J S H dG j f

.udGh jdG LdG dO H Y Le f QGH dj ke

221
dG Le W Ea zLdG dO Y SQEG{ Ve a cP S ch
P d d G Y d S Q E G j d G O O d f O C G d G j (Cutoff Wavelength )
bCG OOdG e aGdG WCG LdG EG ,iNCG IQHh .HdG dGh dG
E a d G d G L d G d O a TE10 Q W d E G d H e C G . f j d G
Y h . (A ) j d G S d G V h j (Cutoff Wavelength ) d G L e W
dG dG LdG dO a SQEd q dG dG g TE10 dG Ea dP
dH He j c ,(Plane Polarized) kS jh ,dH jo fC
dd A SdG Y a dG OOqJ jn ,dP dEG aVEH .dG hCG FGdG e
dH TE10 f qj . k S k GeCG dG J Y e j e , LdG
. H J j Y f C G g i N C G f C G c h , (Dominant Mode ) d G

LdG dO Heh bn
LdG dO dEGh e jOGdG OOqdG bW nd dG F dG dG EG
: j c g (Waveguide Coupling )
hCG dG d (H) dG e njo hCG jo (Loop) S GSH - 1
.j
d G h F H d G d (E ) d j R G e I Q H (Probe ) e G S H - 2
.dG OMCG FGc J
H H J L d G d O G Q L a (Holes ) K h C G (Slots ) T G S H - 3
.LQdGh NGdG dG

LdG dO Mnbo
U e j L M g (Waveguide Iris)LdG dO M n bo EG
.VdG dG Me d LdG dO NGO YVe bQ fe
KqdG MnodG qJh .ddG GQL Y OY H IOY FdG oVJ
e jRGe dG J eY (CG-2-7dG a qe g c) ,(Inductive Iris)
eCG .(Inductive Susceptance) Ke J dH a ;dd un dG GQdG
J eY sa ,-2-7 dG a sodG ,(Capacitive Iris) jdG MdG

222
Capacitive ) jS J mFY a ,dd jdG GQdG e jRGe dG
. (Susceptance

(CG) ()

. j d G - h , K d G - C G : d G L d G d O a M b 2 -7 d G

LdG dO jQS
Qe g ,CG- 3-7dG a qdG (Waveguide Post) LdG dO jQS EG
Ye Ke c jh ,dG LdG dd qdG dG Y Neo
i d G a b e h g b Y b J (Inductive Shunt Susceptance )
.LdG dd VdG

LdG dO J ee
a qe g c ,(Waveguide Tuning Screw) LdG dO J Qe EG
LdG dd jdG QGdG Y (Threaded) dnneo Qe g ,-3-7 dG
J Qe
jQS

(CG) ()

.QdG ()h jQdG (CG) :LdG dO V J J 3-7 dG

223
(Capacitive Susceptance) jS aGc jh ,dd qdG dG j H
Screw ) Q d G j E G J N e b O V Y d b j J j
. (Penetrating

jhdG Ld ddG eMCG

qe g c , (Microwave Striplines) jhdG Ld ddG eMCG hJ
f e b H d e h , f G d G M e S Q E G c ,4 -7 d G a
a IKDe eMCG J .kFHc dRY H de fe bbQ H hCG Ueo
Se MdG adG J eYh ,jhdG idG b SQEG Y
kjCG eMG g qJ .LdG dO hCG Q dG dG dG S
bd Ueo hP SQEG N Y IQY gh ,(Microstrip) zjhdG eMG{`H
.jhdG LdG

FHc RY

UdG GdG
VQCG e
f FU
(Ue)
. j h d G L d G O O d d d G e M C G 4 -7 d G

jhdG LdG eU
M e U g , (Microwave Tubes ) j h d G L d G e U e E G
M e DC d G Q d G P F H d G d G Y J Y Y j W e
cf jhdG LdG eU Y FdG eCG e .OYh FGO e

224
,(FWCFA) VdG eeCG LdG q eh ,(Magnetrons) fhdG
LdG pHneoh ,(heCG hCG) (BWCFA) VdG dG LdG q eh
L d G e U H J h . ( h J S Q d G h C G ) (BWCFO ) V d G d G
.(Linear-Beam (O f) N T eU fCG Y dG jh dG
Two-Cavity) JdG hc edG g Jh (O-Type) Tubes)
q
p
Jn odG LdG Uh ,(Reflex Klystron) cdG h dGh ,(Klystron
Backward) dG LdG q eh ,fhndG (Traveling-Wave Tube-TWT)
Backward Wave Oscillator -) dG LdG pHneoh ,(Wave Amplifier - BWA
. (BWO

fhdG
j J Y Q O b (Power Tube Oscillator ) I Q b H e U g h d G
LdG f a (RF Power) jOGQ OOqJ IQb dEG IkTe FHdG IQdG
Oe fGSCG OfCG e dCj ,FK U Y IQY g kYh .jh dG
Coaxial) Q dG e O K ch (Multicavity Cylindrical Anode) G dG
dG j .(Vacuum Envelope) AG dG e e Z NGO (Cathode
dG WN JG jh dG dG Gg Y FGdGh dG dG
j .5-7 dG a qe g c ,(Axial Cathode) QdG OKdG e kjRGe
T MGh H hCG LQdG fdG e hR GSH dG Gg fEG
.C d H

e Ic c k GKf OKdG o jn (Filament) dG dG a QdG aqJ Y

dY dS da qW GPEGh .dG Gg M fhdEG Z J fhdEG
ce FY fhdEG J (OKd f kLe OfCG YL) OKdG Y
dG f fh dEG GQ e d H Qq Jh .L dG O fCG J H
.BG a Y OdGh dG dG

CG b e GQe a dG dEG fhdEG oWdG dG g aJ

GdG nJoh .(Reentrant Cavity Vanes) IdG Ne TjQCG GWCG dEG J

225
e kbfG kYT Jqe (Rectangular Vanes) dG e (jQ) Y e
NGO a HHdG dGh fhdEG H YdG mFY Cjh .OfCG GQL
(Pin-Wheel ) Q d G h H T Z a f h d E G a H j e G d G
.GdG a IdqdG ffpdG HHdGh SJ mYH OKdG M Qhd

e IdG fhdEG aJ Gg fhdEG QdG hO GQhO Qj eYh

W J dHh ,GdG NGO kHgPh Lp Ha ffdG GdG GQL
Y HHe e k M d ddG GOOdG a Gd NGdG SCG
e dG Yd fGQhO K Y dG g aJ .GdG OGeG
.dG a IadG fhdEG

qeo hj OfCG a (DC Voltage) dG QdG da jJ N eh

dG LdG H a dG dG QW YS e fhdEG GQhO YS
H GQL NGO fhdEG HJ o jn .ffdG GdG SGH J dG
Y fhdEG qJh .Ia c NGO He jOGQ OOqJ M dG LdG
.HHdG g ejO Y AHEd bW

.Th GdG M Y GdG NGO HHdG fhdEG OOqJ j

eCG ,IU Le GWCGh ,dY GOOJ qJo dG IdG GdG EG M)
IQb aJo .(Ic Le GWCGh e GOOJ a dG IdG GdG
dG dG ffpe Ga

GWCG
dG qe

(jQ) Y
RF N

OKc

YJ Aa
OfCG
fhdEG

. f h d G H d G Y O e 5 -7 d G

226
Ia Y dG LdG H QN kL GdG a IdqdG jOGdG OOdG
Dielectric) qFHc dRY Iaf Y hCG (Loop) WfCG Y eEG J IMGh
dEG ITe WfCG Y dG jOGdG OOdG bW bn jh .(Window
G O O d L f Y h (S-Band ) G O O d S d S e ) Q d G e c
hCG , X dG a Le dO dEG IkTe IadG Y bdG b j hCG ,(L-Band)
.YCG GOOqJ P he dEG

bdG Y Je Sf Y Y 5-7 dG a qdG OfCG j

OO J K d dPh (Straps) Sf GWCG SG H S dG O fC H
.SdG OfCH GWCG M dch dG g J j .hdG
SGH (Fluted Pin) qeo pe bEG N e OOdG ddG OfCG b Jh
Broaching ) j d G J Y a O f C d d G S d G d G Y d d G d G
q
. (Process

fEG Y IQOdG jhdG LdG eU FGhCG e fhdG fc d

Q G O G Q J Y a j h d G L d G h (UHF ) b f a b d G e j e
a (CW ) L d G e H c d G f h d G g e E a , d d G d G
. (Doppler Radars ) j H h d G G Q G O G d G a d c h j O G d G J Q G S b R L
J (CW Magnetrons ) I d G L d G f h e e E H , d P d E G a V E H
jh .(Microwave Ovens) jhhdG a hCG jhdG L dG G aCG
QG J q H f Q j CG (Pulsed Magnetron) HdG h d
dG fE dPh (p/s) fdG a f 1000 dEG J (Repetition Rates)
I d G h i d G I d G G Q G O G d G e d j Q h d G (Bursts Pulse ) j Q f G
ie Y qa H (Peak Pulse Power) dG IQdG IhQP dJ jh .idG
d G f h d G e E H . (3 MW ) G h e 3 d E G k Uh WGdG e e
.95 GHs h 1 GHs H h G j O O J V

fhJSdG
g ,6-7 dG a dG SdG a qdG ,(Carcinotron) hJSdG EG

227
SSCG AGLCG e qjh (M-Type BWO) hCG M f e FGO N Le pHneo
,(Grid) T h , O K c h , T S Y Q h H j ) f h d E G a e : g
dG RF `dG bW Qhe j FGO (Interdigital Delay) bQ jJ Nh ,(qeh
pndG qj FGO ce OhdEG Y j c ,FGdG de M J
M e e qe ,FGO e f j i NCG M f e .(Sole)
.kjOY ke k M , Q e (Torrodial Permanent Magnet )

Qe dEG OKdG Y JdG jdG fhdEG AfG dG Gg jh

OLdG dG dG Y kHjEGh kHgP cM AKCG dG dG M ,FGO
.(Grounded Delay Line) VQqDdG jdG Nh dG ddG dG H

(++) qe (+) OKdG fG

qe NGdG a dGh fhdEG
hdG
Te T
N

(-) zpYn{ OhdEG

dG dEG JJ RF Le

NGdG bdG jdG N

dG dG
. h J S Q c H d G Y C G e 6 -7 d G
Beam Electran Drift) dG fh dEG T G fG Y S eG J
u Jo M jdG N NGO ZdG dG L dG A a e (Velocity
dG n of b h . d G G g N GO j OGd G OO d G L d b W f h d E G
aJ AKCG ZdG dG LdG J j H hJSQd SdG
e dG jOGdG OOdG Le GJoh .hdEG T J cdG JH

228
dG dG bW J .fhdEG adG b OmLe N W Y dG
jf Y OLe (Collector) ueo SGH dG LdG dEG qeo Z H
.jdG N NO

,(20 cm) 8 in dGM b hj dG LPdG FGdG M- hJSQdG dqj

d h 1.4 GHz h 1 GHz H e h G j O O J f a c C G h C G ,200 W g Q G e I Q b
e d G g e SG d . d G a 60 h d G a 30 H e f hG J I A c
.jdG SQEG ILCG a IQTEG jd OOdG ddG AVd Qc
J dG OdG d kah M f e (BWOs) q dG fhJSQdG Jh
.j F G d G M-BWO f hJ SQ d G H

JdG LdG eU
L e U g (Traveling-Wave Tube-TWT ) J d G L d G U E G
Gg j .FjdG H Y k GOYG q dG hCG HdG Y J jhe
,OKch OfCG Y j fhdEG ae Y ,7-7 dG a qdG ,dG
Helix h M H h j ) (Delay Line ) j J N h C G d G L d H h ,
q Sh
Le CWJ .(Collector) ueoh ,(Focusing Magnet) cJ eh ,(SdG a
a 20 h d G a 10 H hG J H j F GO H L e a J d G j OGd G OO d G
ddG QdG dG a fhdEG YS e YS HJ H dG
RF NO
Ye
adG OfBG (fhdG) dG LdG H
ue

dG cdG H

q S

.pJodG LdG U 7-7 dG

229
eGdG I QqdG fhdEG Jh . fh dEG a dG dq j dG I dG
oHJn qe jOGdG OOdG Le dEG bW (Synchronized Passing Electrons)
.fhdEG dG a dG bdG e u odG Qjh ,dG
Serpentine) kfGaCG kH k bQ k N j dG N j CG j d c
, d G L d G e d G G g e TWTs ` d G J . (Interdigitated Line-SIL
J bW mFH d dG e Qeh RGe H J fhdEG YT
Forward-Wave) zeCG dEG p Jn dG LdG eU{ j dG TWTs ` dG
o
GOOdG e dG d NG dG O HCG Ou Joh .(Traveling-Wave Tubes
.HdG dG

pJnodG LdG U
q e
(Traveling - Wave Tube Amplifier TWTA) JdG LdG U q dG Gg GE
.q c d qe Jeo Le U g (8-7 dG a dG SdG)
dNOEG j eY e IQb Qe e jhdG LdG IQb J a j
J f N IQb fEG Y QOb edG e dG Gg EG .aGWCG MCG e
.40 GHz h 1 GHz H hG j i e a Gh 200 e c C G d E G
(fhdG) dG LdG H Z
Ia gqe
OKc OfBG
Ia

qe

q S
RF NO RF N
dG cdG H
.pJeo Le U
q e 8 -7 d G

JdG hc
d G a d G S d G ) (Two-Cavity Klystron ) J d G h c G g E G

230
(Modulation ) J Y Y j j h e L e
q e Y I Q Y g (9 -7
dEG aVEH ,q Sh ,OfCGh ,OKc e fhdEG ae Y j .YdGh QdG
Buncher and) zbdGh eGdG{ J Ub H ZQa ffQ Ja
T ffdG JdG c J .(Collector) ueo dEG aVEH ,(Catcher
T Qhd (Gaps) IU Ga Jo dG W c Y (grids) Te
. (Axial Pencil Electron Beam ) Q e b j Q e V f h d E G
eGdG Ia bdG Ia
RF NO RF N

OfCG
GfG Aa qe
OKc

hdEG T

q S edG

.IdG FK hc
q e 9 -7 d G

T hCG dEG J M e YH OKdG e dG fhdEG J

J e Y d G d E G f h d E G U h G P E a . (Buncher Cavity ) e G d G I d
Uh GPEG dh .YS qJ CG hO IdG Y J fEa ,k GU IQTEG da
a dS IQhO f N Uh GPEG eCG ,jJ a ,Le IQhO f N
.gDhHEG

e H J fhdEG d VqJ dG YdG a GqdG g EG

G f G A a Y J e Y (Discrete ) e Y e V d G H
I a a f h d E G a c C G j G g h . b d G h e G d G G a H (Drift Space )
bdG Ia T H (Bunching) eQn bCG jh .edG Qhe e J bdG
d E G f h d E G e b d G J M (Retarding Phase ) j d G M e N

231
 q Joh bdG Ia a jOGdG OOqJ M
bdG Ia e LQdG fhdEG C
.(Collector) udH a

jOGQ OOJ IQTEG fCch eGdG Ia dEG NGdG jOGdG OOJ IQTEG Sh Gg
IQb fEG IdG FK hdG eEH EG .bdG Ia N Y q e
G c 500 h ` J I ` e ` L ` e I Q b h C G (30 MW ) G h ` e 30 h ` J ` ` f
.dG a 40 dEG J qdG g IAc EG 10 GHz `dG OOJ Y (500 kW)

cdG hdG
dG a dG SdG a qdG ,(Reflex Klystrons)cdG hdG EG
M (Single-Cavity Oscillator ) I M G h I a P H e Y I Q Y g ,10 -7
g SSCG AGLCG e HnodG Gg dCjh .hdEG T YS jJ Y oYn
dH nT fpeh , ddG OhdEGh ,qdGh ,OKdGh ,fhdEG adG
.cYh ,T K e

cY

e hdCG GQe
NGO M
fpdG T

TdG jdG T

OKc

d qe OhdEG

q S . c d G h d G 1 0 -7 d G

232
 j dG T SG H O K dG e JBG fh dEG j J k hCG j
First Resonator ) d h C G T d G f d G T J C G b (Accelerating Grid )
I K Y d d G S G H f h d E G Y S j J j d G g Y . (Grid
SGH gJG SfGh (Bunched) eQ j CG b ,(Resonator Gap) fpdG
j L e e d G f h d E G J e Y h . (Reflector Voltage ) c d G d d G
ehdG dG dGE fhd E G bW J ,(Cavity Gap) IdG GK Y
.HoHdG K Y d fdG a

GP jhe Le eU dG bGh a ,g cdG fhdG EG

Gh e 500 h 10 H hG J j OGQ OOJ I Q b f E G Y I Q O b , e I Q b
b d Q O c e d G g J 25 GHz h 1 GHz H j i e V (mW )
a VdG HHnodGh ,GdG a dG Gqe a jhdG LdG
.QGOGdG fCG

hdG pseo
(Trigger) b LCG e kjQhV f UdG ddG dY GQGdG dqJ
Y f d gh .(Pulse Power Magnetron) dG IQdG he Jh
q dG :g udG g e SSCG
. (Magnetic ) d G h (Line Type )

dG dG e
dG a q dG SdG a qdG ,(Line-Type Modulators) q dG udG EG
. (Magnetron Pulsing Circuit ) f h d G d G G Q G d G G f C G T C G e g ,11 -7
jh ,dG H (Pulse-Forming Network - PFN) dG jJ T Jo
pb J b IQTEG SGH (Modulators Thyratron) u odG hJGK WEG
T jJ dEG QhH Gg OqDj .IQdG dqe e NdG (Short-Circuiting) IQGO
J AH Y e Le f fEGh ,(Capacitor Network) qdG T
,dG J QGSG H ,fdG dG Y JdG dG id jh .qdG
.hdG OKc Y J eY hdG HH j napc QJh da

233
 dG fN he
dG J T

IQb dqe
dY da
Ob

LhQdG hJGK

. h d d G d G 1 1 -7 d G

dG dG
OKc f qe Y IQY g (Magnetic Modulators) dG udG EG
j h . (Inductor )
q odG a TEG UN Y qSDdG QGOGdG hd
kfQ bW qpodG o J .dG e Z hCG hJGK U dEG dG Gg
. (Pi-Network ) Pi T a h d G O K c d E G j R G e e N

jhdG Ld YdG FdG epdG

GQGO a GSd UdG T FdG epdG GfCG e jdG jo
He FN GP Jh ,jhdG LdG OOqJh (UHF) qdG Fa OOdG
(GOjGO) epU :Jh .dG OOqdG GP FdG epdG Fd
,(TRAPATT) GOjGOh ,(Tunnel) IdG OjGOh ,(PIN) KdG pdGh ,(Gunn)
. (IMPATT ) O j G d G h

FdG Z epU
Z KCJ ,12-7 dG a dG (Gunn Diodes) FdG Z epU J

234
IQTEG a dG hCG jhdG LdG GOOdG Y HH d (Gunn Effect)
dG UdG T OGdG e W K e u dG j .jhdG LdG
fG QW a u dG j eY Ia a J j eYh .e OGH
Domain) bdG fG eR Y oHHP Jh ,(Transit-Time Mode) edG
d dG fh dEG P F dG dG OO J i jh .(Transit Time
dG hdEG HnoH kjCG qjh .50 GHz `dG (Transferred-Electron Diode)
. (Transferred-Electron Oscillator-TEO )
e IcQ
ehdG
SJ b

LQN fe
Tf e

e W
ehdG
jQGM YdH
Sf
. F d G Z e U 1 2 -7 d G

FdG edG
(dG QJ fG eR pU hCG) (IMPATT Diodes) hCG IMPATT pU jo
e j e Y J S e h e j G e (Impact Avalanche Transit Time Diode )
b f f G e R G K C J h (Impact Avalanche Breakdown ) U Q J f G
U e e d G g J . (Carrier-Charge Transit-Time Effects ) d G
G g F d G d G j h . (Gallium-Arsenide ) d d G f Q R e h C G f S
Y hCG ,Se H eh Fe Ia Y cqj eY ,e hCG Hc
20 W hCG f IQb e 100 W fEG Y QlOb IMPATT `dG qdG EG .Le dO
.10 GHz h 5 GHz H h G j O O J V I e L e I Q b e

235
 KdG edG
pU Y IQY g ,13-7 dG a qdG ,(PIN Diodes) KdG dG EG
Y d e (P ) I Q G H d G L d G d G a J (Junction Diode ) U h
dG e kf S W SGH (N) IQGH dG ddG dG
G g e E H (High-Resistivity Intrinsic (I) Silicon ) (I ) d d G e h d G P d G
jhe Le Oqc j CGh jhdG LdG SQEG N j CG dG
I Q d G I h Q P a J d G f C G a TR U e a , (Microwave Limiter )
qch IdG jhdG Ld guoc j CG Y QlOb fCG c .100 kW Y
Electronically Controlled Rapid Acting Phase) fhdEG IH j S Q W
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Le W . (Radar Systems
(P+ ) d G dCG e AZ

cCG fK e AZ
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M W
(N+ ) W
K d G d G 1 3 -7 d G

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j CG d J S ehe jo (PN Junction Diode) dS ` Le
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d d G d G h , (P ) L d G d G : (Heavily Doped ) H T E G d H e
aJ .k GL bQ LM e (Abrupt) QdG jT kH kS J dG (N)
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236
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L J h . d d I O d G I O j d G e (Minority Carrier ) b C G M M c G J
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. j d G (Switching ) j d G H J I d G g h , d d G O j O R G

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g SG Jh .(Weather Radar) dG GQOGQh ,(Navigation
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fe AZ OhdCG

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. F d G T R A P A T T U 1 4 -7 d G

237
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fdG dG KCJ QjfGJ

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a edG ddG fQR GQjfGJ e FT f g ,15-7 dG a qdG
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ddG fQR e dhe f W GaAs T f dG dG KC J
.(MESFET ) U d G

238
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G Q G O a e d S d G d d G f Q R Q j f G J g (Transistors-HEMTs
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AGOCG e q Jo SdG dG g CG j .(AlGaAs) ddG fQR IcQ Y
jdG J J GQGd dY eJ jH Jh Q j fG dG
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edG dG jOMCG jhdG LdG GQGO

Microwave Monolithic ) edG dG jOMCG jhdG LdG IQGO Jo
j g h . d d G f Q R e h C G d G e e E G (Integrated Circuits-MMICs
jhdG Ld dG GQGdGh dG edG GQGdG H dG
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dG ILCG e q J fEa ,ddHh .YCG GOOq H dG Y IQO b
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g EG .ddG fQR e fqdG MMIC IQGO SQ 16-7 dG Vj

e I`dG `jhdG `LdGh ,qdG Fa OOdG `f a e Z IQGdG
d h . Y C G j h d G L d G G O O J Y S S C G f C G E G ,2 GHz d E G 500 MHz
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q e aqJ .C h X bdG a edG fhdEG HdG fCGh jdG
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239
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e Le dO e podG dCj .dSQEG j dG dG IQb jd dPh
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240
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241
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242
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q d e GWCG IqY Y edG bdG QdG jeo j

243
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jo .kepU 16h 10 H gOY hGj KK epU (Stripline Module)
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f f qe g (Microwave Attenuators) jhdG LdG gueo EG
E G .L d G d O a I Q d G RF b W a H d G Y I Q O d G j h d G L d G
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q T QN hCG NGO dEG jJ j

244
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HdG guodG
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j ,LdG dO V jFGO bCG KK e dDe (Variable) qe gqe Y

245
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j eY epU IY GSG j . UCG GOOdG Y QdG Ie
.H QqdG QdG hCG ddG qJ MGh mpU QhH
246
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j dc .SGh SQEG dM e c a FGd jdG SH
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jhe Le peo Y IQY g (Radio Telescope) jOGdG dG EG
e jhdG LdG OOqJ GQTEG Jh jd kq N seo FGgh

247
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dG cJ HH a pdG ` u d G j a , (Optical Telescope ) d G
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fQdGh - jdG - jjEG SGH dqodG HpHnodG

dY Q GP IQGO (YIG-Tuned Oscillators) HpHodG e dG Gg j
(Ytterbium-Iron- Garnet: YIG) fQdGh ` jdG ` jjEG e Ic SGH qe
fQ Gqc j (DC Magnetic Field) e e Te QJ M a
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Ferrimagnetic Resonance) dG jdG fQ OOqJ EG .(Wire Loop) S
g (J) V j ddHh ,dG dG Ib dqGO g (Frequency
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dG dG AL

FGg e

jM fQZ Ic
(YIG ) j J E G

S WfCG

YIG `dG SGH seo pHneo 22-7 dG

248
 (Masers) GQdG
u odG fG H
q dG jh dG L dG hCG GQ dG EG
dG a q dG ,(Microwave Amplification by Stimulate Emission-Maser)
hCG GQqdG J N e jh dG L dG GOOq J q J ,23-7 dG
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Pumping ) d G I Q T E G b W i e c H d G b d G J . (Pumping )
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dM GQe dgh .j o dG hCG jeGQdG GQqdG fhdEG Y (Masers

249
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J qTCG fh ,FdG AdG f e a (Maser) RdG LH j
.AGdG

250
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dGh KdG edG GQGdG

jdG

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KdG dG edG dG q dG GQGO
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q dGh KdG GQGdG e c EG
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251
 e ZdG Y dG fCG ah dG a jM FXh ODJ eJ ZQ
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d d G H K d G G Q G d G h (Solid State Relays ) d G d d G Mq eoh , q dG
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252
 edG dG
q dG GQGO
g (op amps) kjCG qJ dG (Operational Amplifier ICs) GQGdG g EG
(ueo) jqeo IY e cCG dgh .kYT edG KdG GQGdG cCG
b bQCH Y dG eEHh .ddG dG a GQGdG g Vj
e h H j a ) F G O C G J O d d P h d H J (Part Number )
GP gh ,kc g fOCG S iq j h . eRQ TCG a M hCG (IQG d
gh .(Commodity Item) S IMc qJo Gd ,MGdG QhdG ,dG GSG
:j e dEG FGOCG SSCG Y qJo
. (General Purpose ) d G G S G
. (Low Offset - Drift ) d G R G d G
. (High Impedance h Low Input Current ) b h d G d Y h , N d G e Q J
. (Wide Bandwidth ) S G h f V Y
.(High Slew Rate) mY fG qe
. (Low Noise ) A V d G b
. (Low Power ) e I Q d G
. (High Voltage ) d d G d Y
.(High Output Current - Power or op amp) mY Nn QJ
. (Programable ) e d H b

eGSG a jQGdG dG e AGd (op amps) dG dG uU

b b Q d (op amps ) e I M G h b C G Y g h . j d G h , Y d G h , j Q d G
, J G Q G O J J h (op-amp ) M e d G e j d ) . ( Y H Q h F K h j O M C G )
pHnodGh qdG GQGO{`H SdG ,4 dG a zdG qdG{ fG
.(zSSCG

fQpodG
q e g (Comparator) f Qp o dG EG
,(Feedback) L SG hO J
,KJ dEG bQ qe Ld kah ddG ie a GqdG c e

253
f QpdG q oU .(Converters) qdG e gZh , bQ dEG K Jh
` QjfGdG e e SdG dG e FGH KdG GQTEG GS
f e c C G e d G e d G U d G f e h , (TTL ) Q j f G d G
O Y g h . (ECL ) h C G (Emitter-Coupled Logic ) d G Y d G e h , (CMOS )
b bQCG O Y e d u eo hCG IC da fQd b bQCG e b
Response) HSG eR jo iNCG Mf e .YCG fcP c ,(Op-amps-IC)
YS SSCG Y qJo fQdG Ea Yh .dG QdG Np MCG (Time
RH aGJ fCG c .k GL dY hCG ,dY hCG ,Se hCG ,b YS GP :dEG
.YHQ hCG ,LhOe hCG ,jOMCG

ddG ueo
Y J I Q G O g e d G (Voltage Regulators ) d d G e I Q G O E G
m hJ V dG Gg Y adGh IQdG J M bG d pe
q
SSCG Yf gh .dGh NndG da a GqdG ZH ,qe (Tolerance)
e E H h . (Switch Mode ) d G h (Linear ) q dG dG :g ddG e e
q e
hG j I Q b G d DC N d a i H e E G d G b IC d a
GQ G d G g RJ . d G a 2 Y j j J Vh H K I Q H d a 30 h 3 H
Standard Tree- ) j d G j Q e j T R Q h C G (Pin Package ) e R Q a I O Y
o o
. (Terminal

bQ - dEG - KJ e
(A/D) qoH kjCG (Analog-To-Digital Converters) dG g qJ
G Q T G d E G I e K J G Q T E G N d d G j d H J g h (ADC ) h C G
. e e d G j O M C G G Q G c h j O c k j Q J G Q G d G g V J h . b Q
dG ah ,AdG Ge ah ,e jdG qS h qe d dh
S gh .mY AGOCG GP g GQGc dG g s Jo ,ddG bKdG GP
:g bQ dEG KJ qe e GfCG

254
 . (Dual-Slope Integrating Converters ) e d G d G F K d G -1
.(Successive-Approximation Converters) ddG jdG qeo -2
.(Flash Converters) eh qeo -3
.(Voltage to Frequency Converters) OOqJ dEG ddG qeo -4
.(Synch- to - Digital Converters) bQ - dEG - eGe qeo -5
.(Resolver to Digital Converters) bQ dEG e qeo -6

bdG FdG QqdG TT e JdG dG FK IC qeo q e

Low Cost Compact Digital Panel Meters -) dG b bdG MdG GOGqd
e gZh ,(Digital Multimeters - DMMs) IOdG bdG GOGqdh ,(DPMs
(A/D) GQGO jJ a ddG jdG qe s njo .bdG fhdEG GhOCG
H Sh aJ dM aqj fC jJdG dGh JG VGZC
GQTG jd SGh f Y edG IC qe Jo .bdGh YdG
c dG dY k jJ aJ fEa (VFC) OOdG dEG ddG qe eCG .jdG
J feEG dch ,(S dEG mGK e) eCG jW edG feEG J fCG
RdG edG qj .Ye hCG OOqd WYG dGh ,ddG ah ,OOqdG
.(Conversion Rate) qdG sH (ADC) SGH edG Sd

edG dG FK ADC qeo

FK ADC qe j ,1-8 dG a VdG dG a qe g c
b dEG de Nn On da jH (Dual- Slope Integrating) edG dG
ddG Nn ndG da sJo .(Binary Number) FK bQ dEG mFH J eR
j) T eR e dG d J q nd ee IQGO dEG C qdG a Vin
dEG VREF pLdG Nn ndG IQTEG sJo .(JdG SdG a Vin d Le c
nc qjo) U b dEG eJ nb e C qdG uod ,(Integrator) peeo
(Counter) OGdG dEG FY QpodG N nSjo .(JdG SdG a VREF `d dS
c qe g ch .(Discharge Capacitor) C GaEG qe dEG edG qj M
e kjOW Sj N jh .FK bQ dEG OGdG SGH J ,dG a N eR
.IAGd TT Y VY mFH j M ddG IQTEG b Se

255
 Qe

MSB
e
OGY

YS

.bQ dEG KJ e dG FK (ADC) e 1-8 dG

ddG jdG ADCs qeo

a qe g c ,(Successive-Approximation ADCs) qdG g J
He jH bQ dEG KJ nb jH ,2-8 dG a dG dG
mRh fRGd dRJ SCHh Ge qc iMEG a ee GRhCG Vh d
dG a Vin ddG NdG da Jh .fdG GdG qc a e
c k b ddG (DAC) KJ dEG bdG qdG sjoh ,QdG e LdG

VIN ddG Qe

K N

VREF D/A

MSB bQ N LSB

(SAR) e
e jJ FK J N

YS

.me jJ ADC e 2-8 dG

256
b e AkGHG ,(Clock Control) YdG IS J ddG QdG W dEG Ie
. (MSB ) j e c C G d G

N e bCG CG cCG Vin fc GPEG e dEG TDJ N b mFY QdG jo

C d P h , d G d E G (Reset ) V O S (MSB ) E a c C G f c G P E a . (DAC )
(MSB ) S , b C G f c G P E G h .Vin ` d j h d G d G e a g J d d G g
hCG (Successive- Approximation Register)ddG jdG q e a k e
dRJ SCH (Bit) H c e fQe AGLEH qdG FY j .(SAR) m
q dG a dG dH ke jh ,jdG dG M (Descending)
.gZ J IOYEGh bdG Vin b j J a g J dGh a (Register)
e Vin j (Serial Binary Output ) e F K N Y d G e E H
. (SAR )

e d G ADCs e
dG a q e g c ,(Flash Converter ADCs) q dG g EG
bQCc LNn dEG ejo jRGe fQe e ae g ,3-8dG a dG
K J N O j a . (Encoding Logic Block ) d G e d G e S G H F K
jdG e KH NdG fQd n2 Qpeo dEG f (Bits) qpdG e n OY dEG
j dG S a .(Resistors) ehdG S jGH e AkGHG LdG
ddG Le OGeG Y kehe 65 e kS EG .kfQe 64 hCG 26 dEG (bit Flash-6)
j .L d G d H W H e J d a i e 64 d E G L d G j VREF
dG a (Latches) dGe SGH jo eY QdG jH (Encoder) eqodG
.(Binary Code) FK IT dEG QdG pNn euodG qj c ,qdG

C ddG jdG qdG YS J edG qdG jJ YS EG

YS Ea iNCG Mf e .ddH dh RGdH J bdG dG jJ Y
.edG e eH dch QdG AGOCG NCJ eH IOhe jdG

257
 Vin f Qe
VREF

J e bQ N

.eh ADC e 3-8 dG

OOJ - dEG - da qeo

,(Voltage - to Frequency Converters - VFCs) qdG e dG Gg j
Charge-Balancing) dG fRG d IQGO Y ,4-8 dG a e g c
q
kjOW Sj QJ Qe e qdG Jo eY jdG jh .(Circuit
dEG qdG Y QdG Uh c bO QH FH dG jJ j .NndG dah
da Sb a Ya Z (VFC) qe EG .(Preset Level) dG IOYEG ie
.(Offset Voltage Errors) ddG (fRGe) Ije ANCG H dG NndG
Y q dG (Settling Time) QGSG eRh dG qe j iNCG Mf e
OGY dEG dG (VFC) a QdG N f Jh .OOqd dG dG jJ
.NdG da e kjOW qdG GAGdG SJh .edG e Id

bQ dEG eh ,bQ dEG eGJ ADC qe

(Synchro- to- Digital, and Resolve to Digital ADCs) qdG g J
eGe fCG gh ,dY Jh bH ,dG hCG ,hGdG bdG Sj eY
a z e G d G f C G { f G ) . b Q I A G b d E G j J b (Synchro Systems )
.(z Y d G f h d E G L d J { `H S d G 22 d G

258
 ee
Vin
VREF Qe

bDe

e OU

. (VFC ) OOqJ dEG da e 4-8 dG

KJ dEG bQ qe
kjCG IqdGh (Digital to Analog Converters) qdG g ODJ
,keR IYe KJ GQTEG dEG bdG GQTEG jJ e (DAC) hCG (D/A)
Voltage Summing ) z d d G H d G{ I d G j d G j d G G S H
e jRGe ae Y Gg ddG qe q dG j .(Amplification
J dG ehdG g He HU dEG k Gfh .jqJ dG bdG ehdG
R-2R) hCG R-2R qdH dG (DAC) T jJ e qH c 1 dEG 20 f dEG
g ah .5-8 dG a dG dG a qdGh ,(Ladder Network DAC
(Switches) e dgh .a e ehe b dEG f dqdG
VQCG dEG hCG ,VREF LdG ddG dEG eEG ehdG e c GQP H J
d a d E G 0101 F d G b d G j H V e d G a d G h J . (Ground )
jOMCG (DACs) J MG qj (R-2R) `d dG JdG CG c .KJ
q d e R d G A G O C G b O e h d G f E G Y I Q O b Z (IC ) I Q h S C K d G
dG p
n Jfh kjOW SJ KJ kda N (R-2R DAC) jo .ddG e
.LdG ddGh bdG

259
 VREF

bQ qe 5-8 dG
. (D A C ) K J - d E G -

KdG dG GQGO
dEG KJ e kjCG (Analog Function circuits) KdG dGdG GQGO qJ
e H M G Q G O h U N A G O C G G Q G O g h (A n a l o g t o A n a l o g C o n v e r t e r s ) K J
J e jcdG ddG IMh Y aqJ ,dHh .KdG GQTEG J
aJ Y k a (D a ta A c q u is i tio n S y s te ms ) f d G c G f C G a G Q T E G g
dG J g k J cCG KdG AGOCG GQGO EG .aVEG eH e j e
QdG OjEGh qSoCG dEG adGh ,dG NCG Yh ,(Multiplication) dG H
Special- Purpose Nonlinear ) U d G q dG Z q GhdG Y AGLEGh ,HdG
R o o t ) S d G H e Q L S H d G K d G A G O C G F G h O e E H . (F u n c t i o n s
(Tr i g o n o m etr i c F u n cti o n s ) J d G
q G h d G M h , (R M S ) h C G (M e a n S q u a r e
Y k a .edGh VdG Y dEG aVEH ,(Vector Sums) pqdG Lh
H AGT j .QJ dEG ddG hCG da dEG QdG jJ GQGdG g eEH dP
Off-The- Shelf) IgL J IO e e / q c d q dG GQG dG
q
. (L o g / A n t i l o g ) q e qj e hCG (Multiplier/ Divider

KdG dG
Z h C G a Y I Q O b U e f (Analog Switches ) K J e g
(Open Switch) jdG bGe Y kbQ Jh ,KdG GQTEG SQEG GQe
.QdG (FET) e AGOC k Gf (CMOS) jH dG g qJo .IkOY

260
J ,e dJh TCH jQJ KJ e aqJ iNCG Mf e
d E G a V E H , (NC ) h (NO ) h (SPST ) e h , Y H Q h , F K h , j O M C G e
Geh ,ILCG a KdG dG Jo .dG jOMCG (DPST)h (SPDT)
IdG GQhSh ,fdG OYoh ,JG fCGh ,JeJhCG dG
.jdG jJ Y ah ,qdGh

dqdG qTdG
ILCG hCG BG Y j dG TdG g (Active Filters) dG pTodG EG
Qe dEG uTdG g J .GQjfGdGh dG q odc fhdEG
,(FHc IQb dEG J dG) dG qTdG Y Y ,fCG EG IQb
Y k a , (Inductor ) e d E G L H d h (Gain ) c J Y I Q O b
kjCG aJ .dG qTdG e Je e kfRh NCGh kM UCG fc
GQGc Me gh ,FHc IQb dEG J ,(Active Filters) Ya uTe
AYE qeh LQN ehe dEG j H CG c ee dG jOMoCG
fe{`H SdG ,1 dG a qTdG kjCG fG) .HdG HSG
.(zdG fhdEG

jJ qe uTe
,ae IQb e hCG e qe dEG J dqa (IC) qTe g
g J .(6-8 dG) IOe GQGO a (IC) qTe jJ feEHh
(Switching Section) jJ AL Y (Switched-Capacitor Filters - SCFs) qTdG
.bbodG f Y (Operational Amplifier Integrator) J J peeoh
, (S2 h S1 ` H k G Q N G a h e ) (MOS ) G Q j f G J d G a g d G h
e (op amp) peeo e AdG Gg N iqj .ehdG C1 qdG cJh
Y H YS J .(Feedback Circuit) IqJdG jdG IQGO a C2 qdG
OOqdG b jJ K (Switch Off) `H IAWEG hCG QjGfGdG (Switch On) J
.qTdG Y cdG

261
 YS
IJG jdG e

de j e
eeo

.(SCF) jJ qe qTe 6-8 dG

(Break-Before-Make) dG b bG jH kdOJ GQjfGdG sJo

IOLdG dG J S2 jh S1 jo ea .H IdG YdG Y k GOYG
IMh a dG fG OGOj ,HK da NpOn OLh eh .VQCG dEG C1 Y
pdG jS ue g QdG EG Mh .(Switching Rate) jdG qe IOjH eR
ehdG b jJ kjCG j ,dHh .QdG jS qe jJ eEa
Y d G d d G N O J N e (Equivalent Resistance Value ) a d G
Jf Se hJ ehd adG dG Ch ,iNCG Mf e .QdG e
dEG adG NpndG ehe Ea ,C1 dG (Switching) jJh Y dG OO J
.YdG g OOJ J N e J (Integrator) peodG

ehe b e op-amp peod (Cutoff Frequency) dG OOqJ jJ j

SCF `d dG OOd adG dG EG .pedG a C2 dGh adG NndG
o
.C2 b e kY SJh ,C1 bh YdG OOJ Jf e kjOW SJ

V d G T h ( H S G ) (SCF ) a V a d G h C G I Q d G G O O d G E G
, Y d G j J O O J Q N G N (Reset ) J I O Y E G j , S d G O O d G
bbQ OYG j .MCG H a LQdG ehdG b Mh ,qdG fh
hCG (High-Pass) kjS k GjJ (Bandpass) edG jJ a d IOe (SCF)
hCG K J dG) (Band- Reject) edG aQ a dch ,(Low-Pass) kH
T C G N C G T d h . (All-Pass-Filter ) e d G j d G T e d , ( (Notch )
:e e eh

262
 hGj K d G OO d G E G .Cauer (elliptic) hC G Bessel h Chebycher h Butterworth
e I e 20 d E G 10 a C G g (SFC ) j Q G S G E G . c C G h C G ,20 Hz h 1 Hz H I O Y
ah ,JdG fCG a k d M (SCFs) J .jdG dqdG qTdG
aVEH ,Y qdGh GUCG dJ ILCG ah ,fhdEG SdG BG
.dG ILCG dEG

qJh YEG pe
qdG ,(Sample-and-Hold Amplifiers - SHAs) q Jh YEG e J
g eEH ,KJ e SGH .eh J q e Y ,7 -8 d G a
MGh dG IQTE fBG idH kjQhO eDJ eY J CG q dG
dG fdG QJ a fBG ddG b dG g Jh DC. c kbDe H
j .(Transducer) bdG qe Mh (Sensor) qpdG e AGHG QGSH
qdG jJ e bQ ` dEG ` KJ qe qJo jW Id ddH (SHA)
- x J q e kjCG (SHAs) qj .kbQ oVY j e N Jh
aqc a (SHAs) J .(THA) hCG (Track-and Hold Amplifier) q Jh
I Q G d . G h O C G e g Z h , (Millimeters Peak Detectors ) j d G I O e I h Q d G
fCG c ,(Analog Output Pins) KJ N eeh ,qJ Nn Onh ,KJ NO
.q J h YEG dG c a d qe

gqJh YH NndG IQTEG (SHA) J (Sample Mode) YEG f a

fEa ,(Hold Mode) q J f a eCG .dG H dH QGdG Qj M
(SHA ICs ) e d G (SHA ) G Q G O a G J . (DC ) c c d G d H J
f d G c C G e h C G , (TTL ) Q j f G d G - Q j f G d G e e a G d G
e e J Nh NOn q e Y (IC) J .(MOS) UdG
.pLQN n e qe dEG J fCG EG QjfGJ

b j d G I d G Y d G M e (THA ) h (SHA ) H d G j
CH d j e j d k jW kbh j (THA) e EG .dG fG
a VdG b iH dG j ,iNCG Mf e .e H j

263
 e d a c S e I d (SHA ) e j d G Y h ; d G a d
JQGdG AGOCG H a e g d .ec IQH (Holding Capacitor) q dG
Host Data Acquisition) FdG fH cG f fH jJ j e Y
.1 MHz Y jJ qHh ,(System
neo

q e
q e
NO N
K NO K N

o qe
e IQGO
(j) hGC
q NO . ( S H A ) J h Y C G e 7 -8 d G

ddG bn nM GQGO
Y fBG QW a (Oscillator) pHneo bn Y IQOb fhdEG GQGO g
(Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) Circuits) IQGdG d .(8-8 dG) qe NO IQTEG
eGe hCG Mp qJ hCG Mp OOqJ (Demodulate) J a Y IQb kjCG
T c Y (PLL ) I Q G O J . e d G e g O O J j I Q T E G (Synchronizing )
jJ WfCG e (Low-Pass-Filter) e Qhe qTeh (Phase Detector)QW
.(VCO) ddH qe qe He SGH J (Feedback Loop) YSG

GQTEG H OOdGh QdG a dG bhdG qjh TdG Gg Ooj

g h S J N f a d , (VCD ) G Q T E G h (Incoming Signals ) e O d G
da kcQJ .(AC) fqe dGREG Y dG QhdG qTe j .bhdG
ie dEG (VCO) a dG OOJ g NdG da qJ .(VCO) n pd (DC)
q dG Y dG QhdG qTeh Q n dG Tc e w c jh .NdG IQTEG
C d G I Q T E G j J G a d G j d H h , Y L Q E G j d G I F G O a (Mixer )
Y IFGdG J dP Yh .j e bCG dEG ,dG OOqdG gh ,(Error Signal)
j jOOdG fRGe OqHh .OOdG dG JH kYLQ CdG IQTEG S
.JQTEG H AdG a NG CG jh NndG IQTEG (VCO)

264
OOJ J Y a (Demodulation) dG dGREG VGZC (PLL) uoU
a .e iNCG GQGO (Stabilizes) fRGH J fCG EG ,(FM) peo
`dG peo a jOdGh aCG dG GQTEG eGe (PLL) eEH ,dG S
,JGdG qJ Y a (Doppler Shift) HhdG GfG KCJ dGREGh TV
dGREG hCG (Klystron Oscillators) fhdG pHnodG OOqJ fRGe kjCG feEHh
GQGO a (PLLs) LJ .JG GQGO a uTdG e (AVdG) jdG
,IdG cqah ,eOdGh ,(Synchronous Detection Circuits) eGdG dG
.(Frequency-Shift Keying) FSK peoh
da He
Y e
]Le /Qe[ dM Tc QhG qTeo
() G
dG j NO N

YLSG jJ WfoCG
. e d G I Q d G G Q G O 8 -8 d G

IQodG edG GQGdG

e I Q G d G e b Q h I Q T E G K J H J e e d G j O Mo C G G Q G O g
GQGdG g d .f bbdG Y OLe cCG hCG MGh IQb QjfGJ
M e a J g h 2 W h C G 2 A e e d G Y I Q d G (Power Integrated Circuits )
bbdG Y YVe ndG fhdEGh IQdG e C GQGdG Md Y
UN FGH uoU fC MdG J ILCG g qS .Y fhdEG
hCG J CG hO IU - IQTEG GQjfGH bbdG Y LGJ CH d J
.bbdG fqe H AGOCG e NGJ

edG (Power Drivers) IQdG bGqS edG IQdG GQGO FGhCG e

High Voltage Neon Seven- ) d G d G T T a d Y d a f J a
Bipolar Digital) dG FKo bdG dG H J dG ,(Segments Displays
J M Me a .f bbdG Y dG FKo IQb QjfGJh (Logic

265
, K J I Q G O H h (MOS ) h d G F K R L H (Power IC ) e e I Q b I Q G O
. (BiMOS ) J a d G F K G Q j f G d G e (CMOS ) e g H d
.(CMOS/DMOS) a DMOS (MOSFET) GQjfGJ e (CMOS) e j mFH
S edG IQGdG Ea (Topology) hCG (Lateral Layout) fL e oYG GPEG
SCGdG dG GSH dh .bbdG Y (cCG hCG) IQb JMh Y J
.a IMGh IQb IMh Y IQGdG S

qdG J a eSG bh ,Se QJh dd Se (BiMOS) J GE

GjddG hCG ddG dG eh ,(Motor Controllers) cdG H
.(Print Head Switching ICs) edG dG SCGdG GQGOh ,(Solenoid Switches)
TT bGqS J a (CMOS/DMOS) J eoSG dP e dG Y
.(Electroluminescent Displays) fhdEG dqCdG TTh ,(AC) eRdG

dPh IQdG RL e dG GQGO d e J K eSG

:g dG gh ,edG dG jOMoCG GQGdG a q dGh NGdG d

U h V j a h (CMOS ) d O G e G g h , (Self Isolation ) J G d G d G

Drain ) j d G e h Q d G H (Reverse-Biased Junction ) S e J
q
A H e ,2 A e b C G J d G I L C G Y d G g b G b h . (Region
.500 V d E G j Q G H d Y d d G

jOMoCG IQqH Jo ah ,(Dielectric Isolation DI) FHdG dH dG

IQGdG FXh AGOC QqH S e IcQ Y Iqeo (Tubs) hCG (Islands)
d (Tub) `dG NGO bbdG e QdG jo CG Lj ddG g ah .edG
Parasitic) W S bCG Jo (DI) CG dG ijh .k GOe d dG i e
. b b d G Y e c d d G e (Capacitance

edG fdG GQGdG H (Junction Isolation JI) UdH dG

Q fG e I c dG Y (Epitaxial) qJ W Jh .jO dG GQG dGh
Hj .(a We) de We jJh dG WdGh U d
.ddG IQdG ILCG a HfG e g QdG fG

266
 S d G dG

edG FGhdGh bdG dG

jdG
ed HdG dG ILCG eT If
(PLDs) (Programmable Logic Devices)

(Gate Arrays ) H G d G a e (Truth Table ) d G h L

kfGe ed HdG HGdG ae (Basic Logic Gates ) S S C G d G H G d G
(Field Programmable Gate Arrays) (FPGAs)k
(Standard Cells ) S d G j d G (Flip-Flop Circuit Variations ) d G I Q G O G j J
UdG f IcGdG ILCG (Binary Counters ) F d G G O G d G
(Semiconductor Memory Devices )
UdG f IcGdG UCG (Shift Registers ) M G R E G e
(Semiconductor Memory Families )
(RAM) F G d G N d G I c G P dGh dG dG
( Random-Acess Memories) (Combinational and Sequential Logic )
(Read-Only Memories- ROMs) a IAGb IcGP (Standard Logic Famlies) SdG dG UCG
TdG Z FGdG NdG IcGP (CMOS ) ` d G U C G H e d G F K
(Nonvolatile RAMs - NV-RAMs ) (Bipolar Versus CMOS Famlies )
edG dG pSodG YdG He IQd fdG SdG
(Universal Receiver-Transmitters ) (Speed Power Graph )
edG bdG ddG fQR GQGO e d G (BiCMOS ) G Q G O
(Gallium-Arsenide Digital ICs ) (BiCMOS Integrated Circuits )
(Digital Logic Characterstics ) b d G d G U G N

267
 eT If
e Y dG ,(SDLIC) SdG edG bdG dG GQGdG J
e fqe fhdEG IQGO AH GMh ,e Ue UCG LdJ
e HGH dqGO ie H SDLIC `dG hGJ .(Logic Gates) e HGH
RdG a Vd (SDLIC) `dG qJo .(VLSI) Ic ee IQGO ieh ,H
.qodG dO a VJh

.qeo NG e ZdG Y kdOJ (IC) edG GQGdG UCG aGJ

dG enod (Special Interface Circuits) UN H GQGO dEG J fCG c
A L (SDIC ) ` d G U C G e d G E a i N C G M f e . (System Integration )
dG Y k a ,dG FGW a IdG YGNGh dG f
,aGj .JQb jJ c Jh dG HGdG YS J a dG
e k GQGe UCG g e mMGh d C ,de bQ e U ,SCd
ah ILCG AGOCG qUGN GQGdG qe ujo ddh . eG fG hCG IA dG
dG SG c GPEG ,dG S Y .edG dG a gCG
UCG MCG e mMGh QNEG j gCG dH k GeCG jdG edG a IQd
QNG j CG LdG a kSSCG ke idG YdG fc GPEG eCG .(CMOS)
d EG dh .(Emitter-Coupled Logic-ELC) e YH e UCG e mMGh
GPEG UNh ,(TTL) UCG e mMGh QNG j ,ke jQNG jg e l CG j
CG bjh ,kVfh k ec kU (TTL) U tnjoh .IOe QOe e Iae fc
.bdG Qhe e Jje fOCG dEG QSCG J

jqe qdG j H GQGdG g J a ke k GeCG dG qJo

dG AHE dPh ,jdhCG e fhj dG G dG H Y R d
jdhCG e qJ dG qUGdG H dOd hqe g dch .e
IQGdG V e e UCG GSG dEG dP iOqCG .gCG qUGH gY
e (BiCMOS ) ` d G h . I A c c C G Q G d G L a g j G e e I O S d I M G d G
. (CMOS ) ` d G h (TTL ) H j e g h , d P Y F Q

268
ddG Ie gCG e jQdH J dG fhdEG dG T OGR d
CG Yh .YdG M Y c dP CG e ZdG Y ,dG IQdGh
J CG Y aQT b dG bdG (CMOS) UCG H qUGN Ea ,M
.da KH bW de SGH qa H J fCG dEG aVEH ,kjJ de
J Lf e J IOYEG a ZGQ udG j d ,iNCG Mf eh
.H aCG mAGOCG Y dG LCG e a dPh ,GSCG a IL H

hCG jb e UCG GSGh AGT a udG H S ,Yh

Sg IOYEG c Qqjo dSG C dPh ,J JQG e ZdG Y ,Ie
.iNCG Ie dG

dG hL
J h , d G h M G d G e d C J a e g (Truth Table ) d G h L E G
qJoh .IQGdG hCG dG HGdG rNnh NrOn nd dG dG c dhH
(A) adG e c joh .dG hGL Y eCG 3-9h ,2-9h ,1-9 TCG
(C) dG j H ,IkOY NdG dG HGd dG hGL a (B)h
bdG dEG (C) dG oa k GJ cCG HGd dG hGL a eCG .dG
W G d G d G d E G Q j c . (Sum ) d G d E G (S ) d G j H , (Carry )
j h . (1 ) M G d H (Logic High ) d d G d G d E G h , (0 ) d H (Logic Low )
e k c EG .IQGdG J SGH dGh ddG dd dG dG jJ
jJ feEG aGJ CG T dS hCG Le nb J Y QlOb dGh MGdG
.H dG a dG

269
dG edG dG hL

dG HGH - CG

dG HGH -

QNG HGH -

dG f HGH -O

HGd (dG) RedG 1 -9 dG

, (NOT ) d G H G H - C G : ` d d G h G L h
Q N G H G H - , (AND ) d G H G H -
QNG f HGH -`g - ` g , (NAND ) d G f H G H - O , (OR )
. (NOR ) Q N G f H G H

HGH
QNG HGH
dG

f HGH
dG
(CG)
()

HGH QdG QNG HGH 2 -9 dG

QNG
QdG - C G : Exclusive OR (XOR) Gate
.dG hL - ,edG - ,e
()

270
 HGH
QNG
QdG

HGH
dG

(CG)

qL
f
()
()

qL HGH
f QNG

qL
HdG qdG e M
q ndG f
(P)

,(Half Adder Logic) f qLn e - CG :(Adder Gates) q n dG HGH 3-9 dG

Half Adder )dG q
n d d G h L - , ( H a l f A d d e r S y m bol) dG qdG eQ -
.(Full Adder Logic) edG qdG e - O ,(Truth Table

SSCG dG HGdG
:HGH gh ,(Basic Logic Gates) SSCG e HGH N kdM aj
a V E H , L d G H G d G g h . (NOT ) d G h , (OR ) Q N G , (AND ) d G
.ddG HGqdG gh (NOR) QNG f HGHh (NAND) dG f HGH dEG
,dG dG HGqd dG RedG (`g) dEG (CG) `dG e 1-9 dG jo
HGH hL dG S Y NCdh .e IMGh d dG hL dEG aVEH
e h d G I A G H C G f . d G h L J h : - 1 -9 d G a (AND )
H , N d G G W C G (B ) h (A ) a d G e c j M j d G a C G f d G
, h d G a O d G S C G f I A G d G H J G P E G h . d G W (C ) d G j
,(Logic Low) kWGh ke hCG k GU (B)h (A) `dG e c hj eY fCG MS

271
k GU hJ (A) fc GPEG eCG .kjCG kWGh ke hCG k GU hj (C) dG Ea
,U dGh (Logic High) kdY ke hCG k GMGh (B) hS .kWGh ke hCG
(B)h (A) e c c GPEG eCG .kWGh ke hCG k GU hS (C) dG Ea
dPh ,kdY ke hCG k GMGh hS (C) dG Ea kdY ke hCG MGh jhj
. H e (B ) h (A ) N d G V a j d G M d G d G g G g C
jJ eEH dP dEG aVEH .keJ (AND) dG HGH Y dG Gg j
.f hdG J jW GSH iNCG dG HGdG Y

QdG QNG HGH CG (XOR) HGH e ,k GJ cCG FXh Y d

HGHh ,QNG HGH gh H a HGqH K Uh j ,(Exclusive OR)
dG a dG dG SdG a qe g c ,dG f HGHh ,dG
- 2-9 dG eCG .-2-9 dG a (XOR) HGd dG SdGh ,CG-2-9
MCG j eY fCG ,hdG Gg a MdGh .HGdG d dG hL qa
c c GPEG eCG .kdY ke S (C) dG Ea kdY ke (B) hCG (A) NdG
Gg jh .kWGh ke S (C) dG Ea dY e (B)h (A) NdG
. (XOR ) Q d G Q N G H G H Y j W d G

,(Half Adder) dG q n d dG dG SdG CG-3-9 dG qj

qj c .N annWh NO annW GP (Binary Circuit) FK IQGO Y IQY gh
SdG O-3-9 dG jo a , qdG Gd dG h L -3-9dG
H j c q j dG ,(Full Adder) edG q n d dG dG
.KG (Two Half Adders) f YqL

dG IQGO GjJ
M e e RGq g p H eo IQGO g (Flip-Flop Circuit) q dG IQGO EG
dG a z q dG GQGO{ a Uh J (Two-Stage Multivibrator Circuit)
SdG ,1-5 dG joh .zSSCG fhdEG GQGdG{`H SdG edG
g .NO n f d N f fEG q dG eEH CG ,IQGdG d dG
:g q dG GQGO e e m GfCG HQCG

272
q b - 3 , (J-K Flip Flop ) h C G (J-K )
q b - 2 ,(D-Flip Flop) D j d G
q b-1
.(T-Flip Flop) T q b 4 - ,(Reset-Set (RS) Flip-Flop) RS d G I O Y E G - d G

Combinational and Sequential) zdGh dG dG{ kjCG fG)

. ( d G G g a (Logic

D jdG H
q b
dG a dG SdG a qdG (Delay (D) Flip-Flops) ,D jdG q b
,Y S f I d N O N C H J f I Q GO d E G a VE H J-K
q b g ,C G- 4 -9
dG qj .HS f e X NO dqGO g dG Ea ddh .IMGh
. q dG Gd dG edG -4-9

J-K H
q b
dG a dG SdG a dG ,(J-K Flip-Flops ) J-K
q b dC j

()
(CG)
q b ,4 -9 dG
,dG -CG : D f e
.edG -

YS

(CG)

.edG - ,dG -CG : J-K b 5 -9 dG

()

273
 J h . d G H e d U e e (NAND ) V f G Q G O H Q C G e , C G -4 -9
Y (mY e) k GMGh hj Jh K NdG e c c GPEG q dG Gg N dM
hd YdG f SGH dG jo .(Clock Pulse) YdG f M
k G M G h h j a K N d G c G P E G e C G . (1 ) k G M G h h j J N d G c G P E G k G M G h
QNG g q dG Gd Kh J adG QNG EG .k GU hd dG jo
. q dG Gd dG edG - 5-9 dG qjh.WYG

dG IOYEG ` dG H
q b
a dG SdG a qdG ,(Reset-Set (R-S) Flip-Flops) q b dCj
. (NAND Logic Input Circuits ) e N O V f J Q G O e , C G - 6 -9 d G
g h (S ) N d G I Q G O a i N C G e C G , d G I O Y E (R ) N d G I Q G O d h C G J
j J j h . Y b d G a (1 e h C G ) J Q G d G J g i M E G Y h , d G I Q G O
LJ T a qdG d oj dG bdG N e q dG J YS
.(S) dGh (R) dG IOYEG nNrOn H dUe (Clock-Steering Network) YS
q dG j ,YdG f Uh Y MGd kjhe S NdG Y dG c GPEGh
kjhe R NdG Y dG c GPEG eCG .MGd kjhe Q dG jh , k qT
.dG Y bdG dM hCG ,zU{ dG dEG IQGdG V oonS dP Ea MGd
h C G (Set-Reset Flip Flop ) d G I O Y E G ` d G q H kjCG q dG Gg qjh
. q dG Gd dG edG - 6-9 dG qj .RS q b

b 6-9 dG
:(RS) dG IOYGE - dG
.edG - h ,dG - GC
(CG) ()

(dG IOYEGh dG d H
q d G G Q G d G ) RST H
q b
(Reset Set Trigger (RST) dG IOYEGh dG H UdG
q dG IQGd EG

274
 GPEa . q d G d M d j C G j d G (T ) a V E G b N O ,Flip Flop)
d M d E G L S (T) h C G S N O a f E a (OFF ) A W E G d M a q dG N c
GPEG ,dP eh .ddG a mH qJ (R) NO a f CG EG ,(ON) TG
ah .oS (T) hCG (R) e c NO a f Ea ,TG dH q dG N c
kjCG q dG Gg qj .J dM CG Jo (S) NO a f Ea ddG g
H h C G (Set-Reset Trigger (SRT) Flip-Flop ) d G I O Y E G h d G b q H
. (9 -6 d G ) (SRT)

T Hb

g , C G - 7 - 9 d G a d G S d G a d G ,( T F lip F l o p s ) T q b EG
W Y Y S f h C G W E G f J a j I e c a d M J , (J - K )
q b
q H kjCG qj .GOGdG GQGO a SGh H q dG Gg onjo .T NdG
. q dG Gd dG edG -7-9 dG qj .(Toggle Flip Flop) dG

YS

(CG) ()
.edG - ,jdG - CG :T OOdG b 7 -9 dG

FdG GOGqdG
uYn Y IQOdG H
q dG e S g (Binary Counters) FdG OGqdG EG
q b e dG FdG OGqdG qj .bdG GQGdH qd dG
,T H
.(Ripple Counter) qdG OGqH ,8-9 dG a qdG

YS NO eQ 8 -9 dG
dG qdG OGY
.8 (3-bit) Se
275
dG jhd adG jg V Ojh , q b c a Kh J adG Uh j
Y k a h . (T ) q b d (J-K )
q b UdG g uJo c .(Logic 1) hCG 1
IOYEG qJ fC dPh ,(Logic 0) k GU dG hj q b d Q N Ea dP
, (FF0 ) h C G q dG e q c N dEG Qjo .1 dG jhd J-K adG V
I h Y . d G d G Y Q2 h ,Q1 h ,Q0 ` H (FF2 ) d d G q d G h , (FF1 ) f d G
q dGh
qjoh .(Least Significant Bit - LSB) kje bCG q pdG ,Q0 dG qjo ,dP Y
.(Most Significant Bit - MSB) kje cCG q pdG ,Q2 dG

N d M J h . Y S f c Y I e (FF0 ) q dG N dM J
a (FF2 ) q d G N d M e C G . Y S f H Q C G c Y I e (FF1 ) q dG
Y J dG GOGqdG qJ ,dG Gg H .YS f K c Ie
c G P E G e C G . (Divide-by-8 Circuit ) f K Y b E G I Q G H b e H q b K
Y S Y bEG IQGH qa ,b e H q b HQCG Y j OGq dG
. (Divide-by-16 Circuit )

Gf dPh ,(Asynchronous Counter) eGe Z OGqY g qdG OGqY EG

eeCG OGY fCH OGqdG Gg o njoh .H q dG e MGh c a YS f eGJ
f c j fC ,kjCG (Up Counter) YJ OGY hCG (Forward Counter)
OGdG a H q dG c dM Jh bqnDJo ,iNCG Mf e .dG dEG NO
G O G d i N C G G f C G E G . f b d G a (Synchronous Counter ) e G d G
:g
j (Reverse Counter) Y OGqY gh ,(Down Counter) dRdG OGqdG
.NO f c Y HS OmY e 1 H
JG FK OGqY gh ,(Up-Down Counter) dRdG ` YdG OGqdG
.dRJ OGqc hCG ,YJ OGqc eEG dG Y QOb (Bidirectional Counter)
i NCG e dG j OGq Y gh (Modulo Counter) d jO e OGq Y
4 dEG 1 e dH j dG 5 ` djOe OGqY dP Y eh .FdG dEG aVEH
dG SdG 9-9 dG qj .edG dG Y dG dEG f V jh
qojn ,(Decade Counter) Yp OGqY gh ,(Modulo-10 Counter) 10 djOe OGqd

276
j ,iNCG Mf eh .ITdG dG Y dG e CGd dG j K 9 dEG 1 e
. e d G e S S G j H (NAND Gate ) d G f H G H U h

YS

.eGdG Z dG OGqd dG edG 9 -9 dG

MGREG
q e
F d G b d G j J Y I Q O b I Q G O g (Shift Register ) M G R E G q e EG
e (n ) O Y d G h C G F d G b d c G P E G h . d G h C G (Binary Number )
. (n-bit Word ) z q pdG e (n) OY e c {`H qjoh ,dG S Y ,qpdG
q dG j M .bdG H q d G e (n ) O Y e n-bit M G R E G e d C j
cCG q d G Y FFn-1 q dG j H ,(LSB) kje bCG q pdG Y FF0
e SSCG GfCG N IOY aGj . q dG a fqdG d (MSB) kje
:g MGREG q e
H g C G J h d G j H J . (Serial Registers ) d G
q d G -1
Right-Shift ) z d G M GRE G e { SG d G g Y j . e
MGREG H qJ H ;dG dEG M n G eo dG f c GPEG (Register
.QdG dEG MGeo dG fc GPEG (Left-Shift Register) jQdG
Parallel-Out ,Serial-In) RG dG dGh dG N dG
q e -2
qJ .RmGe H gCGJh kJ dG jH q dG g J .(Registers
.(Serial-to- Parallel Converters) RGdG ` dGE ` dG e qdH kjCG

277
Serial-Out ,Parallel-In) dG dGh RGdG N dG q e -3
H gCGJh RmGe H dG jH q d G g J . (Registers
Parallel-To-Serial) dG dEG ` RGdG e dH kjCG J .e
q q
. (Converters
. (Parallel-Out-Registers ,Parallel-In ) j R G d G d G h N d G
q e -4
.RmGe H dG IAGbh jH dG g J
,
q dG g j Joh ,(Circulating Registers) IQGhq dG q dG -5
Dynamic Shift ) M GRE G e j d G q dH qJh .QGSH M a dG
(Shift-Ring Read-Only Memories ) a I A G d d G M G R E G I c G P h (Registers
Bit Serial Shift-4) q pH HQCG hP dG MGREG
q e q j .k jCG
dM a q b c N j .J-K H q b e k GOY ,10-9 dG a qdG ,(Registers
.YS f c Y j dG q dG
fdG

YS f
hCG (SISO) dG dGh NdG P MGREG d dG e dG 10 -9 dG
. (Serial-In Serial-Out (SISO) Shift Registers )

dGh dG dG
e k Gc jQdG (DLIC) edG bdG dG GQGO UCG J
. (Sequential ) J e E G h (Combinational ) J e E G f C H J d G I L C G
.d IcGP GQGdG g C oJ dG NdG Y AkH GQGdG H Jh
HK GQTEG J NdG GWCG Y GQTEG Ye d Ea dP Y k a
dG f HGqH :dG ILCG Y eCG qJ .dG GWCG Y
HGqHh ,(OR) HGq Hh ,(AND) dG HG Hh ,(NOR) HGq Hh ,(NAND)

278
 c dG T b GQGOh (Inverters) c dG dEG a VE H ,(XOR)
. (Schmitt-Trigger Inverters )

,edG jJ dG dG RL YSH Ea ,dP e dG Yh

Y kjCG j c ,NO IQTEG GMEG a RdG N IQTEG Y OYGh
IQb J .NdG J CG ` HS bh a RdG SG dG NdG GQTEG
bdG AdG GMhh fCG a dGh dG Mf e GJ g IcGdG
.a VJ dG

IQOb H HGqH GQGO a ,dG dG Y e gh ,H q dG eCG

Hq b j d G b d G d G U C G (D ) J h . e d G j J Y
KdG ddG GP dG J a dG IOYEGh d Hb Hh , jdG
(SDLICs ) ` d G a F Q G Q G O H q dG qJo .(Noninverting) d Hb Z
q dGh ,(Transparent Latches) adG bdG e i NCG dG
.IcGP ILCG ch ,(Counters) GOGqdGh ,(Registers)

SdG dG UCG
bQ AH GMh (SDLICs) edG bdG SdG dG GQGdG qJo
fCG qod H a ILCG g UJ .dG e a dG GSd
U c a IaGdG dG HGqd dG jdG J .cqeo e
.d LM IQe UY GSG hO dG H qd

j ,dc Ga e Ic Iae HdG dqGdG J d EG ,M CG Y

,dG e SG e d SdG edG GQGdG j CG qd
d ee GQGO AGH hCG ,e fqe SGH IQGdG bH Jh
g J b .dG d Ye (Application-Specific IC-ASIC) qe
hCG ,qe d q e T hCG ,dG M eEG Ye edG GQGdG
.(Gate Array) e HGqH ae

qJ dG dG HGdG c bGdG bdG dG UCG qJ

279
je e ,iNCG dqGO J c ,zSSCG dG HGdG{ Ia a be
,(Multiplexers) Y dGh ,(Decoder/Demultiplexer) q dG/ dG
HpHodGh ,(Voltage Controlled Oscillators) ddH edG HpHodGh
GO U dEG a VE H ,(Comparators) f Qp dGh ,(Multivibrators) IOdG
, (First-Out Memory Buffers ,First-In ) k hCG j , k h C G N G d G (FIFO ) I c G P
KdG ddG GP GOqU aG Jh .(Memory Controllers) IcGdG cMh
d H dG Z Jh (Three-State Inverting Buffers) d H dG
edG SdG dG GQGdG q Jo .(Three-State Noninverting Buffers)
p eh ,(Transceivers) SGh SQEG I LCG (Standard Logic ICs)
H Uh GQG c (Line Drivers) dG b e q Jh ,(Receivers)
. (Interface Circuits )

b hdG hO e dEG M d IdG dG VY J Y EG

k GeCG ,kFHc dhe Y AHEGh ,IMGh bbQ Y q GO K ee e L
e dDe eRQ T Y dG dG q GdG aGJ dP Y k a .ke
YCG aH j e , q S h C G , (Quad ) H Q C G
q G O (Octal ) K h C G , (Hex )
IQGdG Md Me Y ae dEG aVEH ,dqGO d bCG Hh fqd
qe q j e Ggh ,MdG Y eRdG ac J N e (Circuit-Board)
.GQGdG

q GO J CG ,Y H ,dG Z e
(IC Functions ) e d G G Q G d G
.dG q GdG e Jc GSCG a J LPf Le k GL IqdG
Y M a ,SdG edG GQGdG Y FGH GSG qdG QGb j
O Yh ,(Power Limitations) IQdG Obh ,IQGdG Md M e Y , g aG J
eY Y
k a ,FGdG g aGJh J dEG aVEH ,HdG edG
.dG dEG nodG jE zdEG{

E a , (SLICs ) G S H d G e F g c U e E H c d M
edG AGLCG OY d YCG eJ je dEG j qdG

280
IOL d dPh ,IQGdG Md M J dEG aVEH ,IQdG eh
dG ILCG jdG SdG dG FGH J .c Nh IMdG
aeh ,(Field-Programmable Logic Devices-PLDs) kfGe ed HdG
h C G , (Standard Cells ) j Q d G j d G d E G a V E H , (Gate Arrays ) e H G H
. (Custom IC ) d G M Y d G e d G G Q G d G

Small-Scale) dG idG Y k e J j dG (SDLICs) `dG q J

SdG edG hCG ,bCG k GM HGH 12 dGM e dD dG (Integration-SSI
H G H 100 d G M e d j b d G (Medium-Scale Integration-MSI ) i d G
b d G (Large-Scale Integration-LSI ) i d G d G e d G h C G , b C G k G M
Very ) k G L c i H e d G hC G , M b C c H G H 1000 d G M Y j
O D J h . H G H 10000 e c C G Y j b d G (Large Scale Integration-VLSI
fCG a qe FXh jQJ c IadG (VLSI ICs) `dGh (LSI ICs) `dG
f C G a h C G , (Telecommunication ) S d G h d G J G h , G Q d G
.dG aJ

FdG pdodG GNG Y f SDLICs `dG Y dG dLEG VfG EG

Microcontroller-) jh dG G dGh ,(Microprocessors-MPU) dG
ICs ` d G Y J d G G Q G d G c E G h C G z H d { J d G R e f C G E G , (MCU
.kjCG dG T edG GQGdGh dG M YdG

CMOS ` d G U C G H e d G F K
:a K Y dG bdG UCG RJ

e (2 ) , (Transistor-Transistor Logic-TTL ) Q j f G J ` Q f G J e (1 )
cCG Ue f LdJ (3) ,(Emitter-Coupled Logic-ECL) peo YH
TTL `dG UCG Jo .(Complementary Metal-Oxide Silicon-CMOS) e meh
, (Bipolar Junction Transistor-BJT ) d G F K U d G Q j f G J Y ECL ` d G h
LdG IdG (MOSFET) GQjfGJ H dG Y (CMOS) `dG jo H

281
IQ U CG- 11-9 dG qjh . d dG I dG GP (MOSFET) GQjfGJh
qj H ,(Inverter) cdG hCG (CMOS NOT Gate) d (CMOS) HGd e
.H G d G d d G e d G - 11 -9 d G

` d d G U d G G Q j f G J d E G (Bipolar ) z d G F K { e j
- L d G U d G G Q j f G J h , (NPN Junction Transistors ) d d G ` L d G
` d G h TTL ` d G I L C G a e d G (PNP Junction Transistors ) L d G - d d G
H GQjfGdG ,NdG GOqUh dG bGqS e c J .ECL
dG UCG fc .ITe QjfGJ dEG QjfGJ Uh g J
U e h (Resistor-Transistor Logic-RTL ) Q j f G J ` h e e , H d G
GSH H a o nU Jo (Diode-Transistor Logic-DTL) QjfGJ ` F K
dG G g j d .(Resistors) ehp dGh (Diodes) FdG epdG
.RGdG jb UCG CG H GQGdG eJ a ee
dG
HGdG QdG
QdG HGdG

dG dG

N f S

MOSFET MOSFET
Le IH (CG) dS IH

Le IH MOSFET

NO

dS IH MOSFET

()

.dG SdG - h ,IQGdG - CG :d (CMOS) HGH 11 -9 dG

282
 e h f E G S J U d G (TTL ) ` d G I L C G e U C G d G f c
gdH qdG TTLs `dH qJ ,keY HQCG e cCG e ,(Texas Instruments)
TTL `dG ILCG Y J j LCG dG e Yh .(Gold-Doped TTLs)
q
.YS IOjRh IQd UeG c e d

FdG GQjfGdG dEG (Schottky Diode) JT pU aVEG XCG

aCG AGOCG GP IY IjL UCG N dEG dP iOCG M ,k Gc kq J dG
ILCG UCG g qJh .(TTL) `dG e dhCG dG e Je AGOCG e
J T (TTL) I LCGh ,(Schottky TTL - STTL) S dG J T (TTL)
ILCG dEG aVE H ,(Low-Power Schottky TTL - LSTTL) IQdG dG
Advanced Low-Power Schottky TTL ) e d G h I Q d G d G J T (TTL )
. (FAST ) I Q d G h j d G J T (TTL ) h (- ALSTTL

,ddG YdH dG SSCG SdH (CMOS) `dG Y (TTL) `dG bqJ

Higher ) Y C G Q j f G J c h , (Higher Output Drive ) n d YCG nSh
. b d G Q h e e T J N C G S d G g C G E G , (Transistor Gain

Y (CMOS) `dG I LCG a , d dGh L dG ,(MOSFET) Jb J

M d G e (ECL ) h (TTL ) ` d G I L C G a d G F d G U d G G Q j f G J
CMOS ) f e (CMOS ) R L h C G H (RCA ) c T e b . d G h j d G
a Jfqd ddG adG dEG aVEH ,IQd dG cSH qJ (4000B
gj UCa (CMOS) `dG AGOCG e INCG GjdG q M .IMGdG bbdG
f d G H G d G h P (CMOS ) R L (CMOS 4000B ) ` d G e M h . (TTL ) ` d G R L
HG dG hP Y dG d Y (CMOS) R Lh ,(Metal Gate CMOS-MGCMOS)
(CMOS ) R L h (High Speed Silicon Gate CMOS - HC/HCT CMOS ) f d G
Improved High Speed Silicon Gate ) d G d d G Y d Gh f d G H G d G hP
q
ACL and FAST -) Q dG (CMOS) R Lh ,(CMOS - HCS/HCTS CMOS
q
Improved High Speed Silicon Gate) dG d dG Y dGh (CMOS
q
,(ACL and FACT- CMOS) R L dEG a VE H (CMOS-HCS/HCTS -CMOS
. (Low Voltage CMOS - LVX CMOS ) d d G d G (CMOS ) R L h

283
LdG a dCj dGh , q d F d G V d G j d G e (ECL ) ` d G J
g KfG We a J ,IOe dG FK NO GQjfGJ e MGdG
dG Y NdG RfG j .dG H e dUe GQjfG dG
(ECL ) ` d G J d d c h . j C G H q dG Y QGSH cdG
aCG (Switching) jJ YS qJ dGRe fCG EG ,ddG c a cCG IQb
.NBG e U CG YS e H

`dGh (LOOK ECL) `dG qJoh .IjY Gd (ECL) `dG Y dG jLoCG

.q dG (ECL) `dG UCG MCG e KK (ECLinPS) `dGh (HECL10)

e YdG OJoh .NdG GP (NAND) HGH SGH bdG (IC) `dG AGOCG qjo
, f K f d H S J h , H G d (Propagation Delay ) Q f G N C J e S b N
(Power Dissipation) IQdG jJ qe Sb N e IQdG SG Oonjo H
Y dG qH iNCG eGdG J j .(milli Watts) GqdH SJh HGd
.IQdGh YdG Y dG dG UCG AfG Y aCG QdG fCG hj b
CG) IQGdG a S dG dG hdGh ,adG IQdG Qe dP qjh
dP Y k a .(dG dG /jdG SDdG hCG ,fdG hCG ,dG
.iNCG nuodG QOdG hCG FGdG aGJh IMdG J QYG H NCG j

YdG He IQd fdG SdG

j f H S Q g (Speed-Power Graph ) Y d G H e I Q d f d G S d G
SCGdG QdG s jo .YSh bdG dG UCG IQ b qUG N H
,GKff dEG ,(YdG) HGdG a QJG NCJ e CG ,fdG Sd (OdG)
.WGqe dEG ,(IQdG) HGdG jJ qe CG ,dG aCG QdG os jo H
.ke kbQ ke kU 12 nb Se J f 12 QfG 12-9 dG qjh

Ea ,HGd IQb jRJ qe bCG qJo (CMOS) `dG UCG CG e ZdG Y

kSGh k GJ dG (TTL) `dG UCG Jo .YCG YS J (ECL) `dG UCG
fdG SdG Y IOLdG dG J .IQdGh YdG :MdG c a

284
dG g NDJ .gdH qdG SdG (TTL) `d SQ (10mW x 10ns)
dG GjdG J .dG ILCG QJ MGe a e kc
qe ie N dEG dG qe Y foCG dG bdG dG UCd
d E G a V E H , d G U C G H G H a (Propagation Delay ) Q f G j J
(0,0 ) U C G f e J K G M E G J h , d e d I Q d G j J e J
.IQdG jJ GfGh gedG YdG Y J dG ,fdG SdG a
(mW) HGdG a QJG NCJ qe

(mW) HGdG a IQdG jJ qe

.kbQ ke kU 12 YS - IQb QfG 12 -9 dG

`dG R c , J T (TTL) UCG Y NOoCG dG dG H q b

e (TTL) `dG ILCG a QfG NCJh bdG jJ dqe ,(FAST)h (ALSTTL)
YS qe j .SCG keJ M b fc (CMOS) `dG CG EG ,UCG f
a I Q d G j J e e C G ,3 ns e b C G d E G d G (ACL CMOS ) ` d G a , H G d G
.0.001 mW d E G 0.00 e b C G

GQNG Ff Y bdGh IQdG H bdG qj dG fdG SdG Ho

n
- 2 ) N d G G P d G f H G H e O Y Y u d G H b e j L o C G
f c qJoh .dG IY KEG LddG e c a (Input NAND Gate
J dG dG OJ dG dG V J ,Sh f fdG SdG a

285
fdG SdG Y IMGh f CG Ghj d qdG ZCG CG eh .InodG ILCG
IOL CG Y e aGh a ,U H Je IOL J Y IlQOb
SdG MU Jh .fdG SdG a qdG qdG e QJ dG g
.Ke Hh jQGM hX a iJo IjY ImMqe a GAGLEG Y fdG

e d G (BiCMOS ) G Q G O
iNCG e dG GQG dGh jh dG dp o dGh G cG dG J
e ,dG FKh (CMOS) JQGO e YdG (f bbodG Y pVdG)
. d G F K I Q G d d d G Y d G d E G a V E H I Q d G d G (CMOS ) S G
M (Analog Applications ) K d G d G e d G F K (ICs ) ` d G S J
C G c , (CMOS ) ` d G J e Y S e a C G a (Switching ) j d G Y S E G
(CMOS) GQGO J ,iNCG Mf e .cCG (Current Drive) QJ rnS jd
e YCG HGH aH Jh ,bCG IQGM OJ fCG Y k a ,bCG IkQb ,edG
.dG FK GQGdG H J dG adG

.dG FdG GQGOh (CMOS) GQGO e k GJ cCG (BiCMOS) bbQ qJ

e W C G I d K d G (ICs ) ` d G U a (BiCMOS ) ` d G L d J e S G b h
`dG LdJ SH IkOY o n jo .bdG (ICs) `dG U a eG SG I e
: g h , e S C G K d b d G (ICs ) ` d G U a (BiCMOS )
. K d G I L C G e a G J -1
.bdG Rd q dG AGOCG -2
. d d G d G -3
G c G d G J d G f I Q d G (BiCMOS SRAM ) G c G P S G G P E G
, d G J e e R e S C G (Access Time ) N O e R J f E a d G F d G
FK GcGdG eR e kjhe NO eR J fEa ,bCG IQb SG GPEG eCG
d G (BiCMOS ) G c G P a , I c G d G j N h d G q GO qJ .dG
I/O ) N
r n /NrOn IQGO dCJ H ,(CMOS) GQGO e ,ddG adG GPh IQdG
G P G c G d G E a , M C G Y h . (ECL ) I L C G h C G (TTL ) I L C G e , (Circuitry

286
, dG dGRE (ECL) `dG RL ,J dG a dGh d dG IQ dG
.dG bGS dEG aVEH ,q dGh

a (Critical Paths) L pdG GQ dG a IQ TEG NC J k G ND e fG

LfEG (I/O) LN /NO AGOCG OGORG H ,(BiCMOS) jhdG pddG
(BiCMOS Gate Array ) , (BiCMOS ) H G d G a e J . (I/O Throughput )
Bipolar) dG FK HGdG ae J dG IQdG e bCG IQb IkOY
je e (BiCMOS) HGdG ae Jo .YCG HGH ac jdh (Gate Array
. (CMOS ) ` d G h d G F K H j L C e d G d G e A j

(Bipolar I/O) dG FK I/O e eCG OH a (CMOS) `dG ae fqJ

a dG FK GQjfGdG J UCG INCG fhBG a dh ,a
Y S e IO S d dPh ,(Registers) dGh ,(Adders) YqdG
b d G d d G H b d G / K d G ICs ` d G J h . d d G (NPN ) G Q j f G J
. d G F K I Q T E d K d G d d G h , d d G a d , (CMOS ) ` d G a I Q T E d

bdG dG UGN
j b fCG EG .gCG dG cCG e dG UCG a ,IkOY ,YdG qJo
,IQd ddG SGh ,(Noise) AVdG qdJ e ce ddG YdG Y
YdG SJ .MdG J HU jGJ Y k a ,fqd ddG dGh
f K f d H ,OR Q N G H G H Q f G N C c (Digital Logic Speed ) b d G d G
J g d H (D-Type Flip-Flop Toggle Rate ) D f e q b OOqJ ch ,(ns)
T Y IkOY VJoh .(ns) fKfdH N (Switching) jJ ec hCG ,(MHz)
.fdGh idG d qe

:g dG bdG qUGdG EG
dM a J hCG qJ dG YdG gh :(Switching Speed) jdG YS
g Jo .dH dGh dG dG dEG ddG dG e HGdG rNn
fKfdH SJo (Average Propagation Delay) QfG jJ qe fCH YdG

287
c a HZe UN ddG jdG YS CG Hh .(fdG e Qe e MGh CG)
.eEG Qb Ib QfEG NCJ Ia J CG a dG GQGdG
J d G F H d G b d G Q G e g h : (Power Dissipation ) I Q d G j J
SJh ,IQd HGdG jJ e kjCG gh .RdG J Y N IQGM dEG
Qb e jdG e b J CG j .(milliWatt - mW) Gh qdH
.jdG ce e dGh IQdG Y d dPh ,eEG
N C J e V U M g h : (Speed-Power Product ) I Q d G Y S J f
LdH Y jh .(mW) HG dG IQ b j J eh (ns) HGdG Q fG
. b d S b I M h g h (Picojoules-pJ )
SGh SQEG d S e gh :(Noise Margin) A V dG q M
M a j b C N M h O e e B G H (DLICs ) ` d G S G H , e d G
A V d G M j C G d G e h . (Electrical Noise ) F H c A V V O L h
HdG NdG da e cCG dG da J CG j c ,eEG Qb kSGh
.(Volts) ddH AVdG qM Sjo .U H dG M d
i N C G H G d G f H b S j e Q G e g h : (Fan-Out ) j d G
Y Y j j d G C d P h k G L e I Q d G g E G . b Q (ICs ) S G H
. I Q G d G M d a (ICs ) ` d G O Y J
e h C G I Q G d G S G S S e g h : (Circuit Density ) I Q G d G a c
J CG dG a .zdG ddG{ a (Real Estate) zHdG QdG{`H qj
M ,fdG bbdG Y e Me bCG , k e HGdc ,TdG GQGdG
GQjfGdG OY j .(Square Mils) fEG e dCG a MG H S J
GQjfGdG g OHCG Y IMGh bbQ Y ee j dG HGdGh
Y IQdGh dG FHdG dG e iNCG eGY dEG aVEH HGdGh
.IQGdG jJ
dG UCG H U J EG :dG UCG J J
GN OY e ITe bY dh .NBG dG U J e YCG bdG
,(Wafer) bbdG fE HdG (Processing) ddGh ,(Masking) dG
.ddG fh bbdG M dEG aVEH ,HdG QNG GAGLEG Y k a

288
 ed HdG dG ILCG
(Programmable Logic Devices-PLDs) ed HdG dG ILCG qJ
d G (AND ) d G h (OR ) Q N G H G H e d D e e Z a e e
H HGhdG J hCG a N e UN e FXH d JJ j dG
HGhdG (Blowing) J N e dP J eEH .kFfG HGdG g
a ,dG HGhdG Ue N N e hCG ,ILCG H a Qfd HdG
,(PLDs) `dG aJ CG j . d dG a d dPh ,i NCG I LCG
dG M YdG dG H e ,IgL jQJ ILCc IadG
, F g H J h e Q O e e (PLDs ) ` d G a G J c . j O Y G T h C G
.kf NQ a ddh

e d H d G a I A G d G I c G P L d d O G e G g (PLDs ) ` d G L d J E G
`dG e H j .(Field Programmable Read-Only Memory-PROM) kfGe
Jo fCG e ZdG Y dG FXdG H AGOCG Y IQOb d (PROMs)
Jo UCG fCG c ,IQdG g e SJ CG (PLDs) eEHh .GcGc
` d G L d J e G f C G K K G S G d E G a V E H , (ECL ) ` d G h (TTL ) ` d G G S H
: g h (CMOS )

a TCH dGREd HdG ` 2 ,(Fuse Programmable) ed HdG pUdG ` 1

.(Electrically Erasble) kFHc dGREd HdG ` 3 ,(Ultraviolet Erasable) dG

(Acronyms ) G d G h d G A S C G d E G I Q T E G (PLD ) ` d G e j
d G - (Monolithic Memories ) j Q e d f e c T e b h . H J d G
- (Advanced Micro Devices-AMD ) z j j O h e f a O C G { S H d G J
e C G . (Programmable Array Logic-PAL ) e d H d G d G a d G j H
zcfc S a{ SH BG J dG ` (Signetics) jS cT
e d H d G d G a d G j H e b a - (Philips Semiconductor )
Qc GdCG c T Joh .(Field-Programmable Logic Array-FPLA) kfGe
kFHc ed HdG ILCH qJ dG (CMOS PLDs) `dG (Altera Corp)

289
 e e i N C G d G e C G . (Electrically Programmable Devices-ELPDs )
e d H d G U d G e h (Integrated Fuse Logic-IFL ) e d G U d G
.PLD ` d G d a O G e a (Fuse-Programmable Logic-FPL )

I L C G G S G g (PLAs h PALs ) d h C G (PLDs ) ` d G j J e d G E G

H G H 100 d E G 4 e d C J f c M , (SSI ) U i H e d G d G
(FPLAs ) ` d G h (PALs ) M a d P Y k a h .H G H 500 h 100 H UC a
IQGdG Md Me GNG dEG iOqCG e ,cCG hCG jJ e (ICs) HQCG e
.IQdG SG Nh

E G , H G H 50,000 Y J d G i d G I c (CMOS PLDs ) ` d G a G J h G g

1200 H hGj e Y J dG J g GSCG a kYT (PLDs) `dG cCG CG
(ASIC ) H G d G a e h C G (PLDs ) ` d G S G Q N E G Q j h . H G H 15,000 h
FHdG AGOCG dEG aVEH ,QdG IQhOh ,eGSG bdG dG M
I M d G J M e f C G Q N G (ASICs ) ` d G J , f K M f e . d G h
eR e WCG (ASICs) `dG QqJ eR CG EG ,e IdG dG fEH j e a
.(PLD) `dG QqJ

jJ j ,jQJ (PROM) eH SGH enod (PLDs) `dG q oU

IQOb GQGO Y bdG g J .a UJ dG zdG bH{ SGH
Y k a .UdG Ue J hCG UdG d HdG ddG eCJ Y
Y J d G j d G G J d G S G H (PLDs ) ` d G e H j , d P
.ed HdG dG eGdG

. N G d G (PROMs ) ` d G H e N G d G (PALs ) ` d G h (PLAs ) ` d G H H J

jheo (AND/OR Structures) QNG /V H Y ILCG g c Jh
e QNG /V H dCJ .fhdGh edG M e J fCG EG ,MCG
HdG dG q GO H Jh .NrndG pnod (AND Matrix) V ae
GO H gQhH J (OR Array) QNG ae dEG JdG Sjo K eh Y

290
pdrHo e H g (PLDs) `dG H J .QNEG /V pNn dP Y d dG
. (Boolean Sum-of-Product Logic ) N d G U M d

Q N G a e h H K V a e (PROM ) ` d G i d E a , d P e d G Y
, H K Q N E G a e h e d H b V a e j a (PAL ) ` d G e C G . e d H b
. e d H b Q N G h V a e Y (PLA ) ` d G J H

qJ dG OdG H (PAL) `dG a ed HdG dG ae J

,(Programmable Input/Output) ed Hb rNn /NrOn jd .NdG e jdG
.dG bCG QNG feEG Y k a ,NGO q e IJe jJ dEG aVEH
c , e d H b Q N G h V a e (FPLAs ) i d E a d P e d G Y h
E a M CG Yh .(PAL) `dG SG OqJ e cCG J SG Oq J CG
R h H J , (FPLA ) ` d G h (PAL ) ` d G e c a e d H d G d G a e
. (PROMs ) ` d G a e d d G O d G

HGdG ae
jJ T ,ee Ue f IQGO g (Gate Array) HGqdG ae EG
Y e N c J HGe Z He jN e ae T Y Iqeoh
dG adH ,HGqdG ae Jo .IY ehpeh GQjfGJ
Jo c ,(Macrocell Arrays) hc e N a Hh ,(Logic Arrays)
j .(Undefined Logic Arrays-ULAs) IOqdG Z dG adH
d E G a V E H , (Drains ) Q d G h , H G d G d E G a d G g a U d G
GY e jdG eh HK dG je c J c .GdGh QOdG
,INCG fdG LdG VJoh .jNCG fdG LdG hCG LdG
.J d dG UdG ,ja H

jdG dEG aVEH ,dG M qdG ICs `dGh HGdG ae e c qJo

Y CGJ .(ASIC) UdG d e e GQGO ,(PLDs) `dGh S dG
f aGh SGH hCG ,UdG f SGH eEG HGdG ae eH hCG J

291
 j N a e e (Ion Implanted Semiconductor Wafer ) j C d H h Q e U e
c a jdG IYCG H LJ Gb J c .kjOY o JJo He dhCG
Jh .IYCG g e a I/O ILCG dEG a VE H ,yh x gJG
gh ,HGdG e ae ac ke Ie ae c Y MdG edG
.Oa RL c M Yh bbdG jODJ CG j dG FXdG OY Y dO

b h . d G (TTL ) h C G , (ECL ) ` d G h C G , (CMOS ) ` d G e H G d G a e J

Y qSdG dG hCG ,(Gallium Arsenide) ddG fQR e kjCG J
f C G H h . L d d G d d G c d G d E G a V E H , (Sapphire ) a d G
S d P E a , d G a 80 h d G a 70 H hGJ H G d G a e b b Q c E G
q J b b dG Ch .(Delivery) WEG hCG (Lead Time) U dG eR e
. J G P d G e (ASIC ) ` d G I M h J e b C G I M d G J J , I c H
J j fC dPh kf e dhCG SdG dG CG dEG aVEH
HGdG ae QNG j .dG M a LGdG e KG hCG mMGh Jh
:Y IQOb fC
.kjCG MdG M HQh MdG Y SdG dG OY N
.FGOCGh edG IOL IOjR
. (Connectors ) U d G O Y h G Q G d d G U d G O Y N
.IQdG e N
LJ jW Y ,kjOYG H a dG UdGh jdG HGJ jo
. (Computer-Aided Design-CAD ) J d G I Y H d G e

jN qJ b hCG ,a dG GdG Y bdG HGdG ae J b

kjCG aGJh .dG q e e K d G G Q G d G h (Memory Cells ) I c G d G
XdG dG Jo .dG a 100 H e KJ HGqH ae
SGh QNH Jh ,jhcdG q GdHh (jhcdG hCG) jhcdG jdH
.iNCG q Gd hCG bH qdG d

f HGH CG (Equivalent Gates) adG HGqdH HGdG ae ac SJ

292
a SSCG UY gh ,jhcdG jdG qJh .IkOY N dG GP dG
,(NOR) QNG fh (NAND) dG f HGqHh cdG ,HGqdG ae
k a ,(Decoders) dG jeh Hq
q d G h (Latches ) b d G d E G a V E H
SGH jhcdG jdG HGJh .GOqdGh MGREG eh , YdG Y
.jdG e fe Uh

dG GMdGh ,YqdG e (Macro Functions) jhcdG q GdG EG

je dEG aVEH , fQ dGh ,(Arithmetic Logic Units-ALU) HdG
jdG e J ,GOGqdGh (Flip-Flop Registers) q dG eh dG
H Uh Y jhcdG q GdG J ,jdG g Y Yh .jhcdG
J GPEG q GdG g a IQdG AGLCG dGREG j Yh .ke aqe fe
.dP eCG

,(CMOS) `dGh (ECL) `dGh (TTL) `dG e kjQJ Jh HGdG ae nJo

ae SGH J c .ddG fQR e ae jJ J bh
f e i N C G d G e S J I/O I Q GO A f G j h . e I/O L d J h
I/O ` d G A L j H , (ECL ) e , a e J b , d G S Y . e
q
. (TTL ) f e I/O A L e (CMOS ) a e e f a d G a

eqDJ H ,(Subnanoseconds) fKfdG hO NCJ eR (ECL) ae eqDJ

.5 nshn 1 ns H hGj NCJ eR ,HGJ W GP (CMOS) `dGh (TTL) `dG ae

.(ehe) 3 mh 1.5 H hGa adG d SdG dG eCG

.5 ns Y jdG eR jj eY (CMOS) `dG ae Joh

LdJ J e adG HGdG OY Yh YdG Y dG iJo

LddG c a aCG AGOCG adG HGdG ac OjORG Y jh .HGdG
HGdG ae M bJ bh .a jdG eR b H dPh iNCG
Y YE G J c .G S N e b C G a 1 m hO e d E G 5 m e j Q d G
aeh ,ae HGH 3500 e cCG Y J ECL ae jJ
.kjCG ae HGH 10000 e cCG Y J (CMOS)

293
 kfGe ed HdG HGdG ae
Field-Programmable Gate Array - ) kfGe ed HdG HGdG ae EG
hGJ IcGP GQjfGJ Y e IMGh bbQo Y HGqH ae g (FPGA
, (Antifuse Links ) d e h e H G h Q h C G (Static RAM-SRAM ) J S G F f G
j e Y (FPGA ) ` d G a e f H G f E G j . a d G I Q T E G G Q H d d P h
C G h (ON ) T G d M a G Q j f G d G e C G j d d P h , d G J
e h e H G h Q Y i N C G (FPGAs ) ` d G J . (OFF ) A W E G d M a e
(FPGA) `dG oVsnJo eY H a kFGO kHGJ d H e J ,d
.epodG b e d

SdG jdG
,keJ ZQa bbQ e qe e RL g (Standard Cell) SdG dG EG
Y j . (Computer-Aided Methods ) J d G I Y H J F G W S G H
Y UCG Me j fCG EG ,HGqdG ad kFHc hme RL dG g
IcGP Hh HGH e UdG dG dEG J e Y FGM dPh bbdG
H Iqe HGH ae e jdG g QnJo .a I/O (I/O Pads) GOaQh
M e J F a U Y Y J f C G E G , d G a 80 h d G a 70 H hG J
SG Y JQOb HGdG aeh SdG jdG CG c .bbdG e e
IYH dG e IcGP a fdG f jhdG jdG e
d J J Q G j , I d G g c G E a , M C G Y h . (CAD ) J d G
CG Y k a , W C G j (Lead Time ) U d G e R C G c , S d G j d G I M h
.kjCG JS Sd dhqCG dG

d G J C d P h , e d G j d G (IC ) ` d G Y S d G d G J
Yh dG e IcGP a fdGh ke qdG jdG e Y j
jdG jJ Y hQOb edG jdG (IC) `dG qe EG .e edG
c GPEG .cCG d qa d e edGh dG e IcGP a jh c dG
Gg d Fe cCG IjL jN GSG j cCG dG J dG

294
J CG EG ,bbdG Y bCG Me J/cCG dqa (IC) dP Y Sh ,dG
eR e WCG UJ eR CG Y k a , Y C G (IC ) ` d G G d j d G d h C G S d G
.SdG jdG UJ

UdG f IcGdG ILCG

I Q G O g (Semiconductor Memory Device ) U d G f I c G d G R L E G
Vd dGh MGdG e FK bQCG T Y edG Y aJ ee
,jhdG qdGh ,bdG GJdG a fdGh eGdG jJ

q d GcGP q e q d GcGdG e dG Gg qU .iNCG bdG GQGdGh
G J d G a S S C G G c G d G f c d G (Ferrirte Core Memories ) J G d G
JGdG M e dG H GcGdG q d j ch .keY 40 e cC bdG
q d G c G P H . e d G H c h I A G d S C G G P Wo C G Y k G L I d G

UCG CG H M ,jW Id jdG GJdG a ee JGdG

dCG C dPh ,jdG Z GJdG a J UdG f GcGdG
UdG f GcGdG e ,jhdG YTEG Kf VY bCG JGdG
UdG f GcGdG jd hQOh GWCG jJ ,J M bh a .dhCG
.GjdG g e

I c G P H C G g (Transistorized Flip-Flop ) G Q j f G d H d G
q dG EG
qe a dG g c ddG c a MGh H jJ Y IQOb Ue f
Y IQOb ,dG S Y ,e H q b K C G c . (Toggle Switch ) O O d G
.edG e MGh (Byte) jH hCG (8 - bit Word) qpH 8 e c jJ

dEG a VE H , g jG eh , YG fCG ah U dG f G cG dG q J
,edG dEG ddG c g dG IdGh .gd edG LddG
Y IcGdG g aJ c g iNCG IdGh .J hCG FGY jH
f H N O E H (Read/Write Memories ) H d G / I A G d G G c G P J h . f d G
g H J fCG c ,ke ImOLe ee a Hc N e ,IjL
Y IQOb (Read-Only Memories) a IAGdG GcGP CG c .kjCG edG

295
a d HdG a IAGdG GcGP eCG .FGO T hCG FGO H edG N
N e hCG H a Ad jJ SGH ge j FGO T GcGP
.eH IOYEG K eh FHc GQTE jJ

d M a e G O e f d G Y (Volatile Memories ) T d G G c G d G a J
f d G Y a a (Nonvolatile Memories ) T d G Z G c G d G e C G . d G
Y , (ON ) d G d M a I Q O b G c G d G H C G c . A W E G M a M
e N B G d G T f E G I O Y E G j H , (Static e ) F G O H f d G M
.(Dynamic ejO) kjQhO GcGdG g

odG FK GSH :kjCG dG Y ah UdG f GcGP qJ

e c qjoh .(Metal Oxide Semiconductor-MOS) dG cCG Ue f hCG
G fCG e (ECL) e Y H eh (TTL) QjfGJ ` QjfG J e
e (MOS ) L d J K j J J c . d G F K I c G d G L d J
- 3 , (N-MOS ) d S I H (MOS ) - 2 , (PMOS ) L e I H (MOS ) - 1 : g h
.(CMOS) eqe MOS

a IAGdG IcGP He HdG /IAGdG IcGP

J d G U d G f I c G d G Y (Read/Write ) H c / I A G b e j
. (Logic-Level Voltages ) e i H d a S G H g e h f d G H H
g c ,QGSH Ie dGh fdG fc M a Ie UdG g EG
a Me UdG gh .HdG hGL Vh hCG dG de Y dG
.(Random Access Memories-RAMs) FGdG NdG GcGH qj e a
I Q O b (Read-Only Memory-ROM ) a I A G d G I c G P E a d P e d G Y h
ee fCG c .aVEG Ge dEG LdG hO FGO H fdG N Y
J e INCG MGdG N UdG SJ SGH uodG npb e ke
S G H , d G Y H F G O H , e d H d G (ROMs ) ` d G e J h . b b d G
.UN Gqe hCG Jc

296
 dG NdG He FGdG NdG
eEH M ,kFGY HdG /IAGdG (RAM)h ROM `dG de eEH
IcGP M g c ,cCH dG a dG dEG LdG hO fdG Hc hCG IAGb
GcGPh UdG d FGdG NdG GfCG c Jh .dG hGdG
IcGdG ShCG eEH fCG EG .FGdG NdG GcGdG Y keCG a IAGdG
j n o dGh ,(Hard-Drive Disks) dG UG bCG G S e ,k jCG i NCG
j d G U G b C G h (Compact Disks ) W d G U G b C G d E G a V E H , (Diskettes )
fnodG ILCGh MGREG e eCG .kFGY dNO j CG ,(DVDs) bdG
f GcGP Y eCG a ,(Charge-Coupled Devices-CCDs) dH
WTCGh dG jdG a fdG NOEG j c .kJ Neo Ue
e bCG kbh a (RAM) `dG a fd dG ddG eCG .kJ JdG
. (Serial-Access Memory ) d G N d G I c G P b J d G b d G

TdG Z IcGdG He TdG IcGdG

gCG e (SRAMs) IdG (RAMs) `dGh (DRAM) ejdG (RAMs) `dG qJo
,kfBG fcP c ,bdG b J GPEGh .TdG UdG f (RAMs) `dG UCG
g M eEH fCG EG ,a fdG fdG J fEa GcGdG g Y
e sJoh .WMG jQH bW Y d GcGdG jJ N e fdG
Ubo bGS dEG e jdG H J jH GJdG a (RAMs)
`dG jh .AWEG dM a RdG Vj CG b NBG jJ Sh hCG ,e U
d HdG ROM `dG dEG aVEH ,kfGe ed HdG hCG ke ennodG ROM
aJ a ddh ,Te Z JGP IkcGP ,H a TCG SGH hCG kFHc
jQH bW dEG J fCG Y k a .AWEG dM a fc d M fdG Y
.fdG g Y d WMG

e j d G RAM H e I d G RAM
T d G I d G (RAM ) ` d G Y (Modifier Static ) dG unodG j

297
(RAM) `dG Y (Modifier Dynamic) ejdG qnodG j H ,(SRAM)
fdG Y (SRAM) I cGP j N a Jh .(DRAM) ejdG hCG e j dG
e eh Ie fCG EG jS LCG gh .J dM a eGO e HdG
I c G P N H (DRAM ) I c G d E a d P e d G Y h . j O b G M d G
d h C H C G f C G E G , (SRAM ) ` d G e f Q e Y C G H a c d E G a V E H H C G
M Y dh YCG H ach HCG H Y dG j .dG gH
.fd QhdG TfEG Y

d HdG edG IcGdG He FGO H edG IcGdG

e J H , F G O H d G Y N d G a (ROMs ) ` d G e J
FfEG dG SGH FGO H kfGe (DROMs) ed HdG (ROMs)
SGH kFHc jdG UGN J N e hCG ,jdG H UdG Ud
jJ g ,fd FGdG jdG dEG jdG jdG e jdG EG .QdG a
Flash ) e d G I c G d G e , a d H d G (ROMs ) ` d G a a e F G O T
e h , g e h , e H e E H f C G c .EPROMs ` d G h ,EEPROMs ` d G h (Memory
IOLdG fdG e jh .UN Gqe SGH IY Ge eH IOYEG K
j H , H a T C G P A V S G H , d G S Y ,EPROMs Y
.kFHc edG GcGdGh EEPROMs `dG a IOLdG fdG e

UdG f IcGdG UCG

S KdG a ,dG GJdGh jhdG pddG QqJ Y f
Semiconductor) UdG f IcGdG ILCG eJ a GQ J , V dG
a h e , J H S e S C G h i b C G j h d G d d G U C G d h . (Memory
`dG a k GjJh ,IMGdG bbdG a YCG jJ ac GPh SCG GcGP Y kW
GP jhe de Y dG iOqCG f bdG ah .(DRAMs)h (SRAMs)
k Uh ,kqpH 32 dEGh 16 dEG 8 e ddG Y JdG IQb Ye dEG aCG AGOCG

.cCG IcGP Y d ze Z T{ fCG hj e dEG

298
 m hGJ eR ddG UdG f IcGdG Rd EG
d E G a V E H ,1 ns e b C G
J Y k a ,IQd k GL b jJh IMGdG bbdG a dY qH ac
,ddG RdG Gg e dh .kFGY RdG Gg dEG ddG j c .fdG
d dPh ,H jJ j d ,dY IOL GPh ,kdY kLPf QYG Y k a
.BG M RdG Gg e H J deo LdJ OLh

.UdG f IcGd FdG IdG 1 - 9 hdG

Ue f IcGP

a IAGdG IcGP FGdG NdG IcGP

Hb RAM RAM
ee ROM ROM RAM
(PROM ) e d JS/HK ejO/ce FdG
ke
VRAM

Hb ROM Hb EPROM ROM

f IcGP DRAM
fH N
d d eh jdG qdG eGe
(EDO ) O e
(PROM ) EEPROM kFHc (FPM )

dGh SdG g eY H Qe J C Fe IcGP RL AfG EG

qj .UdG f IcGdG ILCG a qUGdG NG H dPh ,jObG
dG GfCG joh ,UdG f IcGd FdG IdG 1-9 hdG
.dG H bYh IcGdG ILC

. (DRAM ) ` d G d d G L d d G g (CMOS ) L d J C G h J
I c G d d L E G d G e I U f (ECL ) ` d G h (TTL ) ` d G G c G P J h
Oq dGh (Cache) SdG IcGd YCG YS (TTL SRAMs) `dG Jh .keY
J eY (Scratchpad Memories) bDdG dG IcGP H J c ,IOq dGh
.LM eY hGdG YSh IdG edG IQhdG e c

299
 a j d G d G H b G d G I d G g (Access Time ) N d G e R E G
e C G . (Read Time I A G d G e H ) a J d G d G h I c G d G e e d G A Y S E G
dGh jd IgL edG a J dG dG H bGdG edG IdG
. (Write Time ) H d G e H a j d G a j d G

a j d G i N C G h d G H b G d G e d G g (Cycle Time ) I Q h d G e R E G
.IcGdG dEG ddG

(RAM ) FGdG NdG IcGP

ejdG FGdG NdG IcGP

T Y jN ae e (DRAM) ejdG FGdG NOEG IcGP Jo
LCG e .4Mb x 4bit VH d ke kJ kSQ 13-9 dG qjh ,e
`dG dEG mGY SQEH (CPU) jcdG ddG IMh J fdG Hc hCG IAGb
K eh , k h C G d G G Y e C d G d G G g Y H g Q h H J d G , (DRAM )
eH dG dEG ddG dG GY eEHh .IcGdG hL a OdG GY
eR a dG dEG ddG Y QlOb a OdG GY eCG ,80 nsh 40 ns H hGj
H h G j (Precharge Time ) d H d G e d G C G c ,40 ns h 20 ns H h G j
.150 ns h 80 ns H I Q h d G e R h G j d d H h .50 ns h30 ns

YS
OdG J je
OdG GY
JG e HGH NO
YS
I/O N
dG GY

je IcGdG ae
J (2048x2048x4 )
dG

. 4 M b x 4 b i t ( D R A M ) e j O R A M ` d J S Q 1 3 -9 d G

300
 M G h A f G Q j f G J h (DRAM ) a e e f d G j J j N d C J
gX g c ,edG e MGh H jJ Y IQOb jJ e e ,e
hC G Q d G e M Gh J j e Yh .C G-14 -9 d G a d G Sd G a
VJ H dUdG GQjfGdG c Je Ea ,adG a AfG N
pjn (ON/OFF) AWEG /J c QjfGdG j .(ON) J dM a
qJnh .adG a OY Y IQY gh ,H UdG fdG N e pqdG
.HdGh IAGdG Y dG eGdG dG Y

e f qe H jN e dCJ IcGP Y d a dG dG EG
TfEG a j ,GQjfGdG Oe q b e dh ,a eh QjfGJ
Y EG .(Dynamic) ejdG hCG ejdG e AL g eh ,kjQhO fdG
H hCG IAGdG Y N ao b fc pT ,TfEG Y dqJ TfEG
.qJ M

dG N AfEG
dG

dG N OdG AfEG OdG AfEG

(A ) (B )

.SRAM - h DRAM - CG :IcGdG d dG SdG 14-9 dG

TfEG u e SGH kjJ 2 s c Ie J dG ,TfEG Y J

J CG jh .ke fdG N e j e Y (Refresh Amplifier)
g J .SdG CG M hO IcGdG dM IAGH d jc Ic dG
J M Oqe Z bdh e TfEG dH (DRAM) N e a dG
. (OFF ) A W E G d M a I c G d G V J h C G b a I j L f H H c

J H f bbdG Y NGdG TfEG IQGO j J fG d

301
TfEG IQGO dEG LdG OGORG dP Yh .UdG GJ d (DRAM)`dG
.LQN

e b C G b W J f C G c , j S h G H d G (DRAM ) I c G P J
e I c a c O L H J f C G d E G a V E H , (SRAM ) N J d G b d G
QJ J (DRAM) qe N IAGb CG EG .IMGh bbQo Y adG
jL e dG a fdG Hd Ohe eR dEG J fCG c .f dG
Iqe dG IAGb J CG b dG N T Lh e ,JAGb J CG H
.iNCG

a dG SdG a qdG ,(SRAM) `dG N qJo ,dP e dG Y

Read ) I A Gb I Q h d I g L J h ,Q j f G d G q b a fdG ,-14-9dG
5 d E G 3 ` H S C G (SRAM ) C G e Z d G Y . d h C G I Q h d G A f G Q a i N C G (Cycle
d G M d G e c C G b b d G Y M e J g j N E a , (DRAM ) e G e
.QGSH IQdG J fCG dEG aVEH ,(DRAM) jN e f OdG qj
(Two-Transistors Flip Flop ) K G j Q j f G J e q b -14-9 dG jo
AL fG) .qdG (Pull-Up Traistors) YCd dG QjfGJ dEG aVEH
.(dG Gg a kjCG zIdG RAMs {

jN LGJ Ea ddh ,fdG bbdG Mh kY IcGdG K Sj

M pU Ea Yh .J e jjh dG ac qj IMGh bbQ Y Ic
e e ZdG Y ,q Hp d bCG Jh YCG
q Hp aH j (DRAM) N
. (DRAM ) ` d G d T f E G

(kjJ (kbit) Hc 1 CG) kH 1024 hJ fc dhCG (DRAM) IcGP S EG

(DRAM) ac jGJ bh .(PMOS) Le IH (MOS) SGH Jo fc c
d E G L d d G g U h h , (NMOS ) d S I H (MOS ) j J e j S H
J (CMOS) `dG Y EG .kjJ 16 bit ie Y gh ,adG e bCG dG
dEG jQdG (DRAMs) `dG ac Uh bh dY ac Y d H dG
.kjfK kb 32h SSCG bCG 8 dEG 4 e Jqeo , 64 Mb `dG ie

302
RJ QJ e k GL k Gc kYJQG (DRAMs) `dG Y dG Jj CG bdG e
, i N C G b d G R d G e h (High Definition TV-HD TV ) b d G d G
H a (DRAM ) ` d G I c G P Y S H h . I c b Q G c G P J f C d P h
,Je VYnh IcGdG a ec ja QWEG jJ MdG SEG ILCG
jdh IQdG JQG d dPh ,kjCG JH jOdG YdG J YH
.TdG Y dG VYh

K c VCG HQCG qH OGOJ (DRAMs) `dG ac CG e ZdG Y

SGh .YdG g H GQj d IQhdG eRh UdG eR Ea ,kjJ GS
dPh ,FQ GcGc e Zh H (DRAMs) cJ a JdG qe
c ,(Page Mode) qdG c ,a IdG jdG FGW e hOGR fC
. (Interleaving ) d G h (Caching ) b D d G j d G G a V C G

ddG e H jS Sh IcGP SG g bDdG jdG EG

hCG aVEG jRGe ae SG a dG eCG ,FdG IcGdGh hdG
. d L E G F G O C G h C G (Memory Bandwidth ) I c G d G f V Y I O j d I c G P H

,1 bit CG a dG VY hJ rNn /NrOn ee dhCG (DRAMs) fc

4 bit e c V Y J e ,64 kb ` d G (DRAM ) j J J M k e dP ch
g d G M d G (DRAM ) e e e d G a 35 E G . (Byte j H C G ) 8 bit h
e d G a 25 J a 16 bit h 8 bit V H G c G d G f e C G ,4 bit V H
H 64 bit V H Gc GP a G J C G b d G e h . G SC G a I a d G Gc G d G
.2003 Y

YS e Y (DRAMs) YS hCG (Clock Rates) YdG e qJ

dP qjh .SCG eGe (DRAMs) jJ Y T e jhdG ddG
SeGQ cT J dG (DRAM) GcGP dEG aVEH , S dG I cG dG
f h d E G S g e j d G (DRAM ) G c G P h , (Rambus DRAMs )
. (JEDEC DRAM ) G c G P h C G (Joint Electron Devices Council-JEDEC ) c d G
N e d P h h d G d d G h (DRAM ) Y S H h d q M OjEG Jh

303
 J j K e h , F d G I c G d G h d d G H S h (SRAM ) I c G P N O E G
ddG j b dGh ,FdG IcGdG a fdG fdG Ye Y f
aVEG IQGO j dP CG EG .SdG IcGdG Y qe Y AGOC hdG
a a NBG dG eCG .e LQdGh SdG IcGdG dEG NGdG fdG td
. (DRAMs ) G c G P H e e a h d G d d G e S d G G c G d G V

e G d G DRAMs
J G P (DRAM ) h C G , (Synchronous DRAMs-SDRAMs ) e G d G (DRAM ) J
e hdG ddG HJ d dPh 100 MHz `dG GOOqJ Y ,bdG
f V Y V C G H Q C G h j f V Y (DRAM ) ` d G g i d h . I c G d G
Clock) YdG OOJ e kjOW Sj IcGdG f VY CG kY ,jdG DRAM
d (Rising Edge) JdG adG e dGh NdG e c eGjn .(Frequency
J eY YdG dY MGREG q eo a IMGh c e cCG J jh .YdG
YS IQhO d c H QdG dEG dG g GJo K eh ,IAGdG Y
e S C G d G c G d G g a N O E G e R E G i N C G M f e . (Clock Cycle )
a 64 Mb i e e (SDRAMS ) a G J . j d G (DRAMs ) a h G d G e R
.dG GSCG

c d G f h d E G S g e DRAMs

o NnJo .Sh (SRAM) IcGP e (SDRAM) g (DRAMs) `dG e dG Gg EG

YS e aVEG g j Jh . NG dG (DRAM) `dGh LQdG edG H
.hGdG

S d G DRAM I c G P
c T e g h , (Cached DRAMs CDRAMs ) S d G DRAM I c G P i d
edG H VJ Sh (SRAM) I cGP ,(Mitsubishi Corp) He
e E H h . N O E G Y S e a V E G g j J . N G d G (DRAM ) ` d G h L Q d G
qdG e k GMGh ie Jh LQdG SdG IcGdG e J CG (CDRAM)

304
bdG ddG e Te H dUe FdG IcGdG J eY IcGd edG
.JdG fCG a

S e G Q f DRAM G c G P
idh .SeGQ cT qJ dG (DRAM) ee e SG IcGdG g J
Decoder and Hit-Detection ) c h J a e I c G d G g Y b b Q c
o
e dG G g a (Memory Controller) IcGdG e eCG . NGO (Logic
G M h j h , d G f C G a i N C G G d G e H C G a (DRAM )
N G d G (Bus ) b d G e f d j S S Q E H d G S g J h . b C G I c G P
Y A S E G e E H h . c C H (Access Cycle ) h G d G I Q h O A f G b S G d G
ddG Uh SGH JdG fCG H a LQ dG S dG I cG dG
dO J H e dEG S eGQ (DRAM) J .I cG dG e Ik T e h dG
QdG J IQGO dEG a VE H ,I/O b e Y j U N (Interface)
. e h , (Phase-Locked Loop )

Fd ejdG FGdG NdG hGJ GcGP

(Video DRAMs-VDRAMs) Fd ejdG FGdG NdG IcGP qJo
J e aCG HJ d (SRAM) Y J q e (DRAM) IcGP
Sd aGZ eH J c .ib fH f YS J LCG e jdG
E G . d G e h U d G G J d G a k G L j S (Glaphic Manipulation )
YCG IMdG J CG Y k a ,kjCG cCG jRHh cCG IcGdG g bbQo M CG
. f a d G G P (DRAM ) ` d G J e

HdG FGdG NdG IcGP

d E G H Q C G e (Static RAMs-SRAMs ) H d G F G d G N d G I c G P ` d G d C J
LCG e dG Y J H q b T Y Ie QjfGJ jN q S
,Oe Z bd a HdG fdG c Y H q dG aJ .fdG jJ
AWEG dM a IcGdG pVh hCG jdG a IjL fH Hc qJ GPEG EG

305
`dG Y S EG .(CMOS) `dG d e e dG (SRAMs) `dG e q jo .(Off)
b f j d f d P h , j h d G d d G Y S e i h J (SRAM )
a cP S c .UN dOJ WHe dEG aVEH ,jH LdJh ,ShCG
` d G i d E a , d G G g e H S M e a z (DRAMs ) e j d G (RAM ) ` d G {
(SRAM ) q b C d P h (DRAM ) ` d G I Q h O e R e b G J G P I Q h O e R (SRAM )
. H J d G d d G I Q h d G c G Q a d G (Read Cycle ) I A G d G I Q h d g L
O j e C G ,8 ns c I d G (CMOS RAM ) ` d G j N ( N O ) h G J e E H
a kjJ Yj hGdG eR CG EG ,VCG H (DRAM) jN hGJ YS
aGJ .kjJ dG a 50 dGM (SRAM) YS e qj e IdG ILCG
. (Byte C G ) 8 bit h 4 bit e S g V H (SRAMs )

b . (ECL ) d e h d G F K (TTL ) e Y d G d Y (SRAM ) J h

CG) (CMOS) e NBG AdG qj H ,dG FK (SRAM) e AL j
EG ,(CMOS) jN dEG aVEH N beh dG FK rNn P (Bi-CMOS
jN ac dEG aVEH IQd dG SG M Y JCj YdG c CG
adG de eh ,(GaAs) ddG fQR e kjCG (SRAM) Jo .e
Y dG (SRAM) eE H .(Silicon-on-Sapphire Processes) dH
,bdG a qe Z hCG qe fG M M a ,a fqdG edG
.WMG jQH Y J fc GPEG dPh

a IAGdG GcGP
f I c G P e a I A G d G G c G P (Read-Only-Memories-ROMs ) ` d G d C J
.dG Y e INCG MGdG a uodG b e FGO H ee dUe
dG a eJo jJ T (ROM) g hCG dG ;(ROM) `dG e Yf aGj
a J dG bdG a GQjfGdG H Uj dG d NCG SJ jh
j d G (ROM ) ` d G a N B G d G e C G . (Wafer ) a G d G e k G A L G J b b d G
c Ea dP Y k a .qe d q e Rc keJ qdGh edG
c .keJ J H nJo QjfGdG Uh oU a edG LGdG
a h , e c h j J (ROM ) b b Q J Y a d G G S G d a C G

306
bbQ J a eGSG da e cCG g Y H IdG dG fEG
J h , U C G e d G j d G (ROM ) b b Q J d d h . j J T (ROM )
ILCG e jo .jdG T (ROM) bbQ jJ dG f dG ac Y
c C G hC G 1 Mb e q H a H a G J d G , (CMOS ) ` d G Y S G H (ROM ) ` d G
.(2 Byte) 16 bit h 8 bit e c V Y h

ed HdG a I AGb GcGP

Programmable Read Only) kfGe e d H dG a IAG dG I cGP EG
eH Gqe SGH dG Y H ee (ROM) g (Memories-PROMs
qJ bh .dG Gg d Fe efH Y j Jc RL hCG e
a j d G d G j d G H (Fuse Links ) U a H G h Q d h C G (PROMs )
IcGdG g J H (Overcurrent) QdG RhJ SGH kFfG gJ hCG
M bh a .(Application-Specific Matrix) qe J ae hCG e
. d H d G Q j f G d G (PROM ) j J J

(Short-Circuiting ) I Q G O b N e L d d G g a d G e H J
G Q j f G J a e a (Base-Emitter Junction ) Y d G ` I Y d G U h e h
.QdG a RhJ SGH

(PROM) `dG Jo H ,(ECL) `dG LdJ e (PROM) GfCG SCG Jo

Y d G S e (PROM ) ` d G e C G , d G F K (TTL ) L d J e (64 kb ) I d G
e ae qJ CG (PROM) eEHh .(CMOS) `dG LdJ e oa
V ae Y J fd dPh ,IcGP q Gc gQhO dEG aVEH bQ
. e d H b (OR ) Q N G a e J H K (AND )

kFHc ed HdG ROM `dG

E l e c t r i c a l l y P r o g r a m m a b l e)
kFHc ed HdG a IAG dG I cGP EG
e I a f Y J h k G O e e d H b V e (ROM ) g (ROMs-EPROMs
IOYEGh ke edG fdG e j H IcGdG bbQo q J JQGdG
LCG e .H a qTCG e Ad IadG g jJ SGH (ROM) `dG eH

307
 j d G d G R E G d E G a V E H I Q G d G M d Y (EPROM ) d G R E G j f d G e
.H a qTC (EPROM) jJ K eh ,JQGdG Iaf Y cGdG bGdG
ddG jd hCG fd ec e d bO 20 Iqe qTCG d bbdG VqJo
.IQhdG Sq dG fqdH k GQV J CG fCT e dG dG

JQGdG aGf J CG fCT e (Ceramic) aN Y a (EPROMs) RJo

e Jo .(EPROM) J e ke k GAL RdG e SCG Gg qjh .adG
Y EG .da H bW dqH Jh (CMOS) LdJ e EPROM
. f d G H c I O YE Gh d I Q hO 100 d G M d E G j ,Y a EPROM

(One-Time-Only (OTO) a IMGh Id kFHc ed HdG (ROM) `dG eCG

G P h I a f h O S H Y a e h R e , I U (EPROM ) b b Q a EPROM)
e aCG (EPROM) `dG AGOCG j eY (OTO-EPROM) `dG Jo .b J
dPh dG JQGdG e IaH jRdG dEG LM fCG EG ,jNCG Je AGOCG
qdGh QqdG ,efdG gH bh .jRdH qj d Gg (EPROM) efH C
. d G d G a M f , j J (EPROMs ) S G H

kFHc dGh ed HdG ROM IcGP

Electrically Erasable Programmable ) kFHc dGh ed HdG ROM EG
h C G F L H g e j e d G I O Y E H b I c G P g (ROMs - EEPROM
.IQGdG Md Y gh eH IOYEG K eh d dG Rh J SG H e c
IQGdG d a jQhdG SCG aJ T H Y edG IOYEG kjCG eEHh
IQGdG SG j .fdG eh edG IOYEG GQTEG jE dG
SCG a hCG QdG YCG a edG GdGh FdG cdG a dG
H G Q N e J c S G H (EEPROM ) e H I O Y E G j d c , Y H
fhdEG GqdG a fdG J Y IQdG J bh .jOGQ hCG rcn
a k GL Ie ,JhdG fdG GAGLEG N ,H Jc RH dUdG
bdG hCG SdG ILCG aJ Y M a QdG AGQh e jdG YGdG
.dG g H d QqdG

308
 g C G E G , e Z S H (IC ) Y a (EEPROM ) V J j
Y H e O Y e c C G (Pins ) e d G h C G H d G e O Y Y J d G
H e Y (EEPROM ) A G M d P h , f a d G G P (OTO-PROM ) ` d G
`dG I cGP a NOEG eR eCG . f dG e H IO YEGh d U N a VEG
a d G G P (EPROM ) I c G P a N d G e R e H W C G a (EEPROM )
`dG LdJ e e sjoh ,da H IQb dqH J fCG EG ,f
. (CMOS )

edG GcGdG
I O Y E G h d H b (ROM ) I c G P g (Flash Memories ) e d G I c G d G E G
b e f d G a c d G R E G j (EEPROM ) I c G P e d G Y d h , e d G
Y k a , (EEPROM ) I c G P H J e d G I c G d G H C G c . e H I O Y E G
IcGdG Jo .dG IQGdG e dGREG dEG LdG hO edG IOYE Hb fCG
a J g h , (EEPROM ) L d J h C G (EPROM ) L d J f Y e E G e d G
.SdG dG Jg H kSh k M

.QGSH eH IOYEG dEG J dG d kSe edG IcGdG qJo

IOYEGh e eEH ,U a edG ddG LdJ Y OYHh
e j h . c C G hC G I e 10.000 h 100 H hG j G d G e O d Y H d G
. (EPROMs ) I c G P e g e e R e S C G C G , G K Z a I c G d G g e
J dG IQdG e bCG IQb edG IcGdG J ,dP Y IkhY
e j J Y I Q d G d C G c , (EEPROM ) h C G (EPROM ) I c G c J e
System ) d G e H j d Gc G d G g J . f d G e 1 Mb d E G j
g H i d E G K . (PROM ) ` d G h U d G b G S e d G h (Software
d E G d G g D h G O C G Y j h . (EEPROMs ) N O E G e R e S C G N O e R G c G d G
. W M G j Q H Y J d G (SRAM ) a J L

TdG Z FGdG NdG IcGP

Nonvolatile RAMs ) (NVRAMs ) TdG Z FGdG NdG IcGP J

309
hCG TdG Z IcGdG qUGNh TdG IdG (RAM) qUGN H (RAMs
dG Y N H c /IAG b I cG c (RAM) AL jh .IjdG Z
A d G d E G f j (RAM ) ` d G a I O L d G f d G e k G A L C G E G , d j O Y G
(Store Signal) jJ IQTEG IcGdG qJ eYh .jdG LCG e TdG Z
Z IcGdG AL Ea qe Z hCG qe d bS bdG OGeEG CG dEG J
e (NV - RAMs) `dG qJo .fdG d WMG IcGc FY j TdG
. (NMOS ) ` d G L d J

edG dG pSodG
G Q G O , (Universal Receiver - Transmitters ) edG dG SdG qJo
L a r g e S c a l e M o n o l i t h i c I C ) c i e Y e e d G j O Mo C G S Q E G h S G
GO e dG pSodG g J .(Receiver-Transmitter Circuits-LSI ICS
edG qjh IQGdG Md Y Me aj e ,IMGh bbQo Y SSCG JG
FXh OqDJ CG IMGh SGh SQEG bbQ eEH .dG bj dG
U dG ( fEG) J IO YEGh ,(Framing) dG dG e IOq e
b d d G H d G h C G , (Modem Control ) O d H d G Y k a , (Formatting )
`dG e GfCG KK kdM aGJ .(Microprocessor Bus Interfacing) he dH
: g d G S d G (LSI ICs )
,(UART) dG eGdG Z pdG pSodG -1
.(USRT) dG eGdG pdG pSodG -2
.(USART) dG eGedGh eGdG pdG pSodG -3
:ddG FXdG edG (UART) GQGO OqDJ
jhdG eGdG hCG eGdG Z ZdG hdG Sh J
. (Isosynchronous )
dSQEG d hdG dEG (Stop Bits) jfh (Start Bits) jGH qH aVEG
.dSG J dG hdG F e geh
.Yd jdG dG Y qe fH qY SGh jGdG qH e
. U d G h d G h (Errors ) A N C G Y d G

310
 .YfG dJ
aVEH (Bit-Rate Generator) qH e dqe Y (UARTs) H Jh
(UART ) e I O e I H (UART ) V e E H h . O d H d I/O e e d E G
. I M G h (IC ) Y a L h O e I H
: d d G F X d G e d G (USRT ) I Q G O O D J
.eGdG ZdG hdG Sh J
.npeGodG hdG ch dJ
e AGLEG gh ,fdH dG HGhQ e cCG hCG MGh ZUh J
f eCd dPh ,iNCG ILCGh GJdGh dG GWCG Y qeh
.MGh fH HGQ Y ed e
.UdG hdGh ANCG c
hCG eGe H AGOCG Y IQOb pe pSeo edG (USART) GQGO qJo
Z d G a , (USART ) Y S H . d G f e H S G H e G e Z
dH LdG fdH dG HGhQ J CGh k g qJ CG ,eGdG
H .dH L q dG fdH dG HGhQ hM eGneo feEH hCG ,dHh
. e G d G Z d G Y (UART ) Y (USART ) J
qJh .eRrQp d J JG Gb e KG hCG IMGh (IC) `dG g J
(USART ) h (USRT ) Y J c , q H e Gdqe (USART)h (UARTs) H
(UARTs) e c q jo . q dGh dH LdG fdH dG HGhQ
,(Printers) H dG a G S d (USART) dEG a VE H (USRT)h
dEG aVEH ,OdG I LCGh ,(Personal Computors) dG GJdGh
,(Data PBX) fdG JdG N tJ GqHh ,(Multiplexers) YdG
.JG a Gqe Y k a

edG bdG ddG fQR GQGO

ddG fQR GSH qdG SGh bQh KJ GQGO qWo d
(GaAs) IcQ Y GQjfGdG eeo N e GQGdG g qJo .(GaAs)

311
.fdG edG (MOS) GQGO J H T Wo SGH Ue T
dG ILCGh jdG ILCG a La bdG (GaAs IC) `dG pneo eCG
(GaAs ICs) `dG qJo .SdG bdG dG UCG a dh ,qe d
d G C G E G . (ECL ) ` d G k G j J h i N C G d G U C G e S d
AGOCd qdG IdG Y aM a fdG (IC) `dG Y NnodG IdG
j b dG adG e b e , f dG (IC) ` dGh (GaAs IC) `dG H
M hCG (GaAs IC) edG ddG fQR GQGO dEG dj qdG
.cCG GQGdG g d

GQGd jQdG dG , k hCG :e bS a od (CI sAaG)`dG Jo

dG ,kfK ;dG bdG (ICs) `d q e f e Y dG d dG (GaAs)
G P e d G d G j O Mo C G G Q G d G a J d G j d G d G h j d G
e YdG KdG (Microwave Monolithic ICs-MMIC) jhdG LdG
.ddG fQR

d E G a V E H , G c G d G h , (GaAs SSI ) ` d h (MSI ) ` d b d G d G j J J

a c M e d G F K (ICs ) ` d G Y c e f C G E G , H G d G a e
AGLCG (GaAs) `dG e YdG bdGh KdG dG HdG bbQo qJoh .edG
q d G (CMOS ) ` d G (IC ) ` d G J E G h C G c E F e
F K f d G (IC ) ` d G h
f H e d E G J d G f C G a d G H d G (ICs ) d E G a V E H , d G
ILCG Hd kjCG ILCG g Jo .aCG fH jJ YS hCG YCG
,(MMICs) Y edG e jd) .kdOJ jhdG LdG ILCG e bdG
d G a z ( M M I C s ) j h d G L d G h e d G d G j O Mo C G G Q G d G { f G
. ( z j h d G L d G h (UHF ) ` d G L d J { , H d G

312
 T d G dG

IQdG Geh jQdG

jdG
kN dG TdG QdG Ge eT If
(Linear- Regulated DC Supplies)
jjdG fdG IQb Ge (Batteries) j Q d G
(Ferroresonant Power Supply)
jdH dqdG IQdG Ge dhCG FchdG fCG
(Switching Regulated Power Supply) (Primary Electrochemical Systems - PES)
jdH dG jJ (Lithium Primary Cell) dh
C G dG jN
(Switching Regulator Topologies)
jdG IQdG Ge jfdG jQdG fCG
(Laboratory Power Supply) (Secondary Battery Cell)
IQdG Ge Jh RQ (MG hCG) fRdG jQdG
(Power Supply Packaging) (Reserve Batteries)
Te QJ dEG Te QJ e IQdG Nhn jQdG RQ
(DC-to DC Converters) (Battery and Cell Packaging)
(Fuel Cells) O b d G j N Power Supplies I Q d G G e

313
 eT If
TCG I LCG d (DC) T e Q J dEG fh dEG GQG dG J
Linear Power ) q N IQb Gdqe e QdG Gg Y dG jh .UdG
j Q d H h C G , (Switching Power Supply ) j d H I Q b G d e h C G , (Supply
Fuel ) O b d G j N e M h , (Solar Cells ) d G b d G j N h C G , (Batteries )
I Q b Y d e d G F d G d G F S d G d G G g h j h . (Cells
j Q d d G j d G j h .50 V Y J d a h T e Q J GP F H c
e e qe da N eCd IQdG jN e cCG hCG d e mHH
.jdG g da

N fCH k GRe ,SdG eYh udG idh ,jdG dY a jQdG qJo

H d G G g j h .9 V I Q b GP j d G d G J hC G 1.5 V GP I d G I Q d G
.FchdG bdG QOe e gZh jQdG jg

jQdG
b d d G j d G e c C G h C G N J M g (Battery ) j Q d G
:g FQ AGLCG HQCG e IOY jQdG dCJh .FchdG
e ) Q d d G O h d E G h C G , ( (Anode ) : O f C G ) L d G d G -1
.Obh hCG ,deo IOe e IOY
.Qd pSdG OhdEG hCG ,((Cathode) :OKc) ddG dG -2
. c D e e Y -3
fG eqDJ dG FHd UdG IOdG hCG (Electrolyte) dhdEG -4
.fjCd NGdG

Y J IO e IQ b j N CG EG ,IkO Y F S dh dEG J
Y OfCG J Ua IOe dhdEG dEG aVEH ,dgh .U dhdEG
bW dEG TdG gOGe a edG FdG bdG jH dG Jh .OKdG
qdH (OKdG) OhdEG j PEG .GNG /cCdG Y N e FHc

314
YJ A KCG ,(Cell Discharge) dG jJ Y N fh dEG Y
ddG OhdEG CG Mh .iNCG dEG IQqP e mM fhdEG a ,cCdG
g Ea ,fhdEG bh SG Y QOdG ,LdG OhdEG Y e
(LdGh ddG) jOhdEG HJ dG LQdG IQGdG a aqJ fhdEG
.bdG eCd dhdEG Y

M hCG ,NJ CG hO bd Qc kFJ J CG IQdG jN eEH

Uh Yh .dG zddG{ JdG AYE ,RmGe hCG J H Uh
J GPEG eCG ,WHdG jdG da d kjhe qdG JdG j kJ
a GQdG d kjhe QdG d qdG JdG a RGe H HQ
qJo .IMGh N dd jhe ddG g a J ddG CG EG ,N c
.(Secondary) j f K hCG (Primary) dhqCG eEG fCG Y IQdG jNh jQ dG
a (Nonrechargable) T Oj dG IQdG jNh jQdG g) dhqCa
.e dGh eQ j CG b e hCG UGe H JQb jJ Y IQOb
G e I d (Rechargable ) T O j d G I Q d G j N h j Q d G a j f d G e C G
Te QJ QGeEH IOY jQdG T jh .JT e kqc hCG kFL J CG H
. (Discharge Current ) Q d G j J J c e J H h d N

J j dhqCG bW QOe g (Reserve Cells) MG hCG fRdG jdG EG

AGLCG H Y kW heh dhdEH Ae e hmM AYh c N e
Y jQdG hCG IQdG d jdG cdG e dG Gg aj .jQdG hCG dG
bdG QOe TCG e NBG T dgh .dG e jh FGOCG Y
M (Inactive ) Y a Z J d G (Thermal Battery ) j Q G d G j Q d G g f R d G
.H IOhqdG dG dhdEG Uh J j

dG qJ U qUe hCG Ua IOe a i k e dG dhdEG c GPEG

. (Wet Cell ) F S N a F S I O d G g f c G P E G h . (Dry Cell ) z a d G {
Semi-liquid) F S T J L dh dEG Y J j N d gh
. (Gelled-Electrolyte

315
Qd bW QOe Y IQY jQdGh FchdG jdG e v c EG
e jdG fEG ke j d fhHh ,fhdEG ILCG d QhdG TdG
,IdG JdG q dGh ,dG jdG a H SdG fhdEG
,fGdG UdG Gqeh ,SdG ddG JGdGh ,dqdG jqdG JGdGh
dG YqdG dch ,dG QqR H IQb jH edG jhdG YdGh
dG f J ILCGh ,GedGh ,dG Y dG pV YJ dG
WMG bW eqDJ dG IjdGh dG IQdG jN Ea dc .gZh
IcGP a fqdG edG Y aJ JdG ILCG a IcGdG GQGd
Z ( b d G Q e ) Q d G f G Y (Volatile Memory ) j d G h C G d G d G
.RdG AWEG H hCG ,bdG

(DRAM) ejdG FGh dGh (SRAM) fdG FG dG U dG FGhO EG

g Y N I c G P Y O D J C G j I Q b H (Backed up ) e Y d G
.iNCG

fCG H dG Gg a bf dG jQdGh IQdG jN fCG J

ddG FGW e jdG CG c ,ddG fhdEG a TdG dG GP
a IaqdG jQdG jQdG a bd dG Fchd dG
.fhdEG d Se GSCG

S S C G Y (Energy Density ) b W a c N e I Q d G N A G O C G S b j
- GdG Y fCG H J dG fQdG SDJh .dGh RdG GMh
ah .(Wh/in3) qdG fEG /YS /GdG hCG ,(Wh/kg) GZdG a YS
IU jQdGh jdG J CG j M fhdEG dG e
fQdG CG EG ,gCGh ihL cCG , fQ e TD c ,(Wh/in3) j dG
MCG GP jQdG hCG jdG H J dG fQdG J g k a jdG
j e iNCG UGe dgh .He RQp hCG jhM a hCG HdG
,dG dG dah (Rated Capacity) SodG dG g fQdG a gOYG
.gZh ,(Shelf Life) bdG odGh ,dG dG IQGM LQOh

316
 dhCG FchdG fCG
jQdG - fdG jN
Y q e f g (Zinc-Chloride (Zn/Cl) Cell) jQdG - fdG N EG
Nominal) SG da g jQdG - fdG Nh .dhqCG HdG-fdG N
q
h C G , (Wh/ kg ) G Z d G a Y S - G h 85 e b W a c h , d a 15 e (Voltage
N A G O C G Y Y j j F G O C G Y C G E G . (Wh/L ) d G a Y S - G h 165
IkOY dG qfe jQdG - fdG jN EG .dG a 50 H HdG-fdG
,WCG dh jhdG HdG J a J Yh .Se bS Y dh
.aW GP fGSCG GqY H OhqJ gh

jqdG - dG cCG fK jN
(Alkaline-Manganese Dioxide (Zn/MnO2) Cells) jdG e dG Gg qjo
- fdG jc keJh ,FdG dG cCG fK - fdG f f e
jT dhdEG e Ic c Y J fCG EG ,cdG dS jQdG
VdG dG a qdG , jdG g J .SJdG chQgh ,UdG
YCG (Drain Rates) f qH e IQGM LQH ,1-10 dG a
H fdG jN Y Y jj bS Y dh ,fdG jN f e e
Y Ge 10 dEG 2 qH jJ AY S aJ jdG g eEH .bCG a S
hGJh .(Ampere-Hour) YS eCH k GQqe ,jQdG - fdG jN AY S
h G J J d a C G c ,1.6 VDC h 1.5 VDC H a M d G I Q G d G d a
130 Wh/kg d G M (Specific Energy ) Y d G b W h .1.3 VDC h 1.1 VDC H
.375 Wh/L b W a c h

.fhdEG GQGdG a GSd jH bW QOe fCH jqdG jdG J

NdG QSG ILCG e fhdEG e J a eGSH jh
f h d E G G h O C G a h , H d G c C G h C G R Z c h , (Smoke Detectors )
Jo fc dG ,da dG jQH Jo .dG jdG ah ,jhdG
.IU fe Y a ehRe jb jN S e ,QjfGdG jQH
317
 dG cCG - fdG jN
QdH TCG H IkOY (Zinc-Silver Oxide (Zn/AgO) Cells) jdG g Jo
, R h h I M h a d Y S a J Y I Q b d h ,1.55 V S G L N I Q b J h
cCG - fdG jN J .GqL q e T jJ eh bS Y dh
jhdG YdG ah ,dG pd q dG dG Y qdG a dG
.fhdEG GedGh ,SdG BGh

(+) OKdG
FGO IQGO hP Qe
Ua
OfCG
OKc
OKdG QJ eL

OfCG QJ eL

SH RY
RY
(-) OfCG IOGS
.jb N :1 -10 dG
jFGO a

AGdG - fdG jN
VdG dG a qdG ,(Zinc-Air (Zn/O2) Cells) AGdG - fdG N RnJo
f C G Y A G d G e c C G d G g N C J . Q G Q R C G H I O Y ,2 -10 d G a
j dG eCG ,NGdG dG M Yo e bCG j dG ,qdG OKdG
jdG H a deCG e kM cCG d (OKdG) ddG d dG
N CH kfQe Rhh M IMh a bW ac bCG dG Gg aj .dhqCG
(Specific Energy) YdG bdGh ,1.5 V SG dG da J PEG ,iNCG dhqCG
.146 Wh/L b W a c h , 146 Wh/kg d G M

IOH hdG fdG e e (Amalgam) neo g AGdG - fdG OfCG EG

cCGh SJdG chQg e Fe e e dhdEG qj .JL

318
 cCG fKh ,Jh ,Hc e je e FGdG OKdG e qjh .fdG
f AZ dG H j .dH e Md Y dH SQ dG
dGREG Y dG J j .dG NGO HWdG NO d dG e Vf
kf jdG g Jo .qa OKc FY cCG j M ,dG
FSh dEG aVEH ,dG GhOCGh ,dG pV Y dG FSdG d
. (Pagers ) A G d G
OfCG fGSCG
a qe OfCG IOe
dhdEG
W / RY
e
Ua

OKc fGSCG jJ a OKdG

AGdG jRJ W
.QdH dG AGdG - fR N a e :2 -10 dG

dhCG dG jN
bd dPh fhdEG dG J Y JQH ahe jN gh
dG ddG N pV aJ PEG (M IMh d YS - GdH IQdG) ddG
Ea ,jdG SG a q e fCG e ZdG Yh .jdG jdG gaJ
e a d G J (Lithium Primary Cells ) d G j N e G f C G S
1.5 H d G j d (Nominal Output ) S G d G h G j . e f e
U OGe J CG j dG JdhdEG SSCG Y qJh ,da 3.6h da
.jY Z hCG jY FS hCG

eH e (Li) hdG dG eQ N e IkOY dG Ac q J

FdG fCG H j e a OQfh .dG (dhdEG) dhdEG
.dG jd dG
. (Lithium Sulfur Dioxide Li/SO2 ) j d G c C G f K - d G

319
 . (Lithium- Thionyl Chloride Li/SOCl2 ) f j d G j Q c - d G
. (Lithium-Manganese Dioxide Li-MnO2 ) d G c C G f K - d G
. ( L i t h i u m - C a r b o n M o n o f l u o r i d e L i / C F ) H d G j Q a O Mo C G - d G
. (Lithium-Copper Oxide Li/CuO ) S d G c C G - d G
. (Lithium Solid Electrolyte Li/I2 ) U d h d E c O d G - d G

- Gh 250 d E G J d G) b d d d G a d G : e I O e S e j d G d
,q dG jdG jGe dEG aVEH ,IQd ddG adGh ,(GZdG a YS
.jdG bdG dGh ,IQGdG LQO a SGh ie a RdG AGOCG Yh

N eEH Ea ,bdG fEG a IdG JQb jdG d ddG dG QuJo

jh .dG H a jb bW nqN SG Y VqJ CG IMGh d
OGeh ,a IadG dhdEG SSCG Y kjCG dhqCG dG jN J
H CG c .dEG ..dG dhdEGh ,(dGh ,FdG OKdG) OKdG
fCG fCG Y J j Gd ,T IOYEG j d FHdG FdG
.(eOdG UdG a (Li-Ion) zjCG - dG jN{ fG) .kjCG fK

jdG cCG fK - dG jN
Lithium-Sulfur Dioxide (Li/SO2) ) jdG cCG fK ` dG jN aJ
(CO2) jN eE Hh . e IQG M LQO a d Y AGOCG q e (Cells
Flat) qe jJ Geh Fe bS Y aJ ZEG eh WdG
J (Nominal Cell Voltage ) S G j N d a j d G d . e (Discharge
,A G S M Y ( Y d G) f d Gh j d G d G a J gh 3.0 V e
a dG Y JQb dEG aVEH ,JdG FGOCG eh ddG d dPh
Gqd IQdG aJ dG JeGSG qJ .Sbh aqe IQGM LQO
YdGh GJdG ah ,(Telemetry) jodGh ,fhdEG GdGh
Radio) j jOG dG SG SQEG I LCG dEG a VE H (CMOS) I cG dGh
jdG fCG Y
k a , dG G dGh ,QG dG AG VCGhn .(Transceivers
.QfdG ILCGh

320
 fdG jQc - dG jN
,(Lithium - Thionyl Chloride (SOCl2)) fdG jQc - d N J
IcGP J dGE aV
E H edG dG a , dG a dG SdG a qdG
Jo .q e jJ ehn 3.6 V QGe SG da N jdG d .(MOS)
IQGM LQO a mVeo H Z E G e Y NGO ehRe gh jdG g
.FchdG UGdG H oU iNCG jQ q H dgh .100C e J
e IOGS cjEG
ZEG

IOGdG W
LLdG Y

e OfCG
eL b dG
fhdEd

Ua
OKdG
. f d G j Q c - d N : 3 -1 0 d G

dG cCG fK - dG jN
AGOCG qe (Lithium-Manganese Dioxide (Li/MnO2) Cells) jdG g qJo
.me jJ eh jW bS Y dh c ,e IQGM LQO a qL
dG b H kf Ye gh 3.0 V gQGe SG da jdG dh
(CMOS ) I c G P h , S d G h , Y d G h , F H d G G e d G d f d G
IcGP J a kjCG GSG FT jdG g .iNCG fhdEG GhOCGh
. M E H e e d f C G c (MOS )

(OdG) U dhdG - dG jN
j h J (Lithium-Solid Electrolyte (Iodine) (Li/I2) Cells ) j d G g e E H
:(Pacemaker) dG e RL a dG QdG gh 2.8 V gQGe SG da
.dG HV q e
321
 jfdG jQdG fCG
eOdG - dG jN
T IOYEG j (Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Cells) jdG e dG G g
,dG dS eOc OhdEG Y dG J .I Y G e eG SGh
e e dhdEG dEG aVEH ,dG Le dG chQg OhdEGh
.SJdG chQg

bW ach ,50 Wh/kg b Wh ,1.5 V QGe SG da Jf d

q
LQO qe CG c .bO 15 dGM dG IOYE eR fOCG j .150kWh/L
M C H Q e M C H I a e gh 70C h 20C H hG j d G A GOC G I Q GM
,jh dG j dG G e c jQ H J a Jh , j dG j dG
GqdGh dG RdGh ,jdG JdG ILCGh ,dG GJdGh
.iNCG SdG

fe chQg - dG jN
d a d h T O j (Nickel-Metal Hydroxide (Ni-MHD) Cells ) j N g
f O C G d G j 250 Wh/l a c h ,60 Wh/ kg Y f b W h ,1.2 V h J S G
20C H F G O C G I Q G M L Q O h G J h I M G h Y S (Ni-MHD ) j Q H T I O Y E
, (NiCd ) j Q H e G S G f j d G g e Y d G j Q d . 50C h
.bdG ac e YCG k GqM aJ fCG EG

jCG - dG jN
IOYE HdG dG LdH (Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) Cells) jdG g Jo
a c h ,120 Wh/kg Y f b W h ,3.6 V g Q G e S G N d a d h , d G
. Y Sh I M Gh Y S H hG j T I O YE f OC G e d G E G .300 Wh/ L b W
cCG e dG OKc jo .60Ch 20C H dG IQGM LQO hG Jh
jQdG J .aGdG e OfCG jo a dG cCG fK hCG HdG

322
(NiCd) jQH d He J a j dG g e Y dG
. b W a c d c h Y C G N d a a J f C G E G , (Ni-MHD ) h

ZEG dG dG - UUdG jQH

AdG Oe f Y (Sealed Lead-Acid Batteries) jQdG g sSDJ
N SCG YG fCG EG ,SdG cdG jQH a dG FHdG
dEG ODj dG HfG hCG jdG M n tJ d (bZEG MEG) jdG
dS UUQ GOhdEG GP jN jQdG dh .fhdEG fqdG cBJ
M e dhdEG dEG aVEH ,UUdG cCG fK e Le GOhdEGh
,2.0 V j Q d G d S G d d G J d G j . J d G h C G F d G j d G
.70 Wh/L b W a c h ,35 Wh/kg Y d G b W h

jdG ZEG e dG - UUdG jQH a VCG GjJ dg

E G . (Starved Electrolyte ) e e d h d E G h C G J L d h d E H g j h J g
RGe H jhM a dG RJh ,H JL e q e hCG dG
AdGh ,FS dhdEG e b c e qa fdG dG eCG .e
. f G S C G j h M N G O h M H e (Jelly Roll ) J L W e c C G
a bdG aJ a jh cSG c jQdG e YdG c qjo
.dG RdG ah dG jdG Gec

(MG hCG) fRdG jQdG

bKh GP dhqCG fRN jQH dEG j jdG dG e c EG
,dG Y e a FbO hCG mGK N ec IQb N dJ Y IQObh dY
IOYEG H jJ jc jQdG hCG jdG g J .dG e GS Hh
(MG) fRdG jQdG e fc jb eR Mh .Gg eCG b T
AdG Y SDe j dG eG S d dG (Reserve Batteries)
j d G g d S G b h , (Zn/AgO ) f d G - d G c C G j d F H d G
dG a dG SdG a e g c ,fjdG jQc - dG jH k GNDe

323
dG Y Y q Jo LLR (Ampule) jhM FdG dhdEG j .4-10
.3.65 V d E G I c Y H d G d a J a I
q e H hCG kfe eEG
,jdG QGdG GjOGQ d JjQHh MG jdG Jo
c jdG eGSG H eCG .PfEG ILCG dch ,fdGh
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q
(-) S W SH J
QdG
dG Y LdG RY
OKdG
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dhdEG HfCG OfCG
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Pa AZ
CGd he LLR IOGS
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TEG K
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RY Ub
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.dG-jM-dG cCG e jQGM jQH 5 -10 dG

324
(Bursts ) G J G M E G Y I Q O b d h C G N j Q H d E G a , (Decoys
iqj b jJ H dG e fdG e AL Z a m Y FHc N GP
fc AGS bQN (QJ) J ib d jQdG g J .S jdG
. (Linear Acceleration Forces ) q N h C G (Centrifugal ) j c e I H f
a qdG zjdG jc FK - dG S{ jQGdG jQdG M d
j dG g a .kL dG g ,5-10 dG a VdG dG
e N d jdG jc FK OKch dG S OfCG H U dhdEG
. (Stand By ) g C d G h C G O G S G d M a g h j Q d G j N
jQdG V (Pyrotechnic) jQf QOe CGJ ,kFHc J j eYh
,450C d E G h 300C e j h d G N G O I Q G d G L Q O L H J J Y J S
r
hGj .FHc IQb fGh N c a dhdEG d ac IQGM gh
j Q d G M Y k G O Y G ,100 V h 1.5 V H j Q d G g a d d G N
.NGdG UdGh
IQdG Nh jQdG RQn
- fdGh ,HdG - fdG jQHh jd jQdG jhdG MCG QuW
MCG qJo .fhd E G e kSGh kW Sd JjQHh jdG jdGh ,jQdG
FdG jdG jQdG RJh Dh ,Ch ,AAh ,AAA fGSCG dG dG jhM
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c J IQb jN 6
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325
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FHdG IQGdH jQdG Ud dPh (Snap-On Terminals) WEG nJGP aH
(QGQRCH dG) jQGQdG jQdG e SGh W QqJ iNCG Mf e .kHjEG
AGdG - fdGh ,dG cCGh ,dG Fc J IU H
a qSh e Wh YU M a J d ,jdG jdG dEG aVEH
jhdG YdGh ,SdGh ,GedGh ,dG pd PCG YqS e
CG EG ,SdG dG M Sd dG fCG H uoU bh .jdGh
Gqe ah jdG eGSd Sb Z aM a Rd qoU dZ
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C h AA h AAA f Sb fGSCG jQH a eOdG - dG jN RJo

.dhqCG jd jc dPh 9 V IQb QjfGdG jQH dEG aVEH ,Dh

ad eOdG - dG jN e je dEG jo ,WGdG da Hh

UN e J GP (NiCd) jQH kjCG aGJ .dhCG jd ae bW
j Q d F G c (NiCd ) j Q H R Q a h , S d G f d G a G S d
. (Notebook-Computers ) d G G J d G a h d d G j d G f d G

eh IOqe RQp a dG - JdG UUdG jQH aGJ dc

a eRQ j eGdG dhdEG jN H CG EG ,e RGe H
. j d G I O e j Q H j d I M G h j h M a L j h ,D - M j h M

e Yeh dG IU ,WGh IQb N a (Button Cell) QqdG dG eCG

G g a h (2 mm) 0.2 in Y Y J Q Gh (11 mm) 0.4 in Y b j j f e Ub
LdG qj a (LdG dG) OfCG LdG oMCG qj jQdG e dG
:jQdG e dG Gg Y eCG e .(ddG dG) O K dG H dG
.jQGQdG AGg - fdG jNh ,dG cCGh ,dG jQH

IQdG Gqeo
,(AC) OOqdG QdG jd IQGO Y IQY g (Power Supply) IQdG qeo EG
326
 a j d G G g M j . e (DC ) Q J d E G , d G Z (DC ) T d G Q d G h C G
H hCG ,jRdG e (DC) dEG (AC) qe g qdG CG fhdEG dY
e (Module) cqe IQGO HQ hCG ,(Open-Frame Assembly) e QWEG qe
.cdG pVh

q N e qeo dEG kFe (DC) dEG (AC) `d dqodG IQdG Gqe qJo

.(Switching Regulated PS) jdH e qeoh ,(Linear Regulated PS)

N b e (DC ) d E G (AC ) N e I Q d G j H (DC ) I Q d G e j

f E T J j f (DC ) Q J d (AC ) d a N O j J
k hCG j .e
q
ejO d ddG g J mFH j .(Smooth Voltage) e da
.I Q G d G J Q G e hC G AC N I Q b d a J e H K N i e

(Switching Power Supply) jdH dG IQdG G qe UCG d

Network ) d G e O N hC G ,j d G GJ d G J a
k SG cCG
S e d h . (Computer Workstations ) j J d G d G e h , (Servers
Switching ) j d G f hC G j d I Q d G G e e h e Y d G j C G b
gh ,FGOCG Y IdG Vh V e dG g dqJ e H (Mode
IdG IdG dh .IQdH SdG BG GJ a de Z GJ
Gqe e fQe id dG JAch fRh Nh ,M U a IMdG
e dG a 5 kf aJ jdH IQdG Gqe J Y EG .qdG IQdG
g Ea dP eh , q dG IQdG Gqe e aJ Y j Ggh ,IQdG
.kW GJdG Hh ,bdG GQGdG e J a de GJ dG

dY dG FoK GQjfGdc IjdG fhdEG fqdG e jdG EG

, (MOSFET ) I Q d G G Q j f G J h , (High-Frequency Bipolar Transistors ) O O d G
jdG dG eueh ,(Ferrite-Core Transformers) jjdG q dG qeh
qeh ,(Schottky Rectifiers) JT eueh (Fast-Recovery Rectifiers)
uoUh uoU b ,(Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors) dCG dhdEG
.jdG f d kN

327
Y kS KD j (EMI) ehc NGJ jdH IQdG Gqeo dqJ
GSH dG d FL M Lh dh .jdG iNCG fhdEG GQGdG
dEG dG e c jh .qodG b e cqJo dG (Filters) TdG
Host) dG dG Sd kah eo jQJh Mh aVEG uTe
q
. d G h C G (Product

kN qdG TdG QdG Ge

q N HSG eqDJ J IQGO Y GqdG e dG Gg j
Gd
IQb qe a Xh bCG KK dg .HK da Nn Y a pdG
.7-10 dG a qe g c , q dG ddG
. (Rectifier ) j d G R L (1
.(Filter Network) uTdG T (2
.(Regulator) qdG (3

dG Z (DC) TdG QdG Ud L Y IQY (Rectifier) qdG EG

q dG N e (AC) Q dG N Y dG jh .(Filter) T dG dEG
. (Transformer )

ce Jh e d a e I e (DC) d H j u dG N EG
. Y (Superimposed )

QjfGJ dEG dSQEGh (Ripple) HhdG ddG dGREH uTdG T J

. (Load ) d G e d H U d G (Pass-Transistor Q1) Q1 j d G

j (Shunt Regulator) jJ hCG J da qe dG bdG qd EG

Osjoh .dG dEG f (QjfGJ IOY gh) jdG Y N e jJ
J j dG e c GPEG a (7-10 dG) Q1 QjfGdG V e
dG dG u e H e kYT cCG cdG gh (Series-Pass-Regulator)
Y ddG Ea dG hCG NdG N da qJ GPEGh .(Closed-Loop Regulators)
Uh f Y ddG fQH q dG j .k jCG J Q1 QjfGdG
328
SH (Voltage Divider) ddG q e a R3h R2h R1 (Resistors) ehpdG
GPEa .(Referance) Lc (Zener Diode D1) D1 fR FdG pdG J dG ddG
b Y k GOYG (Bias) qdG b qjo kLNn jo ddG a k GqJ qdG OqM
HdG dG dEG dG da IOYEH Q1 a ,QdG d VdG Q1
qjh .HK dG dEG SdG ddG N b Y j Ggh ,kS IOdGh
. (Closed Feedback Loop ) e I J e j J I F G O q dG

q dG IQdG Gqe IQb hGJ

N I a f h 100 W h 3 W H j Q d G
bKh LQO GP gh k GL kda kJ GdG g eqDJ .IOe hCG IOe
bKe GQGO qoU bh .OOdG a IdG MGREH KCJ fCG c ,dY
IQdG GH qdG J qSh e QSCH J d Fg H AGOCG
.dG NQ dG a J M WGdG

qTe
AC N qeh qe DC N
e
fR Le

.e - N IQb e :7 -10 dG

qJo fCh .(Variable Resistor) Ie ehc jdG ehe J g

f dEG IQdG J IAc j jdG ehe QjfGJ Ea ,QGSH bdG
Ic qe dEG LMG iNCG Fhe e .dG a 35h 15 H hGJ
cCGh KCG fqdG e dG qJo .60/50 Hz e IQb TJh jd Kh
.q dG IQdG qe fqe H e kM

jdG fQ IQb Ge
,kSSCG (Tuned Transformer) qe qc IQdG Gqe e dG Gg qjo
329
Ferroresonant Power ) jdG fQ IQb qe EG .Qd uTc j CG j
c fCG c ,OOqdG GJ J Sq M fCG EG ,dY bKh hPh Ac (Supplies
.dG gH fc Y k a ,RdG Kh dG

(Hz 60/50 OOJ) OdG qdG K eCG KK dGM dG Gg K RGj

.q dG IQdG qe M npV RGj M CG c

qdG IAc e dG a 80 dEG JAc Jh IRe dG Y JQb CG eh

. (AC ) h d G Q d G N O O J K i e Y J d G g C G E G , O Y G
e Qj dG YdG (Hum) dG U qdG Gd dG dG eh
.SdG j dG dG a GSd Se Z j

jdH dqdG IQdG Ge

IAc cCG fCG c .NCG Rhh UCG M hP GqdG e dG Gg EG
q odG hCG ,jjdG fdG IQbo Gqe e fQdH
. (8 -10 d G ) d H

,ueo e jdH (Switching Regulated Power Supplies) IQdG qe dCj

Pulse Width) dG V Y eh , H HP Q j fG Jh , T J Th
q
N fQH QpdG j .(Comparator) QpodG dEG a VE H ,(Modulator
da Y OYH ddG e a R2h R1 ehpdG Uh f Y ddG
VY hCG dG eR Oqjo JdG QdGh ,Le c D1 fR FdG u dG
V DC QdG N da fc Ea ,PWM dG VY qeo e JdG dG
fN

Qe
Te VY qe
AC N
eh dG
e DC N
fR U
FdG

.jdH IQdG e :8 -10 dG

330
QjfGJ dEG SdG dG VY OGOj ,zpdG{ OjJ H ,LdG dG
d G h , d d G d d P h Q1 J e R I O j R d E G O D j e ,Q1 j d G
ddG N bh GPEG .U

e S dG VY Ea ,dG bJ H ,LdG dG a
dM dEG gjh ddG N QhH qj dG Q1 QjfGdG J eR j
.JQG b RGdG

C dPh q dG IQdG Gqe e IAc cCG qjo GqdG e dG Gg EG

j eY a J bdG Ea Yh .e H QdG UJ dG IQGO
a Ie 100.000h 20.000 H hGJ GOOqJ a (Switching) jdH QjfGdG
.edG dG Ia J N e k b c C G h C G (100 Hz d E G 20 Hz C G ) f d G
H qdG Ea IQhO c a k qT j (Switch) dG hCG qdG EG Mh
.ke j uTdG dEG SdG bdG
q `e `Ya `J
` H DC ` d a G` ` e a d G a 85 `f d E G j d G
.(IAc cCG q dG qdG IQb V e cCG CG) 15 Vh12 V

Input) NdG e Ea d dG GO Oq dG a J j dG Y CG Hh
q
60/50 Hz OOdG GP dG e kfRh bCGh kM UCG j b (Transformer
CG j Ggh .jjdG fdG GPh ,dH IQdG Gqe dEG J dG
.bCG j gjJh IQGdG qJ

kjCG g j CH (dG) qd j fRhh qdG M J EG

a aJ dGh GqdG d IdG UdG EG .kfRh NCGh kM UCG
, d d G H U d G (Hold-Up Time ) j E G e R g , d G G d G
H pdG OSE j H dY qdG a ddG d edG IdG CG dPh
d k jW j CG j jEG eR Ea dd .IQdG NO a f M
Y edG jEG Ia J .MG bW Qe dEG dG zjdG e{ IQGdG
jh ,(High-Voltage Capacitor) dY da GP qe a fhdG bdG
.ddG N IOjH hCG ,pdG N J N e dG g IOjR

331
 jdH dG jJ
Switching)jdH dG G qd dG jdG e jdG dg
: j e J , (Regulator Topologies
(Flyback or Buck-Boost Convertor) dG qeo hCG jGdG be dEG LdG Iqeo
(Forward or Buck Convertor) (dG hCG) eeCG qdG
(Half-Bridge Regulator) Ib dG qe
q e
(Push-Pull Regulator ) c e Q G W C G

LdG qeo
dG a dG a qe g c ,(Flyback Converter) LdG qe EG
q M hHh MGh jJ QjfGJ Y j jdH IQb qe g ,9-10
(Transformer) dqeo NGO qodG Gg a bdG qJo .(Output Inducer) Nn
j e Y ) (Switching Period ) j d G I a e h C G d G N h d h C G Q J
dH j dG fdG qdG dEG qJ dh ,(UJ dM a dG
j e Y .((Flyback Period) dG dEG dG I a) f dG dG N
dd gh ,LdG NdG e kdS kLN qodG jo (Off) k e QjfGdG
.20 W Y J IQH dG jJ a jo

dG

VY qe
dG
e

.LdG qeo :9-10 dG

eeCG qodG
,10-10 dG dG a qeo g c ,(Forward Convertor) dG Gg EG
(Buk-Derived Switching Power Supply ) d H
q eh jdH IQb qe g

332
 f dG q dG dEG q j gh .O e j J Q j fG J Y j
gh , k qeo hCG kMe QjfGdG e j eY (Transformer Secondary)
IQdG J jJ a IQGdG Joh ,(Output Inducer) ndG q M a qjo
. c C G hC G 500 W h J d G

dG

VY qe
dG
e

.(eCG dEG) eeCG qdG :10 -10 dG

QjfGdG IOe IunodG

c e QG WC H s eo , cCG hCG j J Qn j fG J GP I u eo g
a G S G F T e J g h , (Half-Bridge ) I d G f h C G (Push-Pull )
e c I b h GQ j f GJ H Q C H c GJ d gh .500 W - 100 W I Q b i e
.cCG hCG 500 W a IQdG J jJ a kf Jo (Full-Bridge)

jdG IQdG Gqeo

dG S hCG dG Y VJ d IOeh keJ e IQb Gqeo g
,jdGh ,IQGdG a VGZC QJh da Nn e ie eCJ Y Jh
e EG .fhdEG dG GhOCG U e GqdG g q Jo . eGOEGh
Je Y Jh N (Laboratory Power Supplies) jdG bdG Gqe
GOGqY Md dh ,dG Y Sj H QdGh ddG jd LQN qJ
.ndG g Sd cCG hCG

333
 IQdG Ge Jhn RQ
H dG a gh (Stand-Alone) dG JGP IQdG Gqe J
GhOCG J a GSd d dG Nnh ,G fCGh , MCG e SGh
:ddG FGdH GdG g RJh .IQdH fhdEG ILCGh
Y hCG jO U NGO Jh :(Encapsulated Module) dG jR dG
dG GP GqdG g q J .e RGe Hh U SH
. f h d E G I L C G a 10 W
Gqe a FT dG Ggh :(Open Frame Package) dG QWEG jRJ
f qe cqJ .500 W dEG 100 W d qdG jdGh dG IQdG
g h C G (Card Cage Mounting ) b H h U V d G Q G O M d Y a d G
.dG dG hCG ,RdG NGO cqjo V dG H fe
Yf d jRdG e dG Gg j :(Enclosed Module) odG jRdG
.cCG hCG 500 W QGH IQb J a FT gh ,jdHh ,dG GqdG
Ohqeh jd fe H q e fe g Y dG fqe cq Jo
g J RF. V j M a d k G L I U d G g J .j d G H
AGg d af hCG hGH H Ohqjh ,EM/RFI uTe Y GMdG
.jd e

Te QJ dEG Te QJ qeo
DC N d E G d d e d a i H DC N O J f h d G I Q GO gh
QdG NO (Chopping) J N e kf dP J j .fOCG hCG YCG dH
mFH J K (Coarse AC) e Z he QJ dEG jd DC TdG
qdGh ,dqd QjfGdG dG a dG Y EG .jJh H
Pulse Width) dG V Y eo SG H J ,11-10 dG a k J
q
j M (MOSFT Q1 ) Q j f G d G I Q b H j d G (Modulator - PWM
Nn jJ j .T1 QjfGdG a dhqCG dG dEG HqdG JLe Nn J
T J h , j J h ,T1 Q j f G d f d G d G a j d G d G Z AC
.D3 FdG fR pU SGH ,Jh
jQhV dY da Y d dG Gg e DC dEG DC qe Jo
334
IQdH TV eh GJdGh ,GQGOGdGh ,jOGdG pSeo ILCG d
Ship ) GF d Gh d G S Y d e j Q H hC G 12 V I Q b J GP j Q H e
. (Board Batteries
VY qe
dG
+Vout

DC dEG DC dqe 11 -10 dG

ObdG jN
bW dEG FdG bdG qJ IQb QOe g (Fuel Cells) ObdG jN EG
e Y j d G (Combustion ) G M G d E G L d G h O T e H F H c
IQb GMh g ObdG jN EG .cCHh ,LhQdH dG ObdH qJo
Y Y jdG g J .T IOYEG dEG J fEG PEG jQd jH
N J .cCGh LhQdG fE Ad FHdG dG IQhS
d e h b O G H Z (Flow-Field Plates ) e e U Y O b d G
dhdEG Y d c jh .(12-10 dG M) bQ AZp SG H
e c j .(OKdGh OfCG) jOhdEG H Zeo (IOY jdG M)
JdG e (Catalyst) RqM Ye eY e b c Y dG Jg
.FdG YdG d

S h d G h C G , (Hydrazine ) j R G Q d c - L h Q d H d G O b d G J j
G Q h d H N C j M O f C G L e d G d E G L h Q d G R Z h C G , (Kerosene )
jh .OKdG L e dG a (AGdG) cCG jo mFH .dG NGO
nLe LhQg nfjCG dEG Fc YJ Y LhQdG F L o a
. O f C G U V f h d E G d E G h ( n f J h H h C G )

QJoh .d IQb eqDJ LQN fhdEG IQGO Y fhdEG aJ

dG H UdG bdG AdG Y OKdG f (JfJhH) LhQdG if
.OKdG a cCG e ed
335
jfK c AdG OKdG U a bdG IQGO e LGdG fhdEG qJ
a JdG AdG e IOSG Jh ,cCGh LhQdG H UdG Yd
J e H bCG dh IQGdG e AT kjCG ObdG N Y jh .T jb
N a JdG AdG GSG j .NGdG GMG qe J Y JdG
.LdG bG EG jJ ec ObdG

fhdEG

(ObdG) LhQdG
OfCG
Yd Ye eY

dhdEG

OKc
(AGdG) cCG

(AdG) fK Jf
.Obh N :12 -10 dG

e dg a ,a fhdEG d IQb Qc ObdG qN Jo

dH HJoh IkOY jdG g SqJo .ObdG jN e b OY dEG EG LM
CG eh .Fe dH HdG IQdG Nn jhd jRGe IQHh (In Series)
AdG S a jQd Y jH fCG KCG a b ObdG jN IAc
.kKqJ dG X Y ddG GqddGh jQdG qJ M dgCdG

IQdG ed MG IQb eCJ g ObdG jN SG e dG c GPEGh

CG dG j H qJ dh .dG d qS e Fg k GOGYCG Ea FHdG
jh .RdH qdG HQdG GdqdG e IkAc cCG J b jdG g
fCG dh .dG d jH IQb QOc eGSGh e dG jJ
jJ j a ,200 kW gQb bW kdM ObdG jH edG IQdG e
.IQb T Y JdG IQdG f QJ GPEG AC dEG DC Nn IQb

336
 Y O d G dG

fhdEG dG GhOCG

jdG

E G de
(McG) MjfG GQT eT If
(Sweep Generator)
(Frequency Counter) OO d G OG Y (Meter Movements) OG d G c M
(Spectrum Analyzers) d G e KdG MdG GOGY
(Analog Panal Meters APM )
(Logic Analgzers) d G e IOdG bdG GOGdG
(Digital Multimeter DMMs )
dG dG Ib OGY (Oscilloscope) H S ShC G
(Mgnetic Field Strength Meters)
TdG QdG Sb Ib bdG HSShCG
(DC Measurement Bridges) (Digital Oscilloscope)
hdG QdG Sb Wb UNG GddG
(AC Measurement Bridges) (Function Generators)
hdG QdG Sb Ib Y eCG jOGdG OOdG GQTEG Gde
(AC Measurement Bridges Examples) (Radio Frequency signal Generators)

337
 eT If
Ijeh ,Jh ,jJh J a e fh dEG dG GhOCG EG
SCG) jdG GhOCG YNG dh .JGqeh fhdEG GQGdG Jh
Y AGHG b jW Id fhdEG Seh Fja b e (ddG JGhOCG
,GdG jJ a SSCG fCG GhOCG g KCGh . d dG fh dEG
dG GhOCG qJ .FHdG IQdG Gdq eh ,GQ J dGh , dGh
Moving-Coil) cdG dG GOGqY e k GOYh ,jh Ib SdG
d d G - (Galvanometer ) f Z S e h C G z e f d G { e d G (Meters
,(FHdG QdG S e) (Ammeter) eCGh ,((Voltmeter) d dG OG Y)
(Wattmeter) WG dGh ,( eCG ehCG S dG) (Ohmmeter) ehCGh
.(GdG Se)

(Analog Multimeter) OdG KdG OGqd SCG f GhOCG g fc

e L dG VGZCG IOqe GOGdG gh ,(VOM) e hCG - ddG hCG
OGdG SG qdG Ia AKCGh .keh k S k GeCG jdGh fGdG UdG
I O e d G S h B G U C G (DMM ) O e b Q O G H O d G K d G
.dG VGZCG

SSCG dG FHdG GdG Sd IQdG aJ dEG aVEH

VGZCG qJ IOe GhOCG e I c OG YCG j J a GhOCG g g S
.IOdG

,OO dGh ,IQG dG LQOh ,(Capacitance) dG S b (DMM) eE Hh

MU J k j c ,(Electrical Continuity) FHdG jQGSGh
.GQjfGdGh GOjGdG

b d G - K d G - j d IC I Q GO{ G N G M e GQ d G g L e h
,LC T Th ,(Monolithic Analog to Digital Convertor IC) zdG OMoCG
SdG IAGb a d dG EG .(Decoder/ Driver IC) e dG a IC/ bGqSh

338
dG e L ,qTDe He N e b jJ H OGY N e ,ITe
VdG Ea iNCG Mf e .bO cCG hCG ,k GQe k GeCG fhdEG ILCd JhdG
L b G O G d G a (Analog Moving Bar Display ) K d G d G T D d H
eRCG a fGh Yf TDj fC bdG dG GhOCG a Y adG
.M

,SdG fhdEG dG GhOCG e NBG f g SShCG EG

qTCG fCGh .e b e J fc dG FjdG GdG dEG UCG Lj
a M dG q dG UCG H YCG A dG a c dG (CRT) dG
jdG fCG GNG dEG QJ iOCG dh ,jdG eh SShCG
. b G h M (ESTV ) f h d E G S d G j d G e L d G (Video Tube )
Y jd eGe Sb j CG jdG KdG SShCG eEH
d G G N G h . I M G h (CRT ) T T Y V j h , G O O d G e S G h i e
aj dG bdG SShCG g KdG S ShCG Y q J
Y LdG TCG J Y IQdG eh ,e b J d eGSG
dGh SGQd mFH YLSGh IcGP a fN K SGQO I d T dG
SShCG H bdG SShCG GNG e ZdG Yh .JdG
.b je a dBG KdG

McG IQTEG Gdqeh ,IQTEG Gdqe fhdEG dG GhOCG H J

Se e kq J cCG GhOCG dEG aVEH ,OOJ GOGYh ,(Sweep Generator)
M i c r o w a v e ) h d G O O d G f V H p f a R F S b j d G d G
. (Frequency Band

e jdG L a YSh dG FSh AGOCG e GhOCG g q M d

YGNG g H CG EG ,ke k GeCG fhdEG e a YG NG
dG S Y dP eh .f GhOCG jd YLSG jc oSG
hdG ddG QqJ M g dG ,(Microcontroller) hdG dG
jd IOdG eGSG feEG e Sh dGh ,GJdGh SdG a

339
GhOCG a jhdG GdG Sh c .eG SG q Sh GhOCG e
, J G Q b e , (Multimeters ) I O d G G O G d G h , H S S h C G e d G
edG jOeh ,GJdG e TdG UGdG feEG d MJCGh
e , h d G d H U d G (Plug-In Software Modules ) U d G I T e
.SdG e e SGh id SCG JJ AGLEG feEG dH

NOEG N e (Virtual Test Instrument) VGaG a IGOCG YoNG d

dEG JdG Gg TT J H T Jc a eH e ,IQGO bH
V Y S H g J j (Virtual Instrument Panel ) V G a G G h O C G M d
j b i NCG M f e .i NCG q J F Shh (Graphic Display) SQ
SShCG H j dG bdGh dG dEG VGaG bdG SShCG
dG HcShCG e jdG Sb bO gJ SdG a bO CG EG dG
.edG VGZCd edG

OGqdG cM
FGdG d qdG dG OGqY cM
Permanent) FGO d c e c Y dG dG OG qY j
q
.1-11 dG a qe g c ,-Magnet Moving-Coil (PMMC) Meter Movement)
efdG OGY cd OGeG g dG (Meter Movement)OGdG cM qJo kJ
d G c M d B G J J . (DArsonoval Meter Movement ) a S Q C G O G Y c ` H
g .MG d (Jewel-and-Pivot System) dGh IQqdG f Y g
cCG ,JqdG jdG f hCG ,(Taut-Band System) qJ iNCG J jW
.c cCG dh HS e SM

,(DC) QJe SSCG Y zcdG{ J ,dG Sh Y dG q Hh

b NGO jM b AGLCG Y j C dG H FGO eh
SCG e dEG aVEH ,dCG e fGSCG IH e ,ddGh HdG
.HdG J jOhe V GQhdG feEHh dG pdG M e

340
a (Bobbin Coil) IdG dG N Sb OGodG IQGdG e QdG qj
dG Gg NGj .HLh dT b Y j kfhdEG ke dG
cdG g fc dh .GQhj TDdGh IdG j e FGdG dG e
e G qe Sb H dd kah qTDdG J L
n hn Mh Qd J
(Deflections ) a G f G S S C G Y (ohms ) e h C G O Y h , j e C G h , d d G
.QdG KCH jJ dG

OY RJQG S
FGO e
QqH RJQG S

qTDe

dG b

dCG e IH
S qJ Hf
qe
q e
.FGdG d qdG dG OGqY cM :1 -11 dG

DC qdG dG GeCG
eY QdG a Sb (DC Moving-Coil Ammeters) GOGqdG g eEH
jJ GOGdG d .2-11 dG a qe g c ,Ue e dH HJ
g u Jo . dG IQGO e RG d H Y V e WGh eh e GP (Shunt)
OGqdG cd f IQGdG a j j e k GAL EG ,kjJ QdG L zjdG{
e ,jdGh dG dG H QdG a f jJ N eh .Sq dG
, e C G h d H d G G d G J j , (Resistor ) F H c h d S e Q N G
.eCG hCG ,eCG qdGh

341
b 1/10 J M - dud ehdG b QNG J GPEG ,dG S Y
d G 1 /10 d G S a Q d G e 9 /10 p
o nS jdG Ea ,dG ehe
.a

O J C d Ph (AC) S b (DC) Q d d G d G z e C G{ e E H d
. e I A G d G a H H T D d G S (Alternation of Current ) Q d G
jJ dH jh (DC) ie dEG (AC) QdG qj (AC) jJ Y dh
. a e (AC) b Q C G C G d d G

IAGdG Md

qTDdG

FGO e e e

jJ

DC Sd dG dG eCG :2 -11 dG

dG AC Tje OGqY cM
H ddGh (AC) QJ Sb (AC Moving-Vane Meter) OGqdG Gg eEH
dG OGY LH j dG CGdG Y e CGe N e j fC Te
1 TjdG hCG) gGMEG HJ ,jdG e e Md OGdG Gg a .dG
2 T j e M d N G O c e H V e e c e Q e d E G ( (Vane )
dG N QdG j eYh .e NGO TjdG c Vjh ,HdGh dG
Y GQhO JH qTDdG kcqe HdG TjdG Y k GH dG TjdG j
.dG TjdG cM Vh jJ Y fhnM Hf jh .YdG

342
 hdG QdG Sd ejOhdEG OGqdG cM
H jc HK e d CG GY ,(PMMC) OGqY CGe Y OGqdG Gg j
Q d G d E G e h U C G e H j . (3 -11 d G d E G ) F G d G d G
dG jf a qTDe Hjo c ,HdG dG V j H cdG
e eCc jo hCG ,(DC) hCG (AC) da Sd OGdG J eEH .cdG
he Hjo ddG Sd dHh .dH HdGh dG dG HQ N
jJ heo Vjh ,dG e dH (Dropping Resistor) dd aN
J dG dG bo fc dh .dG OGeG Y fe a (Shunt Resistor)
JG a TDdGh dG dG SfG c QdG fG c nJo dG
c d G g e S G d . d G N Q d G Q d G J G Y d G q H , J G P
ddG eh ,(AC) IQb Sd ,kFe (AC Electrodynamometer Movement)
dG Th ,QdG SGH HdG dG (J) T j eYh .QdGh
dhdG dG IQdG e kSe TDdG SfG j ,ddH dG
HK e
. (Watts ) W G d H

e e

TDe

RGe
OGq dG c M :3 -11 dG
Ff GWCG .ejOhdEG

KdG MdG GOGqY

dG ce KdG MdG GOGqY
I O e (PMMC ) G O G Y g (Analog Panel Meters - APMs ) GOGqY EG

343
I L C G M d a H Q j e N G O e h R e , (2 -11 d G d E G ) V G Z C G
M d G O G Y J j h . (Console ) f d G h C G (Instrument Panel ) S d G
d kah hCG ,IQdGh ,QdGh ,ddG e qTDe cM SJ H Jh
GQhdG OY hCG ,IQGdG LQOh ,dGh ,gJG Ydc FjdG GqdG
.bdG a

e S HQ N e e Ge Sd BG g jJ j
.(Rectifiers) eudG hCG ,(Shunts) jdG Uhh ,(Resistors) ehpdG
dGE LM h .ue e dG g qJ e GPGE (AC) nb Sb (APM) eEH
.(Input Signals) NdG GQTGE e JQb J GOGqdG g C IQb Qe

5.0 dEG dG a 0.2 hJ Sb bO SdG dG dG Md GOGqd

O G d G G g j d G j Q d G e d h . (Full Scale ) S d G M d e d G a
. d G a 0.1 e J I A Gb b O e

Md Y cqJ hCG HJo d kYU Sb jhM a GOGdG g RJ

,(5 cm) 2 in e J QbCH IQhqe LhCG g SdG GOqdh .GOGqdG
.(10 10 cm) 4 4 in S H e L h C G h

Moving-Bar ) Tc e b Y J TGc (APM) H qJo

e je Yh .TDdG H qT N dG dG jh ,(Indicators
.kce dG hj fL

KdG fhdEG MdG GOGqY

q e Y J (Electronic Analog Panel Meters -EAPM) Md GOGqY g
GQTGE q`j dG (ADC) hCG (Analog to Digital Convertor) bQ Ke GQTGE
IAVEG `eEH .(Bargraph) ce b H VY j nb dEG NO
Y ch .LQN IAVEG SGH ITe Z IQH hCG ITe dG `g
e S`c e f `b V`Y j dG fh `dEG (APM) IAVEG fh dEG
FGT fCch J e qb H jf e (LEDs) Ad YH GO`jGO
344
 .qdG (LEDs) OH VhdG jdG W Ojh .IAeh e

J N e (LCD) TT a qdG dG Vjo dP e dG Y

eh H Y IYeh e (GOhdEG) fhdEG bCG e U
LQO Jh .qdG UdG g OY Y dG W j .TdG NGO
zdG IAVEG{ qj e hCG LQ dG IA VEG i e Y T dG Vh
MdG OGqYh (Bargraph) dG Md e VY J LQO EG .(Backlight)
.TdG a dG dqdG UdG OY Y J

IOdG bdG GOGqdG

FHc Ge Sb Y IQOb VGZCG IOe fhdEG a dBG g
Digital) IOdG bdG GOGdG IQb EG .IMGh bQ VY TT Y pVYnh
e k c SJh 4-11 dG a qe VGZCG IOe (Multimeters DMMs
FHdG SdH dG OGdG Gg QhH .BG a dGh hdG dG
GOGqY eEH dc .DCh AC Je ah ,DCh AC da Sb :ddG
Ua AGLEGh GQjfGdGh GOjGdG a VGZCG IO e (DMM)
,I LCGh GQG dG a d ch ,(Audible Continuity) dG jQGSG
e j Hh .jdG SdGh ,fdG Uah ,ILCG Jh
bTG GhOCG GSH dh OOdG hCG ,IQGdG LQOh ,qdG VY Sb
.OGqdG dEG aVEH

qd IC IQGO jJ Y hdG ah dG WGh (DMM) OGqdG L o d

W G d G I Q d G G P (LCD ) T T d E G a V E H , b d G d E G K d G e G Q T E G
.dG eh

a , i N C G V d G T T e b C G F H c I Q b J (LCDs ) C G d E G k G f
jOqDJ dG J e da Kn dEG n Hp dG a Y cCG UCG
j Q H e b W I e (13 mm) 0.5 in d W (Characters ) h H h (DMM )
J d W N d I A VE G G S H h .9-V I Q b , T O j j Y b

345
 .N IAVEG OLH M TdG VJ e jDhQ

Td ,4 - digith 3 - digit VY UGe kYT (DMM) GOGY cC

. d G a 0.05 hC G 1999 a k G M Gh k GA L h J J I b h ,A GL C G S d E G e
3 - digit (DMM) `d dG da) .DC da (DMM) bO Y dd Joh
. ( d G b e d G a 10 d G M h C G (1 digit + d G a 0.5 ) g

,(5918 cm) 23.57 in gOHGC SH aM a IOY hdG (DMM) OGqY Rjo

e jo bh .IQGhqO Ya P H IOY OGdG Ohqjo (450g) 1 lb fRh jh
.JhdG ddG H d aVEG (Push Button) V QqR H

hdG 3 digit (DMM) OGqd dG SdG (Ranges) AGeCG H j a

:dG

.1000 V h ,200 h ,20 h ,2 h 200 mV ,DC d a ` `

.750 V h ,200 h ,20 h ,2 h ,200 mV ,AC (500 Hz - 45 Hz) d a ` `
.2 Mohm h ,200 kohm h ,20 h ,2 h ,200 ohm ehpe ``
.10 A h ,2000 mA h ,200 h 20 ,2 , DC Q J ``
.10 A h ,2000 mA h ,200 h 20 ,2 , (1 kHz d E G 45 Hz e ) AC Q J ` `

OGdG a aJ iNCG S dh cCG Sb bO dG (DMM) OGqd EG

TT GP ,WGhh e q e aM a jdG GOGqdG RJo .hdG
ddG dG GP OGdG OHCG J .MdG LGh Y IS Jeh VY
TH AC IQH IGqdG GOGqdG e OhsJ .IdG Y gh jQGSG Rd
O j j Q H d E G a V E H , a d G A d G W e a I A G d G d b Q (LED )
.GdG a eGSG id Y cCG d dPh T

346
 LCD VY TT

QGhO QNG e

NO HGb

.VGZCG OdG bdG OGqdG :4-11 dG

JGP Jh ,JeJhCG b OLh SdG RdG UGe J

qJ an jMh ,ddG Sd dY Nn bheh ,(Automatic Zeroing)
(DMM) GOGqY Gqe J .jQdG Pf TDe e ,(Overload Protection)
:j e jhdG hCG e jdG

U d G b e h i e Q N G Y I Q d G g h : (Autoranging ) A G O C G i e Q N G
.JeJhCG IQH ehdGh ddG Se Y jdG
.AC h d G Q d (RMS) d G Q d G H J S e S b
. (Peak-Hold Circuitry ) I h Q d G J I Q G O
.idG jd Se
idG QNG{ eN aH (DMMs) GQb hdG ddG RqY dh
dG TT Jh .QNG GH dG cd dPh zJe JhCG
Y O d G V d G e e d G (Analog Bargraph Display ) K d G d G
a VfGh JQG GhQPo Me a dG IYe Y (LCD) TT
S d I c (LCD ) T T d G S e (DMM ) G O G Y d a J . d G

347
(be hCG) bQ Sb fH SQEG Y IQdG NBG dh .LdG TEG
e J hCG (Processing) de Y AGLEG Vd T GJ c dEG
. (Logging )

HSShCG
OKc fCG T H IOhq e a dBG (Oscilloscope) SShCG EG
j Q d G d d G H j f H S c (Waveforms ) L d G T C G V d (CRT )
iNCG Ge SH Jh ,NO Ld fH k TCG TdG SJ .edGh
.(I M Gh I b S ShC G j d G 5 -11 d G f G) , d Gh OO d G e
:gh SShCG Rd HQCG XdG fGdG kjCG 5-11 dG jh
WEG hCG dG AL (3) ,aCG GfG dqe (2) ,OdG SfG AL (1)
d G a g S S h C G E G . (CRT ) h C G V d G T T (4 ) , (Trigger Section )
.J iNCG IQH qjo d e KJ SShCG

LR NGO kf IQe (Grid) N T g (Graticule) dG Se EG

IOY qJ dGh ,SdG a bdG Y dGRE dPh ,eeCG (CRT) TT Md
c h .10 x 8 g d d G S d G f E G . (Parallax Errors ) R G d G A N C G
kebCG hCG (Division) kb J aCG IdGh jOdG fdG dG e
U d G d G J e Y I O L d G (Labeling ) G T C d G Y J . T d G Y
.VY j LdG Y f jCG a (Amplitude) dG nb jJ Y RdG AGOCH

e d G (The Vertical Deflection Section ) O d G S f G A L a j

g h f h d E G d G H U d G ( (y-axis ) h C G G O d G Q e Y ) j O d G
Qnjoh NndG GQTEG zAdG{ Gg j .(CRT) TT Y LdG T j
. f h d E G d H d (CRT ) d E G j d G j O d G S f G d a
TT J .NGdG OdGh NdG IQTEG QNH kjCG zAdG{ Gg j
. (Graph ) I Q d G d a C G S G Q T E G d E G S S h C H U d G (CRT )
e (x-axis) fdG dG (Horizontal Sweep Generator) aCG jfG dqe ajh
LdG J gh .kaCG hdEG T qJ dG SfG da dJ N
348
 j f G H J d G h , (Sawtooth Waveform ) Q d G S C H d G
.5-11 dG a qe g c ,SShCG

dG
SfG AL Qe IQTEG
OdG GOdG
NdG
(Y-Axis )

Qe IQTEG
(Z-Axis ) J Q G

QdG IQTEG
(X-Axis ) d G
NGO jOe
jfG dqe
dG b aCG
jOe
LQN
Qe da eGdG LdG
peo
SfCG

.SShCd J J T :5 -11 dG

adG qJh ,QdG S Le e JdG AdG a (Ramp) eGQ eCG

Y dG e GdCG AdG Y eGdG jo .(Retrace) LodH bdG
Mf e .LodG N TdG e jCG AdG dEG dG Ojh TdG OGeG
cd dH keS eGdG a qN JQG qe aCG jfG qde aj iNCG
UdG g H .ITe IQHh eR GMH gJ j d aCG dG
edG GMh Jo .(Timebase) hCG zedG SSCG{ kjCG jfG dqe qj
fK fdH SJ gh ,Ib Id VhdG LdG TCG Me j H
.mGK IH J WCG Id Me j hCG ,(s) fKhjdH hCG (ns)
eh fhdEG dG S LQO (CRT) TT a (z-axis) z - Qe Oqj
. (Off ) A W E G h C G (ON ) J d M a c G P E G
LdG d k Ge kVY (Trigger Section) rndG AL aj ,iNCG Mf e

349
 .SfG da f Y Ie c j jfG C

dG Uh Jh ,LQNh NGO b feEG IOY SShCd

dH dG Oqj .dG IQGH LQdG dG JQG Y (Couplings)
O d G I Q T E G Q N Q d G J e J h . d G I Q G O J (Mode Control )
. (Trigger Signal )

SG H dG IQG H dG IQ TEG J J , LQ dG IQ TEG dEG d H

idGh (Slope) dG JG Y GdG OqJh .IQTEG rbn qe
JdG aqdG qj dH da .dG IQTEG Y dG f (Level)
Y odG jh .LdG T e ,(dG) HdG aqdG hCG ,(HjEG)
M M S f G d a Q N H d h L d (Level ) d G J G
,dG IQTEG Y ze{ dd QNG H dG IQGO nJo eY .dG
.zdG{ Gg a Qj Ie c a qj jfG dqe Ea

e d (Composite) cqe dM g TdG Y LdG T Ea ,Yh

S a .k GMGh (Graph) kfH ke H e qJ dG jfG M
kLe k T j S ShC G E a 0.05 s/ div Y Q d G V e GPE G , d G
d G M S j G g h ,(0.05 s division x 10 screen divisions) 0.5 s c k G M G h
.bO c a fH T fe

Dual-Trace ) qj e hCG J JH kdM jdG HSShCG Jo

x
J ,e jOY NrOn JnQGO Y J gh ,(Oscilloscopes
SShCG eEH .IMGh (CRT) TT Y keGJ Le nT MH
MdG qUG dG EG .100 MHz dEG J GOO J S b VG ZCG O e
: g 100 MHz S d G K d G S ShC d

.3 dB = 100 MHz Q G e (Bandwidth ) L e f V Y

.3.5 ns = (Rise Time ) J Q G e R
.22 pF e R G d H 1 Mohm = (Input Impedance ) b h e N O

350
 .3 = (DC Gain Accuracy) DCr cn bO
.5 V/div d E G 5mV/div = (Deflection Factor ) S f G e Y
.0.5 s/div d E G 2 ns/div = (Sweep Time ) j f G e R

bdG HSShCG
d d G L e T C G (Digital Oscilloscopes ) H S S h C G g V J
a fN hCG ,VY j bQ fH dEG UCG GQTEG jJ N e
k jCG q J a k bQ L e TCG N Y IQO b fCh .I cG dG
g h . (Digital Storage Oscilloscopes DSO ) b d G d G H S S h C H
TCG fQeh dGh ,dG fhdEG GMCG jd de Jo ILCG
. (One Time Events ) I O d G G M C G f Q e h d G d c h , L d G
H UdG iNCG HdGh JeJhCG SdG AGLEG eEH
.HdH J CG kjCG j dG LdG
I Q T E G Y G I O Y j h . K d G S S h C G I Q G O (DSO ) N O I Q G O H J
, (Sample and Hold (S/H) Circuit ) M G h Y E G I Q G O S G H g J H , N d G
.(Analog to Digital Converter - ADC) bQ dEG KJ dqe SGH bQ Jh
Crystal) QqH pHneo jh .bQ IcGP a (dG hCG) PdG ,FH ,qjo
q
b d H e d G a S H (Timebase ) z e d G S S C G { I Q G O a (Oscillator
T VS jCG he dpeo Oqjo FH .qdG (Clock) YSh IQTEG
dEG QdG e VdG TT OGeG Y edG SSCG jh .TdG Y LdG
c a LdG T (Refresh) V Ojo .KdG SShCG a c dG
a Q d M (DSO ) a b h h e d G S S C G ( q N) eSG qJoh .dG a j Ie
.KdG HSShCG a edG SSCG bOh eSG Y kSb

UNG GdqdG
a hj ch .keGSGh k GQfG cCG dG IOq e IQ TEG Q e g
J (Function Generator ) Q d G G g e E H ,6 -11 T a d G d G

351
 . (Nonsinusoidal ) L d G L d G d c h (Sine Waves ) d G L d G
LdG Qpeo
HdG e gueo
u e
pHneo rNn
dG LdG
LdG qe
dG

.UNG dd J e :6 -11 dG

J .MGREG GOOJh J Y kjCG UNG GdqdG H aJ

Sine - Wave) dG LdG pHnH UdG d He GQGO GhOCG g
o
Free-Running) AGOCG M He e kf kLen k T Jo dGh (Oscillator
q
. L d G T C G H e J M (Oscillator

SGH ,6-11 dG a qe c ,(Triangle Wave) dG LdG dqJ

N e dG LdG e (Square-Wave) HqdG LdG qJ K HdG
f j d H . (Square Wave Comparator ) H d G L d G Q e a d N O E G
qeo N dNOEG N e dG LdG e (Sine Wave) dG LdG Jo
j dG LdG T Q NG H .(Sine-Wave Shaper) dG LdG
. (Output ) d G a a J h J

jd (Variable Attenuator) e gueo Y IOY UNG qddG j

q e dEG aVEH dG Jh
d E G d S hC G L e DC i e a VE DC
.dG

dG LdG Jh ,bdG IQGd bJ Yc HdG LdG rNn j

Xh AGOCG kjCG UNG dqdG eEH .(Sweep Generator) jfG dqc
j d G d G d B G Q h H h . (Audio Sine-Wave ) d G d G L d G a
Yh dGh ,eGdGh ,dGh ,HdGh dc IOe Le TCG dJ
I hQ d I hQ P e 30 V d G d a J h 20 MHz h 0.001 Hz H hG j OOJ OG e G

352
 .50 ohm Q G e J Y I h Q d I h Q P e 50 V h M e I Q G O a (Peak-to-Peak )

jOGdG OOdG GQTEG Gdqe

a qe g c ,(Radio Frequency Signal Generators) GdqdG g EG
L RF Le e VGZCG Oe Qe ,7-11 dG a q dG dG
Y IQOb kjCG g GdqdG g eh .jjOGdG dG QN dU
.J Sh OOqJ IQGH Ohqe S pHeo e qeo S GQTEG dJ

IQTEG dd dG dG eh .fh QW J kjCG H aqj

Low) bCG jH jOGQ OOqJ atJ jjOGdG dG Ua ac AGOCG Y IQOb
RF IQTEG dqd MdG IQGdG EG .SGh ie Yh bO Jh ,(RF Leakage
d d G S G H J G O O J O J d G , (VCO ) d d G Y I d G H e g
.NdG Y IdG

N OOqH U GP GJ IdG J ddG a dG hCG IOjdG J

,pHodG OOqJ J ddH dG a edG GQTEG Ea ,dd .(VCO)
.OOqdG d seo gh

Mp dd (VCO) Y IdG NrOn a dG dG GQTEG eCG

7-11 dG a e g c ,(Frequency Modulated Carrier) dG OOqdG
q
C G h O (VCO ) N S J Y I Q G d G g J . (VCO ) ` d G e j M
Amplitude-Modulated) qe e IQTEG H dG k Y L O Oq dG J
q q
. (Signal

500 kHz e OOqdG idG J e dG dG e RF IQTEG dqe j

qdG dG J eEHh .(10 Bands) fCG IY a 500 MHz e cCG dEG
dEG aVEH NGO FMh AM J aqj .2V M 0.02 V dGM e SdGh
J h . (Pulse Modulation ) d G d G d c h , L Q N FM h AM J
.600 Hzh 20 Hz H Ije IqdGh dG GQTEG

353
 qe
pHeo Id pHeo
S ddG Y

u e

rNn
IS da
IS da
qe gueo

RF IQTEG dqd J e :7 -11 dG

(McG) MjfG GQTEG Gdqe

dG a dG dG a qdG (Sweep Generators) GdqdG g EG
GdqdG gh .Y e IQH gOOqJ j L Le QOe g ,8-11
OOJ fEG GdqdG g eEH .SGh OOJ ie Y GQGdG a a Ie
g jJ .(Sweep Feature) MjfG pdG ZEG j eY L Ld HK
q N H k f IQ TEG OO J GhOCG
H j j NBG H CG EG ,
dG Gg j .jfG OOJ e jfG N da SJh .jQZd
dqe SGH (VCO) Jh .HSShCG e iNCG B aCG QhdG
.OOdG jfG ad eGQ

q e
eGQ dqe qe pHneo
ddH L RfG rNn

da RfG rNn

.(McG) MjfG dqd J qe :8 -11 dG

OOqdG OGqY
dG dG a qe g c ,(Frequency Counters) GOGqdG g J
bQ M IQGOh QqH He Y J a OOqdG ,9-11 dG a

354
.jjOGdG Mh WGdG e AGHG GOOdGh edG IdG e c Sb feEH
dG VY dch LdG T fG eR Y IQdG OOdG GOGY dh
N J bQ f dEG sJo K Sb OGdG IQTEG J IOY j .LdG
. b d G f d G h e G h C G e S d (Logic AND Gate ) e V H G H
LdG T GQhO OY Sb j d ,qe Z ed Me HGdG Jh
SdG Y d .e eR Ia N UdG LdG g OOH dG
.HGdG a Ojh bdG OGdG J Oj ddG

OOJ j dG (Frequency Divider) OOJ q e IkOY OOdG OGqY qj

.OOdG ie IOjd a hCG Z eEHh .bdG IQTEG

HGH bQ OGqY VY TT
NrOn OOJ FQ bQ
q e

HGdG IS

eR SSCG

.OOdG OGd J qe :9 -11 dG

.IOQGdG GQTEG J N e RdG OOJ ie (Divider) q odG jj

dEG q dG VCG GPEa .(Prescaler) ndG RGdH q dG Vj bdG Gg ah
e , H G d G (On Time ) a I a O G O R G , (Timebase Circuit ) e d G S S C G I Q G O
Frequency ) OO d G J a j j d G b d G a C WhC G GOO d G I A G H j
. (Resolution

dG qeo
ac S Vj dG dG qodG g (Spectrum Analyzer) dG qe EG
dG qe eEH .f bdG ah qe OOJ ie V J dG GQTEG
k a j gh .OOd dqGc IQTEG bW hCG dH UdG edH fjhJ

355
 .edG M jH SShCG j c keJ GOOdG M jH

ie N e IqdG LdG TCG fqe GOOJ S dG qe j

Vertical) jOY da S fCc LdG TCG VJoh ,LdG T GOOJ
Y VJh ,GOOdG W e k GL kV k GqM J (Voltage Amplitude Bands
. a C G x- Q e OG e G

.(Single Vertical Trace) IOe jOY KCG IQTEc dG GOOdG V Jo

rNn a OOJ c bW hCG ,IMGh L Le OOJh S Sb kjCG RdG eEH
dG e uoU d .(Output of Microwave Generator) jhe Le dqe
:g KK e ,e ge SSCG Y uoUh
. (Bank of Filter ) T d G T C e (1 )
. (Fast Fourier Transform - FFT ) j d G j Q a f G (2 )
. (Sweep Spectrum ) j f G W (3 )

uTdG TCe qeo

uTe e OY Y (Bank-Of-Filter Analyzer) uTdG TCe qe j
dG e k GL V fCG j d d q e (Bandpass Filters) bdG jdG
,dG e a UN GQTEG GOOJ dGREG Y uTe c jh .dG
TT Y VY jh uTdG ac rNn mFH dG Ojo .dG gEGh
M e e a J h , e S J d b T I Y C G e U H (CRT )
. (Frequency Domain ) O O d G e

(FFT) jdG jQa fG qeo

(Fast Fourier Transform Analyzers)jQa fG J Y (FFT) qe qSDj

j h . (Time Domain ) e R H U N e e e L e T W d
J .e eR GH fYG K bdG ddG dEG KdG LdG jJ
(DSP) bQ GQTEG de SGH fdG de J K ,Y c bQ mFH
q
. (CRT ) T T Y V Y j O O J W U S
356
 jfG W qeo
Swept-Spectrum ) qdG e dG Gd kJ ke 10-11 dG j
H (Tunable Filter Channel) seo Oe uTe Ib Y j dG (Analyzers
Y dG VY j h ,OOdG a kJeJhCG IOdG IdG GJ .uTdG TCe
C G Y V h d G J G P O O d G e j h J Y I Q d G d G G d . (CRT ) T T
- KJ IQTEG qe SGH dG Tc N jJ jh .NBG W e
TJ e j H S d G OO d G b a ADC P d G d . b Q - d E G
ddG j .kbQh kJeJhCG (Resolution Bandwidth) dG f VY
. (CRT ) T T Y V Y b d j d b Q H f d G h d G
Re
uTe OOJ uTe aZ Tc
Low-Pass Sh
NrOn IQTEG

eGQ qde
e pHeo CRT

.W d J qe 10 -11 dG

dG qeo
GQGd dG GQTEG dd (Logic Analyzers) qdG g J
IcGdG a dG NdG dM qJ a .eGe H Sb j CH bdG
b d c d G d G d G j h . (CRT ) T T Y V Y d
gOqJ eR GMh a Le TCH j bJ c j ea .ddh
e hCG Je e IQTEG fc GPEG a a Oqj dh . NGO YS
dM c j eYh .ddG J M ee CG aqj CG hO e
Yc gjh a OGodG IQGdG e pT j fEa (State Analyzer)
.IcGdG a dG GQTEG N j ze{ jd

357
 dG dG Ib OGY
Ib (Hall-Effect) g KCJ ad nodG (Gaussmeter) ShZ OGY j
bW qe (Magnetic Field-Strength Meters) OGdG j .dG dG
eZOEG j fpdG SCG e hR jf a Ve (HET) g KCJ LH
(DC) Qe hCG jQH e QdG Ohqnjo .de Ib Sb OGdG dG bCG H
RdG jhM a Ve (Voltmeter) da OGY J jh ,bdG qe N
a g KCJ q pe kjCG fG) .dG dG Ibh SJ da AYE
.(zbdG qeh fhdEG q dG{`H SdG ,17 dG

TdG QdG Sb Wb
jh Ib
IQGO Sb a fQpodG TCG HCG (Wheatston Bridge) jh Ib qJo
Sb a SGh f Y Jo I dG GQGOh .(Bridge Circuit) IdG
. (Impedance ) b h d G h , (Capacitance ) d G h , (Inductance ) K d G h , e h d G
Balance Principle or ) d G d G hC G RG d G C G e S SC G Y I d G J
h C G d G R L J C G ) d G Y e d d G C G C G , (Null Detection
.(ddG

Y a Y F G M G (11 -11 T ) j h I d d G q dG qjh

.R4 ,R3 ,R2 ,R1 e h d G e S Y e c j e h d j R G e
dgh .dG N QdG jhd dG g OGeG Y DC da Qe Hnjo
jRGdG YdG H HdG (M1) OGqY qj ,(Null Detector) U Tc
H dG dEG (M1) OGqdG qTDj .jdG ddG hCG RGdG dM jJh d
ihSh R2 ,R1 ihS GPEa .(Voltage Divider) ddG q H UdG dG da
. j d G d d G h C G R G d G d M M d H k G T D e k G U O G d G C G S ,R4 ,R3
:JBc bdG g Hc jh
R1 R3 hCG R1 x R4 = R2 x R3
=
R2 R4
358
eY zk GU{ OGqdG qTDj ,ahe Z ehe b a R2 `d kjhe R1 c GPEa
.R3 `d kjhe R4 j

OGdG TDj CG dEG b J eEa Ie ehe j R3 c E a

jhe R4 dG hdG b J (Setting) VdG Gg Yh .zk GU{
.R3 d

dBG) Se CG Ia e WCG Ia e ee CGHG jh Ib CG jh

. d G a 0.1 d E G j I d G g S b b O C Gh ,N BG f h d E G ( S b

Qe

.jh Ib :11 -11 dG

c Ib
g h Q P C G S 12 -11 d G a h J c ,(Kelvin Bridge) c I d E G
UdG ehe KCJ AdEG IdG g eEH .jh Ib e Qqe f
.de ehd WGh nb Sb Y (Contact and Lead Resistance) edGh
j .WGdG GWCG eoJ H ehdG b Y dG QPCG hR Vqj
(1 ohm) hGChe 1 dGM dGE 1 ohm ie a ehe Sb a IdG g GSG
hCG (Double Bridge) LhOdG IdH kjCG IdG g qJ .bO IQHh
. (Thomson Bridge ) e K I b

hdG QdG Sb Ib
I b e S J J (AC Measurement Bridge ) W d G e d G G g a
jh .(Inductors) qKdGh (Capacitor) dG b Sd dPh jh

359
Q H DC d a Q e a j I b d E G G g (Impedance ) b h d G S e
e e L C G E G (AC) W b e O Y L C S d G G g Q W d h .(AC)
VqY hCG jh Ib a ehdG e OY SG dh ,jh Ib
,IdG QPCG MCG a IQGO g ddG bhdG EG .qe hCG KM SGH
ddGh RGdG j M ,iNCG QPCG hCG ,bdG QPCG iMEG J jh
. (Null Condition ) j d G

.c Ib :12 -11 dG

Sd sdG (Maxwell Bridge) jce Ib (AC) Sb Wb aCG e

Ibh (Hay) g Ib iNCG ahdG WdG eh .qdG SGH qKdG
KqdG Sd sdG jce Ib Y JQqe gch (Owen) jhCG
,dG Kqd HdG GQdG a f S dG WdG e dh .(Inductance)
.f ehe QPCG H Jh

fqe fRGd edG FGdG Y Jj dG WdG H dG EG

.dG a ehdG
dG S d (AC) I b gCG (Schering Bridge) f T I b q Jo
H qJ .(Wein Bridge) ja Ib Y Y H VY bh ,(Capacitance)
-Qch ,(Campbell) ech ,(Anderson) SQfCG Ib (AC) Kqe Wb
. (Carey-Foster ) S a

360
 hdG QdG Sb Ib Y eCG
IQqe QPCG S e Ib g ,13-11 dG a qdG ,SQfCG Ib EG
nb e KqdG e SGh ie Sd seh ja KqMh - jce Ib Y
Residuals of ) e h p dG jH Sb kjCG IdG g eEH .HK qd de
j h . I d G U Y a d G G K C J j J d G j d G j H (Resistors
.OOqdG Y keJ k e IdG RGJ

.Sa - Qc Ib :14 -11 dG .SQfCG Ib :13 -11 dG

,ce Kqe Sd (AC) Ib gh :(Campbell Bridge) ec Ib

.e nb GP ce Sb hCG ,de Kqe fQe feEHh

se (AC) Ib gh :(Campbell-Colpitts Bridge) dc - ec Ib

. j d G j H (Capacitance ) d G S d

dG a qdG ,IdG g :(Carey-Foster Bridge) Sa - Qc Ib

Mutual) cdG qKdG Sd e (AC) Ib dG a g ,14-11
s
Kqe T a q eh ,(Capacitance) q e T a (Inductance
.(Hieydweiller Bridge) jhjg IH kjCG IdG g qJh .ce
361
 .g Ib :15 -11 dG . j a - j c e I b : 1 6 -1 1 d G

g ,15-11 dG a qdG ,IdG g :HQCG QPCG GP g Ib

GP (Inductances) Kqe Sb feEa ja - jce Id He Ib
JdG Yd (Incremental Inductance) jQdG KqdG jJh Ic Q nb
. O O d G Y I d G g R G J j h . (Iron-Cord Reactors ) j d G

. j h C G I b : 1 7 -1 1 d G .fT Ib :18-11 :dG

362
uU QPCG HQCG GP (AC) Ib g :(16-11 T) ja - jce Ib
H Sb qe Y FGOCG a IdG g J .bO Ke Sb AGLE
.OOqdG Y IdG g RGJ j h .ehdG

H Q C G G P (AC) I b g h : (17 -11 d G ) (Owen Bridge ) j h C G - I b

dG H (Self Inductance) JG dG Kq dG S d s eh k jCG QPCG
. O O d G Y I d G R G J j h . (Resistance ) e h d G h (Capacitance )

IdG 19 -11 dG .ja Ib :20-11 dG

H Q C G G P (AC) I b g h : (18 -11 d G ) (Schering Bridge ) f T I b

R G J j h . (Dissipation Factor ) j d G e Y h d G S d e Q P C G
.OOdG Y IdG
GP (AC) I b g h : (19 -11 d G ) (Universal Bridge ) j d G I d G
:U dh ,dG Sd se QPCG HQCG
Sd sdG (Series Resistance Bridge) dG ehdG Ib (1)
.ae e qe ehe
Sd sdG (Parallel Resistance Bridge) jRGdG ehdG Ib (2)
.ae jRGe ehe

363
 Q P C G H Q C G G P (AC) I b g h : (20 -11 d G ) (Wien-Bridge ) j a I b
c dU Z d jRGdG dG eheh ae qe Sd se
jJ a Jo .OOdG Y IdG RGJ jh .dG W hCG dG Y
,4 dG a{ ja Ib p H eo fG) .(RC) HpH neo e T a OO dG
u dGh pHodG GQGO {`H SdG
.(zSSCG

364
 Y f d G dG

jqqdG qfhdEG fqeh JG

jdG
(Solid-State Lasers) qdG ddG GQd eT If
(Gas Lasers) jRdG GQdG J q TCG b Wh F dG A dG
(Visible and Infrared Energy ) A G d G
(Chemical Lasers) FdG GQdG J qTCd YqdG FdG eu dG
(Infrared-Emitting Diodes ) A G d G
(Liquid Lasers ) F d G G Q d G Ad Ypn odG edG
(Photomultiplier Tubes )
(X-Ray Lasers) dG qTCG GQd Ad UdG jdG
(Photoconductive Cells )
UdG T jQdG FdG edG FdG GOjGdG TGc
(Semiconudor Laser Diodes ) (Photodiode Detectors )
QdG FdG dG Le GWCG (Solar Cells ) d G j d G
(Laser Diode Wavelengths )
jqqdG dCG Y JG (Phototransistors) FdG GQjfGdG
(Fiberoptic Communications )
(Optical Fibers) jqdG dCG d FdG GQjfGdG
(Photofets ) U d H
QdG J eU (Optocouplers) jqdG fpdG
(Image-Intensifier Tubes ) o
QdG jJ eU (Lasers ) G Q d G
(Image-Convrter Tubes )

365
 eT If
Gec a qfhdEG e j qdG hGJ e INqdG adG qJ
, (Digital Cameras ) b d G G e d G h , (Camcorders ) j d G G e c h , I d G
fhdEd CG QYG jh .iNCG eCG e jYh ,dG jDhdG Xeh
.FdG Z ddGh FdG ddG :g jOe dY (Optoelectronics) jqqdG

,GQ TEG J dG fCGh GQG dGh I LCG F dG d dG j

TT kjCG j Ggh .IOdG dH jDhQ j dG QdGh ,UdGh
.kFe k GAV J dG VdG

Z AdG J dG fCGh GQGdGh ILCG a FdG Z ddG eCG

dG qTCG hCG ,qdG a qTCG bWh AGdG J qTCG bW e ,FdG
.Y a bdG g Y J

.FdG Z ddG Y SSCG H dG Gg cqjh

IOL GP ,UdG Th ,AGdG qTCd YqdG FdG edG jJ EG

dP c ,HdG FdG q pdG GP GQdGh ,dG dGh AGOCG
eh (Optocouplers) jqqdG fpodG e jqqdG ILCG jJ e L
,jQdG HdGh ,bdG H Y dG I LCG e i NCG fh dEG
fGSCG qeh ,(Code readers) dG FQb hCG ,(Scanners) SdGh
fhdEG JG e L c .ke k GeCG ,(Compact Disk - CD) WdG
.k GQe k GeCG jdGh IdG ad jqqdG

SdG r ndG e (Fiber Optic Cables) qdG dG rcn aJh

eGqdGh ,JdG dd Uc (Coaxial Cables) QdG IdGh
f J dCG g EG .HdG QdGh ,GJdG fHh ,fjdG
J dEG LdG hO e jW ad qe AV T Y edG
J qTCH AdG YH e FY jJ J bh .aVEG (Amplification)

366
jJ L e ,(Photodetectors) AdG aqch (IR-Photoemitters) AGdG
.
k S k GeCG ,dHh ,FHc GQTEG dEG AGdG J qTCG bW

kd IAdG gd VGh jDhH dG jDhdG Xe J iNCG Mf e

IAdG dG ceCG a gdG jDhH J c ,W N AV QOH
,IQqdGh ,OdG p
o q Jo IGOCG g EG . dG AG dG J q TCG QO H
fhQj dG bdG a d HdG LJh jOdG GgCG bGe a jQdGh
SGQO feEG kjCG Ad IGOCG g a Jh .h dG Q fCG Y q e gh
Gec GSH jdG GMCG bGe hCG ,aNEG hO e dG fGdG
dG jDhdG GhOCG CG c .YUEG QbCG e QqJ dG AGdG J qTCG
J dG edG aqJ bGH iNCG eCG ILCGh Wd J
.Y hO e ,dG L J

g AGdG J qTCG Hh SG Y dG GqdGh ILCG CG eh

H d qdG a qTCG bW J J a ,gZ e kYT cCG
UdG a dG FGTh UdG TCG IcGP c iNCG fhdEG
.IQGdG Md hCG Ad Sq dG

,ILCG Y ,zjqqdG qfhdEG a VdG LdJ{ ,13 dG cqjh

j bCG Y hCG ,FdG Ad J hCG J dG fCGh ,dGh
.Fe AH AJo eY jDhQ

AGdG J qTCG bWh FdG AdG

FdG AdG jo ,1-12 dG a qdG ,ehdG dG q e EG
d Le W bCG e J SdG Y V eM o H (Visible Energy )
770 e A G M L e W WC G d E G ( e h e 0.38 ) e f f 380 e H
e qa (IR) AGdG J qTCG Le eCG .(ehe 0.77 CG) eff
W gh ,( e f f 610 ) e 1 d W L e d E G F d G e
o d MCG dG
367
(UV) qdG a qTCG e eCG .jjOGdG OOqdG Le e bCG LdG
eff 10 e Le W dEG FdG LdG ed qdG dG e a
k W cCG L dG W gh ,( eh e 0.01)
dG qTCG e a
. (X-Ray )

eZ qTCG

dG qTCG

a qTCG
dG
FdG TCG e
IR a jdG dG
IR a SdG dG
IR a IdG dG
q

IR a i d G d G

jhdG LdG

jjOGdG LdG

(cm) LdG W (Hz) OOdG

. e h d G d G 1 - 12 d G

:We HQCG dEG AGdG J qTCG eM J

CG) ehe 5.3 dEG 0.77 e ,AGdG J qTCG eM a jdG dG-1
( e f f 300 d E G 770 e
CG) ehe 6.0 dEG 3.0 e ,AGdG J qTCG eM a SdG dG-2
( e f f 6000 d E G 3000
CG) ehe 15 dEG 6.0 e ,AGdG J qTCG eM a IqdG dG-3
( e f f 15000 d E G 6000

368
CG) ee 1000 dEG 15 e ,AGdG J qTCG eM a idG dG-4
.( e 1 d E G e f f 15000 e
f a .dc d g ka dh ,jQGM qTCG AGdG J qTCG J
IQGM dEG YTEG bdG g qj dG C dPh aGO AGdG J qTCG CH
,IAdG dG e QOe e AGdG J qTCG nnJoh .UeH j eY
NGO cudGh GqdG CG c .dG fGdG eh gdG HdGh
Qe kjCG g NGdG GMG cqeh FHdG cqdG e cdG
Z AGM J qTCH QH dG ceCG IAVEG Yh .AGdG J qTCd
eU qJ Xe GSH dG ceCG g jDhQ j QdG e Fe
jQqH TT dEG QdG g f j K eh (Image-Converter Tubes) QdG jJ
.jDhdG J LCG e (CRT) dG qTCG U TT hCG

d G d G j D h d G f C G g ,IR Y I d G d G e N B G f g
Image) IQdG J e U hCG (Light-Multiplier) Ad Ye Y
ceCG a qa H d se fCG g CG eh .(Intensifier Tubes
dPh ,iJo d AGdG J qTCH AVEG dEG J fEa ,IAVEG dG
dG ATCG J Y IQOb fEG H k GL Sq M fCG g eU C
.AGdG J qTCG J

ILCG Ea ,FdG Z JG LCG e AGdG J qTCG jJ jh

dG dG GfCG e f g jQqdG Y OYH J dG Ho Y dG
,dG Jh ,H Y RdG AWEGh J J gh ,IR qTCG J
J qTCG pe J eY dP jh ,IQ dGh dG j Jh
d j dc .H Y dG RL e qe Iqe f RdG a AGdG
fG SCG q eh .(Stereo) q dG dG fC H dG I LCG
M d h (Mouse ) I Q C d G
o Uh j c .iNCG dG GhOCGh ,WdG
e H G h Q Y , (Host Computer ) d G J d H J G h S d G J d G
T d H e JdG ILCG HQ kjCG j .AGdG J qTCG
.AGdG J qTCG GQTEG SH IMGh aZ V
369
Le W f a d jY SCG fCG J J iNCG Mf e
q peh ,AGdG J qTCd YqdG GQdG qJh ,AGdG J qTCG
g d jdG GQdGh GFdG a cqJo dG AGdG J qTCG
FGdG LJ Gqe dEG aVEH ,aSG b fS GgCG Y qTCG
dG GqdG dEGh ,(Smart Bombs) zcP{ j e AGdG J qTCH
jdG GMh a jdG IQGM bGd AGdG J qTCG q J Y dG
Y e GdCH IQGdG LQqJ VY YdG Gqd j c .FdG
AGLCG jJ hCG fdG FdG a ANCG hCG gqdG SE TdG
.ce dBG a k GL edG Z

dG YUG QbCG a AGdG J qTCd Sq dG GqdG Jh

AKCG dGh dG e IQGM LQO bGeh q J e VQCG M QhJ
QbCG qJh .JqMph UGdG cqJ Y qb ee eqDj e ,dG
jL e VQCG f H j ,jjOGQ Le dEG edG g YUG
TT Y VJo eYh .jQJ hCG eM e e J M
g J dG J Jo ,AdG e VQCd QU T Y J ,GJdG
.jdG bdGh dG IQU jd QdG Ia N jdG GMCd QbCG

J qTCG H f e dG dG a OLdG dGh dG qjh

SdG dG e ehe 8.0h 4.5 H IqMp cCG gdG jh .AGdG
Y JdG gdG dEG aVEH .AGdG J qTCG eM a IqdG dGh
H e AGdG J qTCG H dG a ,dG dG a HdG cCG fK
J qTCG eM e idG dGh IqdG dG a ehe 16h 14
.AGdG

AGdG J qTCd YqdG FdG edG

b d G j H (Infrared-Emitting Diode- IRED ) e d G e d G G g j
d YqdG FdG edG H EG . Fe Z ,AGM J qTCG dEG FHdG
Light-Emitting) FdG Ad Y dG FdG edG H T , q TCG
q
370
qJo gh .(Diode Injection Lasers) QdG p
n d G e U h (Diodes-LEDs
Gallium) d dG fQR IO e e (PN Junctions) dS L e U c
q
Aluminum Gallium Arsenide - ) d C G d d G f Q R h C G (Arsenide-GaAs
. (AlGaAs

(Wafer) bdG aGdG AZp Y qdS (Epitaxial) J SJ W Vh j

dG J M ,dCG ddG fQR hCG ddG fQR IOe e
. L d G (Diffusion ) Q f G W e j d G

e iNCG W aVEH AGdG J qTCd YqdG FdG edG s Jo

dM a edG g J eYh .dCG ddG fQRh ddG fQR
IOdH k U e L d G d G j e Y C G , (Forward Bias ) e e C G R f G
OqJG IOYEG Y J , qddG IOdH k Ue q ddG dGh ,L dG
dOd qddG dG e fhdEG Jh .dG bCd (Recombination)
.UdG e LdG dG Y bdG eM a (Holes) ZGdG e qM hdEG
J ZGdG a dG J e YCG bW ie Y fhdEG AGMG Hh
j .AGdG J qTCG bW UY CG (Photons) fJdG fG Y
bW d adG bdG ie Y FdG dG e J dG L e W
e b d G I h Q P J . d G G g A H a e d G O G d (Bandgap ) Z G d G
Y ,ddG fQR e dGh ,AGdG J qTCd YqdG FdG dG
Y d C G d Z f Q R e d G d G e h , e f f 900 L e W
. F d G e d G f Q N g c h , e f f 830 L e W

(AlGaAs) dCG dZ fQRh (GaAs) ddG fQR e

k c EG
jdG dG S e bdG J ddh ,AGdG J qTCd aqT cqe
qTCG J dGh AGdG J qTCd YqdG FdG edG CG EG .LdG
Epitaxial) dG QqdG Sd e W
q o SH qJo dG c e
Forward) eeCG dd AGM J qTCd YdG dG jJ EG .(Growth
q
Gg b Jh GdH AGdG J qTCG rNn Y j da 1.2 e (Voltage
.qdG QdG Y JdG
371
FdG TGd HdG AGdG J qTCd YqdG FdG edG J
GQSfGdGh (Photodiodes) FdG FdG edG Sc fdG
.IdG ad fqdG JG a (Phototransistors) FdG

eff 850 gQGe Le W Y FdG TGdG HSG IhQPo J

J qTCd Y qdG FdG d YCG Jd HQe b gh ,kjJ
J qTCd YqdG FdG edG bC UN Gqe jJ J d .AGdG
GqdG g qJ bh .IdG ad jqqdG dCG fCG e AGdG
d (Pigtails) jRdG fPCG qJ jqqdG dCG e Ib (Stubs) dCG
U aGJ c . jq qdG dCG e g FdG edG He e
qfhdEG fqe e jdG a AGdG J qTCd YqdG FdG ed
Optical) jq dG W dGh (Optocouplers) jq dG f p dG e jq dG
q q o q
GMdG dEG aVEH ,(Optical Encoders) jqqdG GqodGh ,(Interrupters
. (Optical Reflector Modules ) c d G j d G

Ad YpnodG edG
dG a qe g c ,(Photomultiplier Tubes) Ad YdG dG EG
, O f C G h (Photocathode ) F V O K c Y j Q a F V U g ,2 ` 12
fhdEG QGUEG GOhdEG qJ dG GOhdEG e jdG dEG aVEH
G d E G . F d G O K d G h O f C G H Y V e (Dynodes ) G O j G d G h C G j f d G
Jh .qdG qd LGe Se FU GP GOjGOh jFGO g dG
dGM e LQdG deh dY dd GOjGdG jH ddG J T
. c C G d d G O f C d b C G O j G d j H 100V

fhdEG Y OHH fJdG J FdG OKdH AdG Jj eY

QGUEG OhdEG f IQqdG fhdEG QJh .OKdG IOe S a IdG
GOhdEG SCG EG .FdG OKdG e fQe LdG da H hCG
.(Secondary Emission) fdG fG Y YJ IOH qe ac QGUEG
j hdEG CG JQG id (1) hCG OjGdG S e fhdEG H QqJ
372
(2) OjGdG f YQe IQdG fhdEG g qJh ,H ,OKdG e
dPh jfdG fhdEH OjGdG S e dG fhdEG qJ .LdG
dG g J .bdG fhdEG hCG dhqCG fhdEG Hh H d
OY EG ,NBG Hh .jGe H F dG fG Q J J j a
IjGdG OGYCG J j M OjGO c b e Yj jfdG fhdEG
.OfCG npb e fhdEd

eCG hdH SJo FV fG GQJ dqJ fhdEG OY Ye EG

jh .(mA) eCG qdG ie dEG Jh ibCG Jh eCG OH a (A)
E G . d G a GO j G d G O Y Y k GO YG c C Gh I e j e 10 Q d G J
h G j , (DC Current Gain ) T d G Q d G c C G , O K d F d G Q d G J
.14h 9 H e AdG Ypeo GOjGO OY j eY 107h 105 H IOY

OfCG

Ad YH OKc
NCG OjGdG

NdG fJa

FV fhdCG
fhdCG
e jfK
hCG OjGdG

. (P h o t o m u l t i p l i e r T u b e ) A d G
n Yneo U 2 -12 dG

500 H AdG Ye d eRdG OfCG da hGJ iNCG Mf e

j eY bj dG QdG a (Dark Current) qdG QdG eCG .da 5000h
G K C J h (Thermal Emission ) Q G d G f G Y j d G h A e Z O K d G
.GOhdEd ddG ddG

373
dG fhdEG OY j qe Le W Y bdG IAVEG a
a OfCG QJ Ea ,qe IAVEG IT Y dh ,dd .IAVEG IT e kSe
.OfCG da OGOJ a kHK j AdG Ypeo

.(microlumens) edhdH SJo AdG Yeo a IAVEG je EG

OY Qf AV jd VqJ GPEG fEG H k GL Sq M edG gh
.dY dd GOhdEG jJ j eY Ieqe FV GQJ a aqJ a

- SdGh (Silver-Magnesium) dG - e e IOY GOjGdG qJo

hGjh .OjGO 16 AdG Ypeo qd CG c (Beryllium-Copper) dqdG
H EG .(k Ge 50h 6 H hCG) fEG 2h 0.25 H dG FdG OKdG b
q N JqJ AdG n Yp n eo
IQdG f Hj H GOjGdG JJ e k
.YdG Qe OGeG Y qe INCG Jh zVenetian Blind{ fdG

Multiplier) z Yp dG FdG dG{ kfMCG F dG Yp dG q j

o
Electron) zfhdEG Y d F dG dG{ k jCG jh (Phototube
q
. (-Multiplier Phototube

Ad UdG jdG
dG SdG a qe g c ,(Photoconductive Cell) FdG UdG N EG
F H c e h e P (P h o to c o n d u cto r ) A d U e Y I Q Y ,3 - 1 2 d G a
Ch .AdG IT e bJh ,JTh bdG AdG Le W e jGJ Ie
.AdG IT e Sj JdG QdG Ea kHK kLQN da Qe q j RdG
fGaoCG H RdG bdG aGdG AZp Lh Y Ad Sq M jT Vh j
eH jdG GWCG HJo .AdG b q j d dPh ,qe (Serpentine)
e Ad Sq dG IOdG jd SH hCG LLR AZ Vjoh ,IYdG a
.cBdG hCG qdG

. I M d M a a g M j h , b d G f J d G b W f h d E G q J

374
UdG eM a fh dEG N e eEG F H dG U dG jh
Valance ) D a d G e M a L d G Z G d G N e h C G (Conduction Band )
T AdG a JGQqP Y fhdEG d adG bdG AdG eqDjh .(Band
AdG IT e jdG a fqdG dG bCf OY OGOj dH .bdG UdG
IT J eY ,M CG Yh .jdG a ehdG J dEG Gg OqDjh
.jdG a ehdG OGOJh dG J ,AdG

bdG AdG

aqT Iaf
OhdCG

FdG dG OhdCG
IcQ
jc e Ad Ue IOe
eGS
eOdG hCG eOdG
(aN)

.Ad Ue qN 3 -12 dG

IT OGOJ eY (Negative Slope) qS e OGeG Y ehdG QJ

Dark ) d G a F d G d G e h e E a I A e Z d G J e Yh .A d G
q
Ea jT Ad dG VqJ eY dh .qhCG c 100 iJ b (Resistance
g dG SM EG dG jh .ehCG e e IY J ehdG b
.qe IAVEG ie hCG dd N QJ

eOdG jc g Ad UdG jd Se Ue JOe cCG EG

.(Cadmium Selenide - CdSe) eOdG Sh (Cadmium Sulfate - CdS)
(CdSe ) e O d G S H S G e R j h . A d G I d A H J g c h
h e 100 (CdS ) e O d G j c H S G e R j a , f K h e 10 d G M

375
 e h e C G E G d G I Q G M J e J (CdSe ) e O d G S e h e E G . f K
.kf HK (CdS) eOdG Jc

T eOdG jc d (Spectral Response) dG H SG EG

H S G e C G . e f f 555 Q G e b C G M d E G J h , f E G Y H SE H
e (eff 450) qdG dG e CGa (CdSe) eOdG S d dG
AGdG dG a eff 700 Le W Y JhQ Po Jh FdG e dG
g J j .AGdG J qTCG e dEG kjCG J dh ,FdG
.qe d Ad Ue N QNG Y GdG

FdG GOjGdG TGc

PN U d G G O j G O
Silicon PN Junction) F dG GO jG dG g e f dG d EG
qdS qe eh (Positively Doped P) Le qeo e (Photodiode
(Photovoltaic ) F V d a d M a d G j e Y h . (Negatively Doped N )
H qJ d IjdG dG Ea LQN (Bias) RfG KCJ hO eh
.qddGh LdG dG H dG g LGJ .(Depletion Region) dG
GPEGh ,dG a fhdEG J j dG Uh Y AdG j eYh
fhdEG aqJ (Bandgap) ZGdG bd adG bdG AdG bW RhJ
a h b d G e M a Z G a j G g h . (Conduction Band ) U d G e M d E G
ZGdG e GhRCG g J . fh dEG e Z dG D a dG e M
.dG Y fhdEG

a L d G d G e J Y j f h d E G Z G d G G h R C G (Drift ) f G E G
g b SJh ,LdG dG a qddG dG eJh qddG dG
QdG aS K eh .FdG dG Y bGdG AdG IT e Te H dG
.qddG dH LdG dG HJ LQN IQGO a

LdG UdG hP FdG dG Vqj FdG UdG M dM ah

376
H dG dG I b e OGO j (Reverse Bias) Y Rf q d dG
dG Y kbS AdG j eYh .dG e Y eh ,dG
FdG dG HSG e N cCGh bCG dG Gg HSG eR j .FdG
QdG qj e j ddG g a fCG EG .(Photovoltaic) FdG ddG dM a
da Y b J dG ,(Dark or Leakage Current) qdG hCG qdG
(PIN Photo Diodes ) K d G U d G G P F d G e d G e C G . d G R f G
QW a IO Y a (Avalanche Photodiodes) jQdG FdG edGh
. a (Photoconductive ) F d G U d G

KdG UdG GP FdG edG

d G e T c g (PIN Photodiodes ) e d G e d G G g E G
j . z F d G U d G { d M a j h (Depletion-Layer Junction Detector )
dG JGdG dG oS Y HSG OOqJh dG Gg S M i e
j CG j dd .qddG dGh LdG dG H IOLdG (Intrinsic Layer)
H j M dG e dEG j CG b LdG dG N AdG
.dG FHdG dG H YH OJ dG fhdEG ZGdG

fdG UdG d FdG FdG edG

dG j d J T L Mh f W e dG e dG G d
b Q f e A Z H e (Depletion-Layer Schottky-Barrier Photodiode )
dG fhdEG ZGdG Jh AdG Gg Y AdG j .qddG dG OGeG Y
.QJ fEH UdG T a AdG gdqj

kf fdG FdG FdG edG

e P f fe Tc Y IQY (Point-Contact Photodiodes) dG Ggh
Depletion- Layer Schottky-Barrier Point- Contact-) dG jd JT LMh f
. U d G T a I Q e I a Y J T L M Y A d G j h , (Detector

377
 UdG de FdG FdG edG
W GP F V e pU Y IQ Y (Heterojunction Photodiodes) gh
TCG e e Yf H Uh J N e s Joh ,I c f
.UdG

jQdG FdG FdG edG

g ,4-12 dG a qodG ,(Avalanche Photodiodes) edG e dG Gg
id dG J e YCG ,Y RfG da Y j FV F K pU
k M qdDJ IdG SdG ddG c EG .iNCG FdG edG
kFHc
a J dG fhdEG jJ jh .(PN) qddG ` LdG UdG Y k GjT
GhRCG oj e ,iNCG fhdEG e OJ M ddG FHdG dG
iNCG kLGhRCG GhRCG uJo eY .aVEG (Electron-Hole Pairs) fhdEG ZGa
, (Impact Ionization ) z O d H j C d G { Y J Y a f h d E G Z G d G e
.kdY (Internal Gain) kNGO kc Jo ,fhdEG Yd Y gh
bdG AdG YdG c AW

qdS eJ f

qdS M

q dS f
qeo Z Le f

qeo Le f
(P+ - Type )

eJ f
Le . Q J F V F K U 4-12 d G

dG jdG
Uh g ,CG- 5- 12 dG a qe g ch ,(Solar Cells) dG dG EG

378
dqJh dG e bdG qJ (Semiconductor PN Junction) Ue T PN
(P-Type Silicon ) L d G d d G d G E G . F H c b W d E G I T e
qSdG a (Juntction) UdG dEG UdGh bGNG Ad j H bQ
a fdG qSdG eCG ,LdG rndG W g LdG dG Y fdG
dG jdG EG . q ddG dG W a q ddG d dG AdG
M e , (Light Load ) d G d G d d G d G Q d G G P
edG ILCG CG EG .a qT S H
q Y a IkO Y R J S dG BG
S a bCG dG dEG Ud cCG S dEG J dG bdG qc
Mp f bW eCd e J ehe dEGh ,(Current Capacity) QdG
.bCG dH Me IQGO da N eCd ac f e jJh ib

J RmGeh J H dUe jN e YdG (Panels) GdCG EG

,dG AGVCdh , qdG jQ q qd ac pT Y AHEd ac bW eCJ
QbCG jhd d HdG jdG g a kM cCG ae J a dch
cdG Uh Y gOa j eY bdH FdG cdGh YUEG
.ZdG JQG dEG FdG
AdG bW

(+) d
f W
P f

PN Uh
dG
N f
f W
(-) d
fhdCG aO
(CG)

- C G : d G d G 5 - 12 d G
.dG eQ - ,e jDhQ
()

379
CG c ,dG a 12h dG a 10 H hGJ H dqa dG jdG EG
dG jdG H J .dG Meh kjOW Sj QdGh IQdG rNn
dG edG jo .GedG a Ad (Detectors) TGc kdM IdG
FddG OjGdH kjCG qdG g aJo : 5 -12 dG a dG d
.(Solar Energy Converter) dG bdG qe hCG (Photovoltaic Diode)

FdG GQjfGdG
H e FV T c g (Phototransistor) FdG QjfGdG EG
- L e e E G g h (Bipolar Junction Transistor - BJT ) d G F K Q j f G J
W d d d h , (NPN ) q dS - Le - q d S h C G (PNP ) L e -
q dS

q ddG - LdG - q d d G F d G Q j f G d G j . (Base Terminal ) Y b

Y d G d G e a J h (Two Terminals ) a W h P R c (NPN )
e Y qdG QdG j .kHjEG k GRe (Collector) edGh ,WMG
j G gh ,(Base Current) Y b Q J Y (Collector-base) IYdG-edG
QJ Ea ,FdG edG a dG g ch .bdG AdG N e jJ
b d G A d G b W Y j (Reverse Saturation Current ) S d G T E G
.FdG QjfGdG Uh Yh

FdG edG J dG QdG e cCG k GQJ jo FdG QjfGdG EG

q Y a FdG QjfGdG Rj .f AdG d jJ Y FdG

Uh hCG (Base) IYdG dEG bdG AdG NH d aqT S H

c C G F d G Q j f G d G C G e Z d G Y h . (Base-Collector ) I Y d G - e d G
YH jdG J edG g CG EG ,FdG FdG edG e SM
UdG P QjfGdG a f g FdG QjfGdG IQGO eQ CG c ,cCG
. (Base ) j Y b U h j d d F d G e d G C G G Y , (BJT ) d G F K

UdH d FdG GQjfGdG

Photosensetive Field Effect -) UdH d Ad SdG QjfGdG GE

380
Junction) U d H d Q j fG J Uh Y IQ Y g (Transistor
,A d S q M F V F K pc jh (Field-Effect-Transistor-JFET
Gate Channel) IdG HGH WJ Y cqdG AdG EG .dY bhe P qch
(Drain Current) dG Q dG a k G J j Q j fG dG G d (Junction
j qdS Ib P dG Gg e QjfGJ a ,dG S Yh .QjfGd
TEG Qd kce (Gate-Source Leakage Current) qdG Qe HGH QJ
d G g c h . Y R f G G P PN U h Y (Reverse Saturation Current )
UdH dG QjfGJ Uh a SdG QdG Ea FdG QjfGdG a
e cCG OY dJ dEG OqDJo UdG IAVEG Ea .Ad k GL Sq M kjCG g (JFET)
e Y h . J d G (Reverse Current ) S d G Q d G e j j e , d G b C f
SdG QdG OjORG j ,(Threshold Value) dG b IAVEG RhJ
AdG Ea ddh .UdH dG QjfGJ qjo e ,HGqdG da OjORH
. (Photofet drain Current ) F d G d G Q H j U d G Y b d G

jqqdG fpodG
kFV kYH ,6-12 dG a gdG ,(Optocouplers) qdG podG qj
jh .b H q H Qeh ,(Photo Detector) kFV kTch ,(Photo Emitter)
j e IkOY) AdG YH jh .SQEd H q H f ka qdG dG
dEG FHdG IQTEG NrOn jH (IRED) AGdG J qTCd kYH kFK kepU
IOY gh) FdG TdG dEG b H Qe Y AdG qjh qe AV
IRN J .(FHc IQTEG dEG AdG jJ IOYEH j dG FdG QjfGdG
J d G I Q T E G Y N G d G I Q T E d F H c H S H h C G L L R (Bead )
Voltage ) d d G d G H e J hC G Q J C G e f E G I Q GO j d d Ph
q
. N O E G I Q G O a (Surge Current ) Q d G I Q a h C G (Transients

jJ e i dG dG A V dG e jq q dG fp o d j
e , e d a j H J J Q GO Gb E H J h .I Q TE G H (Degrading )
YH jd FdG fdG e EG .(Transformer) qe dEG LdG hO

381
FdG TdG CG EG ,AGdG J qTCd YqdG FdG edG e FV
ee GQGO hCG ,FV GjfGJ hCG ,FV FK epU eEG J CG j
AGdG J qTCG rnd J ac FdG TGdG EG .Ad SM
.kFHc kLN eqDJ CG TGdG d jh ,qTCG d YqdG ed
FV QSfGJ SH RQ
Tc e

QWEG
adG

Ad Ue OGe
QdG H J SCG
TdGh LED Qe HQ
J qTCd
AGdG

.FdG QjfGdGh Ad YqdG FdG dG H H e 6 -12 dG

edG GQGdG Ea ,FdG FdG edG Y Yh ,M CG Y

j ,Yh .(Signal Gain) IQTEG c eqDJ FdG GQSfGdGh FdG
kjCG jh .bdG dG e S hCG KJ IQTEG eEG qdG dG Jf
dEG d RfG dM a AGdG J qTCd YqdG FdG edG Vh
.(AC) he QJ IQTEG qd (Zero Level) dG ie
Y J qdG podG N (Current Transfer Ratio) QdG fG f EG
FdG d qdG ddG Y dG Jh .dG Gg a GbEG da
TdGh dG Gg H ZGdG UdG Yh ,AGdG J qTCd YqdG
.Td dG c dEG aVEH ,FdG
382
g CG c ,a FdG TGdG N e jq q dG f p o dG q Jo
:j c g GdGh .dG Ge OJ TGdG
J fCG EG ,YS YCG GP gh F dG F dG dG f p eo
.dH
eDJ fCG c ,SG IOe Jh FdG GQjfGdG fpeo
.IQTEG c
,QJ fG e (Photo darlington Couplers) FdG dQGO fpod EG
jdG YS CG EG ,F dG GQ j fG dG f eo e YCG , J f Q Jh
. C H C G a (Switching )
TdG QdGh (AC) hdG QdG jJ Y IQdG jqqdG (SCR) fpod
. e e H G H d E G J h (Logic-Level ) d G i d G e (DC )
GP ec he QJ Le g (Phototriac Couplers) JhJJdG fpodG
.e e HGH dEG J kjCG fCG EG (Logic-Level) e ie
,(Photo-Schmitt Trigger IC Coupler) T AV SGH dG (IC) peo
,(Logic-Level Square Wave) e ie P He Le rNn eCJ Y QOb
YdGh c qdGh ,bdG G dqeh ,GJdH Uh j c
.iNCG
F dG R d H k jCG Y Jo dG F dG f dG (R J) n
n Jo
qj e dEG UdG e AdG d (Obaque) e jhM a (Optoisolators)
dG jRdG jhM fdG d kYT cCG jRdG eh .q J
dG YHQ hCG SGS LhOdG

cdG e c eqDjo c .(Four-and Six-Pin Dual-in-Line Package Cases)

k Y (Optointerruptor) qdG WdGh (Optoreflector) qdG
CG EG ,kFHc
TdG f AGdG Y qj jRdG jg a AdG YH e FdG AdG
J{ fCG FdG dG (jRJ) VJ M cCG ed) .a FdG
.(zUdG T RdG J{ `H SdG ,27 dG a zqdG dG

383
 GQdG
(Coherent) HGe qTCG H bW H Y QOb f g (Lasers) QdG EG
.LQN bW QH jJ j eY ehdG dG AGLCG e AL a
hCG H a hCG ,AGM J qTCG hCG ,Fe AV fEG Y QOb QdG fh
(Confined) Ie jRdGh FdG GQdG a FGdGh GRdG EG .S qTCG
qdG ddG GQd qJ .dN e AdG QH J Se aqT jhM a
jQqqdG (Lasing) jQdG H UdG T GQdG Y ,(Solid State Lasers)
sdG jjCG dCG fQZ boh (Rubies) bdG e OGe e YdG
. (Neodymium-doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet-Neodymium YAG ) j O d H

(GaAlAs) dCG dZ fQRh (GaAs) ddG fQR GQd Jo

Injection) dG GQd hCG (Laser Diodes) jQdG FKo edH UdG T
H qJo dG H T jH Ue T FbQ e IOY qJoh .(Lasers
.Ad YqdG FdG edG

Y ec jGe jd ,qdG ddG GQdh ,FdGh ,jRdG GQdG EG

qdG g e NBG dG Y kFL cY jGeh IQRdG H e MGh W
qdG QN dEG (Coherent) HGdG bdG e dY je QH d
:ddG QOdG e cCG hCG Qe e MQN bW SGH Jo gh .IQRdG
. d d G I A V E G I j T (Flash Light ) F d G H d G
.FHdG dG hCG FHdG QdG
.FdG YdG
.hdG TEG
.IqdG fhdEG aqJ
QjdGh ;YCG OOqH dh ;(Maser) QjdG e f Y IQY g QdG EG
QjdG jo .dG Fa jhdG LdG e a HGe bW j f
Microwave ) j h d G hC G d G F a L d G GP j h d G GQ TE d T c
L d J h d G F a L d G { ,7 d G a z G Q j d G { f G ) . (Signal

384
 .((Microwave and UHF Technology) zqdG Fa GOOdG

e ,jRdG hCG FdG GQdG e KdG HGdG TEG Le GWCG EG

a GdG Ea dd ,SdG cJ pb e gjJ j ,qdG ddG GQd
.JdG LdG W a MGREG Y J SdG cJ fe

g fhdEG J ,LQN bW N e zSdG{ GQP J j eYh

JGQGe dEG fhdEG OJ eYh .IGdG M YCG GQG e dEG GQq dG
fEa jL o e kdDe SdG c GPEGh .fJa T Y bW J UCG
UCG T dEG j o dG g OJ eYh ,LQN bd VqJ Y qJ
.kjCG fJdG J

Le H NBG Ja fG bdG OJ qjo ,IQP e JdG Yj eYh

.f JHh hCG Jd He

e (Avalanche) k GQJ j GQqdGh fJdG H IOdG cMG EG

M kHjEGh k H gP (Shuttle Movement) cqe cMh ,SdG a fJdG
S d G e a ( (Resonance ) f d G d M Y ) a c b W f J d G J
.HGdG AdG e aQ oT H oFL SdG IBGdG Y

Le S hPh HGe hCG qfh , (Directional)gJGh ,OqM QdG dG EG

d e kHGe GAV ,FdG Ad YqdG GQdG J .qV (Bandwidth)
W Y Icqe bW a ,AGdG J qTCd YqdG GQdG eCG .kFe MGh
Gg .f JEG ah jRGe HGdG LdG fG de c EG .IMGh Le
(Incoherent) HGdG Z AdG S Y j QdG qTC qdG dG
GWCG e N e qe fC gqe e e hCG ,QdG hCG ,dG e dG
. d G g J G e j d G a J (Jumbled ) Z e Z L e

ae dEG fH d j RGdG QdG d dG HGdG EG

a qUdG g e SG bh .(Dispersion) q J M hO e WCG
a Mh ,jqqdG dCG Y JG ah ,adG Sb ah ,JG
385
dG VhdG ah GVdG AKCG zTCdG{ a edG IdG GQdG
.(Audiovisual Presentations) jqqdG -

j dch ,Y qjo dG IOdG q j b QdG a dG AdG EG

EG .
q dGh dG dG ah ,fdG a dG hCG d IGOCc QdG GSG
feEH PEG fGdGh fEG Y k GpN QdG tdG J qUdG g CG
QH GQdG GSG j dd .dG T e AGLCG eJh dG M
.jT

hCG IQGd jJ Y q pc QdG bd UdG LLdG dCG J

j fCG j Ggh .FdG bdG H Y dCG IQb Y GKDj jdG dG
EG .TdG Y bGe j iNCG Fja GKCJ e AdG H a dG HQ
kf qe hCG (Continuous Wave) Ie Le GP J b QdG qTCG
. (Pulse Modulated )

AdG H GQdG H a (Fluorescent Dyes) IQnrnodG dG J

.LdG GWCG e Ohe Z Od FdG

Osjo h ,(Watt) GdH Y qjo ,gqdG HdG bW e ,QdG bW EG

edG QdG e f c heh Se J N e qe d Rd QNEG
Ea dY IhQP GP bW N Y dG LCh .OOdG e HZdG dG a
EG .bdG jJ Y S H fCG g LLdG hCG qdG ddG GQd
Ultra Short) pdG Fa f dd Se kjCG IQndG GQdh GQdG g
n
. (Pulses

qdG ddG GQd

bdG GQd
qU dM Qd g ,7-12 dG a j c ,(Ruby Laser) QdG Gg EG
Ruby Rod Lasing ) b j b I Q R e H c J j . H (Solid State Lasers )

386
.(Helical Flashlamp) qdnd hCG fhM
n F V e N GO Q e H (Structure
e jGdG g e IMGh Jh ,dG e W c Y e jGe VJ
e hGJ d j H dH qe iNCGh qdG SfG LCG e dH
96 d E G d G a 94 d G M E G) Q d G d E G Q d H A d G e d G a 6 h d G a 4 H
fJdG fdG dM J eYh .(dG a j bdG AdG e dG a
HGe MCG Fe AV oT j b dG b a (Photon Resonance)
q
. ( e f f 6 9 4 C G ) e h e 0 . 6 9 4 d G M d E G J L e H (C o h e r en t )

fCG EG (Machine Materials) OpdG Jh b Y QOb QdG e dG Gg EG

U .dG Y k GL N
bj b YU
qc cY FL cY

e oT oT
b OhdEG rNn
Ia

b d G Q d 7 - 12 d G

sdG jjEG dCG fQZ GQd

(N e : Y A G ) j O d H
G g e (Neodymium: Ytterium-Aluminum-Garnet (Ne:YAG) Lasers ) k G Q d E G
fEG Y QOb fC ,jdG dG a IkOY jo qU dM Qd g dG
.f H hCG Ie LH jh ,ddGh dG H e hGj bW rNn
.( e f f 1060 h 690 H C G) e h e 1.06 h 0.69 H hG J b W Q d G G g j
e jdG e kFe fEG Le W j eff 1060 Le W Yh
e ,AGdG J qTCG eM o a jdG dG a edG jqqdG fqdG
Harmonic) Z dG G dq dGh ,(Frequency Multiplier) O OqdG Yp eo
jJ LCG e Ie GQdG g EG . qodGh T dGh (Generators

387
WEG fCH dGh , qJh GgCGh ,(Designation) JGh ,a dG
JGh ,(Reconaissance) UdGh bGdGh ,jQGdG LJh , SCG
kjCG g J GQdG g Y JdG GOOdG EG .d hdG GNG e eBG
.fEG Y Y k GN

jqRdG GQdG
jRdG dG ` dG GQd
d G a g X g c , (He: Ne - Gas Lasers ) G Q d G e d G G g E G
ShH jhGR Y YVe aGH adG eo LLR U Y IQY ,8-12
e (FL SQEH IMGh) (Concave) Jqeo JBGe Jh (Brewsters angle)
Y OKdG jJ jh .dGh dG RZ e N Y J jH Ia
GQPq H fhdEG J .fhdEG Qe - LQN dd MGh W
QhJ dG GQqP fhdEG j e ,dG GQqH gQhH J dG dG
Y J ddG GQGdG g e fhdEG S Yh .YCG bW GQGe a
kFe k GAV dqd iNCG dG GQH fJdG g JJ .fJa H bW
e (Coherent Light ) H G d G A d G j h . e f f 632 e j L e H
.kFL SdG jGdG Y dG

jq qdG FQdGh ,HdGh ,SdG Gqeo a GQdG g J

d UdG T jQdG FdG edH k GNCG doSG fCG EG ,fGSCd
IOL dEG aVEH dG fRhh M pd dPh dG g e jdH
.FGOCG
GP IBGe GOhdEG
Y LQO
dY N IBGe

RZ

oT
Iaf QdG U Iaf rNn

q R Z Q d 8 - 12 d G

388
 jCG - ZQCG Qd
Le GWCG Y AdG j kjCG q R Z Q d g (Argon-Ion Laser ) Q d G G g
,HdG a jo .FdG AdG eMo a eff 515h 488 H hG J
.qdG GqdGh ,dBG GhOCGh

HdG cCG fK GQd

YdG d ojJ J jRdG GQdG e NBG f g GQdG g EG
iNCG GRZ aVEG CG EG ,HdG cCG fK g a SSCG RdGh .jdGh
.bdG Jf e jJ LhdG hCG dG e

Y (IR) AGM J qTCG bW (Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Laser) QdG Gg dqj

dG AGdG J qTCG eM a IqdG dG a ehe 10.6 e Le W
ie Y QGSH dG Y JQb Hh .dGh NdG GNG j
dGh ,dGh dG Y IQOb fEa Gh dG e k GAL hj b W
.dGh

SqdG d Gh L 10 dEG J bW fEG Y IQOb GQdG g EG

.jQGdG ddGh ,bdG dGh ,OdG Jh bCGh

HdG Ldh ,i dG I q dG JG a k jCG GQ dG g J

e dG Gg EG .QdG dG fCG a k GL d q a fEG c , jQG dGh
CG c ,jqqdG bdG hCG ,AHdGh ,FdG OGdG a M j GQdG
.d dG OOdG N e Y dG j idG bW N qe

HdG cCG hCG GQd

q R Z Q d g (Caribon-Monoxide (Co) Laser ) H d G c C G hC G Q d E G

Y YCG bdG rNn jh .HdG cCG hCG RZ Y SSCG H j

qTCG eM
o a S d G d G a , e h e 5.7 h 4.9 H hG J L e G WC G
.AGdG J
389
 dG GQd
eO e k GQNG (Excimer Laser) jcCG GQdG e dG Gg qj
dqdG z qdG GQqdG F K R dG j L
o { hCG zExcited Dimers{ dG
J .jdG g J j eY qdG a qTCG e FV d
IQG dG GP (Photolithographic) FdG aGZdG Gqe a GQ dG g
U e f a G h Y (IC Photomaste ) F V (IC ) W j H d P h e d G
.aGdG J Y N

qdG Ae IQqdG jcCG GQjE e QOdG

q QdG NCG AdG j
a IAc cCG GQdG g J dHh .GbCG BG dEG J YCG dEG
.(VLF) k GL dG OOdG GP jOGdG Le e fQe UGqdG e UGdG

FdG GQdG
YdG Y (Chemically Pumped Laser) kFc q n odG QdG j
QdG q d He FV f fEG a ,FHdG bdG Y kVY ,FdG
a h , F c Y J N e d G i M E G a A d G a (Pumping Laser )
YU U a AdG dH zQfEG{ Y Jf eU Le J iNCG jW
Q f G Y J d G e d G L e J h . Q d G (Trigger ) j d G (Flashtube )
a kYTEG j H ZQCG RZ H (Pyrotechinic Squip) JhqdG
.jY Le Y H

e (Chemical Laser) Fc Qd gh ,(Alpha Laser) dCG Qj q jo

W Y J dG jQGd IOdG fCd ,AdG a QhJ Fa ce a
Ya ejO EG .AGdG J qTCG eM a jdG dG a 2.7 m Le
jQdG Y dG j .jQdGh LhQdG GMG Y Jf QdG Gg
(Nitrogen Triflouride ) L h d G j Q a K K H Y J N e
q dG M
2.2 d QdG Gg oU d .(Helium) dGh ,(Dieuterium) jJjdGh
q
EG .AdG a IH ae e dG HGPE ac bW gh ,bdG e Ghe

390
oU d .dG S Y IOLdG J iqJ QdG q b a bdG IT
dG IBGdG efH H jo jGe f qJh ,dCG e dCG Qd jhM
. (Large Advancd Mirror Program (LAMP) System ) h C G , (LAMP ) d G

FdG GQdG
jT q Y cqe e JQRe (Liquid Laser) GQdG e dG Gg j
qj .qa Sc j Se e a Ge ,(Strongly Anoresainy)QdG
f Hh ,NBG Qd hCG (Flash Lamp) YU FV H IOY SdG qV
Y ,ehe 1.2h 0.32 H hGJ Le GWCH qTCG QdG Gg jh .IkOY
joh ,AGdG J qTCG eM a jdG dG ah FdG AdG eMo
.SdG Gqeo a IOY

dG qTCG GQd
ih L U a a (X-Ray Laser) dG Q dG ih L KEG q J
(Focusing) cJ N e he g c QjdG Gg dsj .e (Feasibility)
Qd jJ Y IdG jdG a qdG cJ bh .hdG QfG bW
TE EG .dG a gh jOdG dqdG jQGdG eJ Y QOb S qTCG
qTCd j Ggh ,jQqdG GMdH SJ dG IjT Le dG GQdG
(Excimer Laser) dG Qj j .cCG hCG IQqdG H ATCG e QJo CH
IQH d jJ N e (X-Ray)Qd qd dc UV `dG e a edG
IQb P S qTCG Qd jJ J iNCG HCG ah .WGdG je hJ
jd QU eCJ Y QOb ,LdqdGh dG qdG LCG e ,e
GZdg eEHh .fEG jN hCG ,ShdGh jfCGh ,hdG dG
KK dG GH fc jJ (X-Ray Laser Holograms) dG qTCG Qj
.OHCG

UdG T jQdG FdG edG

IQY g (LD) QdG dGh (LED) Ad YqdG FdG dG e
v c EG
391
dEG jJ j eYh .(PN Semiconductor) Ue T qdS Le Uh Y
fhdEG e dG Le fhdEG ZGa H AdG j FHc QJ
jRJ Y IY gJG ah kFJ AdG H (LED) dG jh .dG qdS
e dG Yh .HGe Z kFV kKfG d ac H jY Le GWCG
Y N e S S C G H A d G j (LD ) Q d G F d G d G E a d P
a ,(Threshold Level) dG ie a QdG Jj eY qdG fG
.kHGe k GAV gJG bW rNnh dG JLe QfG

cJ e ,9 - 12 dG a seo g c ,(LD) QdG FdG dG qjo

W SJ Ad YH Tf Wh fe Z LhOe Uh e qe
TdG d EG .bdG ie a c bha eqDJ LQN J
e ,LQdG dG W H dG dP e cCG QfG ee NGdG
j d j H (Die ) q ddG (Cleave) T jh .qa H AdG j
dG Y Fb jhGRh ,adG c Y IBGdH T cY Lh hCG SCG
dG Ad LhCG hCG dG g J .HdG W Qe Y CG ,ddG
. (High Directionality ) d Y g J G I Q b

QJ

dG f
jdG

ddG dG
(fG W) QdG T

qdG dG f

(LD ) QdG FdG dG 9- 12 dG

A H E G e C G O H a j (LD) d G e f E G J Y J L

392
GQdG cJ j ,bdG dh ,bdG e dY je a fhdEG Y
.V Gb a

LdG ,(LD) Qd YqdG FdG edG e e H J jh

c h . Q d G S E d , (Index Guided ) e d H h , (Gain Guided ) d H
RmGe H SJ Tf W jd qdG c Ea ,10-12 dG a qeo g
JEG a AdG J ,bdG je a Ic bhHh LQdG dG
Horizontal) kaCG kVY kf edH L q dG QdG eqDjh .TdG d RmGe
.dH L q d G Q d G e k G Q G S E G c C G (Transverse Mode
AdG Gg OGOjh .HGe Z AV j FdG dG Y QdG OGOj eY
. (Knee ) c d G d M d E G
k Uh QdG IOjR e kjQJ

AV H CGjh oHJ dM a Q dG N j (Threshold) dG g Y

eY EG Rated Optical Power qdG jqqdG IQdG J ,dP eh .HGe
.cdG ie Forward Operating Current qdG eeCG QdG j

GWCG e jdG j fEa j ,HdG QdG FdG dG GO e

,(Longitudinal Mode) ddG dG QWCG a qdG H Y dG LdG
LhCG H (Standing Waves) bGdG LdG e j dG G ME H jh
gh idG IdG GP LdG J LdG GWCG g H eh .cdG
(Peak Lasing Wavelength ) F d G I h Q d G L e
OhdCG
P-GaAs SJ W

N-GaAs IOU W

N-InGaAlP J W

Tf W
InGaP/InGaAlp
J W H 10 ` 12 dG
N-InGaAlp
F dG e dG
N-GaAs IcQ
Ad YqdG jQdG
dH L
q e Qd OhdCG (LED) FdG
edH L
q e Qd

393
 fCG IO e GQ d H k jCG (LD) jQdG F dG e dG J
GQdH Joh ,IOe dW fCG a HJ fc GPEG (Multimode Lasers)
Y AdG IqT jRJ joh .MGh dW f a HJ fc GPEG dG IOe
kjH IOY jh (Near Field Pattern) jdG dG PH LhCG hCG SCG
fdG Qd Pe hCG RGe FQ Q e GPh ,(Elliptical) k h e hCG
ao H H (Fans Out) j AdG a AdG j eYh . q dd
Q e G jh .(Elliptical Far-Field Pattern) qdG qdG dG P H
jhGR iqJh .VdG q ddG Qe Y kjOY j H LQO 90r `H SSCG
.aCG QfG jhGR QdG Ad OdG QfG

,FdG MCG Ad Y qdG jQdG FdG e dG J CG j

hCG dH L q e e E G , (InGaAlp ) j f E G d Z d C G S a e Y d G
hG j h , e f f 690 h 630 H L e G WC G Y Q d G J gh .e d H L q e
.Ge 5h 3 H jqqdG JQb N

JQG e jqqdG JQb N qj HK QH QdG dG Hj eY

IQGO a dG Vh j jqqdG IQdG N K Y AHEdh .IQGdG LQO
jJ j .(Heatsink) QGM jH WHe Jh kFJ IQdH J
.FdG QdG Sb N e FdG d jqqdG IQdG N

QdG FdG dG Le GWCG

dEG jh ,dG qM M UdG T QdG FdG dG M j
a H I L C c I O Y GQ d G g J . G e 200 h 100 H J I Q b Q e
WdG UGbCG IAGdh ,idG dGh qdG Jd qdG dG N
c . a (CD-ROM ) I A G d G I c G d W d G U G b C G h , (Compact Disks - CD )
Y IQOb GQdG g EG .Ge 5h 3 H hGJ jH IQbo r n pd J
GQdG e bO cCGh kM UCGh ,NQCG fCG c ,HK MGh T fEG
J Y N e jQdG edG J j .dP dEG aVEG .jRdG
jH IQb N GP dG IOdG jQdG edG J .NGdG QdG AWEGh

394
Hh ,jdG YdG ah ,qdG jd Jh ,Ge 50h 20 H hGj
fH SQEG qe Y idG IqdG jqqdG JGh ,KdG IQTEG
.GQGdG a YUG QbCG H Jd J dch .dY

jfEG dZ fQR Sa e jQdG FdG edG

Indium) jfEG dZ fQR Sa e QdG FdG dG j
AGdG J qTCG bW (Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (InGaAsP) Laser Diodes
qTCG eM e SdG dG V ehe 2.1h 1.30 H Le W GP
jfEG dZ fQR Sa e W e dG Gg qjh .AGdG J
.(InP) jfEG Sa e SJ S Y qSdG (InGaAsP)

jfEG dZ dCG Sa e jQdG FdG edG

Indium Gallium Aluminum Phosphide (InGaAlP) ) jQdG edG g J
.eff 690h 630 H Le GWCG hGJ e a kFe k GAV (Laser Diodes
.jfEG Sa W Y jfEG dZ dCG Sa SJ e qJh

dCG dZ fQR e jQdG FdG edG

Gallium Aliminum Arsenide (GaAlAs) Laser ) jQdG edG g J
V eff 870h 780 H JLe GWCG GhJ AGM J qTCG bW (Diodes
.AGdG J qTCG eM e jdG dG

jfEG dZ fQR e jQdG FdG edG

b W (Indium Gallium Arsenide (InGaAs) Laser Diodes ) e d G g J
GWCG hGJh ,AGdG J qTCG e jdG dG a AGdG J qTCG
. e f f 1020 h 900 H J L e

ddG jf e jQdG FdG edG

k GA V (Gallium Nitride (GaN) Laser Diodes ) eu dGG e dG Gg j
395
H a da cCG edG g EG .FdG edG V dG QRCG kHGe
Silicon) dG HQc e qdG jQdG FdG edG e QRCG AdG
qJ LQO Y dG jh .jQdG HdG a QdG Gg jo .(Carbide
Le W Y Le W pd QRCG QdG AV GSH YCG (Resolution)
eU J CG bdG eh .FdG MCG AdG hCG AGdG J qTCG
UGbCG Y ddG e cCG fH ac jJ Y IQOb jQdG ddG jf
e H c jH J IdG AbQdG LdG W C dPh ,WdG
qTCd YqdG FdG edG Y qj qe QqJ Ggh ,UCG Ho a fqdG
.AGdG J

jdG dCG Y JG
AdG jo ,(Fiberoptics Communication) dG dG Y JG a
TdGh FdG Y qdG H Uj ,qT ,aQ H d Y q dG
dG dG q d jo .11-12 dG a seo g c ,qdG f e FdG
e j e dG QfEG ee e bCG QfEG ee GP T H
Y GdG a AdG fEG YS f g QfG ee) dG NGO a AdG
.(Sh a AdG fG YS

dG LR e YdG J g da dGh dCG b cCG EG

dCG jM LCh .e QfG qUGN J OqGH q dG (Silica)
jM a J dG d He J OGe J ,QGVCG e qdG
Ib dd SH kadCG hCG kjjM kS dG j bh .SdG SCG
dCG SCG H U d U N (Connectors) Ue aJh .a VEG T
.TdGh TdG FdG YqdH jqqdG

J G f C G e a J c C G d G g (Cable ) d G C G h d G e
Y edG e jd) .SdGh IqdG ad qdG dG Y
,dGh ,fhdEG GdG{ ,29 dG fG ,UdGh jqqdG dG
.zqUdGh

396
Ib fCG MGh ec Y
q J ad Jd jqqdG dCG fCG sJo
jH V ,(Peripherals) adGh GJdG HQ a kf Jh ,idG
e J jh UN pc IOY fCG g enJh .me IY e qeo hCG
IqdG (LAN) dG dG Joh .GSCG a IaqdG jQdG GqdG
.idG b kef jqqdG dEG e H
H qUe
dG H qUe
dGh QdG
QdGh
NdG IQTEG dG IQTEG

SQEG IMh H c SG IMh

SQEd H d N 11 -12 dG

adGh GJdG HQ ,idG IqdGh SdG fCG a j

fCG g e EG .GedG e H Y J b fCG EG ,H H
.edG ed SdGh dG JG T hCG edG J
.e qe M fCG g Gqe qJh

Dense Wavelength Division) LdG d dG dG Y e EG

e (Communication Traffic ) J G M O R G e j j (Multiplexing-DWDM
a ,e GdCG hCG ,e Le GWCG GP IOe FV qTCG J N
a k GMGh HCG kYT d dG GdCG J IOY jh .MGh LLR d
a L L d G (Prism ) Q T d G Y (DWDM ) f j h . d G Y h , d G
d c j ,e GdCG GP qTCG dEG FJh dG a QdG AdG J
.dEG ...jdGh ,fqdGh ,dG e H UdG edG e

jqdG dCG
dCG fCG a qdG AdG UH (Optical Fiber) jqdG dCG J
.(Jd qdG dG f Y qj dG 11-12 dG) SQEd jqqdG
ddG dh (Step Index) dG ddG d g jqqdG dCG e Yf g
397
 J b F a j O O J Y H e d G h C G d G j . (Graded Index ) Q d G
ed f Yd M bCG Ea QqdG ddG d eCG .Jge 30 dEG
(Single-Mode) ,dG IOe jqqdG dCG kjCG g .Jge 500 Rhj
U dG OdG qdG dG b EG .(Multimode) dG IOe dCGh
.e JJ GP ,MGh IQTEG fG f a SQEG d jc

cCG j Qqe
q d hP H d a ,dG Oqe QqdG ddG d eCG
Gdh .dG Oqe dG ddG d e keJ ,MGh H SQEG f e
,IhdG Fa (Quartz) JQGdG IOe e seo (Stepped Core) N q b dG
e QfG ee P LH hCG ,e QfEG ee P dH qeh
ee hP LdG f Yd bCG dG jh .(Halide) ddG IOH se
:qdG dG a IadG KdG FGqdG qJ .Jge 30 dG QfG
. Q d G d d G hC G d G d d G GP L L d G d C G L -1
. e S H e d h , S H h L R e N N d O d -2
.a SqdG e Ye N dO dCG -3
dG c QNG Y QYG H NDJ CG j dG HQCG GqdG EG
:g qdG
. (Attenuation ) g d G -1
. (Bandwidth ) L d G S -2
. (Numerical Aperture ) j O d G d G -3
. (Core Diameter ) d G q d b -4
H jq q dG IQ TEG IQ b a dG q c g (Attenuation) g dG EG
jq qdG IQdG a dG H Y qjh .SdG bdG Jh U eG
e YdG LLdG dC d EG .(dB/km) MGdG edG a jdH
.e H gJ bCG ,IhdG dY GRH qdG dG LR SJ

L OOqJ J YCG Sb g qdG hCG (Bandwidth) LdG S EG

e cCG IQN hO e H Le W Y dG W OGeG Y f j
398
 M G d G e d G a J g d H L d G S e j h .I Q TE G b W e d G a 50
a J g e 1000 h 200 H h G J L e S Y d G j h . (MHz/km )
C G E G , e h e 50 b Q e L L R q d P d SH MGdG edG
d G d d G d a M G d G e d G a J g e 20 d E G J d G g
. e h e 300 b d d G L L d G q dG P qdG
.jqqdG dCG Uh a dG dG H 12-12 dG j

b Y d G I Q d S e g (Numerical Aperture-NA ) j O d G d G E G
I Q T E G (Acceptance Cone ) b b f G L Q O a d H h . b d G A d G
b jhGR f (Sine) L fCH kVjQ jOdG dG Y dG qjh .NGdG
N e Y J jhGH j ,d IMh Oqe bc dEG ejh dG
.0.27h 0.20 H IOY jOdG dG b hGJ .jqqdG bdG
d dG
LdG jhGdG dG dG
QdG

dG b dG dG
QdG
dG jhGR

AdG qTC qdG dG HSG 12 -12 dG

dG qdG d jcdG dG b g (Core Diameter) q dG b EG

q do bo hGj .LQdG J QfG ee e YCG QfEG ee j

50 b L L R q d J b j h . e h e 300 h 50 H j Q d G d C G
300 H L L R q d L Q d G d G b j . e h e 125 , e h e
j Q J PCS d G a J h G g . M Gh e d E Gh e h j e 440 d G M , e h e
. M Gh e h e h j e 125 H gQ b C G hG J

qdG dH j dGh ,Qe e dG AdG qTCG e j

399
Y JJ FdG qTCG Jh .jL e q dG dEG ,dGh tdG H bGdG
e j h .mSb H dG d j d e e Z LCG dEG q dG fGL
Ea e QfEG ee q td c GPEa .Ic jhGH dG NJ dG EG qTCG g
qTCG AGQh Jh WCG k GQe S I c S f H e b dG q TCG
Modal) dG dH jo e Ggh .bCG SfH J dG jQdG
. (Dispersion

Ea ,dG dG e QdG QfG edG GP dCG q J

.QdG Y dG j eY QfG ee a j jH e dG

dG ac J N e dPh dG J Y N jQdG j
afG dG FdG qTCG QdG edG j e ,Ld NGdG (Doping)
H J dG f YdH J ddHh cCG YH fG dEG QdG Y
.QdG e RmGe H J dG qTCG

c j (mW) WGe H e fqdG dG jqqdG IQTEG EG

,dG e dG qdG dG a (Gec IY) jW ae dfG H
Light ) A d G I Q SG H d G Y d f G A K C G g J I Q TE G g C G E G
e (Repeater) IQTEd QqdG RdG SG dEG Yj dG eCG (Scattering
adG H dG e Y q d gdJ IOYEGh IQTEG J LCG
.jdG

0.85 dGM g dGh ,AGdG J q TC d bCG L dG G WCG a

3 h 2.5 dB/km H dG d a gdG hGj ,(eff 850) ehe
1300 ) e h e 1.3 L e W Y 1 dB/km h 0.3 dB/km H e d q j h ,dB/km
H (eff 1390) ehe 1.390 Le W Y IqH Jj dh .(eff
. (O-H ) L h Q d G ` c C G F G T O L h

j M ( e f f 1550 ) e h e 1.55 Y d i d G a d G J
L d G d G G g Y A d G j d d . M G d G 0.15 dB/km e b C G g d G

400
 d G GP I Q TE G J d G a d G VC G 10 d E G 3 h J a e Y f G
. f b d H h ( e f f 850 ) e h e 0.85 L d G

J dG adG Y kjCG g (Chromatic Dispersion) fdG dG KDj

,ddh .NBG dEG Le W e qj QfG ee CG c ,NBGh Qe H
dG LdG GWCG fEG YS a qaNG dG a fdG dG ujo
f c J ,GMCG CGSCG ah .bdG SQEG a Y j e ,dG Y
Bit-Rate ) d G A N C G e e j j e , d I Q h d G d G e N G J h VYC G
q
j R J a (Tradeoff ) d O d G e d M V j f d G d G V j d d . (Error
.qa qH qeh ,(Repeater) IQdG ILCG H adG

QdG J eU
j D h d A d G Y e h C G (Image-Intensifier Tubes ) Q d G J U E G
QdG jDhH d d idG e FdG AdG H j dG
.AGdG J qTCG hCG kFe k GAV eEG J ,qe IAVEG dEG LdG hO

dG (Night-Vision Tube) dG jDhdG U g kYT eCG cCG qdh

OLh Y dG Gg Y jh .dG jDhdG HJh Xd SSCG
hCG ,dGh ,dG AV e W QOe e dG a dG dG AdG
a j QdG J U C ,iNCG AGVCG hCG dG e SfG
.eGdG dG

Single-Stage Image ) ddG dG e MdG OqMCG J U jh

IQU dG Gg eqDj .13-12 dG a qdG dG SdG a (Intensifier
fhdEG YoJ H dEG NGdG IQdG e (Brighter) kYS cCG Fe
Internal ) N G d G A d G J U a J d G (Electron Multiplication )
,(Micro Channel Plate) u dG Fa GdG H YJ dGh (Light Multiplier
hCG (Monocular Starlight Scope) e dG jDhdG fCG a SSG qdG gh
j e IOYh ,dY da bW dEG dG g J .dG jDhdG Xe

401
 .jQqdH J dd
q e QGO SG
fhdEG GQe
cdG bh OfBG

jqqdG NdG dCG jhdG IdG U

jDhdG SY

cdG SY

FdG OKdG

e TT
QSdG
jqqdG dG dCG

J IQU
jhdG Id .Ad YdG dG jDhdG U 13 -12 dG

FdG OKdG e dG fhdEG J eY QdG J j

jh ,OfCG a dY da GSH jJ qj CG H jQSdG TdH
dCdG dG j b .(Electron Lens) fhdEG SY GSH kNGO gcJ
(Single-Stage Image Tube) MdG OqMG dG U a (Luminance Gain)
kM UCG g jdG QdG J eU EG .Ie 50.000 dEG j b
feHh ,(Multistage Tubes) MGdG IOe jdG edG e kfRh NqCGh
q Jo dG (Smearing) dGh (Blooming) dG a GKCJ J
.(Tracer Bullets) qdG bWEGh (Flares) GVG Y JdG AdG eh

a I g X g c , (Microchannel Plate ) d G F a G d G G P d G E G
fG hP QJ u e g h . G d G O e F V Y c J ,13-12 d G
,AdG Ye CG H j (Secondary Emission Current Amplifier) f K
j Q S d G T d G h (Input end ) N O E G W Y F d G O K d G H L G j h
e U e (Matrix ) a e Y I Q Y g d G g E G . j D h d G S Y b
Jo .e 1 S fGSCG d H e WHe jGRe IU LLR
J dG fhdEG jJh Yd QSdH J U d NGdG SCG

402
gcJ J dGh ,d FdG OKdG b e IQdG fJa e jJ
. d G F a G d G GP d G Y (Electrostatically ) J Sh d G H
TdH ,adG a LLdG edG e J dG fhdEG J
.jDhdG SY Y IQdG d jQSdG

,a edG FdG OKdG b N e QdG J eU sJo

j QdG d dG HSG EG .k Ge 40 hCG ,25 hCG ,18 J e IOYh
a Id FdG UCG QSdG GSG IOY jh ,dG f M FfG
.jqdG d idG SdG HJ dG JdG IhQP C ITdG jDhdG
.jQdG dG hCG RdG a d iNCG edG He jh

Image-Converter ) QdG jJ eU SG Y aVEG edh

,23 dG fG (Image-Intensifier Tubes) QdG J e Uh (Tubes
.zfhdEG FdG jdG fCGh jdG fCG{

QdG jJ eU
e M G P Q d G j H (I ma y e- C o n v er ter T u b es ) Q d G j J U j
QU d jh .ehdG dG a iNCG OOJ eM dEG e OOJ
VdG LCG e Fe AV N eCJh eGdG dG a dG AGdG J qTCG
g CG EG ,(LCD Monitor) FdG QqdG TT hCG CRT dG qTCG U TT Y
,dG S Y .dG ceCG IAVE Tf AGM J qTCG Qe dEG LM
jQGdGh SCG Ld jdG dG jDhdG fCG a dG Gg SEG j
eU H EG AGdG J qTCd YH Qd GSH GgCG IAVEG j eY
Y a VE G e e Y d ) .Q d G J e U H T Q d G j J
,23 dG fCG ,Qd dqdG Jh Qd qo dG e dG SG
.(zfhdEG FdG jdGh edGh jdG fCG{

403
404
 Y d d G dG

HhdEG VdG LdJ

jdG
jdG Vd FdG - QdG TT eT If
(Liquid Crystal Color video Displays) dG
(fhd E G TdG
E G dCdG) dCJhd dG qTCG HfCG
(Electroluminescent (EL) Displays) (Cathode-Ray Tubes- (CRT)s )
fhdEG MdG TT YdG (GOjGdG) FdG edG
(Electrophoritic Displays ) Light Emitting Diodes - LEDs ) A d
eRdG VdG Md (LED Lamps) LED H e
(Plasma Display Panels - PDPs )
jdG - IQdG TT bQCGh hdG Vhd LED TT
(Vacuum Fluorescent Display - VFDs) (LED Alphanumeric Displays)
(dG VdG) aGZddG FdG - QdG TT
(Holography ) (Liquid Crystal Displays )

eT If
dG H dG LGdG fd jGe gH HhdEG VdG N

405
, (Pager ) d B G O d G H h H h , d G d G H h H h , J d G h ( S d G )
e SGh Ge Y g VdG ILCG Jh .JG ILCG e gZh
dCdG Mdh ,Ad YdG GOjGdGh ,FdG QqdGh ,dG TCG HfCG
J dG UCG bh .jCG QhH q Jh QJ J d dG ,fhdEG
IQd cSG J Y k a ,bKh cCGh ,S qY kMVh cCG k GQU
.FHdG

AGHG fhdEG dG e SGh d e AGLCG FSdG g UCGh

BG dEG (Notebook) dG JdGh idG JdG TT e
GOGqYh SdG BGh ,jdG ILCGh ,dG fhcEG dG Geh
dG a g VdG FSh LGJh .fhcEG dCGh ,GFdGh GQdG
,ddG qSDdGh ,dG ch ah ,R dGh , f dGh J dGh
ah ,QfG Yb a jadG bCG a Mh ,adG jdG dGh
dEG g fhdEG VdG FSh H M Uh bh .dEG...GQ dG
j M ,dG H a dG jQcdG dGh IdG YEG Md M
jdG GQdG Jh .jQdG fYEGh QNCG Gf VY dN e
a OdG Gg jS HQh TdGh GqTDdG e GfCG HQCG hCG KK Y dG
.jdG dG

jHhdEG VdG FSh ac H e ,FdG QqdG TT XCG d

a jGdG a TdG g X a .edG dG GdG N kqL k GQqJ
V Q C G Y (Black Segment Digit ) A G O S S M J c S d G h Y d G
.e Md Y fGdCG Jh BG QJ dh ,AH

d (LCD ) U C G f d G f C G h (Resolution )
o qdG ie jGJ eh
TT a IQGdG BG J M IFb VY Sc (CRTs) `d kjqJ cCG
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NGO edG jdG jdG Gec HfCG GSG a udG NCGh

Charge ) hCG (CCD) zdH dG{ RdG GeH jSG QNh

406
kjCG YdG fdGh jjdG GedG GSGh .(Device Camera (Coupled
.(CCD) G e H

dG H bdG a Y 1 -13 dG a SdG QHCG e e Yj

.jdG QHCG IQb Y KCJh FdG AdG f a dG QfGh LdG

dG a TCG FdG dG AGdG J TCG

HSG
jdG dG

UCG dJH
H QRCG NCG MCG

nm LdG W

.SdG QHCG e e 1 -13 dG

Yellow ) qodG NCG d kJ cCG fEG Y CG dG jo

e a QfH CGJ QHCG IqM q d h , 555 nm L d G Q d G a (Green
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jd bGdG FdG QOdG e d kd cCG NCGh UCG jA d
.fdG

FdG M a edG fCGh ,GQGdGh ,ILCG Y dG Gg cqjo

zJGh jHhdEG fudG{ `H SdG 12 dG cqj a ,FdG
dG a qTCG M) FdG Z dG a jdG fhdEG Y
.(AGdG Jh

407
 dG qTCG HfCG
Z e L L R H f C G g (Cathode Ray Tubes - CRTs ) d G TC G H f C G E G
T T Y h , c C G h C G M G h (Electron Gun ) f h d E G a e Y J A G d G e
(CRTs) HfCG Jh :Fe AV dEG fhdEG tdG bW jd jQSa
q
ILCGh ,jdG GJdG a GSd c bCGh k GQfG cCG dG
YNG b fc fCG e ZdG Y fhdEG dG Gqeoh BGh ,jdG
.e S e e cCG e

iNCGh ehc (CRT) H fCG :(CRT) H fCG e Y f d g

AGOS (CRT) HfCG dEG d kah HfCG g J jh .JShdEG
IO e G dCG GP H fCGh (Monochrome) dG jO MCG hCG ,A H i NCGh
TT q Jh .a fh cG aG e O d k ah d ch ,(Multichrome)
(CRTs ) H f C G d G h d G I L C G e j d G h j d G I L C G h J d G
j O M C G e h d G (CRTs ) H f C G G J a , G d C G I O e e h c
ddG J Ib Hh .QfdGh QGOGdG fCG a G SG F T dG
dG Geh BG e jdG H YH LdG TCG J a Feh
(CRTs) HfCG Y j dG eh ,HSShCc fdEG
.JShdEG dG jOMCG

c d G e h d G (C R T s ) H f C G
(Electromagnetic Deflection SdG ehdG (CRT) HfCG qJ
Yo M LQdG ehdG dG VJ H (2-13 T) CRTs)
odG) OKdG e fhcG J .fhdEG dG Y Id dPh jdG
e T g a J j C G H , (F i l a m e n t ) a S G H
s jo dG (ddG
cJ mFH j .(Screen Grids) dG Th fhcG aH dG N
SGH Y dG S j M QSdH e eeCG d X Y dG
.(L d G d G) O f C G Y c e , 25000 V I Q H , m Y FHc L

408
 fGhdG aGdG e AW jda TT
T
q S TdG

OKdG dG T

cdG e GfG e OfCG

.ehdG dG TCG fCG 2 -13 dG

IQDd dG dG Y dG j ,dG OGeG Y j g ah

Y I Q O b e S Y (Deflection Coils ) S f G e e J d G
.y h x j d G a d G Y

QU SG a (Raster Scanning) J e H mFH dG j

Q G O G d G T T d M a c (Radial Scanning ) Y T H j h C G , j d G
L G d G M d Y Q S d G j h , (Plan Position Indicator ) b d G T c
.FdG IQdG kKe jW Id dG KCG AHEG

, f d E G a G e K K Y , C G d G f Y e d G , d G (C R T ) f C G j
,MCG) GdCG e MGd ae c q j M ,CG- 3-13 dG a qe g c
H Q S d G j h . G d C G O e (CRT ) f C G a ( Q R C G h , N C G h
. (Pixel ) d G d j H (Bars ) I b b h C G (Dots ) f

fd kH ,
k e ,jOMCG jQSa f Y bdG OMCG dG j
,(Mixed Colour) qe d Y J f bdG a f J Yh .IOe
j d GPEG AGOS dG J a HCG dG f d eGdG dG jh
,keGJ d KdG fdEG YdG Jh .dhdG a dG dG e CG
LdG N qJ ,(Spatial Separation) FdG gYJ H ,YdG q dh
.IQdG QSdG f IAVE k b e j h G H (Shadow Mask ) d G
409
 Y jQSa f
LLdG LGdG d

dG X LM

MCG

GfG e
QRCG
(CG)
NCG
jQSa f
(GOjGJ)
qe LM
fe

MCG

NCG

QRCG ()
dG LdG UJ - ,AGH IQU -CG :fqdG IQdG fCG 3 -13 dG

eeCG MdG N cqe bQ fe U e (Mask) LdG qj

QSa f c e fdG dG K HJh .QSd H dG
qdG fhdEG d UdG d eeCG MdG Y (Phosphor Dot)
- 3-13 dG jo .dG QSdG d d (QRCG CG NCG CG c MCG)
hCG f K e e eH eeCG MdG Y QSdG Sj c
N H (CRTs ) H f C G H a Q S d G J j b h , (Traids ) z G O j G J {
ejOhdEG (CRT) HfCG Y c Y edG e j d) . jO Y
L d J { `H S d G 19 d G f G , j d G e a G d C G I O d G
.(zfjdG dG SGh SQEG

410
(CRT ) H h J d G a d G (CRT ) f C G H F d G N G E G
GJdG TT ah .RGB`dG QSa nM o a j jdG e
CG EG Sb 0.28 mm odG GP (Pitch) IdG qJ ddG SdG dG
H hGj jJdG (Workstations) adG dG T T a g bo
d G f G ,J d G T T M e d G e j d ) 0.26 mm h 0.20mm
. ( z J d L Q d G f h d G a d G G d G h I L C G { ` H S d G ,16

c d G - J S h d E G (CRTs ) H f C G
H Q C G Y (Electrostatic Deflection CRTs - ESD CRT ) H f C G g J
dG Ve a d H Y ee H YVe JShdEG GdCG
Vd g QNG HfCG o n MCG 4-13 dG a Ve g ch .fhcEG
bO fdEG Sb AGLEG eEHh .dG jS LdG dG
H c f h d E G a e d h . d G L (ESD (CRT) ) G S H
. (Divided Graticule ) e Y S e Y h O e K C G

U IQa TT
OKdG
jdG OhdEG M

T OfCG OfCG

q dG Ue AW
dG hCG fdG

(ES CRT) JShdEG dG TCG fCG 4 -13 dG

A d Y d G ( G O j G d G ) F d G e u d G
a j c ,( Light Emitting Diodes - LEDs ) A d Y d G F d G d G E G
DC QJ ke GdCG e AGVCG jo Fe AV Qe g ,5-13 dG
Incandescent) LgqdG HdG Y k Gc j eN Yo dh .b dah k b
. j d G (Lamps

411
,jb GRGgGh eU qJ Y IQdG edG d ,dP dEG aVEH
UY e c hCG (Indicators) ac hCG ,(Lamps) Hc Jo gh
AV d (LEDs) qoU dh .(Alphanumeric) jefdCG VdG TT
AGeCH dh ,QRCG dEG JdG MCG e AGHG dG e FdG AdG OGeG Y
a f d G j j h , (LEDs ) d e F G W d g h . e I A d G e
.IOdG g fE JAc

e V h III Y d G d E G J U Y e j Q d G (LEDs ) e J h
,(P) j fCGh ,(Ga) d dGh ,(Al) dCG e ,Ud QhdG hdG
UY CG kY ,V YdG a IOL dG (Sb) j dGh , (As) fQdGh
j G d G (C ) H d G h , (Si ) d G e h e S G b i N C G c e h
.II Y d G e (Zn ) f d G h ,IV Y d G d E G
fe OhdEG

Le Ib gP S
dS Ib
N f e IcQ

fe OhdEG

LED Ad YdG FdG qdG 5 -13 dG

U Y e j Y e e E G e (LEDs ) A d Y d G GO j G d G e E G
H Q C G h C G , (GaAsP ) e U Y K K e h C G .GaP h GaAs e V h III Y d G
a j c , g c d G M e LED O j GO H C G E G .PAlGaIn e U Y
(Epitaxial N-Type Layer ) d S S J J W J e d G 5 - 13 d G
S J N e (PN-Junction ) L e d S U h j d I c d d S a G h Y
U d G g J . (N-Type Layer ) d S W Y (P-Type Dopant) P f e
I O d G e f j U d G L h C (Homjunction LED ) J G d G U d G O j GO
412
OhdEG jd (N-Type wafer) N f aGdG Y fe W mFH SJo .f
. J b d G Oh d E G (P-Type Channel) P f I d G Y
m e S jh ,MGh
P OhdEG a LdG dG j eY) keeCG k G q e LED j e Y
d E G (Holes ) Z G d G h f h d E G J , (N O h d E G a d d G d G h
I O YE G J N e a f h d E G N J M h .PN Uh M d d G d G
I O Y E G H f J d G f J d G J h PN U d G a (Recombination ) O J G
(Band Gap ) e M G d F d G f G d j . F e A V H O J G
d C d G a c hC G LED A V N S j h ,d U d G e U d G OG d G H
(Switching) jJ Ca Ggh .QdG e k jO W k S J (Luminous Intensity)
.AdG N (Modulate) jo CG j (Bias voltage) IdG ddG
IcQ fc GPEa .gJG ac a (dSQCG) H j IddG fJdG EG
j hGd G V YC G d E G d G f J d G E a (GaAs ) e e I O e O j G d G
.KDe Ac J S a fd LdG
GQHq NGO dG iNCG fJdG L UeG j f bdG a
dd ,kjJ aT GaP J ,GaAs e fQe Yh .e dG hCG GaAs
C I A c c C G GaP I c Q Y J W J j W Y f d G (LEDs ) J
.fG b J fJdG e
e J j (Homojunction LEDs) JGdG LED GOjGO Uh AGOCG CG qJ
Z d G J j h .PN Uh f G L e f L c Y e OG e G SG N
e W J N e LEDs ` d (Single Hetero-Structure) jOMCG fdG
a T d hC G d G J h P-Type GaAs d a W Y N-Type d S AlGaAs
Z dG{ INCG FdG GjdG S .ddG dG a IddG fJd
E G J . L ED I A c M d G g h , (D o u b le H e ter o - S tr u c tu r e ) L h O d G f d G
,dG g IOe Y e IOe e Ye W H Ze J ddG dG
I L d G d H d G d G h (Win d o w La y er ) I a d G W d G d G J
fhdEG J bQ da e SH dG g Jo .(Confining Layer)
.fOCG dG dEG JdG UeG dH Jh ddG dG V fdG

413
 G d G a e d I M H (LEDs ) ` d (Luminous Performance ) d C d G A G O C G S j
S Yh .S KK b b Y kSb Ie e b JQG dGh (lm/W)
M G h e d e b C G (Homo-Junction LED ) J G d G LED U h O j G O j d G
, (2 lm/W ) G d e d O d G f d G Z d G LED j h , (1 lm/W ) G d
e c C G j Double Hetero-Structure hO d G f d G Z c d G d h
. (10 lm/W ) G d e d I Y
k GAV j ch .GaAs IcQ a GaAsP e kYe QJ LED hCG c
G O j G d G J h 0.15 lm/W g d C J I A c h ,660 nm L e W Y M C G
GaP e Y d G A G d G GO j G d Gh GaAsP : N e Y d G A G d Gh A G d G
(Single Hetero-Structure ) O M C G f d G Z c d G a j 1 lm/W d G M : N
.2 lm/W d E G d G GaAs I c Q Y AlGaAs

A G O C G I A c GaAs I c Q Y (AlGaAs ) h O d G f d G Z c d G M
LgdG n nTdG HdG Y kSb AdG c M e 6 lm/W h J
kjJ gh ,8 lm/W jo AlGaAs IcQ Y AlGaAs Y LED Ea dc .jdG
,AlGaAs MCG LED EGh .jdG AGdG LgdG H dG AGOCG i e
g GaAsP:N h C G GaP I c d G Y GaAsP U C G h , d J d G h ,GaP:N N C G h
MCG Ad YdG LED EG .LQdGh NGdG VdG Td kFGO dG
fdG Z UdG jH AlGaAs e uoU b 646 nm Le W Y
e q dG HS e CWhCG QJ Y AdG H OjGdG Gg eEHh .LhOdG
.IAdG dY AGdG OGdG

I O Y P-Type Al-GaAs d d G d Gh N-Type AlGaAs I L d G d G J h

.N+ -GaAs e I c Q Y

(Multiplexed ) Y e j AlGaAs LED h d d G I A d G LED e c E G

Dot dG jJdGh ,(Alphanumeric) adG bdG VdG T T a
cCG OjGdG e fQe dG AdG e GaP `d aCG kYS Gaj fC Matrix
.LED GaAsP H j h Q d G U G d d H j O h e

Z AlGaInP e YdG AGdGh AGdG jQdG LEDs GOjGO J

414
I L C G e b j h . (mcd ) f e 2000 g Q G e d C J a c L h O d G f d G
gdG HdG AGOCG Y jj dCJ AGOCG d j CG LddG H Ye
.TdG Z jdG

N Q RC G d Y d G LED GO j GO d E G I O e Gj J VG b h
aqj ,dG S a .dY J d dCdG JAc CG EG VdG dG GdG
lm/W O h H d C J I A c (SiC ) d G H c e d G Q d G R Q C G LED
e C G nm 480. L e W Y A d G J d G J G d G U d G GO j GO gh 0.04
d d G j H d G f d G e d G Q d G Q RC G LED a K G M c C G
, (P-Type Zinc-Doped Indium Gallium Nitride ) h C G (InGaN ) L d G j f C G
G f C G b (N-Type Aluminum Gallium Nitride ) C G (AlGaN ) h C G d d G (AlGaN ) h
.mcd 1000 e J dqCJ ac

LED He
cjEG e SY a ehRdG (LED Lamps) LED He kYT gcCG
Radial Leaded) YT Uh dh g M ceh dG H

qdG SdG e SY

OfCG S
LED bbQ hCG db

cY

e e AL
OKdG dO OfCG W

OKdG W

L E D e a d W e 6 -1 3 d G

415
Ia a
m e LED d b E a 6-13 dG a q e g ch .(Assembly
e bQ S jh .OKdG dG e dG jdG a J dG Whe
d SdG cqJo .IQGdG cE OfCG dG dEGh ddG Y hdEG e
e hCG ,Ad e H IAe ,aT J eEG gh ,AdG jRH
.UCG hCG ,NCG hCG ,MCG dH

SdG T 1 h T 1 jhdG a kYT cCG LED jhM fCG eCG

(Flattop ) d G S C G d G j h M i N C G f C G J . Y d G a d G G P
V C G f R G d G j h d G d E G a V E H , ( (Surface Mount ) d G b d G h
e S g H A d G J d G (Rectangular Molded Cases ) b d G
.jf e dEG j eY

a bKdG dY dG qHh jdG eGSG a (LEDs) RJ

.LLR SH IOhqeh dG e fe Y

qjoh ,5V dEG 1V e LED He d eeCG RfG da b hGJ

.(millicandels) Gfc qdG IMH IOY (Luminous Intensity) dCdG adG Y
d C d G a d G a J d G j h G d G g h , (Viewing Angle ) d G j h G R h G J h
a e jhGdG g qJh .LQO 150h 18 H ,jQdG b f e q bCG
He hJ a jY jDhQ jhGH iJo CG j HdG g C LED J
.AdG ctJ Iqd dPh ,kfd cCG qdG dG jhGR GP LED `dG

CGh S gqdG jdG HdG e q J LED H e SG

bGd (He) aGeh ,WGdG J dah ,fdG jQGSG
dG gY e ,dG J IQGM LQOh ,UdG f GQGdG
Low Luminous) dG dCdG FGOCG Y J FdG e gZh ,j dG
e a e G S G h LED H e J Y e C G J h . (Performance
AGVCGh ,GdG dY a TG dGh H dGh ,(Readouts) GOGq dG IAG b
.(Outdoor Displays) LQdG VhdG dEG aVEH ,cdG a eGdG

416
 b Q C G h h d G V h d LED T T
bQCGh hdG TT fe
ac d jQhV bQ AGLCG S dg ,7-13 dG a qe g c
bQCG ac H c dG AGLCG d e IAVEG Ea .bQCGh hdG
.Z jd A e AG HG h dGh
LED) bdG TdG g OhqnJoh
I O Y (Alphaunumeric Diplays
SH Y NGO YhQe gh
e q dG AdG IAVEG J M
F V fC H dG AG LCG
.dG bdG hCG dG jd
LGh Y (LED) HfCG J j
AGLCG e .Ue cjCG SGH fe

. A G L C G S e f d G b d G V d G T T 7 -1 3 d G

zA V H fCG{
Ie) cY
(SdH

e OfCG

LED FK eU
( V Y d e U 8)
OKdG GWCG
IRQdG f LED

LED VY Td jJ AGH IQU 8 -13 dG

417
.LGdG Y S Uh dEG IOdG HfCG e e aQ S mFH ijo
dG GdG CJoh ba e cJ Vj ,jqdG SCG ac Uh Hh
N f Y fd Te jh .FdG fCG d T SH dG
.dH UdG aNG HE dG bCG e b c e AdG

(3mm) 0.15 in H QdG QdG SdH VhdG hdG GWCG hGJ

g VdG TT Jh .GdCd IOe GQN aqJ e ,(20 mm) 0.8 in h
.cdG GOGqY Mdh ,IdG YdG ah ,fdEG dG ILCG a

qbdG IOqdG bQCGh hdG Vd LED TT

j O e e (Multi-Digit LED Alphanumeric Displays ) T d G g d C J
OLh e) k GMGh kaM e c qj (End Stacked Modules) jdH Sqe
e cCG hCG MGh e jOdG aJh .(Decimal Point) IRQdG f OLh Y hCG
Dot Matrix) dG ae jH hCG dG AG LCG e dG h dG
. (Formats

a h (RAM ) I c G P e f d G (CMOS ICs ) e d G CMOS G Q G O J

, (Divers ) b G S e , (Multiplexing ) I O e J I Q G O h , (ASCII ) f I T
Multidigit) ,zcP{ bdG IOeh dG jOMoCG AkL 16 e LED TT Y
a TdG g Jo .(Smart Monolithic 16 Segment LED Display
.QNGh dG GhOCGh ,GQhdH dG ILCGh dG ILCG

FdG QqdG TT
hdG Vd (Liquid Crystal Displays - LCDs) FdG QqdG TT EG
Ad cY e a iJo fdEG jJ TT g (Alphanumeric) bQCGh
Electroluminescent) kfhdEG dCe Md SGH IOe N GP J d e
M OLH FS GQH HSG SG H bQCGh h dG J .(Panel
VJ Oe jL Y J Ld OGe g GQ dG gh . F H c
.J hGC IQdG qj dG AdG J eEa dG N OGeG Y (Reorientation)
418
Y W LLR Md H FdG GQdG e AZ Vh j ,kJ
.9-13 dG a e g c ,GOjGO qJo aT fe GOhdEG SGH
MdG H FdG GQdG VJ GOhdEG Y kjQNG ddG QJo ea
e cCG kdY kH jJ (LCDs) aJ .j hCG Y AdG j eEG H
.(LED) h C G (CRT ) V h Y

(Screening ) M N e h d G H h b Q C G a c J e E H h
`dG LL dG dG NGO e (Dots) dG hCG adG f dG AG LCG
dG dG LLdG dG NGO OLdG dG NGdG UdG Pfh
. (ASC IT ) b Q C G h h M T C A G L C G O e h e V Y H j
H bQCGh hdG J a fdG AdG Y SdG IQhS YJ
L d G d G Y S Q j S Q h C G e Q C G V Y j c , e (Font )
.dS hCG Le IQU H dG

(Gap) LdGh FdG cS AHE (Spacer) RY SGH LdG Md jo

e CG hdGh .JaM M mFH MdG N j .ke MdG H
I O Y R J h j d T S H A Z h (Filter ) T e d (LCDs ) T T
. (DIP ) L h O e a M a

e fEa fe IQd LMGh b da J (LCDs ) Ch

jdGh ,jhdG YdG ah ,jQdH dG SdG a GSG
d U d G j O M C G (LCDs ) T T e C G c , b d G B G e g Z h
VGZC LdG TCGh dGh ,FGdGh ,fdG TCG V d
e jdG GdG a Mh dGh SGQdG VGZCh ,eGOEGh dG
, Q G O G d G e h , (Fish Finder ) S C G e h , (Depth Finder ) d G T c
. (GPS ) ` d G h

Twisted Nematic Field ) FdG Qd dG dG dG KCJ aj

HCG dH Ake dG j eY eb cCG kebQCGh kahM (TNFE) hCG (Effect
J FHdG dG Z ah .(HCG - OedG) dG hCG OedG
419
 d G e C G ,90 j h G H d G A d G d d d Q e Y (TNFE ) j L
(Exist Polarizer ) h d G e N j L Q e d E G A d G j J d E G O D j
.Ake
k H gdG ia
ee aT AGLCG
(LdG NGO)

LLR U
Teh N

ee
N LLR U
Teh eeCG
QqH OhdEG
FS T
(L C D ) b d G F d G Q d G T T 9 - 1 3 d G

NO a dG IGRGH GQdG J FHdG dG J Yh

k H mFY gdG ia hdG pneo Y
dh .ke n nodG AdG
dG j eY dG dG J H pnodG JJ eEH
.dG j eY IAdG dG J dG Yh FHdG dG hCG

IQTEG a dG H (LCD) T d (Recovery Time) IOSG Ia J

S G H I O Y (LCDs ) T T J h (Response Time ) H S E G e H , N d G
O D J h . G Q d G e j (DC ) j d G F H d G d G C , f h C G (AC )
Drive ) d G f a J h (Decoding ) e d G a Y (MOS ICs ) G Q G O
. (LCDs ) ` d (Pulses

e j e d 15 V d E G 3 V j f C G E G 1.6 V g TNFE `d d G d a E G
. d G I A G d Contrast j J

420
, (TNFE ) H J (Guest Host ) h C G a d G Q G O S G (LCD ) O G e g h
.VdG TT dEG GdCG aVEG feEH

qdG jdG Vd FdG QdG TT

Liquid-Crystal Color Video ) G dCG IO e (LCD) ja TT J
J j h . G d C G e J h c e k G Q U V J C G , d G e (Displays
QN fCG c .VdG bdG a H jQdH edG dG GJdG
a e e f c d Y , (AC ) Q H e d G j d G G J d G a G S d
T d F d G d G E G . H d G G e d G a h (Camcoders ) j d G G e c
: g G d C G I O e j j d G (LCD )

Dual-Scan) AG dG j dG dG hO dG dG V Y J
Active Matrix ) d G j J d G J h , (Supertwisted-Nematic Display - DSTN
. (LCD - AMLCD

O D j h . N C G h , M C G d G Y G d C G e J j j d G (LCD ) T T J
Yj e GQdG Y QdG AdG GNG dEG dG Weh nTnodG a
d G a (CRT ) T H f Q e d G Y j G g h , j b N I A V G G S G
,dY dH IQb qe dEG (LCD) TT J ,dP Y k a . f
.IQGdG e k b QJh

eEG Qe g e eh ,kf S H (LCD) Td ,iNCG Mf e

dG j dG e dM qJh ,(Off) AWG hCG (On) dG be a
PEG ,dG jDhdG jhGR kjCG TdG g Y J eh .(Freckles) dG
dEG SCGdG deEG EGh ,IL jDhQ Y d keJ TdG db SdG Lj
.ggf dG IQdG d qj b fEG H SCG hCG YCG dEG hCG fdG

Vh j M jdG GJdG H a kdM (LCD) TT J

QWEG a hCG dG JdG eGS IYb e dG bQ jhM a
.FdG Y d
421
 d G j J d G (LCD ) T T
(Passive-Matrix LCDs ) (PMLCDs) dG j J dG T T Q W
M d G e (CRT ) M U d j Q d H e d G (Notebook) J d b c
.dG

(Pixel Address Information ) d G j J e e J , T d G g a h

Y hCG PdG iMG bh ,ka kU JdG a fdG de SGH
2 0 0 ms d E G 1 0 0 ms Y j e N C J I Q d G C H T d G g C G E G (TN LC D )
dEG dG jo AdG g CG eh (Address Signal) jdG IQTE J d
I Q d G J Y (Blurring ) V h Y h (Ghosting ) k V jo fEa M bCG
.Le H VhdG

kjb kSe (31 cm - 25 cm) 12 in - 10 in TT H (TNL CDs) U

j h G R e c C G M e f c M , I Q d G a (Contrast ) f d G d E G J d h
jhGR (STN) IOe GSG ah dh .TdG e YCG e Y kSb IOhe jDhQ
e c J ) . (TN ) e f Q d H a C G J I b h f J e , S h G j D h Q
. ( F d G Q d G j L d E G d G A G d G d E G (Super Twisted ) f d G h C G A G d G
hCG hOdG dG J dEG VCGh keY (STN) TT GSG J dP eh
Double-Layer Super Twisted- ) hCG (DSTNLCDs) a LhO dG dG
jDhQ jhGRh TdG fJ e s M n F d G Q d G e W (Pneumatic LCDs
e dG Gg jh .RdG dEG aVEH dG LQOh ,dG aQ dh
dG GP (Notebook) dG GJdG a kSGh keGSG kdM TdG
.CWhCG

b d G A d G Q j f G J G P d G j J d G LCD T T
,jdG d Fe GdCG IOe TdG e s eo f G g
A G L C G 10 -13 d G j h . (Notebook ) d G d G S h , J d h

422
 f C G c f J h S G P g h , (PMLCD ) T T e Q W d G T d G g
TdG e dG Gjh .dG fGdCH kFJ cdG IQdG VY Y IQOb
QfG U Y TdG g J .FGO J dH dG AHEG N e
(Flourescent Backlighting ) d G j Q d G I A V E G H J (Diffusion Plate )
e N e AdG jh .eH TdG X Y fe Z IQH
Q e Z S G Q j f G d b Q A Z e a e N K e h (Polarizer )
bHh GdG j dG (Row) U bH QjfGJ c sjoh .(Amorphous)
g J e e j e Y d G J h . f d G j d G (Column ) O Y
jhdG H FdG QdG Yjh .LLdG dG Y cGe GQjfGdG
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.ddG

d dG AdG pH FdG GQdG J IQseo ddG J M

q
Ake H jJ ddHh .ddG (Polarizer) podG e k Gee hCG kjRGe eEG
QdG JJ (VdG jEG) J GOhdEH ddG QGeEG jh .e hCG
.dG AdG Y KCJ hO ,FdG

GQjfG J e j e A L d ,AG LCG HQCG dEG dG n Jo

TdG dEG aVEH ,(RQCGh ,NCGh ,MCG) Q dG Z dG
J jd HdG FdG aGZdG jH TdG g sJoh .HCG
. (ICs ) e d G G Q G d G

Analog RGB ) qH KJ (RGB) Uh dG jJdG TT J

x1024 G P J d G S Q h C G S d G j d G a NTSC f V d (Interface
b h (36 x 23 cm ) 9 x 14 in d d G j Q d G j O d G S b j . H 768
.MPEG-1 U G e H d U

423
 bQ AZ QjfGJ
Qe Z S e jJ Qe GdG N

OhdEG
VdG

GdCG Te

N AV
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MCG NCG
pneo
adG IcQ
HCG QRCG HCG e W fdG N
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pneo

dG jJdG GP FdG QdG T Th ,TFT bdG AdG QjfGJ 10 -13 dG

.AMLCD

:g ee GQGO K Y KdG dG UdG J

. (Analog Interface ) K d G U d G I Q G O -1
. (Data Invertors ) f d G c Y I Q G O -2
. (Analog Driver ) K d G G S I Q G O -3
LdH ILCG Joh dY YS e bCG bd SG Y d
T T f G , (LCD ) T T M e d G e j d ) . (BiCMOS ) h (CMOS )
f h d G a d G J d G I L C G { ` H S d G 16 d G a j J d G (LCD )
.(zJGqeh LQdG

(fhdEG dCdG) dCJ hdEG TdG

a q odG ,(Electroluminescent (EL) Display) dCfhdEG TdG dqJ
kfhdEG dCe QSa Y FHc e J Y k GAV ,11 ` 13 dG
dEG kfhdEG dCdG OGdG e jh .(Electroluminescent Phosphor)

424
 E G . d G T C G U G N O J J O e a F G T d E G h , (Activators ) e
Manganese-Doped ) d H d G f d G j c g d G d C d G Q S d G
IOY g ,fe OhdEG e bQ AZ SH (EL) TT nJo .(Zinc Sulfide
N L L R d S Y (Indium Tin Oxide ) j f G ` j d G c C G
Q dG e W S J j m F H .(Columns) I YCG j d LG M
j J b Q A Z h C G e H j b d G (Polycrystalline EL Phosphor )
ba Sj ,fK dRY W mFH SJo .(400 nm)hCG A 4000 Y S
RdG W a ae W k GNCG SJh .dG dCG e GOhdEG
OdG OhdEG g dG OhdEG dP Y AkH .Y a d I NCG
d G h C G (Dot ) d G , (RAW ) d G O h d E G g d G O h d E G h , (Column )
.VdG TT a jJ j e e UCG g

dEG MCG e GdCG Y dG jh ,UCG dH QSdG dCj

d (AC ) Q H e (EL ) T T e E G . T d G G S H N C G
j , d G H 290 VAC SG GPE a .j d G F GOC G Yh d J b Y
(EL) TT J e E Hh .LLdG IcdG IOeh adG GOhd E G N AdG
(Alphanumerical) aM n bQ VQY hCG ,(Dot Matrix) f jJe TT dGE
bdG Td FdG GSG gh ASCII bQCGh hM ac QXEG Y IQOb
.gGdG

N IOe
N dRY W
e GOhdEG
QSdG e W

eeCG dRY W LLR IcQ

aT GOhdEG
.(fhdEG dCdG) dCJ -hdEG TdG 11 -13 dG
425
512 256 `H qe Hh .JdG bGe a GSd (EL) GdG qJo
Y (EL) f j .(25 x 13 cm) 5 x 10 in Sbh ,H 130,000 hCG kN
UdGh bGdGh fhdEG Y J IQGO Mdh (EL) VYn d
dEG dG GQTEG jH fdEG GQGdG J M FdG dG
.TdG Y jja QU

IO dG O Lh H (Capacitor) c kFHc (EL) TT UY J

fh .QSdGh ,adG LGdG OY GOhdEG H edG dRdG
j O h e f S M h (EL ) M d (Scanning Rate ) d G e E a , d d
Panel ) M d G b h e h GOh d E G e h e O J d G (RC) e R H K K C J H
. (Capacitance

fhdEG MdG TT
dEG ae Ad UN H IOhe (12-13 T) FS QqH TT g
Electrophoritic) TdG g a . f dG f dGh G dCG d Q q dG
GPEa ,kFHc dG J Y kFHc fdG dG FbO J (Displays
(DC) da J ,adG GOhdEG H OSCG FS a AH U bO uYo
j eY HCG TdG Y VdG jh ,MGh OhdEG Y FbdG SH
FbdG J ddG b Y j eY dh .fdG e TdG dEG dG
.OSCG TdG Y pVndG a NCG OhdEG dEG

qeRdG VdG Md
` 13 d G a d G , (Plasma Display Panel- PDP ) e R d G V d G M d E G
V Y Y Q O b (Cold Cathode Dischargetube ) O Q H O K c j J f C G g ,13
. Q U h C G , (Alphanumeric Charaeters ) h M h b Q C G

j e g R Z j O f C G h O K d G O h d E G O G e G Y (DC ) d a Q G e E G Y
e dH jOhdEG H ZGaCG j eRH jd ,iNCG GRZh ,dG e
.e GaEG Y d ddG QGeG AKCG FHdG GaEG jh .OKdG
426
(Separator ) U a a H e L L R M d H (Panel ) T d G J
Y S AH GOhdEGh UdG GQdG Jo .aGWCG Y Ve
.13 - 13 d G a d G j d H W j K M d G
e T hdEG N /Ypeo
jfCG cCG
OhdEG AL

IcQ

gdG Y fe U FbO
ddG dH

e qeo Sh
LLR d OhdEG AL
. f h d E G M d G T T 12 - 13 d G

dG IQGM LQOh YdG GQhS qJ LLdG MdG Y jh

LLdG GdCG e SG fj H MdG Q NG j Yh . d dG
. (LCDs ) Y U a e d G

j h , (Shading ) d G e i e 16 e c C G V Y (PDPs ) T T e E H h
TT Jo .OfCG fH f VY J N e (PDPs) dCH dG
e g Z h j c d G R d G a d G f h , d a d G d G a (PDPs )
eeCG LR
aT GOfCG

LR eRH
N
GOKc UGa

.eRdG VdG (Md) TT 13 -13 dG

427
 dG dG I LCG dEG a VE H ,adGh jQ dG YCG F e
.fhdEGh

jCG e cCG ddG IQGdG LQOh edGh RGgG TdG g sJ

e H PEG ,dY da IQb J dEG LMG JS gCG dh .iNCG TT
L d G E a d P e h .R d C G J hC G J Y G M C 50 V e c C G a G J
.RdG N Y J FHdG IQdG dEG dG

e d E G a V E H d d G d Y IC G S d E G f , (PDP ) T T d
g a J h . (Tone Control IC ) Z d H J G Q G O h (Shift Register ) G f G
dh .(Pin) ke 80 dEG 60 Y J (Flatpacks) e RQ a ddG
d E G h C G J (CRT ) f G d E G (PDPs ) H d Interfaces H U h Q W
.Jc

d G I M h (PDP ) T T a J d G Y j d H f e (PDP ) T T A H j
OKdG GOhdEG SJ jh .aTh bQ ZCG H J GOfCG CG GY
T T O h J (Thick-Films Printing ) S Z G W S G H U d G G Q d G h
e IOY J (Xenon) jdG RZ e Ic je f CH kY ,fGdCH PDP
.TdG g a dG RdG J a dG

jdG SG N e FHdG jdG SGH H a TCG J

fCG ke ,LLdG Td NGdG dG H j dG ,QSdG GQd
.Fe AV

UdG g JJ jh QRCGh ,NCGh ,MG QSa Y N c J

d G (Dots ) f J . d G d H A d G d G Q S d G j H j H
d G b d G a O K d G J H b C G K K d E G N c a (Monochrome ) O M C G
f e f 640 x 400 L G J (25 cm) 10 in d W N a .O f C H N c a J
a J h . 0.12 mm d E G 0.1 mm g (Dot Pitch ) d G I K O H C G C G h , (PDP ) d
TV T T VY j . d G M e e d GQ L 10 d E G 8 d G GQ L

428
400 VY f e E H h (1.27m) 50 in (G d C G I O e PPP f ) d G j Q G d G
100 lb d G M J h (10 cm) 4 in e b C G T d G g c S E G . k H 983 h
.(45kg)

jdG IQdG TT
14 ` 13 dG jo dG ,(Vacuum-Fluorescent Displays VFD) TT EG
f ae hCG (Alphanumeric) ahM bQ VY TT g ,d kVJ ke
j eY YdG gUY hCG W f A Jh .A d Y H (Dot-Matrix)
. (Hard-Vacuum Panel ) d G I j T M d a e f h d E G H Q S d G

eeCG LR
Te T
OKdG S

UJ

SSCG U

(QSa) OfCG
Ue GWCG

(VFD ) jJ IQa TT 14 -13 dG

e O K c h S e N e (Triod Structure ) O j G J c J VFD T d

. Q S d H e G O f C G h (Mesh Grid ) T e T h , c C H

L d G e d d G (Face plate ) L G d G d G V d G T T J h
.dhdG IYdG U Y dG dG Y de Jh .dG

kb odG QSdG e HSH J Ue OGe g g GOfCG EG

H d e f e T Y I Q Y (Grid ) T d G d G C G c , (Segments )
Stainless ) C G d h d G j d G e b Q W Y (Photoetching ) F d G d G

429
(Filaments ) F c J k G L a Q J S G a G O K d G e E G . (Steel
jH ddG hCG ,fhdG hCG ,jQdG cCG e bQ H eh
e c a dG dd GOhdEG VqJo .TdG (Segment) b e VQJ
f h d E G WE G e 600 C d G M d E G d G I Q GM a j e T d G j f
TdG dG Q Jo LdG ddG G SG i dh . cCG A W e
CG QSdG b j e a OfCG JH dG e dG fhdEG
.VdH dG a bQCGh hdG TCG qjo k GAV gQhH J

e AGHG e GdCG S kdM aJh ,dG NCG (VFD) hCG QSa c

: (VFD ) e Y f g h . Q R C G h , d J d G h , M C G

Static) dG dGh (Dynamic Drive (VFD)) e j dG dG (VFD)

r n
f C d G e c O Y Y j h d G (VFD ) T d e A e c C G h C G h . (Drive
.keR dG dG Ye jH J

(VFD ) b G S N O E G f G P (Microcontrollers ) j h e e a J
T T a k G Q G S G c C G d G d G (VFD ) j h . V d G G d Y e
h s (VFD ) T T a H U j . d d h . b C G (Segments ) d G G P V d G
.cdG GOGY Mdh YdG a S

Tc dG feEHh NCG k GAV J kYS (VFD) TT cCG EG

e k GOY Va dG J dh (cCG hCG GdCG H) GdCG IOe VY
g C Y jh bKe hP g VdG EG LGdG GfCGh f GQdG
J h , e d H (Vacunn Tubes ) j J H f C G d G a g T d G
dG S CG Y k a ,Y H J f C G c e e ICs GQ GO SG H
TT e GfCG KK kdM aJ .dH J a j CH dCd j
: g (VFD )
.(Fixed Segment) HdG dG GP -1
.(Charaeter Display) dG VY -2
.(Graphic Display) SdG VY TT -3
a IAVEG dh ,cdG a IH HdG dG GP (VFD) Jo Gg
430
 M d Y e d G I A G d (Head Up Display HUD ) a d G S C G d G V Y X C G
d G j J e (VFD ) T T e C G . G F d G a (Windshields ) e e C G L d G
,adG POS fh (Business Machines) dG Fe TT a oa
H 320 x 200 O H (VFDs ) T T f C G d h . f d E G d G BGh
. (Graphic Displays ) S d G V Y T T H a J d

(dG VdG) aGZddG

Interference )
N G d G P d J Y g (Holography ) a G Z d d G E G
Y e gGMEG oJ ehc Le YJ Y JdG (Pattern
FGH IOY LfEG j ,dG IQdG hCG ,GZddGh .jDhQ OGdG zdG{
.15-13 dG a qe g c ,FdG QdG AV GSH aGZJa

`H UN oT d LLR QTe SGH QdG AV j jGdG a

AdG T jo .(Reference Beam) Le NBGh ,(Object Beam) zAdG{
fK IBGe Y jo K ,(Dispersing Lens) e SY N e ,IBGe Y mFH

jdG jT

NGdG f

Le oT IBGe

SY SY
T
AdG
IBGe IBGe

e
dG

Qd

aGZddG IQdG J 15 -13 dG

431
 jDhd jdG jhGdG

Le T
jdG jT
SY

SY

VGaG IQU

aGZddG IQdG jJ IOYEG 16 -13 dG

zAdG{ e dG FdG LdG S mFY .zAdG{ Aj d

dG jo Y bdG ah .(Film) jdG jT hCG aGZJdG dG JH
j CG hO aGZJdG dG JH SY N e j K IBGe Y LdG
dG e zAdG{ AGLCG e e JBG AdG ,mFY ,Yj .zAdG{ IAVEH
qdG dG Sh .dG Y J j NGJ Pf jd LdG
. d G a G Z d d G I Q d G g (Developed Film )

FfdG cdG AdG Ld OHCG KK J g NGdG Pf EG

dG a e g c) Qj AH GZddG Aj eYh .AdG e dG
(Virtual Image ) V G a G I Q U J I O Y E A d G N G d G P f j (16 -13
e JCJ AdG Le Cch OHCG KH gGj e jGhR e dEG XdG J
.JGP zAdG{
(Gramma )h (Holos) jZEG dG e GZdg dG TG
.(Holography) hCG ,(Whole Message) hCG zedG dSdG{ kcJ geh
Denis ) QHL jO ddG j Y dG IQdG jJ J QJ
I A G b h e a h , O H C G K K L C G a a Y a 1947 Y (Gabor
,fdG Md J a ,jOhdG IdG f a ddG dG GT
gOHCH jHdG dG dEG aVEH ddGh ,jQdGh ,YdG dGh
.KdG
432
 Y HG d G dG

jqhdG ddG
jqhdG qdGh

jdG

jqhdG qodG eT If
(Microcontrollers- MCUs)
qbdG IQTEG de jqhdG ddG
(Digital Signal Processors-DSPs ) (Microprocessors- MPUs)

eT If
jqce de IMh Y IQY g (Microprocessor) hdG ddG EG
Single) jqOa fS bbQ Y IOLe Jd (Central Processing Unit)
q
cCG e qfhdEG LddG Qe hdG ddG OLh qZ .(Silicon Chip
qbh ,AGT OY mT CG j k GRL JdG e Lh ,e S 30 e
dh .fEG IM Yb L a kqa Nd XdG eGdG SM Se
Md a qdG UdG e jRO dEG LdG Y a ddG g J
433
YGH ASG QqJ eh jL g e c eqa dP e cCG dEG gP H ,IQGdG
dG SH q Y c .fdG de Ge ah JG a kHS
.dbh qbdG qfhdEd

MH WHdG fqdG GQH Iqe BG H J d IQGdG GQb qCG Hh

e dG jJ Y hDdG qdG edG g qedG Z a ,IQGdG
.IQGdG J

GSG qS kbGh dG JdG e hdG ddG L d

hGdG Jh ,(Word Processing) dG de qa ,JdG J
IYb OGYEGh ,(Programming) edGh (Spread Sheet Preparation) qfhdEG
qUHh dG e jOCJ j m W f d E G (Database Preparation ) f d G
fdG QSG ah ,qdG JG a jL d jJ Y k a .eqJ
a U dG Qq dG eh .(Entertainment) dGh ,(Information Retrieval)
GJdG NCG ,(World Wide Web) qddG qJdG dG ah ,ffEG
Qe a jqjdGh fdG edG eh ,edG e e aJ qdG
.qddG d Sc RdG RL eh ,dG JG

ddG QqJ GN Y IdG JdG LdJ AGOCG q J d

GJdG e UCa mjS m H jqhdG ddG AGOCGh hdG
,LfEG e dG dGM H (Technically Obsolete) qdG jb qJo qdG
ILCG S f h .qM IQJ JdG GSG IQJ e L e Ggh
kSJ j dG ,IjdG zqedG{h zjqOdG{ Jd IYdG qLQdG
PdG a AGOCG Y FQdG dG IGQd e mSJ a g k Gqe
.edG jdG

qeH hqeh hdG ddG e qM dG JGdG AcG eh

dEG GJG ,TEG aqM dG JdG e ASH dG JdG
Network File) dG GqN T Y hcj GhNCa .GJdG e HCG g e
q eh ,(Servers
e g Zh ,(Engineer Workstations) q S dG dG
SQEG qJ AGOCG g eGhqO Y e Gg q dh .IQb cCG GJdG
434
 .(Mobile) IdG JG qJ dEG H JQGh TTSDF HdG

qedG qeh ,JdG qUeh ,hdG ddG e ASCG EG

a m H d h G e U C G , (Executives ) j d G h , (Software Publishers )
m VGh
QfG a .VQCG M RdG aqc a aheh jqQdG YCGh dG e
JdG ee e UCG qdG (Promotion) VhdGh fYEG
JdH qUdG (Brand Name) jqQdG edG SH ae Y dG
RL Y j eCG Gg qCG dG e .gjJ dG dG fCHh jqhdG
.(Microcontroller) zhdG qdG{ g jqhdG dd qe fL

Programmed) edG q dG FG a NOCG b R dG G g qCG dEG IQ TEG

dG L eh , dCG e : L dG e SGh m f dEG (Control
GQ dG dEG (Appliances) q d dG GhOCGh ,(Entertainment Products)
jJo dG qFdG jqhdG qdG OY qJ Mf CG jh .GqdGh
jdG q eh , edG UdG qeh ,JdG ILCG e c J
Digital ) b d G G e d G h , (Camcorders ) j d G G e c h , (VCRs ) S c
qfCG c .bdG FSh qMh ,(Microwave Oven) jqhdG GaCGh ,(Cameras
g AGOCG qj h .JGQhSh qYdGh jqQdG FdG a gKCJ NOCG
h dG a Fe Z a ,dG e NqJ q CG FXd ddG
.dEG UdG j

fdG de J dEG ,e jqhe de dEG LdG CT e c

de{ bbQ g NBG fL he de jJ dEG ,qM bCG dEG qbdG
dY qe Y fdG YH ILCG g IQhS J .zqbdG IQTEG
J e cCG YH IOqdG dG ee cGeo e ,IqY qY RfEHh
General Purpose) dG GSG hP hdG ddG eqjo CG j dG
SSCG Y (DSPs) qbdG GQTEG de U d .(Microprocessor
j L (zPipelining { ) f C G H I Q TE G d d I Q d G d G e I O S G
bdG a J dG qdG AfEG b iNCG e H AdH hCG f dG

435
 .aVEG YS d ,VdG

dEG fG JdG fCG a ddG Y cCG ee Y d )

JdG Gqeh ILCG{ ,16 dGh ,zJdG LdJ{ ,15 dG
.(zIYdG qfdG

jqhdG ddG
a edG IQGdG qfCG Y (Microprocessors- MPU) hdG ddG qjo
F X h Y h D d G (Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit ) k G L d G i d G
J F X d G g f c , e a . (CPU ) c d G J d G d e I M h
m jRO G S H
J q a .IQG dG M d a dG f dG e
,dG a kJ FXdG g (Consolidation) M Jh (Miniaturization)
ie aQ e jqcdG ddG IMh SG bW ah ,dG a kJh
dG qY RfEH (MPU) Y jh .iNCG Mf e qbKdGh YdG
L Ohq J eh , dGh .(Control) dGh ,(Logic) dGh ,(Arithmetic)
(Notebook) qdG IcqdG GJch ,(Desktop) jqdG GJdG
IqdG qdG GcdG JG GfCG e dGh (Personal Computers)
Scheduling) dh dG L eh ,(Personal Communication Subnotebook)
GdCG (CPU) e kjCG q J NCG qfCG f ,jqce de IMH (Products
IdG SdG ILCGh ,dG GqNh ,qSdG dG q e a IQG dG
. (Supercomputers ) b d G G J d G h , (Mainframes )

qbKHh cCG YH dG RfEG Y JQH jqhdG ddG qJ

e H bCG bd cSGh MdG IQGO e UCG Md eGSG e aCG
e dG RfEG gQha ,dP Y IhYh .fhdG MdG e aSCG
dG SCG GQGO GQ b Y dG c I H q Jo f c dG F X dG
. (Hard-Wired Circuit )
m Le Joh (Inputs) N d (MPU) jhdG ddG J
o q

436
ddG qJ ,JdG IcGP a XdG GOTQEG e H hCG efH L q J
JQb dEG aVEH ,a ;GJdG e a (zEngine{) zkcqe{ jqhdG
SJoh qLQdG ILCG e e GfCG IqY e m Ne J ,SdG Y
,iNCG M f eh .(I/O Ports) dG /NdG NGe Y qJ GQTEG dEG
(Off-Chip Memory) qdG bbdG IcGP e c Qb Y ddG g PJ
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory ) d H b a I A Gb I c GP g d G
GSG NOEG) fdG Hc /IAGbh ,UdGh GOTQEG J (EROM
. (I / O B u f f e r s ) d G / N d G L G d f d G a J h , ( d G

a HdG dG Hh , jqcdG ddG IMh Y jd fH

dEG qFdG gDhGLCG J .hdG ddG db qfCG f ,1-14 dG
,(Address) GdGh ;(Arithmetic Logic Unit ALU) qdG qHdG IMdG
FXhh ;(Data Registers) fdG q eoh ,(Status) ddG hCG qV dGh
OTQEG IT qe qJ dG ;(Control and Timing Functions) bdGh qdG
,(Accumulator) cGdGh ,dG qdGh ,(Instruction Decoder) LdG hCG
O H .(Program Counter) OGq Yh
(ALU) dG HdG IMdG
LG M hCG NG e CG dEG IQ TEG
dG I A G d G I c G P h , N d G / d G (Buffers )
GdG
ddG L SG I cGPh ,(ROM) a
fdG A G L C G V e d , (RAM ) F G d G
qdGh bdG
ddG CG M a ,jqc dG I M dG
eCG IT qa g e k H q j b h dG
dG qdG
cGdG .FXdG
efdG OGY

CPU jqcdG - ddG IMd dG SdG :1 -14 dG

.(Intel Pentium) H fG he dd q e e ,2- 14 dG qj

e NGdG hCG qLQdG dG Y dG f e (MPU) qY eGJ
f H f E G d d j . j d G h C G (Free-Running Oscillator ) d G H d G
I/O ) N d G / d G W d E G h , (External Memory ) L Q d G I c G d G d E G N d G

437
qfdG JdG ILCG dEGh ,(I/O Devices) dG /NdG ILCGh ,(Interface
e d G (Parallel Conductors ) j R G d G U d G Y (Peripherals ) I Y d G
dG qfdG IYdG ILCG jh j a ,FXh M e eCG .fd
dH (MPU) qj ,dP Y k a .(External Bus) LQN mH QJ
efdG e SdG dG qCG dEG fh .YH fdG e Ic qd
eqCG .(Hard-Disk Drive) dG UdG bGqS a jdHh ,IcGdG a Jo
:ddG dG Y a hdG dd FdG XdG dG
SdG IdG
64 bits bqdG IMh
YdG
QSG b e LM
eCG IT ah edG
Uh IMh
HdG IMdG HdG IMdG
BIU OGYCd dG OGYCd dG
H 64 GP dG dG

fdG e
IMh
UdG
64 bits dG
SdG fdG
64 bits

.fH dd dG SdG :2 -14 dG

ALU d G H d G I M d G

I M d G g (ALU) h C G (Arithmetic Logic Unit ) d G H d G I M d G E G

b e gQNG qJ dG fd qdGh qHdG qdG AGOCG Y dhDdG
Various Control) Y e hCG e V N Y SQCG dGh ,e f dG
q
Binary ) F d G b d G a V E G Y R f E H d G H d G I M d G J h . (Lines
q q
dGh ,(Multiplication) dGh ,(Subtraction) dGh ,(Addition
qdG FSH dG qdG fQdG e dG Y k a , (Division )
dG J dG g Y eCG eh .(Boolean Operations) qfdG
kH ,QdG hCG dG dEG jJh ,(Inverting) Yh ,(Complements Words)
.MGh mbh a k GMGh
438
 dG dM
.eCG J Y JdG qdG Y (Status Register) dG dM J
q c Y ,(MPU) J gOqjo dG ,qdG g qJh
, (Carry ) M d G e
. (Sign ) I Q T E G h , (Not Zero ) d G Z h (Zero ) d G h

dG qdG
Wf Y GTEH (Controller-Sequencer) dG qdG e qJ
SodG LdG hCG eCG RfEH qdG GQTEG fEH (MPU) hdG ddG
GQTEG dG e qdj .(Appropriate Input Pins) SdG NdG HHO dEG
d E G h e ( G S G h I A G d G ) H d G h I A G d G f H h , (Clock Signals ) Y d G
,fdG e be jJ dEG OqDj c , dG /NdG Neh IcGdG
L h . (Reset Functions ) F X d G V I O Y E G h , (Bus Control ) d G V h
a ROM a IAGdG IcGP a e qeo efH SGH LJ dG g
eGhCG Ye Jh Digital Gates qbdG HGdG d hdG ddG
.Instruction Set

cGodG
Special-Purpose) UdG GSd kXh
k e (Accumulator) cGdG qjo
,qdGh qHdG qdG N LhOe XH j .(Functional Register
.Ff (Operand dG hCG) zeodG{ j dG qdG Jo CG b dPh
zQdG{ hCG ,(Resulting Sum) zdG UM{ j dG dG Jo CG Hh
c cGdG qj ,(Logical Answer) zdG GdG{ hCG ,(Difference)
ka .(Binary Adder) FdG bd ech ,(Transfer Focal Point) jqce qJ
,(Tested) (j) jh ,(Complemented) qjo CG cGd j ,dP Y
qHdG FXdc hdG dd qSSCG FXdG RfE (Shifted) Gjoh
.qdGh

439
 fdG
q eo
odG fdG d bDe qM qfCH (Data Register) fdG q e qjo
.Y GSG hP q eo gh ,efdG SGH Lj ,(Databus) fdG e e
IcGdG deh ,HdG dG d fdG M
q o dG j
qJ eCG IT q a qY qCG dEG IQTEG QhdG eh .(Memory-Addressing)
k qe IkOY jh (Instruction Register) eCG
hCG q e Yjo q e q H
.(Instruction Decoder) eCG IT H (Attached) kWHe

eCG IT a
q e d H (Instruction Decoder ) e C G I T a X h q J
qdG eqDj ,dP H .gRfEG j dG ddG qdG jd dPh ,fdG
d SdG kHS e dG GQ TEG (Controller-Sequencer) dG
b dG dG e (Series) Y e e eCG c qdC j .(Exertion)
a IAG dG I cGP P q dG O dG a X dG (Microinstructions)
e IqY J M ,(MPU) jqhdG ddG IMh a (Microcode ROM)
IOYEGh ,GQGdG ZEG hCG ah ,(Logic Gates) dG HGH ZEGh H qJ
. (Resetting Status Flags ) Y C G d M V

efdG OGqY
J H j UN q e g ,(Program Counter) efdG OGqY EG
Ye) (Subroutines) qFdG IJdG CG ,(Instructions) LdG hCG eGhCG
IOe Xh ODJh ,FQ efH cJ a NJ e ee J
GP IcGdG bGe a IOY eGhCG g Jh .JdG efd (q eh
, e C G c A f E G e h . (Sequentially Accessed Memory locations ) d G N d G
Next) ddG eCG S M IcGdG be dEG jo dP H , q dG OGOj
o
. (Data Word ) f d G c h (Instruction

440
 GdG
q eo
a f d G c b e h C G G Y H (Address Register ) G d G q eo j
dG IQGO q J ,qK .ddG dM a g dG I/O dG /NdG a hCG IcGdG
qj M a ,dG dG /NdG (Port) Ne hCG IcGdG a GdG IT
Specific) IOqe IcGP bGe dEG GdG q eo e Gg IdG q a e
kah q Jo ,dG GdG q e S qCG dEG ofh .(Memory Locations
qY :eh ,(Addressing the Register) Xh J a gJ dG FGd
Stack) S o o dG TC Jh ,(Paging) dGh ,(Indexing) SdGh j dG
. (Indirect Applications ) I T d G Z d G h , (Pointing

hdG efdG
I T d G j d G a O L e e f H g (Microprogram ) h d G e f d G E G
g h . d E G d G N O j d G h (On-Chip ROM ) a I A G b I c G P G P
Entire CPU) eqdG jqcdG ddG IMh eGhCG Ye J Y J
K QGH JJ qJ jqhdG LdG qCG hdG eh .(Instruction Set
IdG hCG edG q a (2) , (I-Fetch ) g d e d G Q S G (1 ) : g , G N
.(Execute) dG (3)h ,(Decode)

hdG ddG FN
f d G d e h S d G a (Microprocessor ) h d G d d G Y j
,H qe a (Bits) qdG hCG (Binary Digits) FdG bQCG J .qbdG
W g dGh ,(Byte) jdH jo H (8-bit word) H 8 GP dG Joh
J a g hdG dd AGOCG aCG qEG .JdG a SSCG dG
e dG dEG J dG (Software-Intensive Applications) qdG - qedG
.(Extensive Data Processing) fd eT deh jqOdG HdG

Off-the Shelf )
jqQdG IgdG jqhdG ddG aqJ ,iNCG Mf e
(Clock Speeds) YoS dh H 23h ,H 16h ,H 8 SH (Microprocessors
. (450 MHz ) d E G J
441
d odG GMh ,(MCUs) hdG q dG G Mh H fQ d Hh
dG edG eGS F e cCG dhCG CG f (MPUs) hdG
Hardware-Intensive) dG jqOdG V J a S (Realtime)
hCG J b dG IcGdG a (MPU) eGH Jo dc .(Control Applications
,zjhdG qdG{ b fG) .hdG qdG IMh bbQ a J
.(kM QcdG

kH 32 GP NGO Sg e ,k GQqJ jhdG ddG GMh cCG qJ

fH e eh (NGdG fdG d kH 32h ,NGdG GdG d kH -32 CG)
qdG adG qCG dEG IQTEG QhdG eh .(External Data Bus) LQN
kaGO Jo IjL iNCG dh cCG Yd jGdG dG Wh
q dh .e
QqdG m H jqhdG ddG GMh jJh d d
YO b YCG adG GPh SCG UdG T GcGd eGdG UdG
.jqhdG ddG jJ Ve

Sh fHh J Y MCG 32- bit jqhdG ddG J

d G h (High-Speed On-Chip ) Y d G d Y I T d G I c G d G b b Q h ,Data Caches
,eGSG IOYEG L q Jo dG fdGh k GNqDe edG dG e J
G SG eRh (Data Storage) XdG fdG M J d d Hh
(Memory-Management Unit - MMU) IcGdG IQGOEG IMh eqCG .(Retrieval Time)
H N C G h O (System Resources ) d G O Q G e G S H e d a
qJ ,dP Y IhY .(Megabytes) jHdH IcGd dG dG QYG
.f BG a J fCGh eGH IqY GSH J qfCH (MMU)

jqhdG ddG hqCG ,809h 6800 hQJeh ,Zilog 280h ,Intel 8080 qJo
T dG QSfGJ 6000 `H 6000 N QJe eqb dP H .LdG 8 - bit

k c ,f qedG IdG a fEG fCGh .8040h ,8020h ,8012h ,8010 h ,8008

ddG Yd gQGUEG b dPh 486 h ,386 h ,80286 h ,80186 e
.1993 Y a Pentium Series fH jqhdG

442
a IoT cCG fdG ,fEG cT qM dG qdG 1-14 hdG j
Ye cJo h .VdG S Y fdG Ia N jqhdG dd ddG
a G S d q eo qfC h dG G g a (Celeron Family) hS
dG EG M ,aCG AGOCG jd Iqe Z gh kqf dG IgR GJdG
d h C G f h d G e ,(Pentium II) II f d (Truncated Versions) d G
,(Cache Memory 128 kB) 128 kB GP SdG IcGdG qJ J d ,IQOdG
(Celeron 300 A) 300A hS f a H Ohqa dG Gg Y H a
.MdG

a jNBG e j Y jqhdG ddG KSG ,dP Y k a

(Sun Microsystems) dEG IQTEGQJh .HdG ah qceCG IdG jdG
dG (Hewlett-Packard)h ,(SPARC RISC) jqhdG ddG eqb dG
(Architecture-RISC Processors) bdG SdG (RISC) de fCG
,(IBM) e c QUCG dc .dG GqNh ,dG q e a eG S
(Silicon e b h ;(Power PCs) b d G G J c (Apple Computer ) h , (Motorola )
ddG IMh kjCG qUh ;GSCG dEG (MIPS) de NOEH Graphics)
qJ d ILCG g e kjqCG qEa ,GMCG L ah .(Alpha MPU) hdG
d qJh gdG SG d qUN (Intel) fEG de aj kMf
.e dG qdG dh

oU b q dhCG MPUs qCG f jqhdG ddG jQJ dEG IO d H

,kM UCG GQjfGJ qJ qfC PMOS IQhH dh NMOS IQhH
fEG dqJ 1985 Y ah .NMOS jqhe de g 80286h 8086 da
QUCG ,1992 Y a CG ,qK eh .486h 386 jQGUEG KSa CMOS f
f g h , (BiCMOS ) I Q h H d G (Pentium Processor ) f H d e f E G
J YH fH e dhCG dG qJ dh . q b C G SG b H CMOS e
kMf qM dG fd dG Pf e cf .486 f e Gqe 4 `H cCG
H L U b h , (Pentium II ) h , (Pentium MMx ) , (Pentium Pro ) g
. (BiCMOS ) I Q h S

443
 hdG ddG QqJ :1-14 hdG
bdG M M OY jQJ
dG
(Bits) (m) dG GQSfGdG GNG
4 10.0 2.3k 1971 4004
8 6.0 2.3k 1974 8080
16 3.0 6.0k 1978 8086
16 3.0 12.0k 1979 8088
16 1.5 134.0k 1982 80286
32 1.0 275.0k 1985 80386
32 0.6 1.6M 1989 80486
32/64* 0.35 3.3M 1993 Pentium
32/64* 0.35 5.5M 1995 Pentium Pro
32/64* 0.35 4.5M 1997 Pentium MMX
64 0.35 7.5M 1997 PentiumII
64 ~10.0M 1998 LA-64 Merced

q dG cS q J ,i NCG M f e
ddG a (Line Thickness)
ddG a 0.356 m dEG 1978 Y a 8086 f a 3.0 m e jqhdG
.1997 Y (Pentium II MPU ) h d G

jqhdG ddG a eodG GQSfGdG OY JQG ,f IdG a

e e kof (Intel) fEG eqbh .Pentium II a e 7.53 dEG 29000 e
AGOCG qe dd (Pentium Microprocessor) hdG fH d e
(Low End) dG FdG dG Y (Celeron) hS de Jo .dG
Y (Pentium III)h (Pentium XEONh ,Midrange) SdG dG Y (Pentium II)h
jH (Pentium III) de qJ dc .(High End) dG FdG dG
.600 MHz h ,500 h ,450 Y d G

N qfCG Y (Merced) qb Hewlett-Packardh Intel e k c qCG cdH jdGh

High-End) FdG SdG d S dG (Pentium Line) fdG N
q
64) H 64 J j qfC IA64 `H he gh .(Computing Applications
Y S d h Q S f G J j e 10 e c C G Y j Merced C G h c , (bit- Design

444
Pentium ) f H d e Y S e J H c C G Y S h .800 MHz J Y S
Parallel) jRGdG SdG AGOC oU dGh ,1999 Y foCG dG (Processors
100 jqhdG ddG J CG YdG AGdG bqJ bh .(Computing
.2005 Y M b Q S f G J e

jqhdG qdG
VdG dG a gdG ,(Microcontrollers MCU) hdG qdG GE
I Mh J (Monolithic IC) dG jqOMCG e e IQGO g ,3-14 dG a
fdG IcGPh ,(Program Memory) efdG IcGPh ,(CPU) jqcdG ddG
, (Timing ) b d G F X h e g Z h , d G / N d G N G e h , (Data Memory )
ddG IMh ODJ . jqOa fS bbQ Y L IQGOEGh ,OG dGh
ddG IMh H J dG f FXdG hdG qdH qUdG jqcdG
e Iqb q bCG qfCG Z ,(Microprocessor CPU) hdG dd HdG jqcdG
q J h (Less Powerful )
(Less On-Chip Space ) I T d G b b d G e b C G M e
dG qM qCG PEG .ITdG bbdG Y iNCG FXd (Room) k GqM od
d eeo (On-Chip ROM) a IAGdG IcGd ITdG jdG a OqdG
.(Application-Specific Control Functions) YCH qd q e - Xh
Le GOGY

HdG IcGdG eGH IcGP / dG GOGY

bdGh EPROM ,ROM fdG bdG

ddG IMh
CPU jcdG
e N Z dG/SdG
dG/NdG
SdG NH UART eGdG
I/O edG
ec hOe ee

IcGH qdG jRGe NGe dG dG

We ROM hCG RAM GdG /fdG e NGdG QdG

hdG qd dG SdG 3-14 dG

445
hdG Jd bCG jdG g hdG qdG IMh Ea ddHh
bbQ a IOLeZ Ic FXh Y J qfC ,kdM adG bbdG Y
.hdG ddG

dGh qdG FXh Sod QqWo dG ,hdG qdG IMh EG

qddG GhOCGh ,dCG H k qdM qJ ,Sd dh (Control)
GdC HdG (Test Equipment) QNGh dG Gqeh ,(Home Appliances)
, ( T d G ) (Monitors ) G f d G h , (Computer Keyboards ) J d G J e
a e e IqY kjCG jhdG qdG OqDJo .(Printers) HdGh
dG V HdGh dG f IQGOEG dEG q d H q dG e ,GQ dG
e CGj k GAL hdG qdG GMh Jo dc .(Antilock Brakes)
,(Tunes) ddGh ,(TV-Receiver Channel) fjdG dG Ib Je
jqj dG G e dGh , j dG f a (Tone) dGh dG HG V
dG g L L q Jh .(Digital Camera) qbdG GedGh ,(Camcorders)
bbdG a qe H e (Dedicated Program) q e efH SGH
G P e b b H Y O j h , (On-Chip ROM ) a I A G b I c G P G P I T d G
.(Off- Chip Rom) I T e Z I A Gb I c GP

efH IcGHh ,(RAM) qFfG FGY IcGH jqhdG qdG qJ

a IAGb IcGH kqde ee hCG (ROM) a IAGb IcGP GP kqe ee eEG
q dh .(EEPROM) kqFHc d Hb a IAGb IcGH hCG (FPROM) d Hb

CGW dG QqdG H xM dEG j jqhdG qdG Y CGW dG QqdG

Wafer) aGdG de J e IOSG e , jqhdG ddG Y
Reductions) dG M q J hCG (Line-Width)
q dG V Yh (Processing
bbdG M IOjR hO JcGP ach YS IOjR dEG OqCG dGh ,(Feature Size
. (Chip Size )

jODJ dG f dG (MCUs) IQ qdG jqhdG qdG ODJ

dG IYdG LQdG adG ILCG GP qdhCG jqhdG ddG
ShCG AGOCG GQbo H Iaqe BG gh .(Five external Peripheral Devices)
V hdG qdG J EG .16 in dEG 14 in H (Architecture) Ho GPh

446
qJ ,dG S a .AGOCG a GQN d jo (Families) Ye
Sd e IcGP GQbo (Standard MCUs) jhdG jqQdG qdG
c a a d G A d G j h . (End-Use Application ) d F d G G S G
(Factory-Programmed ROM) kqe ee a IAGb IcGP Y MCU Ye
b S j MCUs e qc AGT qCG cdH jdGh .eo efH d
dG eCG ,dG e Z S e q bCG a ,kqe eodG hdG ddG
(Trial Program) jJ efH M FHdG H Oqjh .IcGdG eH Hd jo
jhdG qdG hj a ,(Erasable Memory) d HdG IcGdG Y
J e cqCdGh jdG efdG e dG H EG ,kqe edG
. (Debugged )

ROM- Less ) d qFGb IcGP dG jqhdG qdG aqJh ,dc

J Ua q dG dh dG H b e ,odG jd (MCUs
d Hb a IAGb IcGP GP e bbQ SGH e dGh ef dG
.(EEPROM) kFHc d Hb Z a IAGb IcGP hCG (Off-Chip EPROM)
,EEPROM h C G (EPROM ) e m HK OmH a J jhe qJ GMh dgh
q q
dG je dEG ke J Host Products FdG dG H qC dP
qd Upfront Engineering Costs qSdG LGdG c jd HdG
QSCG Y dG e dG qj Gd .kqe edG jqhdG
.qSdG dG ASG H fe Oe

bQ dEG qKJ qFQ bbQ qe MCUs H qJ gGdG bdG a

Direct) TdG UGdG aqd (On Chip Analog to Digital Converters ADCs)
GqdG Sd KdG q dG e jqhdG qd (Interfacing
g J j e cCG .RPM bdG a IQhdG hCG ,IQGdGh dG :e ,jqOdG
IQdH qUdGh ,(Scientific) qdGh ,(Industrial) qYdG dG a dG
Assembly) dG c qJh ,IQGdG Ld a Me aqJ a ,(Automotive)
,Intel 8048 :j e keGSG cCG jqhdG qdG e cfh .(Costs
.HCII 68 h ,6805 h ,Motorola 6801 h ,Z8 Zilog ,8052 h ,8051 h

447
 qbdG IQTEG de
h e d e g ,(Digital Signal Processors- DSPs) b d G I Q T E G d e E G
e cCG q dh .Sampled Data fdG fdG dd e AGOCG aCG AYE Qqe
oU .hdG ddG e SCG IOdG dG cGeo Y JQb qjo
GP IQTEG de W e IOSd kN (DSP Architecture) hCG DSP H
fdG jd (Pipelining) fCG H ,(Repetitive Nature) IQqdG dG
ddG b g dG qdG JEG b iNoCG qe a hdG hCG ,(Dataflow)
SSCG e a bdG IQTEG deo Jo .qaVEG Y S d
qdBG AGdG ILCGh , jqdG fdGh ,(Wireless Base Stations) SdG
. J G e e g Z h , e O d G h , (Pagers )

JGP qH Fb jqhe d e (DSPs) H q J ,i NCG M f e

FY Jc SGH d H qjo a ,(Stand-Alone Microprocessors)
IQqdG qVjdG qdG e dG GMEG bdG IQTEG de J .Host
e dG qJ dG ,(Fast Fourier Transforms) jdG jQa eo e
.dGh dG qY

24 bit - h 16-bit Y GSCG a IaqdG dG GSG GP DSPs J

32-bit Floating ) 32-bit G P d G U d G I L C G Y h (Fixed-Point ) H K f
`dG GP HK f dG GSG (DSP) UJ dEG qdHh .(Point Devices
qFQ bbQh ,he de Y j IOe bbQ RL qfCG d j ,16-bit
,(Serial Ports) e NGeh ,(On-Chip RAM) qFGY NO IcGP GP
WfCGh ,(On-Chip Codec) qFdG bbdG eqeoh ,(Parallel Port) RGe Neh
.( Phased-Locked Loop- PLL) odG - QdG

OOqJ Y (MIPS) f`dG a eCG e 20 J H j AGOCG Mf e

C G (32-bit Floating Point ) H -32 G P d G U d G d j h .40 MHz
J a i N C G d d H (Interfacing ) d G U G d G Y d F c J
. (Multiprocessor ) c G e f

dHh (Filtering) Td H (DSPs) J ,IQdG de dEG a VE H

448
High Speed Telecommunications ) YdG FdG JG N a f dG
Spectrum) dG dGh ,(Instrumentation) S dG GhOCG ah (Lines
Speech Recognition and) dGh ( dG) dG Jh ,(Analysis
f C G J h , (Radar Return Analysis ) Q G O G d G O G J Q G J h , (Compression
. (Pattern Recognition )

dd (General Purpose) dG GSG GP ,Yf dEG (DSPs) Jo

GQGdG q J .(Application Specific) Oq odG dG GPh qbdG IQTEG
e e H (DSPICs) OqdG dG GP qbdG IQTEG dd edG
Fourier) cCG bq H jQ a eh (Digital Filtering) b dG T dG
e J d G J e c C G c - I A H h , S C G h (Transformers More Accurately
. d G d G G P (DSPs )

jdG adG YH Ohqe fCG g hdG ddG Y (DSP) qjo e EG

H bQ V GdG g eqD J . cG dGh (Fast Array Multiplier)
Single ) I M Gh I O e Y S I H H d G d G F f d E G d G U M a VE Gh
HdG dG GP dG Y JGH - cGdG b a eqCG .(Clock period
. (Typical Fixed-Point Multiplier-Accumulator ) L P d G

cGe dEG (32- bit Product) UM jo qK eh 16-bit GP bQ oa

elgniS( jqO dG eCG IQhO a q d G ( 3 2 - b i t A c c u m u l a t o r ) 3 2 - b i t G P
25 d G M d E G j L P d G h d G d d G q C G d E G o f h ) e l c y C n o i t c u r t s n I .
IQTEG de bbQ qCG M a .qdG g RfE (Clock Cycles) IQhO YS
dh efdG ed (Cache Memory) Sh GcGP Y J qbdG
,jS IcGP qfCG Y SdG IcGdG qJo .(Data Pipe Lines) fd HfCG
fd UdG d dPh ;deh CHCGh .cCG IcGP H J I Uh
UdG W M Jo dG (DSP) bbQ J .(Instructions) dGh
Barrel ) e H f G G Q G O Y I A c b C H (Block Floating Point Arithmetic )
, f d (Arbitrary Shifting ) W Y G f H J d G G Q G d G h (Shiflers
SCG O Lh S dG i NCG GQG dG Y e dEG a VE H
. (Exponents )

449
G e h (Two Data Memories ) fH JcGP a ,qLPdG (DSP) bbQ eCG
Two Operands) He ee f e qj e ,(Two Data Buses) fH
q
. d G Y J G H c G d G d G G P X d I M G h I Q h O d (Required
IcGdG a fdGh eGhCG c J dG jhdG ddG e fQdHh
Data) fH GcGHh e efH Ohqe (DSP) de e q CG f f
,dP eh .f bdG a fdGh eGhCG GSH j qe ,(Memories
I cGP a (Static Data) cdG fdG e qe YG fCG (DSP) H q j
edG qEG .LdG Y SCGh UCG fdG GcGP dEG d e f dG

q `d `dG `Y JGH qcG`dG `dG hCG `eCG IQhO `JE `dG

`H (Word Lengths) `dG `W hGj `a .200 ns h 60 ns H hG`j q`Y
.LPdG dG 16- bit dG qjoh ,32 bit h 8 bits

Se Heh IOq eo GcGP Y (DSP) bbQ J ,dP Y k a

qe IOjH (System Throughput) qLfEG f d (Corresponding Busses)
Typical) LPdG NGdG GcGdG J , Y Hh . f dG NO
q q q
c . (129 to 512 16 bit words ) H 16 e c 512 h 129 H e (Internal Memory
LQN efH (Throughput) LfEG IOjR qbdG IQTEG dd jh
.IMGdG IQhdG a dGh edG Yd jc jS fH GcGHh

,(Image Processing) IQdG dc ,qbdG IQTEG de J qEG

.efdG IcGd hCG qLQdG fd q bCG Y c 64000 de bbQ qJ
N dEG jJ Ojo qK eh ,dd (Analog Input) KdG NdG qj ,PEG
dd (Peripheral) Y e LQ N c (DSP) bbQ qJ .K J
.fdG IcGPh efdG P hdG

o H (DSPs) qJo
q dG FK n
e G H h C G , (Dual in-Line Packages DIPs )
UQ hCG RQ H hCG ,(LCCs and PLCCs) qeGSh SH qaW Z bbQ
.(Pin-grid Array PGA Packages) eeo HHO T

450
 Y e d G dG

JedG LdJ

jdG

dG GJdG fCG eT If
(Personal Computer Systems)
qe LH Jc ILCG (Digital Computers) qbdG GJdG
(Reduced Instruction Set Computers RISC)
kWT jRGdG qLdG SdG (Computer Organization)JdG J
Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing (EPIC)

jd Iqe jqJc Pf (Computer Memory)JdG IcGP

(Computer Board Level Modules)
(Programming and software) edGh edG (Bus Structure ) H d G g
(Operating Systems) dG fCG (Standard bus Structure) HdG g je
SSCG NdG /dG f UGbCd dG dOdG HdG je
(Basic Input/output System - BIOS ) (Disk Interface Structure )
GJdG e a fdG K (Computer Ports) JdG rape
(Glossary of Common Compute Terns)
dG dG dG
(Universal Serial Bus USB )

- 451 -
 eT If
jJ H kbQ k GJc f fEa dG Jc e cf eY
.JGP dG kehO j d dG Gg qCG kY ,fhdEG

dG g fc ,dG ddG GJc QX b CG ,keY N e

qHM Y RfEG Y IQOb KJ qfhdEG hCG qfehc dBG CG J
.(SM)

fqdGh ,dH UdG KdG GJdG d fdG qddG dG a

a kqe k GQhO ,cqeh YS a ILCGh qfdG dGh ShdG e
IqY eGY dG a NJ fc PEG ,aGdG e jGhRh dG GMG bJ
Mh dG IQGMh ,jdG YSh ,ObdG qch ,JQG jGhRh dG e
Lh HdG SGH GJdG g dEG NJo fdG fc .VQCG IQhO
cdH qJh ,W Y qdG dG fH J fa ,YGdG
.qfdG

N qceCG edG U dG ,qbdG GJdG Qd ch

qadG be d hGdG OGYEG a qJ ,kjCG qHM GgCG ,dG
.gZh

SdGh AdG c ,jJ eH qbQ Jc ILCG hqCG jJ Y

e e H dCJ dG qKdG GJdG ej dGj
.dG Jh qVjdG dG d bO L a jeh qJ (Amplifiers)
Na dG eqCG .dG a je e H N e NnJo edG fc
Y bGdG eSdG a M hCG SShCG a hCG OGdG GAGb a kfMCG
.(X-Ray Plotter) X T C G S G Q

qfCG EG ,Zqe eH GQGO Y J IFGdG qKdG GJdG fc

a ke k GQhO GJdG g d .bh GQjfGH dSG e YS
A d G c e S c e h (NASA ) S d G ( I L C G ) G e Q N G h J
- 452 -
a d dG dG QhdG dEG kaVEG ,FdG efdG J jGH a kUN
.(Wind Tunnels) AGdG fCGh dG jQU e IqdG PdG QNG

keJ J dGh ,dG ef dG jdG f GJc Ia X

gh ,1830 Y a ,HdG fdG bH deoh qfdG GJdG Y
S G , (Cambridge University ) O e c e L a V j Q P S C G G N G e
qd Y e dBG AHh H ddG Gg b .(Charles Babage) HH QT
RfEG e k GHCG j d fCG EG .dG Jh OGYCG J CG YSH dG
LdJ dEG dH k Ge dGh ShdG J c PEG ,zdG oce{
dPh kJeJhCG HdG JE dSCG IqY HH qb dP e ZdHh .eCG
Y QSG jS J jH dGh fdG e k c jJ N e
JdG a jdG GcGP Q Jo CG b S e e cCG e bh . W
.jdG

.ehc Meo e OY e ee qbQ GJc hqCG qdCJ

.Zqe eH Je e H dSG e YS INCG J qCG EG ,qe

GNG e EG cCH aZ T hO ke JdG GNG j dh

bdGh dG J a ke k GQhO a NdG GQGdG eqCG .GjfGdG
.bKeh JQGL Y bdG a keo ,JdG ILCG J dG

gHh K ,dG Ic IjY Gd qdhCG GJdG g H

e iNCG g hCG , qedG dG EG FG T Y Q j h , dG
g b bh . qdG GdGh qHdG GOJGh ,qd dG SD dG
J jh ,qeh H H fCG EG ,qdGh jqQGOEG gdG c ILCG
.HQeh e OjCG

AGT Y jLdG UTCG hCG d bdG SJ qY MJCG dh

hdG SSCG Y qe ceCG a ILCG J e IOSG ,UdG gJc
.eGSG Y

- 453 -
kUN ,Ikb ILCG g OGORG jdG Iq dG GJdG QHG eh
G h O C H b d G d G I Q b g j H Y d G d Y a q Y d G I d G K G M E G e
EG qFGdG IQdG V GJdG g J d dh .YU IQhHh dBG
dH qdG GJdG e jdG a ,jqhdG ddG GNG H
dP eh .dG Gg a IQGdG NCG dG g (IBM) cT qMGh jhe
GJdG d jOdGh edG U Y k Ge k GjJ f dG
e OY cCG LM d dPh ,k f eh k T , q Y cCG q dG
de e kde IdG dG Y J GJdG J dh .UTCG
Jh ,fhdG dCd iJo UCG H GQdG OGYEG hCG UdG
dEG SEGh aCG Ige Mh ,fhdG jdG Jh SQEGh ffEG
.dN e SdG

j d dP qCG EG ,Sd dS cCG JdG d qL OlL dHo d

d (Interface) dG dOdG HdG dEG QdGh SdG NOEG ZQ kac
k GMGh k GJc J dG dG f JH M .TCd Rc IQCdG SGh
J d G I L C G g e F d G OG YC G G Y , d G a 40 `d G J ,b C G Y
.jqdG dG dSCG a jqd FGT Y SQGdG

ILCG e e e j a t j S JdG c e GPEG jDhd QfG j

k J cCG qadG SdG QYH RdG
ddG MdG J CG bdG eh .
jS dG eCG ,dG Y qdG f NOEH ,JdG jJ qY a
.JdG Md GSH fdG NOEG qY aGJ dG TEG e jdG

d (Intel ) f E G c T b e 1998 Y U d d G a J c S C G E G
9152 Y J d G G g i M E G . (Sandia National Laboratory ) W d G j f S
gj d ib kYS a (Intel Pentium P6) P6 fEG H e kjhe kde
.fdG a qVjQ qY jJ 1.3 RfEG dEG Uh :b Jc CG

h e g h , (ASCI ) q dG qJGSG SdG IQOe e dG c b

d e Y Q O b , Q N J c f E G Y d G g , (DOE ) b d G I Q G R h j Y H

- 454 -
Gg YS J ddHh .2004 Y e e fdG a HM qY jJ 100
GJdG YS Iqe 100 qMh ,iNCG GJdG YS Iqe 100 JdG
.dG ef dG

GJc e Pf QHG dEG jdG GJed QdG dG iOqCG

ILCG eh jQH SGH qJo (Note Book Size) IU mMCH ,de
dG ,edG dG dEG aVEG ,e Jc H qT JG
. (Subnotebook Size ) d G M F d

G qd k Gf dG GJdG Y SSCG
m H dG Gg cq j
YdG ac OJ JH dGh dG Gg Y CGW dG jdG qLddG
14 dG fG ,GJdG LdH qdG edG e jd .iNCG
Gqeh ILCG{ 16 dGh ,zjqhdG dGh jqhdG ddG{
.zqLQdG fhdG adG JdG

qbdG GJdG
H qfhdEG GJc g (Digital Computers) qbdG JdG ILCG EG
dGh dG IQGOEG e H J e q NGO I cGP Y J , j J
.fdG eGd JeJhCG

qbdG GJdG T a dG 1-15 dG a dG dG j

SGH AGS ,NodG LdGh fdG jH qNGdG IcGdG J M
IAGd eqdG UGbCGh ,(fdG) UGbCG e iNoCG QOe hCG JdG Md
.qdG WTCG M hCG ,WMG UGbCG WGNh ,a

ddG GMh eqCG .kJeJhCG ddGh NdGh dG LJ qJo

qdG ,dG Jf qe H GQGdG Md jJ fc dG ,jqcdG
eCG dch .hdG ddG bbQ e k GAL d QqJ a ,qdGh
Y IQOb ,Ue T bbQ T JG dG qSSCG IcGdG dEG dH
.SCH qe jqjM GRN Y IQY fc CG H ,(bit) dG je jJ
- 455 -
 jhdG e

dG IMh
dGh

ae e hCG S IcGP
IcGP
NdG ddG IMh NdG
a IAGdG
dGh jqcdG FGdG
ROM
I/O ddG IMh RAM
jqcdG

dG e

fdG e
b d G J d d G S d G 1-15 d G

jdG d TdG n n dG gh ,JdG TT ,JH dc

e cCG fEG Jh IdG dG Va ,YdG ILCc J ,qdG
I O d G d Y Y W f E G Y I Q O b j d G d G H W J H h . d 65.000
qaGZJdG QdG fEG IOYEG YSHh ,bdG a GQhCG 10 QGH eSQh
.qUCG QdG Y gJ Qd M kbH fqdG

qYJ qY AGLEG OqH H YdGh fdG NOEG q dG e H d

,JdG Md e qLdG ILCG Sh ,JdGh fEG H H
.fdG NOEG hGLh ,qdG Ich ,IQCdGh

Y JJ jdG GJdG a (CPU) jqcdG ddG GMh e EG

kY ,(Complex Instruction Set Concept CISC) IqdG edG ee e
jqQJ jqhe de jH eb UdG T J dG fdG H CG
a kLGhQ J d INCG J CG EG ,(RISC) q e ee ee H
dEG (RISC) `dG Oe GNOCG (CISC) `dGh (CPU) `dG qe EG K .GSCG
.gaJ dG HjEG UdG e IOSd IjdG jqhdG Jde

I L C G Y Wo C G Y e g ( M i c r o c o m p u t e r s ) z h d G J d G { E G

- 456 -
JH dGh .(bO) jqhe jce de IMh Y J dG JdG
GJdG e J a k GjJh kbO cCG jQ dGh dG
qdG GJdGh ,(Desktop Personal Computer) jdG q dG
Network) JedG dG G J ch .(Notebook Computers) ddG
q
. (Server

qj PC qdG GJ dG e qCG , dG Y Q dG e
dG Gg npU EGh ddG zqHdG{ GJdGh jdG GJdG
GJc Yd kjJ g ,IBM dhdG IQdG BG cT b e dG
J e J fCGh Intel fEG fEG e jqhe de Y J IU
FGdG qdG GJdG{ e CG EG .(Microsoft) aShe cT
cT U e GJc dEG Oj qfC ,OCG e j (PC Compatible)
GJ d G g J . J GP d G e H d gD e d h IBM `d a e
d h (Dos, Windows, 95 or 98 ) 98 h ,95 , S h O a S h e J f C H
.iNCG mcT U e Y f hCG (Intel) U e J b jqhdG ddG

L zFGdG qdG GJ dG{ e q j ,dP dEG k a VEG

,(Apple) HCG cT GJc e dh YCG g cP J dG G J dG
Power PC) jh e d eh J f J dG ,T c e
. H U N (Microprocessors

Engineering Work ) S d G d G TQ h hC G
(Work Station ) d G T Q h J
q
Computer edG RfEG Y qj dG JdG Y SSCG m H (Stations
M . (Computer Aided Engineering ) S d G Y C G h Aided Design (AD)
de Y Y a J dG SdG IQH k Gc kegG TQdG g J
.32- bit H j h e

e J c R L g (Network Server ) J e d G d G J c E G
e dG Gg j .ed dG QdG QhO a j ,T V
a ,H jqOdG GJdG IcGP S S J IcGP Y GJdG

- 457 -
.dG a Jc CG W Y AkH dG dG eGH Jh jJ e

dEG Ojh dG dSG QOf J g ,(Minicomputer) qodG JdG EG

GJdG J .dG qYh YdG BG a edG GJdG
e eCG .32-bit H kN e jq c e d e Y j dG
GJdG a k hGe GR a ,(Mainframe Computers) qdhqCG GJdG{
eh dG cTh ,dGh qedG SDdGh ,fd dG
.SGh f Y fdG IYb jMh ,SdG RfEGh ,fdG d :eCG

JdG J
dG dG a qdG dG Y e qbdG GJdG e EG
, O d G I L C G h C G , J d G M d N e N j h C G f d G J d G C G j .2-15
dG TCG fCG SGH Lj hCG j K .dG hCG fdG UGbCG GS hCG
qJ a ,yh x eSe hCG HdG ,adG ILCG e gZ hCG TdG dEG
jdG GJdG a .ddG fdGh eGdG LJ JdG IcGP
dGh JdG Y fCG Y s Jo (CPU) jqcdG ddG IMh fc
I M h e Y W G e j d . d G g , MP j h d G d d G UC G
jqhdG ddG{ `H SdG 14 dG dEG IOdG j ,jqcdG ddG
.zjqhdG GdGh

Ge TdG
dG JdG N

HdG OdG /cdG

IcGdG dG UdG bGS
MM SSCG dG UdG bGS
SdG DVD/CD-ROM

UGbCG bGS
MG JdG Md IQCdG

JdG f JJ :2 -15 dG

- 458 -
 JdG IcGP
Computer )J d G
IcGd edG d dG dG a qe g c
NdG aH dch IcGdH IkTe (CPU) HJ ,3-15 dG a (Memory
.dGh

eh jS qNGO J Y (CPU) `dG j hqCG idG a

(Cache) Sh IcGP Y kjCG jqcdG ddG GMh H Jh .adG
gH fCG EG adG eh ,jS ,HK qFGY NO IcGP e gQhH dCJ
.(Static RAM) hCG (SRAM) IdG RAM IcGP `H IcGdG g qJ .dG

jcdG - ddG IMh

hCG idG
(dG)

(Sh) aN IcGP fdG idG

SRAM

SSCG IcGdG ddG idG

bGS) dG jdG HGdG idG

(dG UdG
JdG a IcGdG J 3 -15 dG

eqCG .(SRAM) e cCG Y SdG IcGdG g J b fdG idG a

qFGY NO IcGP e dCa ,ddG idG a J dG qSSCG IcGdG
.(Dynamic RAM) hCG (DRAM) dG IgRh dY ac GP H ,qejO

adG dY IcGP a ,IcGdG e HGdG idG dG UdG bGS Jh

.ed cCG Gc Jh H d fe U H

(CPU) `dG fH cqJ bd kcSG cCG jdG IcGdG CG dG jo

SdG IcGdG qJ .HCG ae Y LGJ NdG dG IcGdG H
e kdZ dG SSCG IcGdG a fqdG fdG c e kf (Cache Memory)
- 459 -
SdG GcGdG g J .iNoCG ee RfEH eb AKCG ddG j
(SRAM) jh .FdG IcGdG HSG AH ad (Shortcuts) qYa GQNG
iNoCG Mf e .dG gH dh ddG YS e kjJ ihJ YS H
Y Jh a ILGdG IcGdG c J GQGO e SdG IcGdG dCJ
.Vh

eh Sh IcGP bbQ Y kdM jh dG d dG J

.bbdG Y MdG V H k Gqe k T j c dh ,ke (Registers)
IcGdG bbQ QN e a IAGd HK UGbCH IcGdG g VsJo dP Y AkH
.fdG idG a qd SdG

dG JGh ,NdG Qj eh fdGh eGdG SSCG IcGdG qJ

J (DRAM) qejO qFGY NO IcGP e SSCG IcGdG dqCJ .dc
qJ .bCG mHh (SRAM) IdG FGdG NdG IcGP e CHCG YH
a e b e d h , (Locations ) b G d G J c e C G a L d G h f d G
e SSCG IcGdG S OsJ .fdG bGe jd fGY qSSCG IcGdG
Y E G d d G h C G J d G (CPU ) j h . J J h J d G M N
IQOdG LdG EG JdH j h qSSCG IcGdG e IQOdG fdG
.e

,(DRAM) qSSCG IcGdG M bbdG f Y SdG GcGdG H J

.SdG GcGdG d Oe be J j e

e Ub bGS Y IQY dG g HGdG idG Y jdG c EG

ILCG J .WMG e jb bGH hCG e Ub bGHh mUH qe
e e e h (Virtual Memory ) V G a G I c G d H h e e Y J d G
Jo gY .Y g e cCG qSSCG IcGdG CG dG Y d ddG GN
OJ hCG hdG Y qSSCG IcGdG a VJh dG UdG e fdG U
.dEG LdG AfG Y UdG dEG

- 460 -
 U (MMU ) h C G (Memory Management Unit ) I c G d G I Q G O E G I M h J
.Vh bGJh qSSCG IcGdG a fdG

bGS CG c .dY d (bit) d dG UGbCG SG c qEG

gDhGT j dG qWMG hCG ,fdG a cqdG jqQ dG dG UG bCG
hCG 16 Gb Qj e d Hb ,qdG JdG ILCG ie ad cJh
.cCG

, (Demand Paged Memory Systems ) d G M d G I c G P f j

e fG a dG IOe U dEG ,(RAM) IcGPh ,U dG J cGP
Jh .hdH m U d E G f d G c J M (RAM ) I c G P d E G U d G
a edG e jdG eCG dG dG M d VGaG IcGdG
.jhdG ddG Y e jdG

J h C G J (Segmented Memory Systems ) I C G d G I c G d G f V j

b d G e h . e R d G f d G h e G d G W C G S G e J c (RAM ) I c G P
eqdG UGbCG e ,d HdG qFdG UGbCG bGS H J CG
JdG S SJ e ,(ROM) a IAGd (DVD) qbdG jdG UGbCGh (CD)
dG gh .1.44 MB `H IOhdG fdG UGbCG Y Y e H qjdG
.qLPdG dG UGbCG IQb e U AL iS d dG

a k G Q h O (Auxiliary Offline Memory ) I Y d G d d G I c G d G I L C G J

GcGdG g H e .jdG eH hCG jdG idG Y fdG Mh YO
UGbCG WGNh dG UGbCG bGSh dG WTCG bGS f
kf k jW kbh J e GcGP g WTCG bGS EG .GHEd Hb
CGdG M e g GHEd HdG dG UdG WGN H ,dEG Ud
.jd Hb eSH U UGbCG bGS

qbdG jdG UGbCGh (CD) eqdG UG bCG G cG dG g dEG j

,UdG T IcGdG a Sd .jJ QlhO kjCG d dG (DVD) a IAGd

- 461 -
ILCG{ 16 dG hCG zeqdG GQGdGh bdG dG{ 9 dG dEG fG
fCG M Sd dPh z qLQdG Jd fhdG a dG G dGh
.(IcGdG

HdG qg
.Jd qNGdG GQGdG H HJ Uh bW hCG IQTEG g (Bus) dG EG
J dG JG OY H dG V keGJ dG fdG qc OJh
J e 16 M f f e E H 16 bit H k G e E G . (Binary Numbers ) F d G b Q C G
J d h . F K J e 32 ,32 bit ` d G H e J H (Binary Digits ) F K
Sd H a UGdG e dG jqhdG ddG GP GJdG
SCG Y Vj PEG ,HdG qg MJ Lj fdGh LdG OJh
ILCG L d C dPh adG e Y dG hdG HJ CG fdG f
q J dG qg EG PEG .eGe H J qLQdGh qNGdG JdG
e a AGLCG Hd SCG OLh dEG LdG j m H qNGdG UGdG
H HdG kjCG SH HdG gh cCG hCG H c ILCG QJ .H
.jW ae H LGJh e YH J dG GJdG

Y JAc j d jdG g e kjqCG qCG EG jdG e jdG HdG d f

YL Hh ddG J cT H X bh .dG GfCG ac
eJ fEG dEG iOCG e ,H UdG gje J dG UdG d dG
jdG qgCG ie YdG g cQOCGh .FdG jdG FXh e YV
IQOb J CG j Sb H WHdG fdG CG dP ,MdG dG
.ke dG Y

ijh edG Y aGj M Sb (Bus Structure) dG qg J

qH GdG j e IkOYh .d FGe e J e ihL qdG a
edG g e .LddG bJ dh GSCG a Mf ie dEG qe
IBMs PC ) U d G G J d (IBM ) e h (VME ) j Q J e e c f L d G
. (Bus

- 462 -
qdhdGh qWdG jdG d dEG MdG cg dG cT H eb
General ) d G G S G I L C G e e c f h . Y b O d G a , gQ Gb E
H d G h (Standard (STD) 100 Bus ) 100 Q d G e h (Purpose Instrument Bus
H e jJ qJ e eh ,HK d HdG eJ EG .(Multibus) IOdG
Y dG ,UdG ddG YL e jdG Y c ,qdG LGdG
J j e j Jh d q e e e , f dG UCG
jJ bQCG AYEG (IEEE) qL MbG MdG qY e Ach .JLdG
.HdGh jd

,fqdG jJ Wh ,qdG qch ,OHCG Jo dG g HdG Sg qEG

dG dG JdG a UdG JJh b dG jR J dEG a VE H
f SJ H dG e j d (Eurocard) OQchQdG f jh . j j
.qfdG UGdG

d H J c f C S d G (STD ) e e H d G f C G H U d
II O d G d G h (VME ) e e i N C G H d G U H . H M G h
32 bit H jqhe de d , HGe He FY gh ,(Multibus II) -
OY hCG qeg He qg Y edG JdG f j k LEG .jqY aW
.IOe m d Ya He IY dEG kaVEG ef e hCG ,a
q
He He dEG UdG edG dH qdG (Adapters) jdG J
Small ) I d G J d G f C O d G H e e a W e H d O J
,W TC Gh UGb C G b G S a d G (Computer System Interface SCSI
(General Purpose Interface Bus GPIB ) d G G S d d G d O d G H d G e h
g a 5 dG jJ fH a J .GdH dh ,Sd dG
:GQTEG
. (Address ) G d G (1
. (Data ) f d G (2
. (Control ) d G (3

- 463 -
 . (Response ) G d G (4
. (Timing ) b d G (5
a J h (Transaction Bus ) e d G e d G Q T E G g c h J
g ODa ,f UdG ie Y HdH jh dGh f dG GQ TEG
a dG e q CG YSH qEG .dG M J dEG (Multiplexing) YdG
Y (Interrupt Bus ) d G e a G j H d G Y R d e H Q e C J
.ILCG e SdG dG hCG dG

HdG qg je
FGd kN 1976 Y S dG (STD) me QqW :S dG STD dG
IEEE. -698 e S G U C G K ,A 8080 f E G d e J d G G J d G
: j e 3 Y F H c GOG e E G d h . e 100 hPh j RG e GQ G H e gh
j g h e 100 ` H U e H IEEE-689 e N j 0-18V h ,-8V ,+8V
DMA IcGd ITe hGJ Xh 16 dh , UG e e 16 hCG 8 Y
. b N 8 h ,Functions

qe de J gh qYdG dG a Jo HdG g dGR e

8 bit H MC38000/68000 j Q J e d e h 18 bit H 8086 /88 f E G d e e
.16 bit hC G

dG JdG e
ILCG H d (IBM) cT b e jGdG a PC Bus dG Gg QqW
N 28 Y j ,(PC/AT) e SG d QqW K eh qdG JdG
hG J G b h I c G d G a J e e e . b i e 11 h , f H N 16 h ,j h Y
qda EG .QqdG AT e d dG Gg QqW kjCG dK Imqdh .IcGd Te
Hb dEG UY IqY NOEG j .-12Vh ,+12V ,-5V ,+5V g a bdG Ohqe
,OdGh ,IcG dGh ,CRT eh ,GQG dG b H e dG G g
.UGbCG bGS eh

- 464 -
 dG dG dOdG HdG e
dg cT b e (General Purpose Interface Bus - GPIB) dG Gg QqW
IEEE -488 Q c J J h , G J d G d (Hewlett-Packard HP ) O Q c H
q
ILCH kdOJ WHdG qdG GJdG a SG c gh .1975 Y
.fdG jJh Vd qjJ qfhdEG

OdG dG
I dhCG dG MGhn ,II hn I ,(Multibus ) OdG dG fEG cT QW
16 H de IqY FGd II fdG dG QW a ,8 bit H 8088 de Y
q
.jhdG H deh 486h 386 de e 32 bith bit
. H a J e e H e 5 Y II f d G d G J

VME - VME BUS e

cT b e jJ qJ (Multibus II) II OdG dGh (VME) e e k c EG
j e H Q C G Y (VME ) j .32 bit h 16 bit H d e j j Q J e
(Multibus II ) O d G d G j H , e G e Z
k cJhH kee jqOa
.keGe k cJhH kee jqOa He 5 Y

YdG SdG QdG dG

e Y I Q Y g (Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) BUS ) d G G g E G
eh 16 bit H 8028 fdG e eAGd qaVEG UGH IBM PC/AT
.32 bit H j h d G

bhdG QdG dG
d f H e h 32 bit P G Y e g h .1987 Y a (IBM ) d G G g f C G
.32 bit h ,8 bit - S G P f H d e S C G

- 465 -
 IQqdG qYdG jdG Sg e
ddG eAGd e d ,(ISA) e e dqe f g (EISA) e
.32 bit H jqhdG

GdG
j 32 bit H qdG GJd e e g (VL) hCG (VESA) e
33 dEG JGOOJ J CG j .ddG YS QJ mYH J CG edG Hd
q
.Expansion Slots qSJ T 3 Y j c MHz

adG GYdG fqd dG dOdG HdG e

QH e e g (Peripheral Component Interface (PCI) Bus)e
dG e IQGdG dY de dhCG mLQH Sj .64 bith 32 bit H fH
mHe e FGe fCG c ,JEG e cCG QHh SCG f Y fdG f jh II
.MCA b H h EISA ,ISA e e i N C G

IEEE 1394 e
d G G g j C G b d G e h ; (Firewire ) Q d G d G S H h d G g
jdG eh qbdG jdG Gec Hd idG YdG Qe dG
ILCG e gZh ,dG bHh ,OdG ch qbdG VCR `dGh (VCR)
.dY f YS J dG qLQdG fhdG

UGbCd dG dOdG HdG je

IRdG IdG ILCd dG dOdG HdG
Enhanced Small Device Interface ) I R d G I d G I L C d d O d G H d G E G
jJ j dG (ST 412) OdG UdG e e IQqe f g ( ESDI
qJ .YCG fH aH UGbCG dEG kaVEG 10 Mb/s dEG 5 Mb/s H fdG
.dG UdG bGS e eAGd jJ

- 466 -
 edG ILCG fhdG
d G g (Integrated Device Electronics -IDE ) e d G I L C G f h d G E G
.dG dG IMh Y d aj e dG UdH dG IMh qJo
.504 MB `dG iJ dG UdG JG IQb e qJ fCG EG

IdG GJdG fCG a dG dOdG HdG

(Small Computer System Interface SCSI ) G g d O d G H d G c A d G a
ILC Se dOJ He fCG c .dG UGbCd dOdG HdG Qe d
.a IAGd dG UdG bGS e LQdG bhdG

JdG ae
,JdG a Uh f Y IQY g (Computer Ports) JdG ae qEG
f .qLQdG adG fhdG ILCG a S HQ He SGH IOe
Communication) UGdG ae kjCG J dG ,(Serial Ports) dG adG e
I Q C d G e j S f f d E G J d G d O d G H d G I L C G a , (Ports
adG eqCG .Ud ee 9 adG g a J .JdG Mdh OdGh
a (1 byte) 8 bit H dY mYH fdG f a (Parallel Ports) jRGdG
WMG dG bGSh dOdG HdG HW SJ gh ,Y b dG
J .Ud D a e (kpe) k GQe 25 Y J ,dGREd HdG FSd
.LPT2 hn LPT1 `H adG g

dG dG dG
g h j d G G J d G a (Universal Serial Bus- USB ) d G G g L j
a LQdG adG fhdG ILCG jJh OGYEG Y j H dOJ He
R L 127 O H (Daisy Chaining ) g d G d H d G G g j h . J d G
c fRGdGh dG adG j cJ EG .MGh mH LQN aW fhe
.dG d GJdG dEG LdG a

- 467 -
CG kjCG SH TdGh JdG Md e adG qLQdG fhdG ILCG
.aVEG a d bc J

e A G d d P h 12 MB/s V Y H j J J C G (USB ) ` d G a e e E G
QdG AGN Ye d jdG dG jH J dG GdG e CG
dG GJdG Y e qdG g JH d .(MPEG - 2) 2 cdG
.Rhjh eH J

dG GJdG fCG
CG MdG J Ic GQGO Md dG j ,dG J dG a
, S S C G I c G d G h , h d G d d G Y M d G g J . (Mother Board )
d Sh IQGOh ,JdGh dG S dG GQG dGh , j dG I cGPh
Y kjCG J gh .qT hCG qY GQGO e fdG e jdGh ,dG
,HdGh ,JdG Md e ,adG qLQdG fhdG ILCG Hd UJ ILCG
jdGh ,dG UdGh ,HdG e NG dG fh dG I LCGh ,IQC dGh
. I c G d G S J b H h , a I A G d e d G U G b C d b G S h (Diskette )

SGH j ddh jdGh dGREd Hb AL H hdG ddG Rnjo

.JdG a iNCG mAGLCG dEG ddG a fdG c qj H UN Ue

j R G e U Y j d G (Pentium MPU ) U e U d G g e
.Uh Qe 242 e fqe

UJ c hCG oCG MdG M j e a e Y I Y b e d g d

M M hCG ,PdG hCG ,dG cdG M J fEG H ,Jfe
TdG Vh eEH M e qfe Y V VJ b a .dG J
.4-15 dG a j c (Tower) dH J jqOY jW Y V hCG ,ba

YS hGJh qdG GJdG V dG jqhdG ddG J

.450 MHz h 166 H

- 468 -
Je Md Y hCG (CRT) hCG (LCD) TT Y J dG fCG g lb
H hGJ Jhe N IQb e U Ub bGS Y c J ,H .IQCah
W TC G e f d G UGb C G b G S M j d G P d G a h .9 GB d E G 2GB
UGbCG bGS e qbdG jdG UGbCG bGSh ,dG UGbCG
Ge e (Accessories) qe qaVEG ILCG kjCG g .a IAGd eqdG
.SdGh HdGh ,jqjdG dG

Joh ,IQCdG e (Track Ball) dG Ic q J b ,IjY bGe ah

qbdG JdG Md J a ,qfhdG dCG a (Joystick) dG Y
UdG d (Inkjet) `dGh QjdG HWh ,F S dG H ch S dG NOE
dG qFdG dG Ge dEG kaVEG ,fqdG TdG Y J dG eSdGh
,(ROM) a IAGd eqdG UGbCG e zjdG{ dG jRd J
qdGh jqjdG fdGh (DVD) jdG UGbCGh (DADs) qdG UGbCGh
. (WWW ) d d G A f C G e d G

dG dG JdG FN
FdH jdG dG GJdG J ,1999 Y j f M
: d d G Desktop Personal Computer Specification
.Intel Pentium II, 450 MHz : h d G d d G
.384 MB d E G S J j 128 MB of 100-MHz SDRAM : F d G I c G d G

.17.2 GB Ultra ATA : d G b G d G

.CRT 19 in (18 in VIS) 0.26 dp or Flat panel LCD 14.1 in VIS : T d G
.3D AGP with 16-MB SGRAM. : S d G b H
.x 5 DVD-RAM/CD-ROM with decoder Card :DVD-ROM/CD-ROM bGqS

.A3D 64 f U b H : d G
.Dual Digital Speakers with subwoofer : d G G e
.Data 56 kb/s ITU V9.0, Fax 14.4 kb/s : O d G

- 469 -
 .100 MB N GO e Ub T WN :jfK Ub bGS
.f f E G d d e e , J e 104 Y J : J d G M d

dG dG JdG :4 -15 dG

d e Y (USB Ports ) e H e d G G J d G g e J
.qLQdG fhdG ILCG e gZh SdGh HdGh OdG UJ qY

ddG qHdG GJdG FN

kY T jh jQdG bH eY Jc g dG HdG JdG EG
a (LCD ) d G T d G h S C G d G J d G M d J , d H I U
. (5 -15 d G d E G I O d G j ) , U d G e j d . Y C G d G
:ddG FdG jqdG qadG GP 1999 Y Pf M
.Intel Pentium II, 300 MHz : h d G d d G
.160 MB d E G S J j 128 MB of SDRAM : F d G I c G d G
.512 kb integrated L2 pipeline burst : S d G I c G d G
.Flat Panel LCD 15 in XGA Active Matrix TFT : T d G
.80 GB : d G b G d G

- 470 -
 .2x DVD-ROM/3.5 in (Removable) :jdGh DVD-ROM ,CD-ROM bGS
.2x AGP with 8 MB of VRAM :jdG
.Lithium Ion : j Q d G
.56 kb/s ITU V.90 : O d G
.2x AGP with 8 MB VRAM :SdG bH

IAGd eqdG UGbCG bGS eEG eRdG a (Slots) dG HdG J

U G b C G b G S h C G , (DVD-ROM ) a I A G d b d G j j d G U G b C G h C G (ROM ) a
.jd U Ge Y PdG H j .qfK jqQH hCG 3.5 in b fe
- dG hCG ,jCG - dG jQH SGH IOY bdH GJdG g qJ
(3.6 kg - 2.3 kg) 8 lb hn 5 lb H eRdG Rh hGj .NiMH fe chQg
ddG GJdH kjCG J fCG c kMe 85 `H Je Md Y Jh
.Laptop Computers

HdG dG dG JdG :5 -15 dG

qdG dG MGQ GJc

GJdG e GfCG e MGh Palmtop Personal Computers Jc EG
.(900 g) 2 lb e b C G j h , X d G I O h d G d G

M d E a d d H h (Notebook ) H d G J d G M e U C G M E G

- 471 -
 .6-15 dG a j c ,k GL IU Je

V J M d G d Y (CSTN LCD ) T H d G G J d G g a J h
,16 MB H (RAM) IcGP Y dG Gg e GJdG J .kfd 256 dGM
dG Y J f j .dG fEG IOYEG IQbh ,U eh
jdG S fH jeh ,SMh ,YS J bh .O dG dG
e I e f , a V E G I c G P G M h S (Slots ) T H e , f h d E G
MdG J CG eEH IdG GJdG g .dG dG eH
YCG Hh qHM H dG S Hh , jh dG FG dh YG dGh
e kfhdEG zJH{ g Y J Cradles dqM J e a J . JG
GJdG SG kjCG GJdG g Y j .kM cCG FGe GJc
.Subnote Computers H d G T

W AZ

LCD TT

Jjc Je Md

. fdG HdG dG dG JdG 6 -15 dG

dG bdG YdG
e f g (Personal Digital Assistant-PDAS ) d G b d G Y d G E G
J .IOqe MHh jQdG IQH J dG IdG GJdG GfCG
qEG .qdG YGdGh YCG Jh J dEG dhCG mLQH GJdG g
NOE UN jQ dEG LH fCG EG ,dG c M hj LEG a M
SQEGh SG Y M QlOb Hh .MdGh JGdG bQCG e fdG
1MB h 512 K H I O Y GJ d G g S hG J . d Gh f h d G j d G

- 472 -
jqOa FXH Je Y ,JdG Md H ,J c (RAM) IcGP e
Md Y IQY a VdG TT eqCG .IcGdG bH S He GMhh
(PDA) `dG Ud eGM Y PdG H jh .qdG jqOMCG IU (LCD)
dG Gg e GJdG Y j .fdG f H cCG GJc dEG
Personal Communications ) h C G (PCD ) d G U G d G I L C G : g h J
Handheld Personal) hCG (HPC) kjhj ddG dG GJdGh (Devices
q
. (Computers

e LH JdG ILCG
(Reduced Instruction Set Computers- RISC ) e LH JdG EG
G J d G J H , e L J Y H (RISC ) d e J c g
Y (RISC ) ` d G J J j .(CISC) I d G L d G Y e J d G
QGJo (CISC) GJc a edG FXh Ye e dG a 80 qCG SSCG
J CG bdG e ch .(CPU) jqcdG ddG IMh e dG a 20 b e
Y cCG dG Vh N e (CISC) d e Y S (RISC) de YS
Y N e bdG Jc Q J .(Hardware) RdG Y dh edG
Apple) HCG G J ch jQ J eh (IBM) e c T I q Y H e
, f E G H f E G .(RISC) h e d H J c Y I Q Y g h , (Computers
(RISC ) F N e j d G k LEG qJ ,(CISC) jqce de IMH j dG
.FGOCG jd

kWT jRGdG qLdG SdG

Explicitly Parallel Instruction) k W T jRG dG q L dG S dG EG
d jRGdG LdG Y JJ ,SM jqf g (Computing-EPIC
. (RISC ) h (CISC ) S M U a d G N C d G a b d G

qfCG Y kqe ,(Intel)h (HP) cT e ,IA - 64 jdG hdG ddG c

.(EPIC) kWT jRGdG qLdG Sd jqce de IMh

- 473 -
 jd Iqe jqJc Pf
g (Computer Board Level Modules) jd IqdG JdG Pf EG
dG qSSCG fdG Y J Ud IgL GQGO MH Hqe Pf
a cqod Y m H ILCG g J .d k Hb k GRL JdG e J
7-15 dG dG T j .JdG IS dEG J dG GdG
jqhe de MdG g J .IMGh mMH GJdG e kH kLPf
jRGdG dGh NdG ae e fhdG a dG I LCG e Y eh
g .qaVEG IcGdG bH S ZQa fh ,IcGP dEG kaVEG dGh
a GJdG Jh UdG fCG J JdG d J PdG
.OdG SSCG ef IQb IOjR Mh .qdG JLCG hCG qYdG JGe

QdG IcGP
NdG IcGP
FGdG EPROM
de IMh
jce
IcGdG e
fdG
IcGdG He
dG GdG eOdG
HdG Oe Ue
dG e
SBC NGdG dG OdG Heh

NdGh dG jRGdG dGh NdG

dG

IMGh MH GJd e e :7 -15 dG

J dJ dG Y aJ a ,aVEG b GP PdG g Jo
Md d e qY XJ hCG jd dG J dG fCG
IMGh mMH JdG ILCG{ SG kjCG ILCG g Y j .JdG
. (SBC )

:Y kjCG j Ud IgdG jqQdG JdG Md e kH EG

- 474 -
I c G d G S a d Cache S d G I c G d G GQ GO UG H I c GP P f
(EPROM) ,(SRAM) ,(DRAM) PdG g e cf .OdG dG a qSSCG
. I c G d d G I L C G g H j d G M h C G (ROM ) h (NVRAM ) h
f d G U G b C H d : (Mass Storage Controller ) d G j d G e
.WTCG bGSh dG UGbCGh
.dG Nh NO IOjd bdG dGh NdGh bdG Pf
. J Q h Sh I L C G b G d X d G I/O d Gh N d G P f
.IEEE-488 h (RS)- 232 e I O e j d J d G J G G S

edGh edG
j dG Gg .JLCG FXh d LdG dEG GJdG J
q d ,ke kJJ Je ,LdG e Fh eGH SGH
e H dG
.IOdG GdG

dG UdG bGS a eGH e jo e c g (Software) edG EG

a IAG d eq e hCG f e UG bCG SG H G J dG dEG N j e hCG
Application) dG eG H : e dG e Y f gh .(CD-ROM)
. (System Programs ) d G e G H h (Programs

,Y Ye hCG e Y d He eH g dG eGH EG
g Y jW EG .IQdG FXdG e f JE hCG dG H RfEh
(BASIC ) H (Statement ) U Y Y J h W d G j Z J b e d G
Ie e d dG BG dEG J dh .H VjQ U c dPh
IQGOEG ,UdG de :edG g e cf . k e IFW L J a c
..dEG ,eSdGh jRdG hGL J ,ee IYd qSSCG fdG

,(Custom) jOdG edG :gh edG e S SCG Y f g

. (Package ) e d G e d G h

- 475 -
 jOdG edG
.qe H UN e RfE hCG dG d kN He eGH g
kVGZCG J M kUN f dG b e eGdG g H QJo
g e .edG g FH dG Y fqj e eh .H UN qYh
Md Y f qdG zVh dG{ qY jJ dG ILCG f edG
.GQGdG

e d j Q d G a d G b e a (Package ) e d G e d G e C G
e ke kYf FGd eGdG g J .aJ H GSCG a J dG edG
. NT R h f h h 95 R h f h h (MS-DOS ) e d G f C G

UdG dG cGe a Jo dG e jdG RfE eGdG g e j

eGHh ,UdG de eGH cf eGdG g e .IkTe jdG a SJ hCG H
Jh ,dGh SdG eGHh qSSCG fdG d Jh GQ dG J
Mh , jqjdG dCG Jh ,JadG eh ,JGdG Jh ,GQG dG
.IQdG hCG IQdG IOb Ice

dG fCG
Y Y J qeH g Operating Systems OS dG f EG
hCG qSSCG IcGdG a AGS fdG cGe OJh jdhCG J gh ,JdG
FXh eJh ,Yfh Vh M dG a c J .UG bCG a
Jh ,dGh NdG WH J fCG dEG kaVEG adG fhdG GdG
Y TDjh .JdG MH NdG edG dG f j .fdG
.UGbCG Y fdG fdG jh ,dG j eh c HdG

,(DOS) g (IBM) ILC FGdG dG fCG EG

3 . 1 ) 3 . 1 R h f h
dG RhfdGh ,NT Rh fh ,CE Rh fh 98 Rh fh ,95 Rh fh ,(Windows
.(OS/2 Warp) OS/2 e h d d G J d G I L C

- 476 -
cd Tce GJH UN J f g (MOC OS # 8) f qEG
TQh a kN ej J ef a (Unix)h (NT) Rhfh eCG ,(Apple)
.JG T ah SdG

SSCG NdGh dG f
g (Basic Input/Output System- BIOS)SSCGh NdGh dG f EG
JdG a IdG qJGdG LGdGh bEH J dG LdG Ye
bEG IQhH LdG g J .(ROM) IcGP bbQ Y Jo gh
bGSh ,TdGh ,JdG Md e adG fhdG ILCGh JdG
ROM a I A G d G I c GP a A G S d G g J .f d Gh d G UGb C G
.(EPROM `dG) kfGe e dG (ROM) IcGP a hG cdG b e e dG
128 Kb H ROM IcGP jdG dG GJdG a (BIOS) Y jh
q
.(256 KB) H d G GJ d G J H
q
jh ,JGP QNH jh ,JdG de Y (BIOS)`dG f j
.IcGdG qVhh ,adG fhdG ILCG J hH UdG fdG

dG H kH kdOJ kWHe dH a edH dG Ohqj k GNCGh

.FQdG dG d JdG J fh

GJdG e a fdG K
A3D64 dG S
HJ QH e qJ g (A3D64 Voice Sound) A3D64 dG S
L e GUCG J dG J ,IdH Hf ,OHCG qKK qS
.YdG hCG dG Ge dSG Y ,fGdGh MGdG
NOEG eR
W qY a JdG j dG bdG g (Access Time) NOEG eR EG
UdG j b .jdG RL hCG qSSCG IcGdG e gQSG hCG fdG

- 477 -
QSG Y kUN YS dEG fK ff JdG IcGP a dG g dEG
.d UdG bh kjCG d jqOdG IcGdG ILCG EG ,ffG e fdG
eqdG eSdG ae
.IAdG ddG eSdG Uh
dG hCG dG d
(Assembly Language) d G d R e Q F Xh L j hC G j ,J c e f H
q
.(Machine Language) d B G d d E G Q d G (Assembler) hC G
edG qdG IQGdG
W d G UGb C G e f d G J (Audio IC) e e U GQ GO g
dNOEG b bJ K ,QOdG e gZh,fahdG e ,a IAGb IcGH
e Y Sd Hb GQTEG dEG fdG g jH j dG JdG dEG
.dG
dG
m GQNh dG dG eG H GQOEG Y g
bH e iNCG q q
.keY dG H ,fdG a qdG JdG ILCG e eSdG
dG Ue
d G Q h O d e , C G J d G M d a (Bus Connector ) U e g
.SdG d
SdG IcGdG
d P h I H I d G f d G c Y f J d G (Cache ) I c G d G g
.SCG m H YLSG H
qodG hCG edG
e H H H e G Q Y L H J I Q G O h C G e f H g (Compiler ) e d G
.IMGh qY a dPh d Hb efH dEG idG dY
HG FGhO hCG bH
U J ,(Daughter Boards or Daughter Cards) H G F G h O b H h C G M d g

- 478 -
16 MB H Ue T IcGP GMh d CG JdG Md Ue dEG
.128 MB d E G

qSdG T
ILCG e gZ hCG TdG Hd Hb bH a J ZGa /He g
e k GL dhGe kbT qdG GJdG a f .adG LQdG fhdG
.ISA h PCI T
HK ee
h C G d H b Z (ROM ) a I A G b I c G P g (Firmware ) H d G e d G
JhdGh ,dG eGH hGL J b dG JdG ReQ jd jdG
.idG ddG dG eGH hCG ,YdG
SdG jeo
IQdG gJ dG YdGh ,GdCG fh ,dG OJ GQGO Md g
V d ( D R A M h V R A M ) J c G P e 4 M B S kI O Y J h T d G Y d
. 600 800 Pixels h J J I Q H G d C G j e

idG dY d
Y keJ J ,d Le eH d g (High Level Language) d EG
,C++ ,C :g qSSCG gUY .JdG H kjCG J .dBd L
q dG J
PASCAL. h ,Java

ffG
NdG OY T C j Jd qdY T (Internet) ffEG
EG .fhdEG jdG J /SQEGh k GL SGh ee f Y dGh dEG
iMEG SGH Jc RL N e j CG j dG g dEG NdG
.UJ c N e M hCG JGdG e hCG ,edG
QdG LdG
hCG d idG dY eGH d Lj CG feEH ,Jd J JhQ g
QdG LdG j (Compiler) qdG o dG Y Yh . dBG R eQ

- 479 -
dG Y kjCG WEG j . f b dG a
k e c k N (Interpreter)
. (Compiler ) d G h C G (Assembler )
dGh NdG ae
g O h zInput { N d G e g I C G M (I/O Ports ) d G h N d G a e
H d G e a d G f h d G I L C G U d H e gh zOutput { d G e
.QdG e JdG dEG UJ dG SdGh
dBG LJ
d G S H h .d B G H H e (Machine Instructions) d G g J
. L d G d E G A d G h O g J h J A G b (Compiler )
dBG d
, J d G d e S G H d H b J (Machine Language ) dBG d
.dBG eQ kjCG J
d e f
(Apple Computers) GJ d H C G c T b e e J f Mac OS g
WEG j .FGdG GJdG Hh (Macintosh) TcH UN gh
.(Windows) Rhfh Y kjCG

CG MdG
/bH IkTe H J Ic GQGO Md g (Mother Board) CG MqdG EG
ddG Y J dG g IdG MdG EG JdG a H FGhO Md
dG qLQdG adG fhdG ILC (Cache) SdG GQGdGh ,hdG
bH dEG kaVEG ,LQdGh NGdG fhdG GdG Ueh ,e d
.JdG cT b e e CG MdG e .aVEG IcGdG
dH d edG IQGdG
(LAN) qdG dG e UGdG eDJ (Network Controller IC) IQGO g
.dG JdG dEGh e IQOdGh IOQGdG fdG Jh

- 480 -
 dG edG hCG efdG
SGH IkTe d Hb ddG H J hCG (Object Program) efH g
.(Machine Code or Language) dBG d hCG dBG eQ SH kjCG J .JdG
Sync DRAM h C G S D R A M `d G
.ejO eGJ GP FGY NO IcGP gh
QdG d
j d e L H e J d g (Source Language) Q d G d E G
d P h d B G H (Object Program ) g e f H d E G L J J h . J d G
.QdG LdG M hCG dGhCG dG SGH
QdG efH
. Q d G e Q h C G H e e f H (Source Program ) g
ejO eGH a IAGb IcGP
S y n c h r o n o u s D y n a m i c R a n d o m A c c e s s)
qejO ,a IAGb IcGP g
.Sync DRAM `H kjCG Jh .Fa kYH fdG f eDJ (Memory
jd edG IQGdG
f d G J gh . T d G Y Q d G SQ e (Video IC) I Q GO g
dJ c ,LJ TdG SH GQTEG dEG dqJh jdG IcGP a H dG
. j d G I c G P j J H T d G Y S d (MPV ) d G
VIS or V.I.S.

.TdG Y j dG dG CG FdG IQdG M g

jdG IcGP
.I c G d G S e 4 MB T d G Y I Q d G VY a J
Rhfh f
a Sh e c H U N J f g (Windows System) f EG
a g G f d G d G f C G a f M C G (W i n d o w s ) R h f h E G . (M i c r o s o f t )
.dG Gg a dG fCG Y kjCG WG j .FGdG (IBM) GJc
- 481 -
 ddG dG
f H U e d G SGh (World Wide Web - WWW ) d Y T g
c N e . (Hyperlinks ) d G c H G h H J e f f E G Y e G H h
OH NBG dEG H e j CG dG j (FdG dG) JdG
.TdG Y J dG fjCG Y dG

.ffG T Y dG j fYEG fh fhdEG IQdG e EG

adGh dG edG j dH gh ,1999 Y dG G g f

.dG g M fhdH UdG

- 482 -
 Y SO d G dG

JdG Geh ILCG

LQdG fhdG adG

jdG

(Data/Fax Modems) cdG /fdG Oe eT If

(Computer Printers) jJdG HdG (Computer Monitors) JdG TT
JQG eJ JdG Md (Hard Disk Drives) dG UdG bGqS
(Full-Travel Keyboards)
(Pointing Devices) TC d G I L C G (Diskette Drives) j d G b G S
q
(Scanners) S d G e Ub TWd WMG OSG bGqS
(Magnetic Disk Cartridge Backup Drivers)
dG dG GMdG hGC IcGdG bH a IAGb IcGd ee Ub bGqS
(Memory Cards or Modules) (jOdG) (Compact- Disk Read Only Memory
(CD-ROM) Drives)
(Video Graphics cards) jdG SQ bH jdG edG UGbCGh bGqdG
(Alternative Compact Disks and Drives )
(Sound Cards) J d G b d G bQ jja UGbCGh bGqS
(Digital Disks (DVDs) and Drives )
Iqeh e jH Ub bGqS
(Mangneto- optical and phase d d
change Disk Drives)
- 483 -
 eT If
d E G J G e h C G I L C G g (Peripherals ) a d G J d G f h e E G
(Interfacing) dG dOdG HdG d SSCG IcGdGh FdG d dG
iNCG J hCG Jh IS FXH dG e JdG qJh ,Fd
e GJdG e a J ,adG fhdG e GfCG dgh .Ie
dG U dG bGq Sh ,(Diskette) j dGh ,(Hard-Disk) dG U dG
JdG jhM NGO VJh ,gZh (CD-ROM Drivers) a IAGb I cG d
, (Monitor ) T d G h C G b d G e f h d G e C G a d G e d
H H J h J d G L Q N (Mouse ) I Q C d G h , (Keyboard ) J d G M d h
H VJh .GSG dd AGdG J TCH Uh hCG ,c SGH
(Backup Devices ) O S E G I L C G h S d G h H d c L Q d G f h d G
JeGS je bGe ah JdG L Y k GH dG HdG GP
S M h c c C G f d G g (Microprocessor) h d G d d G E G . Y d G
dG YS Oj dG zdG{ HH gh dG GJdG e a
edG Jh dG f O j dG k jCG gh , e e jO Jh
.edG

LdG YO EG gDhGKEG jh ,SSCG IcGP Y jhM gh GJdG J

(Plug-In H Q I M h a H G F G h O b H Y h (Add-In Memory ) a V E G I c G H
.LQN qeo GMc JGP H J Daughter Card)

d IdGh dG GJdG a dG UdG bGqS RhJ dh

a QqdG qeo bGqS nfpboh .(90 mm) 3.5 in bGd 16 MB M dH
k GNDe fCG bh .kjS dG a 60 qoH dG ac e jd IC bbQ
M GJc hCG) (Subnotebook Computers) dG GJdG bGqS
fo C G h . 3 4 0 M B S h ( 2 5 m m ) M G h f E G b G P ( j d G d G I c d G
M G J c I L C (64 mm) 2.5 in e U C G ,(38 mm) 1.5 in H I L C G
.dG IcdG

- 484 -
fdG jhdG N N e JG d Oe dEG L dG Jh
S Q E G e W f S Q d (Conventional Dial-Up Telephone Line ) O Y G
Online Service ) f f E G e N h , J Q G h (E-mail ) f h c E G j d G S G h
q
.J AKCG JdG a cH kFJ BG edG g Jh .(or Internet
(Printers) HdG eCG .e aW Rc OdG aj iNCG M f eh
gQOe e edGh QdG e GfEGh UdG d Fb dEG Lda
JdH HJ e Rc J GJ h fc HdGh .dG Y
.UN c SGH

(Inkjet) HW dG GJ dG a k Y T H dG cCG eh
.e J Ibh YSh GfCGh fCH YdG c ajh .jQdG HdGh
jQdG HdG ODJh .fGe Yh dG j e Y QNG qjh
hM YW dEG bCG YH UdG W a cCG L dG Y e
Ic H YdG LM J a kb jObG gh ,dGh dG
e T GJc e cGTEG OGj eY S ,dG JdG a IqodG
.eodG

d G e G S G d j O b G c C G (Inkjet ) H W E a i N C G M f e
gH jQdG HdG a aJ dG ,fqdG YdG a aVEG eN aJ gh
a GSG FT fc dG ,(Dot-Matrix) f HW kdM aJh .dG
YCG GQqSG YW feEH PEG ,dG Je ah ,dG GJdG
e h , f d G F G b h , (Spread Sheets ) J G h d G h G L h , f G d G I O e
Y e G e I Q H I O e o f W f e E H d G I M d G H d G g h . j h d G
RL gh (Mouse) ShdHh ,H Hc Qh GSH hCG ,kFc eeo GQhCG
qjh c ,NBG QdG g (Trackball) zdG Ic{ CG EG ,SdG TCdG
Actions ) c d G a C G e I O e J c d C H d J Y G SG
. (Simulators ) c d G h (Films

f d G j J a Q h d G b d G G N G Y I Q d G (Scanners ) S d h

- 485 -
J dEG LdG H dg CG eh ,JdG j dG bdG ddG dEG
(Graphics ) S Q (Reproduce ) f E G I O Y E G Y I Q d G S d C G E G , (Editing )
e c (Resolution) J LQO Y Yf qJ fqe aGZJa QU SGh
.IOe e GdCG fEG IOYEG Y HdG IQb dEG aVEH HdGh SdG

. d G J e a h d G a e d H e R L a (Fax) c d G e C G
HW e FXdG IOdGh Jd fhdG adG ILCG H ODJh
SQEG YCG dEG a VE H , Y e eh SGh ,c ah ,Inkjet
.ILCG g H a kjM VCG eN NCGh ,fhdEG jd qSGh

(Disk Cartidge) UGbCG TWH IOhqe e ILCG QJ ,iNCG Mf e

J AKCG JdG dEG J BG UCG dG dG bGqdG OSE qe
.(Diskette Drives) jdG bGS Y kjJ JdG a T a Nh
q q
N d c h , c C G hC G 100 MB Oh H I c GP M M j d G g e E H h
.cCG hCG kjb 65 j e OJ fH

GSH J jJc (Hardware) GhOCGh eH jJ k d M q Jh

dCG GOaQh ,dG Yh ,JdG Mdh ,Shdc S aW ILCG
TC H J S b Q Uh SG H J d H H Q h (Game Pads)
bf e IOSd (IR Bus) qJ Uh zkjCG{ U bh .AGdG J
.(USB) d O d G H d G

JdG TT
g ,1 -16 d G a V d G , (Computer Monitor ) j J d G T d G E G
qb e NdG SdGh UdG VY feEH ,aW NOn /rNn ja RL
TT e qJ .JdG IcGP e L dG hCG f dG
I O e e h d E G j O K c H f C G K K Y (Desktop ) j d G G J d G
TFT Active ) a (TFT ) c J e B G d a j a (EMCRTs ) G d C G
(Dual Scan dG FK e FdG QqdG d e fqe TT hCG ,(Matrix
.Liquid Crystal Flat Panel Colour Display DSLCFPCD)
- 486 -
 YS
jdG ShCG IOe TT
DVD bGqS hCG CD-ROM

WMG NOG HGH

jb bGqS

dG UdG bGqS
JdG Md

IQCa

. d G J d f h d G a d G I L C G : 1 -1 6 d G
TFT jQdH qdG (Laptop) dG dG JdG TT J
(Palmtop) IdG GJdG d dh ,hOe Se LCD hCG a jJe
H f C G H J h . d G j O M C G LCD T T d G I c d G M GJ c h
.jdG qe a IOLdG J JdG TT a GdCG IOe CRTs
.TdG e dG Gg a eY GQGO 2-16 dG a VdG dG qj
SCGQ jJ
GfG GQGO
aCG jJ

aCGh SCGQ GfG

25 -kV OfCG
120 - 240 VAC
IQb e IQb e
NO e da J
dY da
J GQGOh
e

NCG jdG Md dG b CRT fCG

MCG
QRCG
.Jc Td VJ e :2 -16 dG

Colour Graphic )hCG CGA fqdG SdG je Ifd dhCG TdG qoU
. (Enhanced Graphic Adapter ) S d G EGA d G S d G j e (Adapter
Video Graphic) hCG VGA jdG SdG jH FdG g dnHoCG dh

- 487 -
Super Video ) hCG SVGA S d G j a H d G S d G j e d c h (Adapter
. (Graphics Adapter

d G G g h G j h ,VIS F d G I Q d G M S S C G Y T d G J
e .(k GS 48 dEG 35) fEG 19.0 h 13.7 H dG GJdG a
,LdG VYh ,dGh ,dG qeo QGe TdG H qJ dG UGdG
. (Multiscanning ) I O e M e A G L E G f e E H c G P E G e h

OKdG dG fCG TT
(Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor ) OKdG dG fCG TT J
,K d G j Q d G f G d C G e d M Gh (Electron Guns) f h d E G a G e K K Y
dEG NdG OKdG e bdG fhdEG J .QRCGh NCGh MCG
d G d d G d d G K C J J (Faceplate) L h M d J H J Y T
.OfCG Y

j Q S a H T d (Faceplate) L d G e e C G M d d G L d G j
. b d G f h d E G d J (Phosphor Dots)

kf jQSdG dG SJ NCG hCG MCG hCG QRCG fd S AYEH

a e g c ,(Triads) KdG hCG dG qJ f K e e eH
j O Y N H J e j Q S a e e (CRTs) T T d ) 3-16 d G
hCG) aGe KK e fhdEG NJh .NCGh ,QRCGh ,MCG :GdCG GP dOe
SY Jh I S J J Jh H ( H fCG H a MGh a e
H J d ,fCG Y M QfGh J e SGH fe e
Md dEG fhdEG YdG qJ iNCG Mf e .dG jQSdG dG
. (Perforated Thin metal Shadow Mask ) q e bQ X fe b N LGdG
hOh gZ hO dG QSdG f J H YdG H dG j
a d G g c h . (Undesirable Fringing Effects ) a Z e Z a M G K C J
V d G J a h d E G Y T E a 13 d G a a U d G (CRT) H f C G

- 488 -
f qJ gh CJoh Jo (Optoelectronic Display Technology) H - hdG
.ee Qc YJh dG e YJ d jW Id J dG QSdG
QSdG f KK

B= Q RC Gh ,R= M C Gh ,G= N C G
.CRT fCG a QSdG f IM jJ :3 -16 dG

d G J (Picture Cell I Q d G N e I P N C e d G Pixel: ) d G E G

d G f h d E G d G H d G M O j .CRT I Q U a I Q d U C G
.Ae Qa m J e cCG j b
q
YT OGJQG Y e g dG N f hCG (Raster) SG dG EG
f G) . J C G L G j M j D hQ j d G CRT T T Y f h d E G
a (NTSC) c e C G W d G f j d G j d Gh f C G d h 2 -19 d G
qoH SGdG jh .(zfjdG qSGh dG LdJ{ SdG 19 dG
Tdh .SCG dEG YCG e dH TdG Ad RdG edG hCG SCGdG dG
j O Y e I Q b (Multifrequency) GOO d G I O e hC G (Multiscan) d G I O e
.fdG e 1/100 h fdG e 1/40 H hGj e OJ qeo hCG Ie

15.75 kHz ,GCA TTh NSTC f Sb TV d aCG dG OOJ jh

q
hCG 31.5 kHs OOdG j VGA fCG ah .22 kHs dGM dGE EGA f a OOdG Jjh
.zHk 001 dGE 15.5 kHz QGH GOOJ IOdG dG TT qJ bh .cCG

. T d G Y VY j d G d G O Y g (Resolution) d G E G
d Q c 800 * 600 j VESA j d G f h d E G j H U d G Q d Gh
S Y d P e h . Q d G G g V C G J j M C G f C G h .SVGA
- 489 -
 f c d G J Q G c G g h .1280 *1024 h ,1152 * 870 h ,1024 * 768 d G
j dG YS CG QhH j Ggh .bCG H adGh cCG dG OGYCG
SGH gS dG e jdG Ea dHh .TdG Y kjCG g OGOJ CG
YC G d G L Q O E G .(Faceplate) M d G L h Y j gh f h d E G d G
.kMVh cCG IQU J

TT d ,HdG dG fjdG d Ea ,SGQ Y Y

. (Non Interlaced Scanning) H d G Z d G I e GJ d G

dG H adG gh :(Dot Pitch) H h dG hCG dG I dG EG

,(iNCG dG ce dEG f ce e adG SJ) dG He jQSdG
Q G e H h O d d G d G G P CRT T d h .3 -16 d G a e g c
T T d h . d G OGR UC G H h d G Q U c G gh .b C G hC G 0.28 mm
d G CRTs a d G E G . d G g H h d G U I d G H h d G
.MGdG dG GP dG H (ce dEG ce) adG g jOY GdCH

IQdG a OJ dG GdG O Y g (Refresh Rate) jdG q eo EG

QGe jJ qeo Y TdG J CG jh .CRT TT Y fK a eH
. H d G I Q d e K C G C G d GRE 70 Hz

IdG GOOqdG ie (Video Bandwidth) jjdG LdG f VH j

h 31 kHz H hGJ aCG GOOJ qb OdG dG TT eEHh .TdG a
.100 kHz h 55 kHz H j O Y G O O J h ,82 kHz

e jY jh Y J L e VY d E G SVGA T T J
30 MHz
.200 kHz h 180 kHz H h G j L e V Y d E G d d G d G T T

M d Y d dh ,kfd 16 Hc Y IQOb VGA bH fc

eEH p .jdG IcGdG ILCG e OY e ja bH JdG J Lj
hC G b O U a a H (Shades) d G e c O Y V d T d G J
J IQH kfd 65536 QXE jdG IcGP e 1 MB dEG LM dg .f GdCG
- 490 -
e j e d E G L d G J h .(381 mm) 15 in M T T Y 800 * 600 h J
.cCG GdCG hCG YCG J Y d IcGdG

(LCD ) jJdG FdG QqdG TT

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Computer ) jJdG (LCD) TT qJ
k Gc edG dGh d qdG GdCG IOe (LCD) M d Y (Monitors
LCD T T a J h . (Notebook) d G G J d I M h Y T c
a CRT T d S e j J gh W Sh I c k GQ U z j d G{ M C G
H Y fRh jj h bCG FHc IQb J dG jdG GJdG
bQ VY TT kjCG gh .(Flicker) FdG edG e dG Joh fhH
c keqJ ,JdG e ITe bQ GQTEG qSG feEHh JGP qH Fb
KK qJ ,dG Ad ,dh .(Notebook) dG GJdG a j
Y d E G d P i OC G b h . a d G d G GP (CRT) T T VC G H Q C G d E G
.kbS LGhQ

GJd (Stand-Alone (LCD) Monitors) NdG (LCD) TdG kdM aJ

e e gh 38 cm d E G 36 cm hC G 15 in d E G 14 in H h VIS j d G
T d G g J j h .(AMLCD) L d H TFT b d G A d G Q j f G J
dG cdG VJ .d e 16 fEG Y IQdG dh ,1024X176 dG
(Desktop e G M Y hC G (Wall Mounting Picture Frames) F M T d GQ WE G
. f M Q h j H h Stands)

Y T J b GQ TE G J (LCD) T T E a (CRT) T T Y Yh
.e jdG SdG ILCG

GQTGE J dG (VGC) jja SQ bH Y jdG GJdG qJ

Y dG TdG J (Analog) K qe GQTEG dEG bdG JdG
j d G GJ d G e a (LCD) T T J d f C G j G gh . L J h
KqdG GQTEG J Lj (Compatible) e aGe d J d dG

- 491 -
IN IQhdH Jo h ,eh ,a Ze Z IN gh ,bQ GQTEG dEG
.KqdG jdG bH Y adG a aNG H Lf

e qe Y (CRT) Td FGc VhdG (LCD) TT qJ

bdG jdG bH Jh .(Analog to Digital Converters) bdG dEG KqdG
jOdG bH a aGJdG ce dGREG Y jdG GJdG a codG
G d C G I O e (LCD) M d M e d G e j d ) . d G b J d h
dG a zfqdG jjdG (LCD) TT{ fG ,(LCD) TT a edG
. ( z j H h d G T d G L d J { ` H S d G ,13

dG UdG bGqS
g k,GQNG (Hard Drive hCG Hard-Disk Drives) q dG UdG bGqS EG
UGbCG S Y Hch bdG fdG IAGb feEH jH c N f
q
Electromagnetic) IAGdG /Hd ehc ShDhQ J QhJ e
(90 mm) 3.5 in b U U b b G S 4 -16 d G j . (Read/ Write Heads
q
bGqdG a GQGdG NCJ .jdG dG GJdG a GSd e
UGbCG e eRQ Y keGJ Jh FdG JdG IcGP e bdG fdG
dEG JOYEGh JAG H J hCG ,(Platter) aGZfa fGSG Y hCG c qdG
jjdG QdG d hCG UCd fdG e j mFYh .SSCG IcGdG
bGqS e d dG dG Jh dG Oe EG .bdG TT Y
.He (Floppy Disk dG UdG) jdG bGqSh dG UdG
e qe q e qdG e
QGhqO qe
dG QJe

3.5 in H Ub

e
HdG /IAGdG J bGqS
H dOJ HJ
ShDhQ HJ Ue
HdG/IAGdG H dOJ
3.5 in b Ub e dG UdG bGqS :4-16 dG

- 492 -
(Mass c jfK N ILCG dG a g dG UGbCG bGqS EG
e d G d G S S C G Y ,4 J i H G J d Storage Devices)
MGh Qe Y ehRe aGZfa fGSCG Y dgh .JdG IcGd
/IAGdG ShDhQ OY Sjh .YdG Hh Y bdG a L QhJ H
.(eRdG) SdG a fGSCG OYh fGSCG g Y cqdG HdG

ShDhQ CG CG ,FGY IQH UGbCG bGqS a c dEG N dG j

fdG Y hdG dG bdG dEG YH jJ j (JdG /FQdG)
UGbCd dG dG Y bdG fdG qJ .Hc hCG /JAGd HdG
dG jFGO jhGR FGTh (Tracks) dG qJ Ice M a IQGhqdG
c a kYb 36 dEG 17 Y IOY dG UdG jh .(Sectors) Yb qJ
fGSCG d YdG SJh .b d (Bytes) j H 512h e
.(Cylinders)

d Hc /IAGb SGQ Y QdG f KqDJ eY UGbCG Y edG qJ

Y SC Gd G V j , d G I A Gb i d h . J d G Y Spot H j
.SCGdG qJ mbW f dG dG e dG IdG N a dG
1 bdH dG dG e dG ddG J k GL bO edG e Ia Nh
q
d G H a d G e C G . d Gh M G d G e e (Binary) b Q hOe e
kfe H e JdG ShDhdG Jh .e H LJ eY CG
gh . a GQ h d G c e a (Degree of Freedom) j M L Q O V Y H
j CG j .IQGhqdG dG e jb ShDhdG J d kjOY kjCG Je
SCGdG Oj dG) dG dGh ,fGSd Qe Y jH jCG G Y
.dG dP b dEG aVEH ,(JdG /QdG

V J LQO dEG We Y NGO aGZfdG fG SCG Qh J

aGZfdG fGSCG eCG .HWdGh QdG e kdN dG NGO AHE dG
.I BG c d G d Gh , d G Z b d G d C G e f G SG a (Platter)
e fe S e bQ H Lh c Y fGSCG g J

- 493 -
ce Qe Y kjOY fGSCG g e IY RJh ,jJ IM NGO
/QdG SCGdG qd fGSCG c H Ua jh ,(Spindle) dG j
Y RdG dG JdG /FQdG ShDhdG VJ .H IdG cdG e JdG
a L J kSCGQ 20 dg CG CG fGSG d dGh dG LdG
S MCG Sj .Y bdG a UGbCG bGqS Y Y aGJh fG
e IFGO QRGDe J IGOCG ed J c /Q b SCGQh aG Z f a fG SG
.I O d G ShD h d (Closed-Loop Servo Control)

ShDhdG Jh bGdG Jh ,fdG aGZfdG fGSCG qJ

e dH je be e (Voice Coil Actuator) JU - e qe SGH
H ShDhdG g J M ,dH dG b dG dEGh U dG c e
Y FT CG J bh ,ke qJ CG hO fGSG S a fEGhe
ShDhdG OJ RdG Cj eY .JdG /QdG SCGdG a k Y fGSG S
.IjdG bGe dEG

FGOCG Y JdG j QJe SGH aGZfdG fGSCG e QGjo

j h H d G Q J d G C G j . b d G a I Q hO 64000 d E G 3600 e Y H Q h j h
dEG YdG jE GK IY jh ,JdG jo eY YdG
AWEG qj M HK YH gjhJ a QJdG qj M HdG YdG
e e e Ia H QJdG AWEH IQdG aJ GQGO J d e ,JdG
.da hO JdG

dOdG HdG f : g UG bCG bGq S e I T cCG Y dG EG

R d G f h d G h ,(Small Computer System Interface- SCSI) d G J d
.(Integrated Device Electronics IDE) e d G

f d G SQ E (Interfacing) d O J H J f h d E G b H d E G L d G J
SCSI H J J h . UGb C G d E G (8- bit Parallel Format) RG e H 8 H
.e d kYb 54 H IDEh

- 494 -
track per ) fEG d e 3000 dEG 300 Y 3.5 in b UGbCG bGqS J
,LdG P 3.5 in Ub a e d kYb 18h 135 tpi e fQe ,(inch tpi
/j H 512 Y (Head Styles) J d G F Q d G SC Gd G J H E G J h .a d G d Y
15h 10 MB/s H hGJ fG qeo ESDIh SCSI ed CG c .dG
. c C G h C G ,MB/s

aVEHh .dG GJd 12 GB S UGbCG bGqS fEG kdM qj

. e h M e UG e g (Access Time) N OE G b h E a , d G d E G

jdG bGqS
g (Floppy-Disk) dG UdG bGqS hCG (Diskette Drives) jdG bGqS EG
.e Sc kfe kUb hCG cqe jb J e IcGP bGqS
b GPh `LdG FK j`dG C We `J ,e Ub IQY CG dGh
c e f c (133 mm) 5.25 in b P d G U d H d SG d G (90mm) 3.5 in
Qhjh .fK N qc jdG bGqS J .e SH Z NGO
q b j h ,300 rpm Y H d G U d d G Q J d G
(Metal Hub) f e
dZ SGH dG SdG dEG k Ne JdG FQdG ShDhdG J .qdG bqO
j eY d UdG Y j (Spring Loaded Shutter) HH se
.k qe

jdG
qj CG ,5-16 dG a dG ,3.5 in dG P (Diskettes) jdG eEH
.2 HD a d G d Y (Format) H f d G e (1.44 MB Backup) j hC G (Store)
OdG KCG jJ I Oqe e (85 mm) 3.4 in dG hP U dG j
cCG e e OGH IqdG SdG (Polyethylene Terephthalate)
Y qe QJe SGH SdG aZ NGO UdG Qhqj .HdGh jdG
QJe SGH fGh ZH JdG /FQdG ShDhdG QhqJh .ddG QdG
L h e L h c j h . j d G L h OG e G Y (Stepper Motor) N

- 495 -
,79 d E G 5 e d G b J h (Track) z k e{ qJ Icqe IFGO 80 e jdG
d G d G j . SE H T j F GO (Sectors) Y b d E G J a
.1 L d G e d G d G h 0 L d G j d

j jd dG dG Y 0 dG a ShDhdG MCG j eY
(Head SC Gd G V e j h . d G d G Y 1 d G a N B G SC Gd G
J h .i N C G d G d E G I M Gh I M h f C c h SC Gd G c Positioner)
keGJ NBG SCGdG CGj 0 dG Y gMCG c GPEG H kfhdEG ShDhdG
ShDhdG J Y C dPh 1 LdG Y dh dG f Y HdH
ac Jh .dG eGJ a kbh J NBG e dEG jJ sK kFHc
.135 tpi d G M ,3- 5 in d G P j d G a f d G d G

512 Y b c jh ,SEH T kYb 18 dEG dG Jo

j h ,j H 737,280 h j d G L e L c a k e 1440 d gh ,j H
H c h I A G b a J .1.44 MB d G M C G j H 1,474,560 Y (Disk) U b c
Gd jdG Y fdG qJ .ee J IQGO Ub c Y fdG
,dH M hCG ,jdG GHEG j .Yf LGJ hCG J CG hO jW
,fdG e N jdG eEHh .jdH dSQEG hCG , N SG hCG
jqH J VGZC JdG e aQ j c ,IdG eGdGh ,SdGh
.edG

HH eo AZ

b SH Ub
[ 8 5 - m m ] 3 3/8 i n

aM Z
jM d

1.44 MB S jb :5 -16 dG

- 496 -
dG cqJh fdG S H Z LdJ kdM jdG LdJ qJ
Ud 100 MB S GP e Ub bGqS Y J NGO Ob Y
.jdG bGqd jc dPh edG jdG GJdG a MGdG

e Ub TWd WMG OSEG bGqS

(Magnetic-Disk Cartridge Backup U Ub Ob Y bGqS kdM aJ
Stand-Alone hCG zIOdG{ `H IdG dG .dqeo H Drives- MDCBD)
q
NGO bGqS fh .dG bGqd OSEG eN aJ e N S GP
bGqS GS jdG GJdG a ke BG cJ 100 MB S GP
.jRdG hCG d Ve e aQ j (Cartridges) OdG Y EG .jdG
.1.44 MB jb 60 Y jj hCG aj e N UGbCG g eEHh

e 230h ,200 ,135 ,100 H dG UdG Ob Y bGqS aJ

e cT qb e bGqdG g qJ 1.5 GB h 1 GB H dch ,jH
Y J .EIDE j e e J b f C G E G ; j d G e a G e d g h
(Play LJ ah (Editing) jdG VGZC (1.5 GB hn 1 GB) ddG dG GP Ob
HQ qj .(Mixing Audio) AdG dY dG J a dch jdG e Back)
Parallel ) j RG e H e SG H hC G SCSI SG H J d G R L d E G b G d G g
q
. (Ports

a IAGb IcGd ee Ub bGqS

(Compact-Disk Read-Only Memory CD- a IAGdG IcGd CD `dG bGqS EG
(Audio) hC G CD-ROMs UGb C G VY I O YE G Y I Q O b J d G f C G a ROM)
CDs JU ee Ub bGS e dqeo f g JdG a CD-ROM bGS
q q
.(Audio Compact Disks) J U e e U G b C G J g Q h H

(120mm) 4.72 in b H SH Ub g CD-ROM Ea JdG CDs `dG QGZ Yh

.(Microminiature Pits) jhe f g Y FGO H fdG qJ Yh
a UdG S Y Qj T Lj UdG Gg Y fdG IAGdh
- 497 -
 d G a e g c h ,(Pits) d G g O L h Y h C G O L h d A d G
U 300,000 aj Ggh fdG e 650 MB qj CG CD-ROM eEH ,6-16
.3.5 in b j b N I Q b e I e 450 h C G , H e

Y J (Multimedia Application) IOe ShCG J CD-ROM qj

CG jh .QdG FGhO YSe e fqe SQh ,jah ,(Audio) S
eGHh ,SdG GJ e ,edG J eGH d kjCG J
.gZh SdG

T SY
IQGhqO IBGe

e
FV
Sb Qe
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fdG M j dd .a IAGb IcGd Ie UGbCG g EG Mh

.eGSG IOYEG hCG e

j dh ,Jc a CD-ROM bGqS Y Audio CDs J j

JdG fdG EG CGj NCG C ,CDs `d qe jS Y CD-ROM J
jj eY CD-ROM Y eGH kdM GJdG fU aj .(Audio Data)
.( j b H Q C G O j e C G) 5 MB Y e d G M

dG eGdH qUdG dG J (Download) jJ eEH fCG e

e jdG Ea ,JdG a U Ub bGqS dEG jb HQCG OJ dGh
,HdG LdG edG e ad bGqdG a UdG AH j eGdG
a G Z J d G Q d G T Q C G h , d G d O h ,(Databases) f d G Y G b e
.SdGh

- 498 -
.fdG f qoc SJ dG YS qeo N e CD-ROMs qJo
dEG CD-ROM `dG e fdG d bGqdG J dEG J dG edG j Ggh
.150 kB/s dGM c CD-ROM bGS hCG fG qeo CG cj .JdG
q
dh .YdG g Ye SSCG Y bGqdG H YS qeo SJ Ggh
e SCG Ie 32 fCG CG ,32 X Sh 1999 Y oU IadG bGqdG SCG
.1984 Y dG dhCG bGqdG

dG GJdG H a ke cJ CD-ROM bGq S G J h

(Digital Video Disk) b Q j a Ub b G S c J f Q d G j C G e D d Gh
q q
UGbCG fG) .CD-ROMs `dGh ,Audio CDs `dG e c IAGb e qJ dG DVD hCG
.(dG Gg a S dG bdG jjdG

jdG edG UGbCGh bGqdG

Ldd IOe e dg CD-ROM ` dGh Audio CD dEG aVE H
, (CD-R ) h C G (Recordable CD ) d H d G U G b C G J e d G U d G
. (CD-WORM ) (Write-Once Read Many CD ) z G e C G b G h I e c G { I d G h
HdG /IAGd eqdG UGbCG hCG (Rewritable) Y HdG OJ dG UGbCGh
e j dG eqdG UGbCG kjCG qJ dGh (CD-RW) hCG (Read/write CD)
. (CD-E ) C G Erasable CDs Y e f d G

ddG J jH Y Pits tdG J Y H e UG bCG J

JbGqS h UGbCG g OJ CG qdG eh .(Phase-Change Process)
.ddG AGOCG GP DVDs bdG jdG UGbCG ad dPh kjJ kMf aGdG

(CD-Rs )
q odG eqdG UGbCG
IAGb e (Recordable CDs) eqdG UGbCG e dG Gg bGqS q J
e fh ,GMCG Jh J a Ie gh kjCG Jh fdG
a YdGh .gZh dG dOh LdJdc fdG YGb jRJh ,Ic
dGM dEGh 2X H hGJh CD-ROM bGqS YS Y k Gc J bGqdG g
- 499 -
fdG f qeo jh .J dM a 4X h 2X Hh fdG IAGb dM a 6X
.6X hj IAGb YS H Jh CD-R bGqS a 900 kB/s dGM DTR

HdG e qJ dh CD-ROMs e fdG IAGb e CD-R bGqS qJ

k S I` e jO NCG H e UG bCG d .CD-R UG bCG Y a
d G R E G h C G e j h .650 MB h 550 H a J g h (Pregrooved Tracks)
kYGfCG bdG GedG H j .UGbCG g Y e gJ hCG ANCG
hC G b d G a GZ J d G Q d G N a e G S d Ph CD-R UGb C I j e
.(Dgital or Digitalized Photos) b d G

Y HdG OJ dG eqdG UGbCG

CD-RWs Y HdH J CD-RW Y HdG OJ UGbC bGqS U
IAGb YSh ,X2 gQGe Hc YS MdG bGqdG aJh .kjCG HdG eh
. SCSI d c h ,6X g Q G e

g qJ .350 ms NOEG eR qeoh 5 MB/s a f qeo bCG b Jh

e Hh (Multi-Session Writing) GdG IOe Hc IQb dc bGqdG
ac qb e IAhe Z dh CD-ROMs `dG CD-RWs J .e dh
.CD-ROM bGqS

bQ jja UGbCGh bGqS

a d H U bdG jdG UGbC e GfCG S d g
EG .jdG ILCG V d NBG dG HG a dG GJdG
. I c f H S d h d G M e (CDs ) U G b C G G P g (DVD ) U G b C G
Y gqM qj dG jhdG (Pits) dG je H Y fdG qJ M
dg .(Modulated Write Laser Beam) eo Jc Qj T SGH UdG
:g dG g ac IOjd FGW K
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- 500 -
 d d T f d G d G S j d G e W j J -2
.dGh dG dG c CGj CG QdG
. X d E G k G X DVD Ub d N e L h P Ub U -3

d d G U d M d G d G d h .Y H DVD L d J Q J d
bGqS Sh .LdJ iNCGh jObG SC S IOdG YGfCH
e dG CG e ZdG Y IjdG GJdG a CD-ROM bGqS e DVD
qJ CG bjh .kdM dG a IFS GJ Jqeh CD-ROM bGqS
Y k a ,kdM IadG CDs GfCG ac J e (DVD- Players) DVD qe
S c j d G e d j W N C J b Divx j d Gh j d DVD UGb C G C G
e qJ DVD bGqS CG eh .jdG aCd FSc S (Vdieocassette)
C G E G , j j d G DVD U G b C G G f C G H h ,Audio CDs ` d G h DVD-ROMs I A G b
.jjdG DVD hCG DVD-ROM UGbCG e qCG IAGb e qJ CD-ROM bGqS
.1999 Y a 5 X dEG DVD-ROM bGqS YS U
UN Y J a GJdG a d kFe bGqdG g U
Tracks GQc J aVEHh jW aCG Vd dPh MdG V dG
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UGbCG J jJc DVD-ROM bGqS eEHh .dG VdG e 6.25 h
. CD-WRs h ,CD-Rs h ,Audio CDs h ,CD-ROM

Hh .jdG ILCG a GSd Cqe DVD e f g :jdG DVD `dG

. Y S e C G j a a N U d G G g e E H 9 GB gQ G e N

dch aCG d dG dG e e jjdG DVD UGbCG J

.Scjd SdG jdG j e dG - jdG VhYh ,TV`dG Vhd
qe dEG WHdGh IOdG DVD VQY Y CGJo CG kjCG UGbCG g eEG
Audio J e kjCG j g DVD UGbCG qe CG dEG aVEH fjJ
q
. CDs

- 501 -
.jW S aCG J e qj DVD UGbCG e NBG f a Divx eCG
Divx qe Y (Play Back) kYLSG VJ CG dG Gg e UGbCG eEHh
Y QSd q e jjdG DVD UGbCG e e GfCG dgh .k GM
. 17 GB d E G J S UGb C G d h . j d G j d G d G a C G Q GZ

,HF G U C G j d e DVD U G b C G e f g Audio-DVD U G b C G E G

fG) .Audio-CD UGbCG e kUb 25 S Oj e CG 17 GB dEG J a
.(zfhdEG dG e{ `H SdG 21 dG a zDVD qe{

j j a e e J Y Q O d G d G DVD Ub H j h DVD-R
S V NJ qUN J ILCG dEG DVD-R Ub j .Seh
c Y 3.95 GB gQ G e N S UGb C G d . a d G j J d G d G
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. Audio CDs qe dEG aVEH CD-ROM `dGh

e d G J I O YE e DVD UGb C G e N BG f gh DVD-RAM

UGbCG g Y e edG e eEHh .jdGh SdG J dG
2.6 GB d E G J N S DVD-RAM UGb C . e k H IjL fH Jh
jjdG DVD UGbCG J DVD-RAMs qe eEH .Lh e Lh c Y
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`d H e f g DVD-RW J d G /F Q d G DVD UGb C G E a ,i N C G M f e

. 3.0 GB d E G J N S d h ,DVD-RAM

N S O J N I Q b a 8 GB d G S GP L hO d G DVD UGb C G e C G
C G ,650 MB ` d j CD U b E a , f Q d H h .3.5 in H a d G d Y j b 6000
S d 7 GB S U Ub bGqS CG M a ,kjb 450 N S Oj e
.qe jb 5000 N S OJ N

- 502 -
 dd Iqeh e jH Ub bGqS
dG QW a GJ fdG J UGbCH UN J d g
kjCG J dG) (Magnetic-Optical) dG jdG dG g jdGh
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dG dG dG
dG e IQOdG bdG Jo (Magneto-Optical Recording) dG g a
d G M d E G (Curie Point) Q c f SG U d G I O e Y (Spot) H Q d G
a JQGM LQO JJ e qM CG SG JG J eEHh .200C
LQO hO IOdG OJ eYh .LQN e e N e g Qc f
qj jQ fdG J gY qa SG JG bj Qc f IQGM
...Ggh k GOe J

IQhO dG Qj e dgh .(Y j) SY J g dG g EG

J qj .dG g a e (Overwriting) edG GSG GQhO e
IAGb j e dG dG Y k GH Y SGH QdG AV SG
L M G d G g d e e . U d G Y d G (Binary Data) F d G f d G
IQdG SG e jj ,UdG bGq S a (Bias Magnet) J e dEG
.FHdG

ddG qH dG
GP S e Ub Y f Jo (Phase Change Recording) dG g a
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UGN j e e Z T dEG gOGHG Y J IOdG e H U Y
g J H .H dG jQqdG ddG e gGS Y e AdG d
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J LQO dEG IOdG (Continuous Wave CW) Iqe Le e Qj T
.QqdG gY HS dEG IQGdH dG bGdG OJ dHh .gQfG LQO e

- 503 -
ShCc eAeh IQGL ,jdGh ,dGh ,jdG e OGe KCG dh
,jdGh dG Y efGdGh ,jQqdG dM c Y FGM J
GQhO OY b dG g de e .IQGdG LQO e e ie Vh
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cdG /fdG Oe
Modulater- ) hC G e - e d Q N G g Modem O d G E G
d (Audio) S GQTEG dEG bdG fdG qJ IQGO gh ,(Demodulator
iNCG Ie dG dG GQTEG jJ dch ,JdG N Y SJ
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aW a GJdG eOdG HJh .bdG JdG GQTEG J Yh
dG a qe g ch . qSGh SQEG LGH d fdG dG
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.e aW

f CG QYHh .Ye f dEG JdG e bdG GQTEG qJo

f qJh ,(Binary Digit 1) 1 FdG JdG qJ (High Pitch Tone) ddG dG
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IOQGdG fdG H q j CG j c ,(Blocks) ee Hh k eG J
. J f N e (Outgoing) I Q O d G f d Gh (Incoming)

Added Mathematical ) dG VjdG edG OJ eOdG Ea ,dc

ee CG aQY jJdG c d (Checksum) zT{ qdG (Code
IOYEH OdG j edG aGJ d GPEGh .L H SQCG b fdG
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/ Z d G j j h .GQ TE G J d GRE G H Y (Decompressing) d G d GRE Gh
.SQEG YS e ZJdG

- 504 -
 LQN IQTEG je qe Ke IQTEG J Se NGO IQTEG
dG
IQTEG J Se je qe IQTEG
NGO J N dG LQN
MODEM 1 MODEM 2

bQ IQTEG bQ IQTEG

1 Jc 2 Jc

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(Modules) fqc hCG (Stand Alone) IOe c eEG eOdG qJo

(Plug-in) QdH UJ GQGO Md g INCGh .JdG jhM V csJo
d G U G d G h (Notebook Comp ) d G G J d G d M a d h
eJ .fhdEG bdG T eO dG NC J (Personal Communicator)
a J d G V (Factory Installed ) d G A K C G c d G N G d G e O d G
hCG (Notebook Comp) dG JdG dEG dH Oe bH dEG J
`dG bH T a IOY eOdG g NJo .(Add-On Accessory) ae c
.L d G M e a J hC G PC

GSH (Facsimile) ca qSGh SQEG IQb Y eOdG qJ

L d G e O e / c a e C G M a P E G a ,III h II Y d G e c a F e
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S d G e d G H O Y h C G ,kb/s f d G a H d H O d G Y S S J
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qJ .56 kb/s jdG JdG N a SQEd YCG SdG j M a
(Optimum) Sh qeo dEG kJeJhCG dSQEG YS jJ e eOdG e
FT YS K dgh .qdGh SdG OdG e c qb e qe

- 505 -
 e M C G P d G e E H C G E G ,33.6 kb/s h ,28.8 kb/s h 14.4 kb/s g O d
SJh 56 kb/s qJ CG dG GJdG a GSd IqdG eOdG
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jJdG HdG
Y QdGh hdG SQh ,HdG AGLEGh ,fdG Yd Fe g
SQh ,(Word Processing) dG de a Qh V e gh .Q dG
.JdG gj dG edH qUdG dG e jdG dEG aVEH ,hGdG
a Y j (Computer Printers ) j J d G H d G E a d P Y k a
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Near Letter ) d G hM Y f e J b GQ Y f GP W F Sh Q W
c T b e d G (Selectric IBM) H d j R G e (NLQ ) h C G (Press Quality
HdG e dG g CG EG .Jc aW Rc IqdGh (Daisy Wheel)
QW iNCG Mf e .FGOCG AHh dG M dEG aVEH dG gH c
h O f c d G Y f M f e d h j d G Y d (Dot-Matrix ) H W
(Draft Quality) dhCG YW aJ Y JQ b e Z dG Y NLQ i e
HdG Qh GSH IMGh aO dG e OHh ,SdG Z Jd
g eEH ,dP Y k a .kFc ee f QhCG ,dG H dG
IQdG d CG c .gZh ,eh ,SQh ,dhCG N YW HdG
,IMGh aO IOe f YW H d J GJ h ,fqdG YdG Y
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bGe a FT e bd fc a (Thermal Printers) jQGdG HdG eqCG

J dh ,jdG fdG HdG U Yj dG Jdc FOg
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HW KCG iNCG Mf e .edG OJ e J dG fch ,H jQGdG
qJ IOe GQNG aJ a S Ye IQb ,jQdG HdGh ,(Inkjet)
dG GP QdG HW aJ .JdG a j Yh dG M

- 506 -
 TCG LM J dG J dEG aVEH dG eGSd SdG
dG H aJ f qdG jQdG HdG dh . a dG J dGh
.jQdG YdG FShh cdG qb e iJ dh dG eGSd
fCH Inkjet HW KCG ddG QSCH (YdG) fqdG YdG e ah
kah YS M e HdG qU dh .dG /AGOCG M e LQCG
a c hCG ,(character per second cps) fdG a hM e J e qod
, (page per minuter ppm ) b d G a U h C G , (word per minute wpm ) b d G
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kbDe qJ (Buffer Memories) IOU IcGP Y fhdEG HdG J

.We hO Y AGOCG a JdG qj d YW OGdG fdG H
fhdEG HdG Jh .fdG e 64 kB Hd LPdG IcGdG qJh
.YdG Y S qbGd (Microcontrollers) jhe Ge Y kjCG

Inkjet H W
a J (Nonimpact ) O U Z K C J G P (Inkjet Printers ) H W E G
d e e N M Gb f jH J dG dG GJdG
.OdG QdG Y SQh hM d dPh FdG dG

j (Cartidge ) I e e k G A L I O Y (Printheads ) H d G S h D h d G J h
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d G J d G b d G (Nozzles ) a d G e O Y Y H d G S C G d G j
dG jN j eYh .IU f H QdG Y dG e dG
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Y Oa H HdG SCGdG V FGOCG Y dG adG Jh

Y Id SSCG jW dgh .fEG SCGQ IT b e UCG a
- 507 -
 fh dEG dG j W : g bQ dG S Y dG G b f
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b hCG ,aCG hCG ,OY H HdG ShDhdG a adG Vh JJ j

c G J a d G V h h C G d G j W Y d G H h . (Zigzag ) e H h C G
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IQe YW N e k GJ dG cCG J j fqdG HdG ah

H W a h . d G a Q M C d M d G G d C G e a d (Overprinting )
a f c e d H j (Resistor ) h e , Y H , j , j Q G d G (Inkjet )
jd adG a dG IQGdG J .JdG IS J ,FHc QJ SGH
.dG ge c QdG S Y gJh dG Gb aJ QH Ya
edG Inkjet HW a .IjL Ya J CG qb k b Oj CG dG Yh
kfhdG ZdG OGdG qJ (Piezoelectric Inkjet Printers) fhdEG dH
aGO Oqa kjJc Y k Ge FHc f adG e qSJ Y J dG
qj .dG a jZ c QdG S Y gjEG ITfh adG e M Ib
e kJeJhCG dG S qjh .YdG Y N adG e jJ a dG
g J .dG hCG AMG e d ke dG AfG Y dG dEG adG
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Ob H eEG hCG dG Ohqj .HQCG hCG GdCG KH eEG (Inkjet) HW aJ

G g e E H h . U C G h , M C G h , Q R C G g G d C G K H h C G O S C G H (Cartidge )
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:g GdCG HQCG Y a fqdG (Inkjet) HW e fdG dG eCG

H hCG a OSCH YdG feEHh .OSCGh ,UCGh ,MCGh QRCG
Y d J G d C G S Y i N C G (Inkjet ) H W J . i N C G G d C G e

- 508 -
W 600 dpi H HdG g J .dY fd bqO GP fqe aGZJa QU
dpi f d S GP H W a J h , d Gh O SC G f d G d 600 dpi a VY
d E G Y d G J G d C H h ,10 ppm d E G 5 O S C H Y d G Y S J 1440 720 dpi
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jQdG HdG
dG Yd dG GJdG a J ZV Z HW g
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b G f C G a LED e hC G) U d G f Q d G Y Q O d G F d G d G
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QdG M SG qj .8-16 dG a jQdG YdG Oe VJ j

g h , J b Q G Q T E G H (LED h C G ) W G d G I Q d G P U d G f
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LJ FV f dEG GQTEG jJ mFH qj .(QU hCG hM Hh)
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q
(Charged Ad Ue IQGhqO fGSC e S Y fGSCG SY N
dG GJo fGSCH AdG j eY .Rotating Photoconductor Drum)
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bdG bQdG S dEG J (Iqe) JShdEG T N Y dGh
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8 ppmh 12 ppm qodG CG EG 24 ppm dEG J qoH jQdG HdG
600 600 dpi dG CG GE 1200 1200 dpi dGE dG LQO Jh .f cCG GJ

- 509 -
 . H d G g a F T 2 MB I Q b H d G I c G d Gh . f c C G g
fh a J

bQh S de
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fJ f

fGSG SY J ITa
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d G f C G e I O Y a G e H d G gh . U 350 h 100 H Gh J
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JQG eJ JdG Md
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gDdG Jd dhCG NdG RL gh ,dG bDe fhdEG Je ae
GJdG a .JdH eGhCG hCG J hCG ReQ hCG bQ hCG f NOEH

- 510 -
JdH Je JQG eJ e Md H JdG Md J dG
JdG a SdG JdG Mdh .AGdG J TCG Uh hCG , H
(Keycaps ) Z C G G h P (Keyswitch ) f h d G J e 104 d G d G
,ReQh ,(Punctuations Marks) bJ eYh ,bQCGh ,hM Y qeo He
.jJc dah

h JdG dEG fhdEG IQTEd dG qjo e CG Y dG Y

Y j eY M QGqSH JdG dEG SJo GQTEG C dPh gdj
e SC G Y J J d G j h M V (Grid) T d a , d G
.JdG g e OY hCG U d

NGdG IYdG Y cqe H fe FSh Y IQY JdG e EG

j d SM AH aj We hCG SH Hf dgh ,JdG Md
Z UCG d JdG ehe EG .FHdG YdG ce a OLdG dP
.IQTEG SJh edG qJ M dG AZ fG IOjH OGOJh ,V
be dEG AdG LQEG Y SH hCG fe Hf j dG J Yh
H hGJ ae JQG eJ JdG Md a AdG V Lj .UCG
. F H d G I d G d d J I Q TE G d (4 mm d E G 3 mm ) 0.15 in d E G 0.12 in

fdG HdG e kFe (QWERTY) J dG M d Q W d

e dG dG Y dhCG dG hdG J e e g dGh)
f C G e Zd G Y (QWERTY) d G GJ d G e J C G H (M d G
q
CG dG ADg QJ bh .dG qb e g c dqd dPh Heh AbN
IOYEG J PEG bd eh e S eAe cCG H dGSG Y
J dh kje j d dG Gg dh .bPdG HdG c qb e Y QdG
Md SCG V YadG hdG H Y d MdG g j J
NCG dG CG EG d IP dG e dG H d ch d dG J dG
.j J hO g c H (QWERTY)

American ) ceCG SdG Id kah bQ IT JdG Md dJ

- 511 -
Je Md eEHh .(Standard Code for Information Interchange - ASCII
dG ReQ dEG aVEH ,k GeQ hCG ,kaM hCG ,kbQ 128 dJ jdG JdG
d he e MdG a ajh .YdG LhOe JdG GP qUdG
J EG .dG JdG dEG dG d fdG Jh JdG IT
J (jJ qb) dG NGO gh JdG Md NGdG dOdG HdG
.(Interchanged) d O e J C G M d G d

TCdG ILCG
(Pointing TCdG RL (Mouse) IQCdG hCG Sh dG g I LCG g TCGh
d G hC G d G I c J I T b C G P f d gh . GQ S G j S Device)
bodGh ,(Touchpad) IOadG eh ,(Pointing Stick) TCdG Yh ,(Trackball)
. . . g Z h (Touch Screen) T d G e h (Light Pen) A d G b h ,(Digitizer)

IQCdG
FGO U RL Y IQY ,9-16 dG a qe g c ,(Mouse) IQCdG EG
TT Y (Cursor) (kS hCG) de cM ke JG CG a cdG feEH
Y ZV KCd HSG J IU fe Ic Y IQCdG J .be
Y d b d G h a C G c M a I d G J .y d b d G h x a C G j d G
Slotted ) R e H e H j h ,90 j h G H G Y j a C G Shafts j Q e
d G d G e C d j Q d G e G Q h J Y T Y . (Optical Encoder
LED e Q O d G , F d G d G e d G Y (Blades ) T G a J . H
a (Chops) q J e ,(Phototransistor) qFV jQjfGJ Y d
. yh x edG cM Qe Y KDJ

.IQCdG :9 -16 dG

- 512 -
S dEG Y bdG dG AdG fCG FdG GQjfGdG j
dG LdG H edG Y e Y c dEG LJ eGdG Z dG e
TdG Y cc g dG S H ddG a dG Ljh .H
1 H gOY hGj dG) QGQRCG Jh .QdG dEGh dG dEG hCG ,dbTh aCG
q
jh ,IQGdG J Y dG Y IU fhdEG Je IQCdG Y (3h
.eCc JdG

jQjfGdG e JBG dG cM NGO ee IQGO qJ mFY

(Data f H a j d a Q GQ RC G e d G I Q TE G d E G a VE H F d G
mFH cdG f J .dd JdG dEG dG dG Y Sj Stream)
IQCdG cMh SJ TdG Y dd VGe dEG JdG qb e LJh
S H hCG Fe OY c VdG TT Y ddG J .dhdG Y
.e jeCc JdG hCG IMGdG IdG LJh .IQCdG cd HSG j
d d G J Y F d G U Y e e Y Q N H (Clicking) d G j
.(Repositioning) VdG IOYEG hCG dG Vd JAVEH M hCG Y keqJ

.IR U h S G H e G h C G S Q E H a (Cordless Mouse) c H I Q C d G e C G

dG Ic
dG Ic J .TdG Y ddG Vd j jH TCJ RL g
Y J S e I Q C a d G a gh I Q C d G Y C G e f Y (Trackball)
SGH dG IdG QGJ .SCG a fdG IdG H jhdG YCG a U Ic
Me dG Ic NCJ .kHK AdG j a HUCG GWCG hCG dG HEG
dG dhdG Lh e He b dGM dEG LdG a IQdG NCJ e bCG
M H hGJ je Mh TCH dG Ic aJ .IQCdG cd dG
I c M g k GQ f G d G c C Gh , j d G I c M h (Marble) N d G H
j e hCG bdG qb e IOY Gg TCdG RL GSG j .IdG
qa (H IOhe Z) IM S Ic QdG Gg a aJ .IQCdG e edG
.IR U h S G H a d G

- 513 -
 dG Y
10 -16 dG a J c gh .fhcEG dCG d TCJ RL g
j H d G e U .GF d G a (Joystick) d G Y c d e
c J a UC H c M Y j (Trigger) G H OhRh d G M GQ S J
dG Y cqJo .HG cM KCd dG e fGL Y IdG QGQRCG
Y Jh .IdG S Y J d e RGe H Y Y
.IS hCG J QGQRCG kfMCGh Je fK dEG HQCGh ,Ge Y dG dG

.dG Y :10 -16 dG

TCdG qY
(Lever ) G Q P Y J j J d G d d G c M Y I S I L C G g h
dG Ojh TdG Y ddG UCG cM LJ .UEG H QGJ IU
Pointing ) TC d G Y C G H h . d d G H SG Y S GQ d G Y d G
q
IcdG GJc a J a c M a M e J (Sticks
qdG g CG UdGh GQ NG XCG dh .(Notebook) dG
IQCdG aJ dG bdG Y kSb ddG jd bdG e jdG J
.IQCdG H qJ dG fhdG dEG gQaG dEG aVEH

IOadG e
cM J e IU IOaQ H JdG dH J RL g
d G h d G j h . d d c M d E G (Stylus ) e b Y I b d G U E G
jS LdJ Y GOadG eGd e qSDjh .TdG Y ddG cM

- 514 -
 d G j J d G d G hC G UE G c M J PE G (Capacitive Technology)
ddG dG gJG a ddG Sb Jh IOadG Lh Y FHdG
UEG C S j d EGh M eGd GOadG Jh .jdG fe a
e aj ,IQCd jch .IOadG e HGbG OH FHdG dG j b
J d G e J .I d G d G GJ d G a d G (Touch pad) I O a d G
hC G Ports ps/2 N G d G a G d I O Y G TD d G g J h . Y a I O a d H d G
. (Serial ) d G

FdG bCG
hCG d d Y JdG TT e ITe YJ FVhdEG TCJ ILCG g
e Y dG KCJ f dG jg dh .dG Y e J N e
aW a FV qe ,FHc c SGH JdH HdG ,dh .IQCdG
d G O j , T d G (CRT ) h d G j a h T d G Y I U f Y c j
I Q T E G N e j h I Q d G F d G a d G a I O j d G (Light Pen ) F d G
.JdG dEG SdG FHdG

a TdG Y IQdG FdG dG be LJ Y e H J

jJ feEHh GSG S FdG dG EG .dG W be KGMEG
TdG e dG jJ Lh de e .JdG TT Y IOe dG
jDhQ j b H SdG dGh dG CG Y
k a dG jo e j W I d
.TdG e Y M dG AGLCG hCG AdG jd j j e dG

TdG e
U E G d J J d G T T H H O h R (Feature ) I e g
jJ N e g UEG W j .IQTEG RL fCch j CG Td edG
Touche ) T d G S M d G (Ultrasonic Field) J d G d G W e hC G
dEG FHc GQTEG dG SQEG W dG hCG j dG G g j .(Screen
dEG yh x `d IOqdG ddG GQTEG LJ Y eH a J dG

- 515 -
g YJ .TdG Y IOdG dG a UEG W be qTDJ KGMEG
e WH JfH Nj CG Y JdG e dG dG LddG
a Se jdG gh .TdG Y IgdG FdG a dG HdG d N
,MdG GOdGh OdG GQNG ah ,kS IdG jJdG VhdG J
,d HSGh MdG jQdGh YSG He a hCG ,FdH dG ah
.HfG hCG LdG e a J b fCG c

bdG
hCG c hCG QU NOE b e NGJ dG eh e UGbCG g
J UdG S b j ea .JdG IcGP dEG kjhj We ReQ
d c (Digitizers) b d G j h , T d G Y S d G b d G a d d G
jdG dG (1 :g bdG d J K dgh .O L dG dhCG
ehdEG dG (3h ,(Resistive) ehdG dG (2h ,(Capacitive)
S Y FHdG dG dG j dhCG dG a .(Electromagnetic)
.FHc Ue W eJ dG V j ehdG J ah .UdG
S Y ehdG dG p jo ehdG dG a dh
e c ah .UdG S a cM id dG IQGO a (Resonance) kfQ UdG
dG cM S e GVG hCG fG d AkHG UdG S j dG g
NOEG bdG eEH .TdG S Y dd cM dEG dP LJh
TCG dEG aVEH Jd bdG IcGdG dEG ITe IQH dG H HdG
dG cS H JdG NGO SdG eH Jh .SdGh dGh
c (IR d H I Q G d G ) d G Z h d G b d G Y f E G . d G H h
.GaGe

SdG
, Q d G (Scan ) e X h J d h e a W R L (Scanners) S d G E G
SdG aj dH .JdG NOEd bQ K kjH FKdGh UdGh
e JLe CG dEG aVEH FKdG g W IOYEG a hdG dGh bdG

- 516 -
ShDhQ kL Sd .dG dY J GP SdGh aGZJdG QdG
(Charged-Coupled Device- CCD) T b RL J (Scanning Heads) Se
J . b Q G e c d E G a VE H (Camcorder) f f E G G e H T G e c h
KdG e dG AGVCG SCGdG j .IAVEd k GQe kjCG SdG H
FH GQTEG g qJ .fqe hCG jOeQ c gOj K kjHhdG UCG
JdG dEG dSQEG qb (dpi) fG a dG OY e Se bQ GQTEG dEG
.dG UdG bGqS a qJ d

bJ CG GdCG H qJ fd Te Y fqdG SdG H j

SdG e NBG dG jh .jS fBG ImQH iNCG GdCG bJ a
d E G A d G d d Ph (Beam Splitters) z d G S b { I d G TG d G
.e GdCG

J K SdG hCG UCG KdG N NGdG gAGVCG SdG H J

.dN QdG AdG c

QdH dG SdGh ,(Flatbed) dG dG S dG e c EG

S d G h ,(Photo Scanner) F d G S d G e C G . F X d G O e S e (Sheet-Fed)
d G S d G j . e J M h a (Hand-Held) d H d G
S Y H e gh UC G K d G Y j d G CCD ShD hQ j H d G
CCD Q b SC GQ Y F K d G , F d Gh , d G S d G J a , T
.(Drive Roller) d e G H O h e H

a aGZJdG QdG d e IU Fe g FdG SdG EG

Y e KdG a kjhj SdG QqJ CG dEG ddG SdG J
.MdG

a SCSI HGdG Ne a c SGH JdG dEG SdG H HJ

.j RG e (Ports) H G H i N C G G f C J

J IAH dG (High-End Scanners) IQdG SdG H J

- 517 -
 d G e a O Y G d G d G d h ,9600 9600 dpi d E G J
30 - bit IQH kYe kfd SdG e hCG dG ajo .600 dpi h 300 H hGj
OedG dG e 8- bith 24- bit IT CG iNCG Mf e .10 -bit IQH kjOeQ kfdh
.dG e a kac J

hCG dG j :edG e cCG hCG Yf eh IOY SdG J

gh .e H QdG e jJ Y fdG dG j a ,dG H
H QdG j qH qUdG edG J .UdH q j dK f
J h ,(Brightness) Y S L Q O d d P h F d G d G Y H Q d G
kjH UdG GQSH qUdG edG eCG .TGM jd hCG (Contrast)
d E G j J h I T e d G H a (Optical Character Recognition OCR )
.(Word-Processing File) d G d d e

(jOdG) dG dG GMdG hCG IcGdG bH

,Ue f ee IQGO IcGP ILCG S dEG HQCG e e Y IQY g
bdG g NOEG j .11-16 dG a qe g c ,IQGO bH a ce
a (Motherboard) C G M d G d E G H Q Uh a (Memory Cards or Modules)
Jh ,qUN HQ aM bd .(Main Memory) FdG IcGdG qJE ,JdG
jOe IcGP j IMGh L a dJG Yh .(Plug) qc MdG aM
g J e Yh .(Single-In-Line Memory Module - SIMM) q N IO e
j O e b d G J b d G L Y (Contacts) H H H e j O d G
.DIMM h C G (Dual-In-Line Memory Module) L h O e q N IcGP
DIP Packaged 8 IcGP GQGO
ee ee

GQGdG bH
k GQe 72 GP eGd
.SIMM N OMCG jOe :11 -16 dG
- 518 -
 :g jOc IedG IcGdG e GfCG KK dgh
.(Flash Module) T d G -1
.(Dynamic Random Access) (DRAM ) N d G F G Y e j d G -2
. (Static Random Access) (SRAM ) N d G F G Y I d G -3
CG EG ,FH c IQ b Q e dEG SRAMh DRAM djOe e c j
.jQdH kjCG J j SRAM jOdG

aVEG IcGP jOeh EG .bW dEG J a T a I cG dG b H eCG

(Notebook) M d G a O GJ c a e d G (Add-In Memory Module )
a J g h .III h ,II h ,I f a H (PCMCIA) U e g d G
Personal Digital Assistants ) d G b d G G f d G a h , b d G G e d G
.(Cellular Telephones) jdG JGdGh (Pagers) dBG AGdG ILCG ah ,( PDSs

jdG SQ bH
FHc qb GQGO g (Video Graphics Cards) jdG SQ bH gh
Y fH H VYh hdG ddG e dG N LJ Xh
e f d G j J b d G Y ,CRT f e T d G f c G P E a . J d G T T
IcGP bdG qJ .KqJ RL g CRT C KqdG dEG bdG ddG
S SC G J d G I c GP e d (Onboard Dedicated Memory) S e d e
bH eEHh .IdG SdG Vd eRdG jQhdG HdG AGLE dPh
Vd dPh TdG Y e hM fEG (Text Mode) q f H J
.q dG FSdG

e c j ,JdG J f IS J bdG J eY dh
.dG SGH SdGh dG

jd) TdG Y S dG dG M jjdG SdG bH OJ

dG zjJdG TdG{ fG ,jJ jWh dG M edG e
.dG Gg a d qb
- 519 -
,1024 * 768 h ,800 * 600 h ,640 * 480 g T d G d S d G J d G E G
.1600 * 1200 d c h ,1280 * 1024 h ,1280 * 960 h

j d G d G O Y TD J f C (Resolution) d H b Q C G g Y J
bqO cCG J (Addressability) dG fY dh .Ie c TdG a Y
.Ie c a gqj CG j dG dG OJ fC

8- bit f d G b d a .24 ,16 ,8 g h : d H j j d G S d G b H J

e 16.7 OhJ 24- bit fdGh ,kfd 32,768 OhJ 16- bit fdGh ,kfd 256 OhJ
220 d G M J 24 bit VGA color h 1280 * 1024 J i e GP T d a . d
.(Ohe Z bdG iNCG IQHh) d jJ

Memory Buffer for Video) jjdG SdG bd IOdG IcGdG J

Y j j d G S d G b H e j .(Megabytes) j H d H (Graphics
SGH IQOdG IcGdG e jjdG fdG CGJoh .2 MB OhH jja IcGP
J .KqJ GQTEG dEG jd DAC KqdG dEG bdG ddG e de
g J .Yh dG QXEG J GQGO 3-D OHCG KK qUdG bdG
jjdG jdG hCG (Graphic Controllers) eSdG GdH kjCG bdG
.bQ jja SQ bH kjCG dg .(Video Adapters)

JdG bdG
J ICs Y J (Plug-In Circuit Boards) q b IQGO M d g
bdG e Yf dg .d HJ U Ge N GUCG fEH Jd
,(FM Synthesis) dG FM dG OOdG bH :(Sound Card) JdG
b H f C G .(FM Wavetable Synthesis) e j e L e ,FM b H h
OOJ J N e UCG JU GKCJh Se AYE k hC G (FM Synthesis)
.SdG BG GUCG dch e JU QOe Icd KqJ GUCG
IQOb IcGP d mFH (FM Wavetable Synthesis) bH QW dG Yh
Y bdG J .J gh dG SdG Bd bQ Pf N Y

- 520 -
g qJ dHh .e zJf{ fE PdG a (Pitch) dG IqM J
bH J dG GUCG e bGh cCG SdG Bd kJGUCG bdG
BG GUCG d DSP bQ GQTEG de kjCG j .(FM Synthesis)
Y (Wavetable) bH a eqdG dG IcGdG Jh dG SdG
Musical Instrument Digital Interface ) , e d G I Y H e C G j h . a Y I O YE G
q
.(MIDI

- 521 -
- 522 -
 Y H d G dG

f h d E G q d G
bdG qeh

jdG

(Speakers) (dG Ge) GQdG eT If

(Head Phones) PCG YqS (Thermal Sensors) jQGdG q dG
(Microphones) fahdG (Mechanical Sensors) fdG q dG
QdG GQhO hGC jhGR d jdG GqedG (Gas Sensors) jRdG q dG
(Shaft Angle Optical Encoders) cdG
dG JdG LdG LCG dG dG e
(Surface Acoustic wave (SAW) Devices) (Magnetic Field sensors)
(Radiant sensors) TEG q e

eT If
LH dOe GqJ (Transducer) bW qeh ,(Sensor) e c EG
h C G F j d G G d G (Conversion ) j H J I L C G d E G J g c h , Y

- 523 -
c dEG ,kfMCG ,FHdG GQTEG jJ ,hCG .FHc GQTEG dEG FdG
CG (Instrumentation) BG e a q e ij iNCG Mf e .Fja
S Y gGJh .FjdG dG jJ Oe e dT cCG e c
ah .VjdG bdG dG a jdG Mh FdG cGdG jJ dEG dG
G d G J Y I Q d G d R L d z q d G { c S d d G a
,dGh ,IQGdGh ,TCGh ,OOdc FdGh FjdG GdG H c a
Proportional Electrical) SJ FHc eo H HSG Jh ,MdGh
jJ Y QOb RL CG fCH qa bdG qe j ,dG Yh .(Output
.NBG dEG T e bdG

d h . e J h C G , e J J h C G , e e S Q E G Y Q O b q d G E G
a dSG N e hCG ,ddG H TdG dG feEG LdG
( I n t e r f a c e ) H L G c q d G j b h . S b h j J H G e S b
,ziJ{ CG fhdEG GQGd j e FjdG dGh fh dEG H
a jQhV q da dP Yh .zJ{h ,zhJ{h ,zJ{h ,zJ{h
.SdG fCGh ,dGh IdG Fe ah GQhdG e OY

N ah ,JdG Ge ah ,ddG GhOCG a q dG LGJ

BGh ,cdG GhOCG a dch ,AGdh ,Fd LfEG GQhdG
Ge a q dG Y jh .keY cdGh G F dGh NG dG a
dGh dG ILCG e jYh ,JHhdGh ,G J dGh , JG
ie dEG eGSG eGh JJh q dG Y dG jGJ dh .IQdG
.jdG WdG e SGh

dG FjdGh FdG GdG S SCG Y q dG J

:g FQ M S dEG GdG g b bh .d
. Q G d G f G h , I Q G d G h , I Q G d G L Q O : (Thermal ) j Q G d G -1
. b d G h , d G h , Y d G h , d G h , I d G : (Mechanical ) f d G -2
. c d G h , c d G : (Chemical ) F d G -3

- 524 -
 . a d G a c h , d G I T : (Magnetic ) d G -4
LdG dGh , eh dG L dG I T :(Radiant) Y TEG-5
.(QdG) ddGh ,SGh
. d G h , Q d G h , d d G : (Electrical ) F H d G -6
,dG Sb a edG J g Ic H Jo dG q dG EG
ddG M GQdG YU Jh .IQGdG LQOh ,YdGh ,dGh ,bdGh
.IOdG g e cCG e

a :FHdG IQdG dEG LM SSCG Y kjCG q dG J

Z hCG JGdG ddG H FHc IQb dEG LdG O J dG q dG
Thermocouple ) Q G d G d G e d e h , (Self-Generating or Passive ) d d G
bdH gjhJ Y EG J dG q dG J iNCG Mf eh .(Sensor
GOjGdG deh ,(Modulating or Active Sensors) ddG hCG dG q dH
dG G g ah .(Photoresistors) jdG eh dGh (Photodiodes) jdG
e a dG q dGh bdG qe e e GfCG KK bS
SGh SQEG M) iNCG a a kjCG d VS dGh fhdEG
.(jOGdG

GqedGh (Loud Speakers) dG Gqeh fah dG J EG

C .kjH hCG bdG jT j b bW qe hCG e dEG ,(Encoders)
,FHc GQTEG dEG JdG GOOdG qJ fe e fahdG
qJ a JU GOOJ dEG FHdG GQ TEG q J dG G q eh
.HM Sb hCG GQhO hCG ae dEG edG AdG GQTEG GqedG

j Q G d G q d G
Q G d G d G q e
(Thermal Sensor ) I Q G M e g (Thermocouple ) Q G d G d G e E G
e{ jd aW e pdo He Z S Ue Y j

- 525 -
 d G H d a d J d G G g J a . (Sensing Junction ) z J
H IQGdG LQO a dG Y IddG ddG c Jh .dG jfh
I Q G M L Q O S b a q d G G g j . d G d G J O e h d G
IOY Jh .dG bdG Sb a hCG TdG dG N e QGM Qe
e S g h ) (Constantan ) f d G h (Chromal ) e h d G S C G G h R C G
.QGdG dG e J a (dGh SdG

S kaW j .Y QGM b e Sb IQGd ke 1-17 dG j

d E G I e S C G U J h . ( L e I Q G M ) H K h e I Q G M L Q H q d G
LdG dG a (Recorder) e hCG (Data Transmitter)fH Se
OGeG Y IQGdG LQOh kjOW SJ dG jQGdG dG da SJh .OQdG
bQ b dEG SdG dG qJ .dG hCG SdG dEG dG dG GWCG
Data Acquisition System ) fH qJ f dEG SJ hCG kbe VJ d
. (DAS

ehc jJ S

e Se
Uh Le hCG fH
J e

ffc
jJ S

.Je e jQGM b IQGO :1 -17 dG

IQGdG LQO - ehdG TGc

Resistance-Temperature Detectors - ) IQG dG LQO - eh dG T c EG
L Q O J Q G e e h e O G O J S T a I O Y j , U U e g (TRDs
Positive Temperature) eh d L dG IQG dG LQO e e) IQG dG
Coefficient (PTC) of Resistivity)

- 526 -
hdG OGeG Y ddG a J H ITe ehdG a dG J j
Output of) ehe Ib eo e hCG , (Current-Driven Resistor) QdH dG
Q G d G g G d J d G e (RTDs ) e F d G G f C G J . (Resistor-Bridge
.jdG - dG Sh ,SdGh ,dG e qJo c ,(850C - 200C) SGdG
F j H a e h C G I e G M c h e M h T C H (RTDs ) J h
.WdG hCG dG eGSG Sh

QdG J U
QGM e gh (Bolometer) eddH (Barreters) epdG g Jh
LQO a IOjdG e ehe OGOJ fe jT hCG aQ he S e e
fCG a IQdG eo Sd GeddG J .(Sq dG PTC) IQGdG
.jGhhdG

(QedG) QGdG hdG

Thermally Sensitive IQGd Sq dG hdG hCG) (Thermistor) QedG EG
a GdG j he g ,2-17 dG dG a qdG g ch (Resistor
Axial-Leaded Bead ) U Ud G d G P Q d G Q e d Gh .I Q G d G L Q O
e e Q e d G a d G U d G E G . L d G a X d G (Thermistor
.gZh ,Y hCG ,M g Y eh fe ScCG e e N
,SdGh ,HdGh ,dGh ,dG ScCG g e dG S cCGh
e H IQGdG LQO JQH ScCG g ehe J .fdGh ,jdGh
.dS J a NTCs ehd jQGdG edG CG CG ,qSCG

dch ,IQGdG LQO a dGh IdG GQGO a GQedG J

eEH .FGdGh dG IQGM LQO jJ feEHh ,SdG GQGO a
dPh V QGM ie Yh ehdG a Ic GJ Sb kjCG GQedG
Jo .IQGdG LQO UGN e NdG ehdG bH UdG JUGd
qdG Th Mh ,IQdG e QNG e kSGh ie MdG GQSedG

- 527 -
QG dG e dG H Kh (Resistance Tolerance) ehdG t J dEG a VE H
h C G 100 H Q e d G e h e h G J 25C L Q O a h . (Thermal Time Constant )
d E G -100 i e V H d G j d G S d G C G h d Gh . hC G e 10
.450C

LLR Y

QedG GRN

Uh SCG
W

.QedG a e :2 -17 dG

0.3 Y J d G Q b C G G P L d G a X d G Q e d G (Beads ) G R N J
d C G a M Gh Y j j e R a H S G j h , K f e S Y mm
CG Y hCG bY hCG UGbCG H ddG GQedG eEHh .fdG e
Positive Temperature ) H j E G j Q GM e e d h , d Y F H c I Q b O J
. (Coefficients

U d G f j Q G d G q d G
e jQGdG q dG (Semiconductor Temperature Sensors) g Jo b
,(Bulk Resistor) L ehc IOY qJo h .dc Ue f OGe
g HCGh .(Monolithic ICs) dG jOMCG e e GQGO hCG ,GO jGO hCG
LQd GAGb aJ dG LdG jQGdG edG GP dG ehdG
10 H h G J (Resistive Value ) e h e b h ,200C h 65C H h G J I Q G d G
. (Bridge Circuits ) I d G G Q G O a e h d G g J h . h C G c 10 h h C G
q Jo eY 150Ch -40C H IQGdG LQO GQjfGdGh GOjGdG J
fCG q e Hh .Ib IQGO a kHe kLhR qJo eY hCG ,(Calibrated)

- 528 -
e a qeoh IYb aW e GOjGc WHe GQjfGJ g UdG
EG .jdG adGh IYdG OGeG Y IQGdG LQO Sb J H IFGO
e ee aW JQGO g IQGdG LQO Sb Y IQOdG QdG QOe
.150C M h -55C H I Q G d G L Q O d

f d G q d G
,IdG j J e (Mechanical Sensors) q dG g e jdG j
.FHc GQTEG dEG ,cdG hCG bdGh ,dGh ,gJG YdGh ,dGh
,dG hCG IdG Sd (Strain Gages) OLEG GOGqY e e J gh
VhdG ILCGh ,IdG Sd (Strain Gage Bridges) OLEG OGqY Wbh
. d G h d G h I d G S d (Piezoelectric Devices )

jdG dG e
a e g c) (Capacitive Pressure Sensors) q dG g J
GQTEG dEG dqJh dG a GdG ,(3-17 dG a dG dG
JQGdG e e M Y dG dG joh .dG c e Se
b e SdH k JG a dG M FHc b fL Y k GKDe
j eY IdG e AGdG H j jJ K d gh .O YG
.dG

Ia Z M
Qe e

SdH AW

U L

jJ K (OhdG) b e M
M b
FHc
dG Y

.S V e :3 -17 dG
- 529 -
 VhdEG dG e
KCdG{ H dG (Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors) q dG g J
da Vhc IOe Y e fe Ib a dJ dG zVhdG
g GSH bdG jZ a V Sb AGLEG eEH .dG dGh SJ
e hCG (Wheatstone Bridge) jh Ib a e HQCG Vh Y q dG
J a OLEd SM TCG j H jH MGh e Ve N
.dG

VhdEG dG je
Y b e j d G , (Piezoelectric Accelerometers ) j d G g J
j e a . d G S d V h d E G K C d G I g X e ,4 -17 d G a d
I dG (Internal Inertial Mass) NGdG jQdG dG hJ dG J
fdG dG Gg dj .VhdEG IQdG a Hd jQdG
ee VhdEG dG aJh .Y Sb GMh dEG qJ da
Inertial Guidance Systems - ) Q d G L d G f C G a d G Y I e
. N G d G h G F d G a (IGSs

Ib

IQH

GWCG
NGO c IdG Qe
Hf
.Vhc (J Se) d e e :4 -17 dG

dG Gd VdG QdG qe
g (Linear Variable Differential Transformers - LVDTs) qdG g EG

- 530 -
jW Y k GOYG dG hCG ,IdGh ,dGh ,bdG Sd e Y IQY
-5-17 dG qj a LVDT `d ke k Ge CG-5-17 dG jh .cJ
e jM q d jQdG cd q dG g J .d kJ k T
d Y S2h S1 jfdG qdG Jh .(Solenoid) dd e H dqdG NGO
H LdG LVDT da J .(Primary Winding P) P dhCG qdG e e
c M e c e d h j h e H ,S2 h S1 d G (Inductance ) K e
. (Linear Core ) d G d G
(2 ) f K e
Uh
Hf T FHc
(1 ) f K e

e d

fGN

J O Y
HH e -CG-
fe fH

eo
e d
Q J q e :5-17 dG
Nneo
-- ( C G ) LVDT: d G d V J
.J T ()h ,e e

OLEG GOGqY
hCG fdG IdGh ,dGh ,GRhCG Sd J SM GOGqY g
IYH He O LEG OGq Y S 6-17 dG q j .(Displacement) MGREG
Ib SGH Y OLEG Sb OGdG cdG dEG OGqdG Gg Hj .SH
.7-17 dG a qe g c ,jh

- 531 -
 OLEG cM S e

IYb
J Qe

Qe
W VY
OGqdG

H O LEG OGq Y :6 -17 dG

.AGdd Hb e S

aW) GWCG
(OGqdG

Sd jh Ib :7 -17 dG
OLEG OGqY .(OLEG) dG

Gg jh Y dG dG e ea OGqdG Oj IdH QdG QGeEG Y

eEHh .Jo hCG CGJo dG ddG e ddHh OGqdG ehe e dG dG
KDJ eY hCG bO SH LdG aJ d GPEG MGh OLEG OGqY GSG
GQdG Y NBG aGe OGqY cjo EGh .SdG bO Y IQGdG LQO a GdG
g a OGqdG cj .IQGdG LQO Y LdG dG fRGeh jd Id fdG

- 532 -
,SdG Y Sq dG Qe KDj d hCG OGqdG Y jOY IQH ddG
GSG dM ah .hCG OGqdG d Vj dG f IQGdG dEG Vj dh
GNBG GOGqdG j a ehdG a IOjR GOGqY j ,GOGqY HQCH Ib
.OdG OGqdG IAGb e YCG FdG IAGdG S Yh .a kf

:g OLEG GOGqY e GfCG N dg

.(Bondable Bare Wire) d HdG QdG dG OGqY -1
Bondable Wire ) bQh hCG SH IYb Y ce d Hb S OGqY -2
.(Mounted on Plastic or Paper Base
.(Bondable Metal Foil) d Hb fe bbQ H OGqY -3
.(Semiconductor) Ue f OLEG OGqY -4
.(Deposited Thin Metal Film) b Q f e A Z H -5

j R d G q d G
AZ e Ye Fc q e g (Gas Sensors) FdG q dG
N GO I Q d G i e Y R Z j GJ Y j J j d MOS IC L d H h b Q
fK IcQ e W a Ze q S aj ah .fdG hCG cdG hCG ,RdG
i e d E G A d G I Q GM L Q O f e c C G e A Zh SiO2 d G c C G
qdG eeo Y LQdG IQGdG a UdG aJh .RdG d e
a eh qe S e H q dG g H Ohsjh .jdG IQTEG
.bdG SG GN q dG J S IcQ

d G hC G CO H d G c C G hC G R Z O L h Q SG d G A Z j
dG fQdG N e Id ee IQGO OhqJh .Jfe Y k GOYG ,CH4
. (Interfacing ) d G d G d E G a V E H , L e S h , F d G

dG dG e
adG HGH UH
J f h d E G U H g (Flux-Gate Compasses ) a d G H G H U H E G
- 533 -
fhdEG GQGO aHh .S qH gQhe H e d dG IdG
GSG e (Magnetic Field Sensors) dG dG q e J Fe
jPdG dG dH KCJ dh VQCd dG dG JG
jhH dG g J eEH .fdG hCG fdG LCG e IQOdGh
H K d G f c E G b h d G j ( C o m p e n s a t e ) j J R H q d G
.bdGh IdG

d g h . ( R e a d o u t I n s t r u m e n t ) I A G d G R L Y k G H q d G J j
.qdG fhdGh dG jd kLQN bdH OhqdG dEG LM

g KCJ e
e e e g ( H a l l - E f f e c t S e n s o r s - H E S ) g K C J q e E G
O G e G Y g K C J d a q d G G g j . ( 8 - 1 7 d G f E G ) U e f
H d N Q d G j (Doped ) e e U e f b b Q e d L G e S
kjOW bbdG S Y g da SJh .dG dG Y OY
bQ hCG N eo dEG qdG da jJ eEH .dG dG ITh
dd ,beh dG dG YS jJ kjCG eEHh .J M hCG
.(Hall-Effect Transducer HET) g KCJ bW qe kjCG qdG j

Ue f bbQ

QJ
g da

e e

.HET g KCJ qe :8 -17 dG

- 534 -
 dG ehe
d G ) e e e g (Magnetoresistors ) e h d G g E G
g c J . d G d G d G I T J e e h e J (9 -17
e ,7-17 dG a e g c ,kLGhRCG jh Ib IQGO a IOY q dG
FHdG QdG jo .(Magnetic Bias) e J Yf jhd FGO e
adG e dG b M adGh HdG dG e S N QdG
R G J a N d E G d d G g O D J . N B G Y j j h e h d G M C G Y (Flux )
.ddG Sd zSe{ dEG jJ j eo QJ fEGh IdG

e e

jfCG fCG Pf
Indium antimonide

ehdG aW
dG aN IcQ . e h e : 9 -1 7 d G

TEG e
J h e h d G b d G (Radiant Sensors ) T G e O J
Y FdG eCG e .YTEG IQdGh kjOW Sj kFHc kLe Jo K d
dG feEH dG (Photodetector) FdG TdG q dG e dG Gg
hO FHc GQTEG dEG jJh AGdG J TCG hCG FdG TCG Y
F d G U d G j N F d G T G d G G f C G e . (Signal Gain ) T c
,(Photodiode Detectors) F dG O jG dG TG ch ,(Photodetective Cells)
. (Solar Cells ) d G j d G h

- 535 -
FdG fdQGdGh (Phototransistors) FdG GQjfGdG J
. d h C G c J f C G E G A d G c e (Photodarlingtons )

J AdGh (VL) FdG AdG bW c kL q dG g eEH

HSG EG .jH dCG Y dEG S jo e Y hCG I T e eEG (IR) MCG
UG N dGO g (Silicon Photodetector) FdG dG Td YTEG
UdG jdG J .Ad S q dG (PN) e QfG Yh dG
.dG e FdG AdG e a d jOOJ HSG bCG J H FdG
IR e a HSG b J keY fdG FdG dG ,dh
q
LGQ Ad Sq dG ILCG M edG e jd) .(eff 900 dGM)
,zdG jdG{h ,zFdG OjGdG TGc{h ,zFdG UdG jN{
j d G f h d E G f e { `H S d G 12 d G a , F d G GQ j f G d Gh
.(zJGh

(dG Gqe) GQdG

bW qe gh ,(Loudspeaker) U e kjCG (Speaker) QdG j
, J U L e d E G (Amplifier) e e J d G OO d G Q J j , F Vh d G
. (20 kHz 10 kHz ) j d G P C G J d G O O d G i e V I O Y h

:g dG Gqd SSCG eJ KK dgh

.(Permanent Magnet-PM) F G d G d G -1
.(Electrodynamic) e j O h d E G -2
,(Electrostatic) J S h d E G -3

`dG eh ,GjOGdG e a edG eGSd dG Gqe J

Gqe CG EG JdG idG Sh a d JG FSh e gZh TV
G g e e A G L C G V J (High Fidelity Speakers ) d d G A d G d G
IdG dEG aVEHh .U Gqe HQCG hCG KK Y HF fCG J .idG
ahh Y fCG J ,(Midrange Speaker) SdG idG GP J dG

- 536 -
jdGh ,CWhCG JdG GOOdG dd e U Ie gh (Woofer)
b d G i d G d E G G U C G g J . Y C G G O O d G d d d G ,(Tweeter)
bGh d Jh ,fEG d dG OhdG Rhj dG (JU dG)
.dG dG

FGdG dG GQe
U Gqe g (Permanent-Magnet Speakers PMS) GQdG gh
e W H e c e G Q P M S e Y J (10 -17 d G ) e j O
M SGH be a ceh SH hCG Qh e Whe IYH fL
. (Diaphragm )

dG SJ a a j e e a kaCG J CG GQdG eEH

e e JdG GQTEG QJ aj ea .FGO d HdGh ddG
e dG M ehdG dG OOj ,dG e dEG JdG GOOdG
RGgG ke FGdG dG dG e dG dG Gg Yjh .dG OOJ
.PCG a dG KCG aCG RGgG Gg j .kaCG WhdG QdG IYb

ie OGeG Y b bhe dh b ehe P S e JdG dG qj

GOOdG Y hCG 8h 2 H dG Gd bhdG b hGJh .JdG OOdG
H cqJ Se QJ dqH fSG e H dd fh .WGdG JdG
FGdG dG
.dG eh IQdG e
U e

hCG b
he

f
jM d FGg
GQTEG QJ
.FGO e P U e e e :10 -17 dG
- 537 -
 ejOhdEG dG Gqe
dG) (Electrodynamic Speakers) ejOhdEG dG Gqe J
dG dG j fhdEG dG CG Z .PM dG Gqe (11-17
GQGO dEG dG Gqe e dG Gg j .FGdG dG Y kVY HdG
d DC Qe dEG LM dgh ,PM Gqe e c cCG j e aVEG
ejOhdEG dG d fhdEG dG EG .fhdEG dG
. b C G M e j f C G c ,PM e a F G d G d G e N C G

FHc e
U e

Qe
DC IQb b

a
jM d AGg
GQTEG QJ

.ejOhdEG U e e e :11 -17 dG

JShdEG dG Gqe
dG hCG (Electrostatic Speakers) JShdEG dG e qSDj
.JShd E G adGh GfG CGe Y (12-17 dG) (Capacitor Speaker)
H dG JShdEG ddG ddG e I T Y DhGOCG jh
ddG hJ .WhdG dG e IYb dEG ITe e iMEG .U
,dG dhCG dG e ,aJ dG dG fheh JdG OOdG e ddG
VfG Y dhCG dG dEG dG g Jh .ddG IOjR id
.hdG e dG fEG cdG dG RGgG jh .ddG

- 538 -
 e U
JShdG
HK
b

S Le dEG e U
dY da hP . J S h d G U e e e : 1 2 -1 7 d G

PCG YS
G qe Y SCG f Y k F e (Headphones) PCG Y S J
G Q G O h ,(Moving-Iron Circuit) j M j J G Q G O Y J a , d G
fhdEG dG Oeh SC eGSG dEG aVEH ,e e jJ
.JShdEGh

cM Y J dG d PCG YSh jdG fdG CG eh

High Fidelity (HF) ) A d G d Y P C G Y S E a ,(Moving Iron) j M j J
W d G UGb C G e h ,j Q d H d G d d G G j OGd Gh (Heasets
,e eh ,JShdEG YS Y k f J ,(CD-Players)
e GP YS Y jdGh jQdG GPN J .fhdG ZVh
.(Mving Coil Earphones) e

fahdG
(Electroacoustic Sensor) S h d E G e g (Microphone ) a h d G E G
Audio) J U GOO H AC GQTEG dEG J dG L dG j J e
L d G C f e c f a h d G J j . (Frequencies
.kfe kV J JdG

- 539 -
OLH q j A Z gh) (Diaphragm) LM Y ah e c j
Y IQdG d (Transducers) bdG qe TCG e m Th (JU Le
KK a fahdG aJ .FHc GQTEG dEG fdG GRGgG jJ
:g eJ
.(Carbon) f H d G -1
.(Permanent Magnet) F G d G d G GP -2
.(Piezolectric) Vh d E G -3

,bdG LMG N e e S eCG ahdG QNG Oj

eh .dG SG hd d MG IQ bh ,R dGh , dG GO eh
( LdGh ,SdGh fdGh ,OOdG HSG iNCG QNG UGe
q
. G S G a (Directivity)

dG k GL IdG fahdG e AGHG dG a fahdG J

,jdGh jOGdG je GUCG J Y Jh cdG IhY a J
fahdG dEG ,aSG hCG He J jdG dhCG dch QNCG FQbh
.jjOGdG SG ILCGh dG adG FShh ,fdG a IO L dG
.dG Gd IOdG dG edG e qJo INCGh

fHdG fahdG
ahdGh .Y SdG dG a YNG dG fahdG FGhCG e g
e AYh e e cJ ,d ke k Ge 13-17 dG j dG ,fHdG
b j h ,(Variable Resistor) I d G e h d G J H c H A e h
dG VJ Yh .kfe kfe kHM ej U e hCG H AYdG
j dG dG dEG e c GRGgG Jh j JU Ld
Ld HSG ehdG a k GJ dG g cM Jh .HdG M
.dG

kSJ SJ HdG M RGgG f ehdG a UdG GdG EG

- 540 -
ah .(Audio Signal) S JU GQTEG gh WGdG QdG da e kjOW
e CG qdG j dHh ,IQGdG a DC QJ aj JdG LdG Z
.e

M a If

N
S

JU Le

e :13 -17 dG
fHc L .fHc ahe e

ieh ,mY N ie Y dY SM fHdG ahdG aj

E a i N C G M f e . f d G d G d E G a VE H ,(b C G hC G hC G 11 ) WGh f e
C dPh Y dG ShCd IOe fHdG ahdG eGSG
N Jh V OOJ GP HSG g CG c ,HWdG OLH J HSG
.AVdG e Xe

FGdG dG fahe
a h e gh (Permanent-Magnet (PM) Microphones) PM a h d G E G
e h e J U e d ) PM d G e c J a H j f e
.(HK e e ad FGO

a d H d G e h e j 14 -17 d G a V e g c h
J ea .FHc bW dEG JdG bdG jJ CG - cdG XdG
dG e a GRGgG ke NCG Gg j ,dH JdG LdG
g kL r eo d dG adG N GRGgG g J .H JdG
fahe Jo .dG dG Le e Sj S OOJ GQTEG
.YGPE G g j O S a I O Y PM

- 541 -
 M

N
S
JU Le
e :14-17 dG
.ejO ahe a
JU e FGO e

gh ,SGh jOOJ HSG e WGh bhe eo PM fahe aJo

Y gD hGOC G K C j h S L c M C G c , f K DC b W Q e d E G J
.IQGdG LQO e SGh ie dEG hCG IjT HWQ dEG VdG

jQdG fahdG
d G j d G ,(Crystal Microphones) Q d G a h d G e c j
Vhd E G KCdG Y (eGdG) adG ahdGh ,d ke k Ge 15-17
GQH a ,dG Y JdG LdG J ,S eo fE
J .dG idG V j OOH bCG MGh LdG H IdG aGdG
d Gh L d G H S G Y J AC f S GQ TE G GRG g G g
.(Electrode)

ThQ e QdG ahdG a fh dEG Z dG IQ H J b

ADP: Ammonium) :LhQdG FK f eCG j c hCG Rochelle Salt
. (Pihydrogen Phosphate
VhdEG IQH

(b) OhdEG

N
JU Le S

.QH ahe a e :15-17 dG

- 542 -
 .IQTEG J mFH jh ,H e JQH GSG IOY jh

,AVV e N HJ h ,IL jOOJ HSG QdG ahdG aj

hCG ,IFGR IQGd VdH KCj AGOCG dh ,aVEG FHc J dEG j h
.dY HWQ hCG ,eU

(eGdG) adG ahdG

CG dG f Y (Ceramic Microphones) a dG ah dG j
kjCG He cJ CG c QdG ahdG LH j dG VhdEG
ah dG UG N E a ,d c .(15-17 dG fCG) QdG ahd
IOH dSG b IQdG CG GY QdG ahdG qUGd He adG
a d G a h d G U e h .(Barrium Titanate) j Q d G f J g a N
kSb HWdGh IQGdG LQO J e SGh ie J Y JQb fe cCG
.QdG ahdG Y

(jdG GP) YdG fahe

j T H M (Velocity (Ribbon) Microphones) f a h d G d
J ea ,e e a jH cdG Y IQdG d N dCG
YS QJ Ea cdG dG L Y V a JdG LdG
I T e j d G RG gG Y S S J h , j j d G j (Velocity Gradient)
b h e i e C G c j (Audio-Effect) d G K C d G d d H h J d G L d G
aQ qe dEG dG `J j e ,k GL e ah dG G g N
. S d G d G i e d E G a j (Step-Up Transformer)

jdG Y AGdG KCJ H dh ,YGPEG a k Gc ahdG Gg j

HSG ahdG Gd CH kY .jOSCG NGO Y eGSG j bdG
KCj h e a AVdG N CG c Je N ieh IL jOOJ
.aVEG IQb J dEG j h HWdG hCG IQGdH

- 543 -
 cdG QdG GQhO hCG jhGR d jdG GqedG
bW q e g (Shaft-Angle Optical Encoders - SAOE) Gqe dG EG
j N f dEG cM Qe GQhO qJ fehdGh fe
d FdG GfCG eh .e jhGR hCG QdG GQhO YS jd HM
.16-17 dG dG a dG ,SAOE dG edG GqedG

fhdEG I dG U b
U dM (SH hCG LR)

dG
F V c Y
LEDh

FV TGc NOEG OY
Th
.HhdG euod VJ T :16 -17 dG

FV TGch ,(Light Emitters) AV YH Y eq dG G g j

W e d E G e (Shaft-Mounted Disk) Q d G Y c G Q U b h ,(Photodetectors)
e dd FdG dG j UdG GQhO Yh .e iNCGh aT dOe
jGdGh ,(Absolute) ddG :g qSSCG Yf dG ed .FV f
IdG fCG a YLSG jJ s c ej YdG ch .(Incremental)
.(Closed-Loop Control Systems) d G

fLdGh ,(Direct Contact) TdG edc eqd iNCG GfCG dg

j G fCG g
q dh . g Zh (Magnetic) dGh ,(Brush Type)
.fhdEG IdG fCG a dSG

- 544 -
 ddG QdG jhGd jdG GqedG
eo GP (Absolute Shaft-Angle Optical Encoders - ASAOE) Geqeo g
ae Y J gh .QdG cj cM d Jh bH e bQ c
, F d G TG d G e N a d L G e LEDs A d Y H GO j GO e N
QdG Qhj ea .QdG Neo Y Qhj dN eJ Ub SGH de
H FdG TCG UdG e dG AdG j eY S Oe bQ pcn dj
.(ASAOE) dN eqeo Ub 17-17 dG a j TGdGh YdG

edG dG e je cCG dG CGJoh .kYT dG dG eQ IAGb J

. L Q d G d G e j e b C G d G C G J a (Inner Coded Track) N G d G
ICa NCG bJ e GPEG edG Qd NCG q hGdG VdG Y UdG aj
.FHdG IQdG fG H

eEG g dG edGh .SdG e hCG bQ LR e UGbCG g J

Ve bO SJ .(Gray Code) O e dG hCG (Natural Binary) dG FdG
.UdG Y IOLdG GdG hCG dG OY e QdG

e J U b : 1 7 -1 7 d G
.ASAED d d G O d G j h G R

ISAOE cdG QdG jhGR Sd jjGdG jdG GqedG

U ISAOE hCG (Incremental Shaft Angle Optical Encoders) GqedG d
I T U b Y e j G J c M Q e Q e F V c h N G O (LED )
Y f SdG hCG LdG e kaTh kbO edG Ub jh .H Qhj
- 545 -
Q h j e Y . (18 -17 d G M ) J d G Y T h d G j h e e M e
dG SGH Pattern dG qJh FdG dG j I dG U b
YdG dG Od jhe (cCG hCG Le) He Le f dEG FdG
jhGR Y kSb beh QdG YS jJ eEH .UdG Y TdG
.dG OY M N eh jb Le

eJ Ub :18 -17 dG
.jGJ Qe jhGR Sd

dG JdG LdG ILCG

Q he N C J Y I Q d G (Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Devices) I L C G d
dEG jJ N e adG LdGh Ne H jOGdG OOdG GQTEG
Vh d E G RF GQ TE G O J h . M S Y d f G A K C G S J U L e
J .(Output Terminals) adG LdG Y (Original Format) UCG
c j CG Rd a ,dG dJ NCJ Y e GQH IQb Y SAW
(Pulse-Compression We d FfG Tc hCG ,(Delay Line) NCJ hCG bYGE
(Signal IQTEG dc hCG ,(Oscillator) Hc hCG ,(Resonator) fc hCG ,Filter)
.(Decoder) I T M h C G ,Generator)

d Gh ,J Q G d G e Vh d E G OG e SAW R L I c Q J C G j
O d H OG d G g J . e d G - d G c C G hC G (Niobate) H d Gh
(Crystal j Q d G T f G J h , F H d Gh f d G TC G H A d G
d G Q d G d G j . e Q G WC H I Q d G N L d G c M A SG Lattice)
.A d G S Y L d G J c SAW `d d G d G OG e G Y

- 546 -
qJ ,19-17 dG a dG ,zNCdG c{ SAW `d dG dG a
I c d G S OG e G Y d G J d j Q L e hC G f e J U L e d E G RF e I Q TE G
jf e IAH JdG bdG g Jo .VYh dW Le e e c
S jf Y SJ bW qe fQe N e (Output End) eo
cGd kf e ,19-17 dG a e g c bdG qe EG .IcdG
SJh FdG aGZdG J SGHh LdG W HH bQ H Le
Rc jOOdG HSG (Digit) JdG YJh dG VY OJo .bdG AdG
.J A c d c h SAW
RF N

bW qe
H bQ

JU Le
RF NO
S
IcQ
VhdG
SAW S JU Le NCJ N :19 -17 dG

dG a ehdG GOOdG e IddG fdG JdG LdG J

a ,(1:10000 H CG) AGdG a YS e JGe H bCG g YH dG
d jh .fKhe 3 s QGe k GNCJ H 1 cm QGe JU Le ie
Waveguide) Le dO NCJ N e fQdH dG g e bCG j CG SAW
.QGOGdG fCG J a jc Meh kfRh SAW aj dHh .(Delay Line

ASG YS H adGh dG Hfh JQGdG IQH fjCG c J

qe a QJ dG JdG bdG EG ).fKhe d Ge 3 mm/s QGH
f Y Se bW qe Y L j IcdG S Y MGh bW
k jCG LGQ) .GOO dG N e b hCG , W hCG a VEG J d Hh .I c dG
Z fhdEG fqdG e 1 AdG a zdG JdG LdG Te{
.(zPassive Electronic Components { d d G

- 547 -
- 548 -
 Y e d G dG

SQEG ILCG
jjOGdG SGh

jdG
eT If
(Radio Signal Propagation) jqjOGdG GQTEG QfG
(Amplitude Modulation AM) q dG dG
(AM Radio Transmitters - AMRT) kjS qdG jOGdG Le Se
(Frequency Modulation- FM ) O O d G d G
(Phase Modulation - PM) Q d G J
(FM Transmitters FMT) FM Se
( AM Receivers ) d G d G e
(FM Receivers) FM e

eT If
UGdG eqDj CG SG qfC fEG IM a ke k GQhO jOGdG dG p
n d
aVEH ,gYGe a QNCG Gf d a ,adG qjh jdG

- 549 -
PfEG a SCG c .J CG hO qadG eGdGh ,edG FSdG eN dEG
QGdG e QGfEGh FQ q dG OGdG AfC jq dG JaGH GhQCG e jdG
.fEG U e hCG W fc AGS

Y SJo ,jQdG cdG d FSQ Y IQY S JG hqCG fc

OdG jOGdG dG p
n oMG eYh .jqdG q dGh aGdG H hCG dG
j dN e dG ,ddG a dhCG qeYEG SdG adG Gg GZ Th
dG GMCGh QNCG S ,YLG JW NH ,SdG e jdG
bd kShh kfe UCG c .dGh adG dEG aVEH bJh ,UGdGh
dG HGhdG g KCG bh .ddG a Gfc jCG H a UGdGh jOGdG IGg
fc M ,dG QGdGh hdG eR a kUN da IGdG H Cf
Ud IMdG HQh SSCG SdG jOGdG a ,iNCG JEG FSh bJ
.GdG qgCH eYEGh ddG AfCG a SdG H

H Y jOGdG H dG IdGh fjdG dG QfG e ZdG Y

dG Wbh GQdG FS id kUN , k SG cCG SdG ,dG
M ,dhCG qYdG SdG jjOGdG jqQGdG eGdG JHh c .jQdGh
dG ,qSdG eGdG K .CGdG AGHEGh YGPEH JG Ua d MJCG
jOGdG AHEG a ke k GQhO d ,HQe NG Y dG d S
.kaeh kqM

a OOJh ,(AM) kjqS qe GQTEG t J ,jOGdG YGPEG hqCG fc

IgX hCG H mf H AGS ,jd kVY fc fCG EG ,ST Me
JCGh Ic H jdG g qJ ,(FM) OOdG J jJ eh .qW
dG Y Y ,H qH f qCG Z ,fCGh VhCG m H dG SG
(FM) OOdG J ,kJ NCG Gg J e ZdG Yh .k GL k GOhe ,dG
.dG M dH gc qSG H dG dG j d

e :hGdG eY d ,YGPEG e iNoCG kYGfCG ,jOGdG dG a f

kUN J dG YGPEGh ,WGdG YGPEGh ,qedG dG YGPEG

- 550 -
gZh ,ddGh ,MdGh dG eCGh ,jqqdGh jqdG qSdG JH
.QGdG e e

dG SSCG edG qbdG ILCGh GJedG fc ,iNCG Mf e

.jq dG AYSGh jqdG JG a dG HdG JCG

jqjOGdG GQTEG QfG

e g c , (Radio Signal Propagation) jqjOGdG GOOqdG f FSh J
: J B H 1 -18 d G a

W Y J , e G Q T E G g h (Sky Waves ) F d G L d G -1
M hCG e H Y dG dEG J CG b dG dG e SfjEG
dEG J CG b cCG hCG Je Jh VQCG dEG J CG jh ,eCG BG
.k GNCG dG

jDhdG N W Y dJo Le gh (Direct Waves) ITdG LdG -2

.IFW dEG qVQCG IYb e hCG (Relay Towers) MdG GHCG H AGS jqdG

L d G g W d G j d G g h . (Reflected Wave ) d G L d G -3
.SfjEG Y dh VQCG S Y SfG H

SfjEG

SdG FGdG
dG FGdG

(3 ) ,ITdG LdG (2 ) ,FdG LdG (1) :jqjOGdG LdG QfG :1-18 dG

. d G L d G (4 ) , d G L d G
- 551 -
aoCG a Jo jqjOGQ Le gh (Surface Waves) qdG LdG -4
.qVQCG SfG CG hO

FGdG aCG N

dG e

.jOGdG aCG ie jJ :2 -18 dG

a Microwaves jhdG Hh UHF ddG a GOOqdG SQG kbf j

i e EG PEG (2-18 dG a q e g c) (Radio Horizon) jOG dG aCG
GPEG dh qjOGdG aCG dH Oj gh FGd h JQG Y j GQTEG
V UM adG g hJ .VQCG S ie e kjb dG c
. h F G d G J Q H d G Q d G a 1.4

,ah .VQCd dG dG W iMEG g (Ionosphere) SfjEG

k GQhO IqdG fhdEGh fjEG qqc J M k GL V AGdG f J
Y dG g e SCG AdG CGj .jjOGdG LdG SfG a ke
a (400 km ) 250 mi d G M d E G j h V Q C G S e (50 km ) 30 mi J Q G
QdG YS a ,QdG YSh dG a Y JQG Gg j .VQCG S
(100 km dEG 50 km) 60 mi dEG 30 mi e JQG Y J dG ,jqqdG D dG J
d G 100 MHz h 1 MHz H j OGd G GOOJ ( J ) g J a , VQ C G S a
Q d G Y S a h .10 MHz Y J d G j j OGd G L d G e b d G U e H J
(1 5 0 k m d E G 1 0 0 k m ) 9 0 m i d E G 6 0 m i ` H V Q C G S Y J d G ,E d G J
Y eqCG .3-18 dG a j c ,fdGh hCG jQdG W Y GQTEG
hG j Y Y Q d G a F2 h F1 d G a H Gd Gh d d G j Q d G i e
I a N h . j Q d G G Q T E G d (4 0 0 k m d E G 1 5 0 k m ) 2 5 0 m i d E G 9 0 m i H
. I e (4 0 0 k m d E G 2 5 0 k m ) 2 5 0 m i d E G 1 5 0 m i H I d G F 2 d G J , d G

- 552 -
AdG dEG gOJ ,jqSfjEG dG q c a keN k GQe GQTEG Jh
. ( C r i t i c a l A n g l e ) L d G j h G d G Y j J j h G R a L J q J e G P E G L Q d G

dG

KC J :3-18 dG
a jq S f jEG dG
(1,2,3) ,GQ TEG SQEG
(4) ,jQ dG S fG
(5) ,dG SfG Qe
a L dG jhG dG Q e
.AdG

qdG qdG
jJ Y IQY g (Amplitude Modulation) (AM) dG dG qY EG
GQTEG hCG qS JU GQTEG SGH RF Ld edG jqjOGdG GOOqdG a
dEG (Intelligence) zGQNEG{ aVEGh J JG e dG d I e
IOYE odG a qdG GQTEG(Demodulation) J jh .SQEG
.dG SdG hCG dG fEG
High Frequency Sine ) OO d G d Y L L e g RF L e e M E G
: g h J j K H R J (Waves
.Amplitude q dG -1
.Frequency O O d G -2
.Phase Q d G -3

kN kWJQG RF Ld jqQdG qddG S JJ (AM) dG dG a

ddHh .(AF) dG OOdG GQTEG a qddG d fBG idG e k GTe
.dG OOJ dG a NG e hj

T Y ,CG- 4 -18 dG a dG ,qdG Z edG Le J

- 553 -
T a ,dG dG GQTEG J a ,Y OOJ GP L Le
LdG H J e OOJ GP (Sine Wave) L Lc -4-18
N e d j d G d G S J . -4 -18 d G a c ,RF ` d e d G
: J B H (Positive Peak ) L d G I h Q d G Y d h C G J , e U
(Emax Eo ) 100 /E0 d G a
.qdG Z edG Le (JG) S E0 M

g (Negative ddG IhQdG a d jdG dG Y dG EGh

Peak )
:JBG
(Eo Emin ) 100 /E0 d G a
.d jdG dG a kYJQG qJ qdG IQTEG S a IOjR CG EG
Iqb e jJh odG a dG /IQTEG f a q J JQG Gg Y jh
.dG p n dG

dG a GaEG j cCG hCG dG a dG dEG dG f Uh PEG

.odG a jdG Gg S jh ,dG Z jh (Overmodulation)
GdG e NGJ a Ze Z fL bf dj dG a GaEG qCG c
.GdG g e fdG bdG e N e dPh ,IQhdG

,qS qda CG d dPh (RF) GQTEG Y IQY g ddG AM IQTEG qEG

LdG T e k GqJ dqJo L
o e GPEG dG ,fqdG e L J fCG c
:g fqdG gh kjS dG

JGOOJh dG Y f npS hJ dG ,dG fdG dG -1

.edG h udG OOqJ e

hj dGh qdG Z edG OOJ S npS J dG edG qe -2

.edG OOJ gOOJ

JGOOJh ,dG Y f S hJ dG :dG fdG dG -3

- 554 -
 .edG h udG OOqJ H dG

(CG)

()

()

d G ( ) , d G L d G T ( ) , e d G I Q T E G ( C G ) d G d G : 4 -1 8 d G
.JdG qdG

fCG Y qj OOqJ VY f V (AM) kjqS qdG GQTEG J

hCG dG j Mh .dGh dG fdG b dG OOq J a a
fqdG e c J ,dG JhdG ,fBG GOOqdG e jdG Y SdG
AM GQTEG J dG dG VY jh fdG bdG e kLhR dG
q
dG fdG dG OOJh YCG fdG dG OOJ H n p d k jh e
.YCG dG dG OOJ V kjhe dG VY j dHh .SdG

- 555 -
 kjS dG jOGdG Le Se
g (AM Radio Transmitters) kjS qdG jOGdG L e S e EG
dG a dG dG joh .kjS qe a edG J Se
fL H qJU JH dG Y k GQOb kjS se Le Se 5-18
AF AdG ajh ,HdG edG IQb RF jqjOGdG GOOqdG AL dqj .hOe
.GOOqdG g S d eRdG qq dG IQdG
:ddG AGLCG dEG RF jjOGdG GOOqdG a j
.(Crystal Controlled Oscillator) QqdG qdG Heo
q dG Me
.(Buffer Amplifier Stage) O d G
.(Final RF Power Amplifier) NCG jqjOGdG GOOqdG IQb e
c a qdG GOOd UN LQO (FCC) dGQdG JG d OM
Y .IOe ImJh V dG GOOJ M Va c ,S J e
edG GOOJ dG dG e iMEG Y Vao e GPEG ,dG S
d G O O J i j C G j G d , 20 Hz e h J e ,880 kHz Q G H

QH He OU e IQb e

S e dG e
aM e dG
ahe
bdG Ohqe

.(AM) dG dG Sd e :5-18 dG

880 kHz +20 Hz = 880.20 kHz

= Y j CG j h

880 kHz - 20 Hz = 879.98 kHz

e IQGM LQO P QGM a NGO ,QqdG qdG He eEH

- 556 -
 .k GL qV hJ f a qLdG GOOqdG ie QGSG Y aj CG ,Y
k GL kJ e ,bW Ohqe SGH j HdG qCG g g cdH jdGh
e N IQb mFY aa C ah AB a H HdG QW qjo .k GL kTeh
. (Watts ) W G h I Y

d G , (Buffer Amplifier ) O d G d G M e (Oscillator ) H d G j

J LEH gh dY NO bhe MdG d .OOdG a k GQGSG eDj
IOdG MdG a dG IQb EG .AB dG H J dG J e fOCG mhH
,Hd RdG (Load) dG eCd ac dh ,kf e (Buffer Stage)
SdG IQdG e J .GOOqdG J qY a SSCG leY Ggh
I O Y M d G g J h . e d G I Q b I O j H (Intermediate Power Amplifier)
f Y d .IAdG e ie YCG jJ dEG J dG ,C a mhH
(Double Stages)MGdG Ye hCG OOdG Yeo Jo dG dG
.SdG dG a

NBG AT CG e gCG J ,INCG jjOGdG GOOqdG IQb J Me EG

.FGdG dEG SdG e jjJ N IQb SJo fC jqjOGdG GOOqdG b a
e je Y qe N IQb VJ Jd dGQdG dG CG l U
hJ EG ,NBG H .Oe hH N IQb e eJ dh dG H
I Q b J hO d G a 10 d E G 5 e j C G j d G J a I Q d G
hJ H e IQH H e eEH ,ddHh .H dG dG
.18 kW Y J h 21 kW RhJ IQH ka J CG ,20kW

IQb a YCG idG J dG g INCG jqjOGdG GOOqdG Me qCG H

q j ,RF jqjOGdG GOOqdG
,C d G h T V J C G d G Y L
dP j .dG a 90 M Ud Hb ,IAdG e LQO eC d dPh
d G a G d G L j J d G (Push Pull) d G a d G I Q GO G S H
.(Carrier Frequency) e d G L d G OO d (Even Harmonies)

dG dG q j dG eh fR dG dG H dG EG

- 557 -
.FGdG dEG ddG GOOqdG GP aGdG SQEG d dG H (Capacitive)
e e R G d G Y h d G Y (Wavetraps ) L d F e V J c
.FGdG dEG J b a Ze Z aGJ CG d pndG

OOqdG J
jqjOGdG GOOqdG J , (Frequency Modulation FM) OOqdG J a
dG a j c ,qe S GQTEG SGH kjOOqJ e ed (RF)
GfG Ho hCG (Frequency Shift) GOOd fBG GfG QGe qEG .CG-6-18
Je ,-6-18 dG a J dGh ,qdG Z FM Le b Se Y
S J dG H Mh .dG GQTEd fBG qddG H kN
FGg QJh jqjOGdG GOOqdG N IQb Jh ,HK ed jqjOGdG GOOqdG
.dG qY Y qe FM OOqdG J Se

.qdG OO J h j (Fd) adG GOOqdG e E a dP dEG k a VEG

GPEGh .qdG OOdG Y e jqjOGdG GOOqdG eM OOJ MGREG J ddHh
Ea ,dG f qdG OOdh jqjOGdG GOOqdG eM OOJ MGRE fc
.jqjOGdG GOOqdG Le OOJ MGREG euDJ f 400 Hzh 200 Hz dG f

kjQJ Jo 800 Hz `dG J dG qdG GOOqdG YCG EG ,LEH

dG da
(CG)

()
W YCG W fOCG W
OOqdG dG GQTEG GOOJ

.qdG dG ()h ,LdG dG T (CG) FM OOqdG dG :6 -18 dG

- 558 -
d jdG Seh OOqdG dG e (Prememphsise) dG jdG
edG HK N e dG jdG Sj .odG a AVV/IQTEG f
J G d O J h .OO d G O j ORG e d G L N OGOj d G , RC I Q G d
dG ue ij ZdG RGJ Oj dh . 75 s QGH edG Gg FCC dGQdG
. f e d G H H (Deemphasis) I c D e Z RC I Q G d (Output Discriminator)

OOdG MGREG J dG a 100 jjOGdG GOOqdG eM J f J M

OOqdG GfEG J dGh ,dG j e a H dG dG b dEG
j b kjOOqJ qdG QdG dG a .(Highest Frequency Deviation) bCG
dHh .qdG Z edG GOOJ fL e c Y 75 kHz GOOqdG RfG
S Yh .75 kHz hj dG a 100 J e GOOqdG N LQCJ j
G f G L Q O d E G d G a 100 J f OD J j d G Se a b Q d G
.25 kHz`H GOOqdG

jOW Sj eY g GOOqdG RfG QGeh d jqdG dG EG

GfG N OJ FM QdG dG a dG e dG a 40 a ,keJ
:QGe OOqJ
40 x 75/100 = 30 kHz

zdG dO{ jW Y dG LQO OqJ ,(FM) kjOOqJ qdG dG a

dd jqQdG dG J edGh SdG dG ah .(Modulation Index)
. d G a 1 e b C G h d G a 100 H hG J j e f V e d G
j J dO b kjCG da ,jqOdG fCG e CG dEG dH eCG dc
.zDeviation Ratio { G f G f e Y

idG eCG .200 kHz kjOOqJ qdG QdG dG a dG VY hj

GOOqdG GfG QGe CG dEG k Gf 50 Hz h 15 Hz H hGa SdG dG
d O d G a G f G f J h .75 kHz h j d G a 100 J H
:ddG

- 559 -
75 kHz / 15 kHz = 5

ce eCG dh .SGdG dG GP FM fCG a qLPf dG g J

20 kHz VH dG V kef J dG jqdG FM Se dEG dH
.a

q`J `dG a 100 d OOq`dG G`fG LQO `J fCG `g a

GfG `f QG`e a ,3 kHz `S GOO`J `LQO YCGh ,5 kHz
5 kHz
.a 3 kHz = 1.67 `H

QqdG J
jOGdG GOOJ ed fBG QdG qj ,(Phase Modulation) QdG J a
qfBG qdG qEG .HK dG RF S J H ,qe qS IQTEG SGH
dd fBG QGdH kN Je (qdG Z dG Y k GH) QdG RfE
Ea ddHh .GOOqdG a RfG Aaj QdG J e EG .dG IQTE
j h ,FM LdG OOqdG dG e kT Hj LdG dG QW
dhCG SdG g QdG J qEG .dG IQTEG dEG IOdG H EG H dG
.FM Se jW Y FM OOqdG dG dJ a dG ITdG Z

FM S e
L e T Y N GQ TE G (FM Transmitters) FM Se J
Yf dg .SdG dG GQTEG H J ,Ie GOOHh HK H
TdG FM SQEG qjo .Te Z NBGh Te f :FM Se e SSCG
dG Yh .qdG IQTEG d J dPh HdG GOOJ J SGH
QqdG qdG He N QW J SGH TdG Z FM SQEG qj
(FM) kjS qe IQTEG dEG k GQW qdG IQTEG qJ .qdG IQTEd J
.Q d G a 90 R f H

f f e D J (Preemphasis ) b j J T Y FM S e J
- 560 -
CG H dPh .SdG FM GQTEG GOOJ fqe q c a dG dEG /IQTEG
e e mM a ,NdG GOOJ e S SJ N SQEH dG g J
e YCG NdG GQTE ddG GOOqdG fqe N j ddHh .GOOqdG
.dG GOOqdG fqe a FdG J

I T d G FM S e
J .(Direct FM Transmitters) Te FM Sd ke 7-18 dG j
dG dG jdG IQGO dEG SJ K ,S e SGH dG NdG IQTEG
Ye) qdG dEG qdG qdG GQTEG SJ K qdG GOOqdG RJ
jqS hCG KM J b Ye QhH j dG ,(Varactor QcGQa OjGO hCG JFET
Variable - Frequency) IdG GOOqdG GP HHdG GOOJ Y Id
qdG IQTEG S SGH YdG Yfh qc OJ .(Oscillator VFO
eY L e T Y J jqjOGQ GOOJ N VFO `dG jh .kqS
OdG Me Y qdG GQTEG SJo .Sd cdG OOdG J j
JQG e jJ KG GOOJ Ya Sh e dEG eh ,(Buffer)
e GTH ,jqjOGQ GOOJ qe jo K .FM GQTE adG GOOqdG
.SQEd Fe qe bW ie dEG g RF GQTEG j dG RF bW e

,Nh ,QH He Y JeJhCG GOOqdH qdG M J

CG e SJ J GQTEG fEG ee eh ,DC eh ,qeh ,
q eh
.j b aGfG f

OOdG dEG kFJ HdG N Oj FM qe dEG GQTEG g NJ M

d G J J a j ,I T d G FM S d F d G d G E G . d G
QGSG dEG UdG H GOOqdG Y JeJhCG IdG d eRdG
.dG OOqdG

- 561 -
 e
GdG He dM Ye GOOqdG
jOOqdG OdG OOdG /jqjOGdG
IQdG e

AFC IQGO
OdG IQGO Ye dG eh N
dG qdG
dG DC

S e QH He

.ITe FM Sd e :7 -18 dG

I T d G Z FM S e
H e Y j O d G (Indirect FM Transmitters) I T d G Z FM Se J
.SSCG GOOqdG dd QH
dEG d S q e a qK eh dG OdG T a dG dG qj
qe dEG dSQEG b qdG GQTEG (QJ hCG) dJ qS J T
. d G I Q T E H S G H d G G O O J j d G (Pulse Modulator ) f
GOOqdGh GQTEG Ye MGe CG d H dG H O U q e j
GOOJ e SGH IOdG IQdG ie dEG GQTEG aJ K adG
GQGO Y J SdG g EG .jqjOGdG GOOqdG bW q eh jOGQ
eqDj ,Mh ,QqdG H dG qC (AFC Circuit) qJeJhCG jOOqJ IS
.Ieh dY GOOJ

kjOOqJ qdG jdG Se

(FM Stereo Transmitters) FM Se N e qdG jdG GQTEG SJo
.(FM Stereo Multiplexing) OdG HdG FM jS SH J UN qH
ae IQGd ,QdGh dG Y ,fahe Y QOU S lN j gY
: K G L N I Q G d G d .(Adder and Subtractor Matrix Circuit) e L h M Q W
g fdGh (idGh dG) fBG JQTEG S L UM Y jc g hqCG
- 562 -
50 H (Stereophonic) dGh (Monaural) jqOdG GOOqdG hGJ .H dG
q
qdG GOOqdG d GQTEG g e jo .15000Hzh Hz
Y J qS GOOJ Qd OdG dG J j K .qSSCG
.e ee CG Ga d kL QdGh dG GQTEG

FdG jdG eM d a dG Y JdG GQ TEG eCG

J d Gh , hO d G f d G d G GP (Double Sideband Stereo Subcarrier)
.38kHz O O H

e dG a 1 e bCG iH c Lj dG , FdG edG g EG

dGh ,L u dG jdG GQTEG e Seh HK dM a g ,FdG edG
GQTEG Od FdG edG FdG edG sJo gY .19kHz OOH QoJ
dG ,dG a fajdG dG IOYEG GQGO Y Jh L q dG
.qUCG QdGh dG GQTEG dJ IOYE GQTEG e e eO j

dG dG e
d G SG I Q GO g (Superheterodyne Receiver) b d G j d G e E G
G O O J e a d G h d d G Y j d G ,(AM Receivers) d G
c j H dPh ,I NCG (Tuned Radio Frequency- TRF) dG jOGdG
a kLGhQ cCG SG IQGO qfEG .IF Sh MGh OOJ dEG IOQGdG GOOqdG
a kjCG J GQGdG a dG CG c . dG jOG dG e
.dG dG hCG IGdG Y AGS ,jqjOGdG JG

bdG jdG e
d G j d G ,(Superheterodyne Receivers) b d G j d G d G E G
dEG 550 kHz Sb YGPEG H f AM GQTEG j ,d ke ke 8-18
GOOqdG e dEG FGdG e dG jOG dG GQ TEG J .1500 kHz
.dG HdG e dG kFJ j dG dG dEG SJ CG b jqjOGdG
e g G Y e a j a a (Tuned ) f d G I Q T E G E G d G j
- 563 -
 GOOqdG e GOOqdG e
jqjOGdG dG

HdG dG Tc
N
qdG dG

GOOqdG e e :8 -18 dG
SdG ba je d J
.(AM) dG d

IOdG GOOdG Y SG Y dG HdG GOOJ J .GQTEG

e a .456 kHz IkOY hJh d SdG GOOqdG OJ LQ H
.IQTG OOJ e YCG dG HdG GOOJ J ,bdG jdG e
1010 kHz LQO Y e dGh 456 kHz hJ SdG GOOqdG fc GPEa
J h O Y GPE a (1466 - 1010 = 456 kHz) 1466 kHz d E G L Q O k GQ a H d G j
.1336 kHz HdG GOOJ mFY J ,880 kHz dEG dG

iMCH hCG ,OOqdG dG fE GOOqdG NOh HdG dG jj

N q j .AM jqjOGdG GOOqdG GQTEG J dG JGP SdG OOdG
H e cCG hCG q e SGH dG e JBG SdG GOOqdG
dG dG Tc dEG dG dG Sj gH .SdG GOOqdG
GQTEG Y qdG GOOqdG J M (Amplitude Modulation Detector)
.YdG dEG hCG U e dEG SJ K q Jh ,SdG GOOqdG

jJ HV Y IkOY J IAdG dY bdG jdG e EG

j d G H V j . (AVC ) d H J e J h C G J G Q G O h (Noise Limiter)
MdG a IQTEG S b H dG dEG NdG e qJdG FGdG Uh
dG Jo (AVC) dH JeJhCG qdG IQGO EG .a LGJ dG
J .jqjOGdG GOOqdG GQTEG Ib a GdG ZQ ,kHK dG e dG
GQTEG Ib e S SJ dG DC TdG QdG qda jH qdG g
GOOqdG e dEG IdG ddG SJ .TdG e SdG qdG
.S Y kM d SdG GOOqdGh jqjOGdG

- 564 -
GQTEG e qdG fqdG jdG bdG jdG e J
(CW) IdG LdG SG eCG kFY j dP qCG Z ,SdG GOOqdG
GOOJ He dG dEG j dd .qS GQTEG Y J dG
. (CW ) I d G L d G S G e H P E G , d G G Q T E G j d f

FM e
S d G FM e
GQ TE G f E G I O YE Gh SG g S d G (FM Receiver) FM e e E G
SG f C T e FM e Y 9 -18 d G a d G d G j FM.
d G d G G g 108 MHz d E G 88 MHz f e YGPE G d S b GQ TE G
. (8 -18 d G ) d G d G H e Y S d G d H T g
(RFjjOGdG GOOqdG e SGH FGdG e dG FM IQTEG J
dG HdG Y IQOU ImQTEG e eJ M N dEG SJ K Amplifier)
.97.3 MHz h 77.4 MHz H hGJ GOOJ dqj CG SH dG

F M G Q T E G e e c j (I F ) S h O O J d G a g d G N E G
10.7 MHz `dG Jh a IqH J JGOOJ dh ,HK S IF GQTE .SdG
jdG Hh .QdG FM H f dEG J M SdG J KCG d
. d H U d G IF GOOJ d E G FM GQ TE H d G c d G OO d G j

GOOqdG e GOOqdG e
jqjOGdG qdG

HdG dG qdG
dG

GOOqdG e HdG
SdG

.(FM ) OOqJ eo d J e :9 -18 dG

- 565 -
dEG IF SdG GOOqdG J SdG GOOqdG e SGH dG H
a ,Y qdG dG GJ q c Y j (Limiter Stage) d M H d
e SJ jQa qS N qda eqDj dG FM qe dEG WdG IQTEG
.SdG GOOqdG Y QdG OOqdG GfG qc

(Deemphasis dG jd je QW T dEG mFH IQTEG g SJ

RGJ jh ,FM SQEG Y a qJ dG dG jdG Y a Network)
g Jo .dG jdG S dG dM dEG dG a FM GQTE ZdG
OGORG GPEG dG dG dEG dG LQO J GQGO SG H q dG
e EG) ,qdG GOOqdG fG e GPEG INCG g jJh ,qdG GOOqdG
dG e a TdG e J dG jd jdG GQGdGh npodG
. J d G d G d E G SJ h d G I Q TE G J g Y . (AM) ( d G

kjOOqJ qdG jdG e

GQ TE G f E G I O YE Gh SG (FM Stereo Receivers) j d G e Y S H
dG d LGdG jf EG .(FM) kjOOqJ qodG IOdG HdG FM
J ,qaVEG GQGO dEG J .jdG FM e a dG J Y J
IQY g fqdG g .cqdG GQTEd jOdG fqdG d ,FM Tc
G Q T E G h ,15 kHz h j V Y H a e (L + R ) Q d G + d G G Q T E G Y
.19 kHz LQH qe FQ GOOJh ,53 kHz dEG 23 kHz VY H (L R)

lIQGO J a ,TdG SGH cdG GQTEG Y fqdG g Jo

Q d G h d G G b G Q T E G d G Q T E G g e H (Matrix Circuit ) a e
qS Gb a c qdG GQTEG g dJ ,mFY .Y aJh UCG
SJ CG b ,S eh b jJ T Y J gh .e
,kjOOqJ qdG jdG Se Y kjCG WEG j .dG Ge dEG
.dG Gg a gcPh S dGh

- 566 -
 Y S d G dG

fjdG dG
SG LdJh

jdG

eT If
qceCG qWdG qfjdG fCG d je
(U.S. National Television Systems Committee (NTSC) Standard)
(Color TV Transmitters) qdG jdG Se
(TV Receivers) qfjdG dG
(TV Camera Tubes ) j d G G e c e U
(Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) Cameras) d G b I GOC G G e c
(Alternative TV Broadcast Standards ) j d G f j d G d G j e
(Cable Television - CATV ) ( d G I Q T E H ) d G I d G
(Hi-Definition Television - HDTV ) d d G V d G j J
(Set-Top-Boxes ) d G j R J h S G I L C G
(Satellite Master Antenna Television - SMATV ) F d G J d G F G g j J
(Digital Satellite Systems) qbdG JdG fCG

- 567 -
 eT If
Y JQd dPh ,qdG LYCG MCG jdG dG a jdG UCG
c .Y SG RL N e ,Seh GUCGh ,ce QU QGUEG
dG FGhCG a uL b ,fdG dG dEG dG ,dG jdG q dG
hCG a ,1928 Y b kqe j d fjJ efH hqCG H CG Z ,jdG
qfe UGbCG Y IFGdG fCG J YGh .IdG jdG a efH
Y jdG fjdG J dGh .QdG fE H Ke Zh Ic IQGhqO
S SC G Y J d G ,Q d G f E CRT e Uh G e d G H a J e
. (Electron Beams ) f h d E G d e G d G d G

Z Y jc gh ,(Cathode Ray Tube CRT) dG qTC U hqCG QuoW

SG P OfCGh fhdEd YH OKc Y j AGdG e e LLR
c dh .GdG ah GRdG a qFHdG gGdG SGQd jqe IGOCc ,Le
ah .qq dG TCG cG jW a gCG IdG dG Gd dhCG QGUEG
TT Y hdEG eM e eEH qfCG MdG Lh MdG GdG
WCG hJ QU jd NGdG GOhdEG b jJ N e dPh ,jqQa
SShCH j e GNG dEG cG Gg iOCG bh .jDhQ J d
. (Oscilloscope )

f j d G C G H , (Iconoscope ) ( S f c E G ) I Q d G T c j J e
jqQSa TT Y hdEG eH IQdG nSJo CG a .QdH jdG
Y Ice jqH IQU edG J d qNGdG GOhdEG oHSG dqHo
SGH dG e IQOdG FHdG IQTEG qJ qK e .qNGO U
SJ eYh .(jdH dG j e hCG) IQd IQTEG dEG IQdG jd edG
dG Jh .SG U a IQdG fEG Oj ,eJ f e GQTEG g
e fjJ f hCG d IQdG Tc e QdG U eM eGH
.kqfhdEG

qCG EG ,1933 Y jGH a fhdEG SH OhdG jd Y QX hCG c

- 568 -
CG eh .jdG dG HQCG M j d OSCGh HCH fjdG dG
j d keY 20 e cCG H fCG EG ,kjS c dG fjdG dG dEG fG
OSCGh HCG fjJ OY Y qceCG dG a fqdG fjdG OY
hH fqdG fjdG L ObG edGh FdG fEG CG Z .a
.dG OGaCG e

M k GOhe Gj fjdG dG GQTEG d dG SG ie qEG

ge GQN e tj e ,SdG Y k e 30 Y j j b H d G
,dP dEG aVEH .jOGdG e dEG dH dG Y g e Y ,RdG
IQdG WdG a dG GQTEG jRJ eCG kFY jOdGh dG J
j e hCG ,YdG fjdG Ia jJ dEG qdG eGdG g OCG .V
g e j CATV. qdG IQTEG fjJ hCG ,dG fjH dG
H c JQG Y e SG ILCH RdG Y GQTEG jRH ,edG
e dG eGdG jRH qdG j qK e .jDhdG N V dSG j
e cCG OmH cdG jhJh ITdG dG jOhe dGREGh JdG M u eo
cCG SG qddG JdG SG ILCG eEH H k GNDe .fjdG GdG
.qfjJ Ib 150 e

EG .SM OGORG b JdHh dH jdG eN H adG CG cj

Mj eh .edG e jW Id jS edG CG J QeCG je CG
H dG cT AGT Y Jo Jd e ic cT qCG Y bdG a
jdGh qYdG IdGh JdG JG eN a ddG SdG dG L
kaVEG ,ffEG GSGh ,FGT b aCG e e VYh ,fhdG
.iNCG edG e jdG dEG

ne H ,HDTVs ddG dG fjJh ,qbdG fjdG QJ e

S a : Y HLEG dEG J IjY mSCG Qeh keZ dG dG
gh ?dG dY NBH qdG KdG fjJ GS k Ge OdG WGdG
Zj gh ?JdG Y e RdG Y ke cCG ffG a GdG S

- 569 -
 GSG qY EG LQCG Y ?JdG TT Y aCG Ige a SdG
k Gf GS H LQCG Y J S dG dY iNCH qKdG ILCG
fjdG eqCG .ceCG QhO 3000 j dG INCG J e RdG S dEG
gQfG j CG LQCa ,ddG dG fjJ SG Y ILdG qbdG
.IgR QmSCH H dEG q dG ZQ
k V

qceCG qWdG qfjdG fCG d je

zceCG qWdG fjdG fCG d{ L Y aGdG 1953 Y a sJ
- c e C G j O G d G c T J Q W d G - (National Television Systems Committee )
Gc e iNCG hO jdG g J dGh .IdG jdG a WdG QdG
(PAL) dG eCG .jqSBG hdGh qHdG jaCG hO Hh dGh HdGh
ZQ aGe Z fCG EG , d Y GQ e k jCG g (SECAM) dGh
NTSC. e H J

J gh 1-19 d G a f d G Sd H f j d G d NTSC j e J
1.25 MHz Y (Picture Carrier ) I Q d G e M , V J ,6 MHz V H I b H
eM a 4.5 MHz a qdG GOOdG ce eqCG .Id SCG qdG a
l e NTSC a dG qCG kjCG dG a j .IQdG
IQq dG qJo .kaCG
q c a Hjh .(FM) kjOOJ dG GQTEG qJo a (AM) kjS cqdG

OOdG
dG M QGd dG bCG dG

IQdG eM bf OOJ cdG

jfdG dG dG

. f j d G d NTCS j e :1-19 d G

- 570 -
e kqSCGQh dG dEG QdG e kaCG ba dG eqCG ,1 dEG 2 e kN 525 QWEG
.fdG a k GQWEG 30 qH QWEG c V kN 525 e jh .SCG dEG YCG

,(Luminance) q d je jJ fqdG fjdG IQU J j

Pastel Quality IQdGh udG Yf H) (Saturation) TEGh ,(Hue) dGh
q
fh dG eqCG ,OSCGh HCG GQTEH q dG Sjo .(Versus Vividness
S J J jh .(Chrominance Signal) qdG GQTEH qa , TEG
a dH j QdG jhGR a dG CG c ,TEG a qdH dG GQTEG
.dG

dG e (Overlapping) cGe AGLCG V dGh dG GQTEG SJo

4 MHz J GE PGE .(Frequency Interlacing) GOOdG HJ J dB kah f
q
2 MHz h GOOdG e 6 MHz bCG Y j GdCGh dG ee SQ E
q
dGE 3 MHz IQq dG J .jdG V jM f eCJh GUCG SQE iNCG

k H 337,920 M VJ CG feEH SdG jdG TT C dPh 4 MHz

fdG a Iqe 30 OhJ CG ,IQdG a UdG hCG ,SdG g Yh .(Pixels)
.SCGdG dG YS H fQe

Aspect ) Y H f d I d G j d G a j d G Q d NTSC j e E G
d G b J j . W G M h 3 h V Y G M h 4 Y j c g (Ratio 4:3
dG fG f CGJ .2-19 dG a fdG SdH Qq dG U dEG dG Y

fdG dG
e a qbdG :2-19 dG
hCG dG
.HdG fjdG QdG
- 571 -
e J HK mYH jh (dG dG Y j) TdG Sh YCG e
j CG eh ,H jhe mae Y J dG dG IGRGH dG dEG QdG
q N
. j L e d G C G d i d G a d G d E G d G (Spot ) H O J M j d G
SdG a gOLh Y j Ggh ,dG J ,IOd edG UdG N
SCG dEG dG QqJ TdG Y kHjEGh kHgP dG H J ah .fdG
Y CGj e m ch ,QGfG N k GQe SdG a dG NCJh .HK H
.S dG dG AfG f e H fOCG ie

d G e a ( e N T Y g d G ) (First Field ) h C G d G C G j
M dG Gg Y jh 5 K 3 q dG dEG bdG QdG V j K hCG
e dG Od ,QdG j M dG J h .IOdG OGYCG c e j
kje kN IOdG jW a J qfCG EG .TdG YC jCG cdG dEG jL
H qFe Z mjH gJ dG aCG jEGh gdG cd k Gf kLqeh
jGH f dEG IOd edG bJ dG bdG eqCG .QdG N dVG
Gg N .fdG e 60/1 hCG kN 21 j dG bdG Oa ,fdG QdG
.kN 262.5 SQEG j bdG

Z dG dH odG) fdG QdG j (Spot) dG Uh Y

c Jo M bdG Qe V dH jh 2 dG e (dG
mFY ,TdG YC idG jhGdG dEG k GOe OdG Ohd LhOdG dG
QWEG J dGh ,edG IQdG J . H J b GQ dG c j
. f d G e 30 /1 h J I b e R I a N S J g h . N 525 Y , (Frame )
Z a jdG TT Y j dG g 2-19 fdG SdG a qdG dG EG
.zdG{ SG Y jh IQq dG

fdG a kN 30h kaoCG fdG a kN 15,750 e dEG NTSC je J

jdG GQTEG Y Ljh 63.49 s Ia N c j ddHh .kqSCGQ
jqOMCG fjdG hCG OSCGh HCG jdG GQTEG e aGe J CG dG
.(Monochrome TV) qdG

- 572 -
 dG jdG Seo
qeo bCG Y (Color TV Tranmistters) dG jdG Seo J
EG .dG GQTEG fE kjOOJ qe bCGh ,jdG GQTEG fE kjqS
Se a dG e HJ dG jdG Seo a kjOqOJ qdG bCG
dG f GQGdG Y ,jdG bCG J dc .OSCGh HCG jdG
,dG GQTEG fE iNCG m GQGO dEG kaVEG OSCGh HCG pSe jJ
o
.3-19 d G d G d G a j c

dG dG jdG Se GQGd r n eo fH e a 4-19 dG eCG

a Od ,fdG GedG e IQOdG QRCGh NCGh MCG GQTEG dJ
Matrix) ae ImQGO a Jo dG GQTEG g .d dG GQTEG
GQTEG 3 fE ,e m H , d G H d E G G Q T E G J d G (Circuit
Q I Q T E G h . I Q d G S a N G Y I Q T E G J .I h Q h ,Y : e N
cGdG QRCGh dJdH I `dGh ,fGLQEGh NCG eH Je (Hd)
dGh C IQTEG hCG (Chrominance) qdG a Ih Q JQTEG cJ K .(Cyan)
fdG dG a Qh I Jb be EG .IQdG GdCG fH c Y J
.5-19 d G a G J d G j d G G O O d NTSC ` H U d G

e IQb
U udG GOOdG
GOOJ
Gec dG jOGdG jjOGdG

dG de eM He qe eM He
eqdG jdG GOOdG dG

dG NO
. d G O M C G j J S d e f H e :3-19 d G

- 573 -
 budG IQGdG eOdG IQGdG

e dEG
edG He jdG
FdG I dG
MCG MHz 3.58
IQGdG
NCG adG
QRCG
QdG je Q dG
90 `H
GQTEG
GedG
jjdG
.qdG jdG a jdG GQTE HdG GQGdG :4-19 dG

dG eM eM
IQdG eM
dG

I Ib Q Ib

QdG eM GOOJ a zMHz{ `dH GOOdG

.NTSC j e a Q h I J b b e :5-19 d G

Adder) edG IQGqdG dEG adG IQGqdG e IkT e Y `dG GQ TEG S J

e
k NO QhH j ,dG Q ueo fRGd oa I `dG IQTEG eqCG ,(Circuit
je SGH 90 `H Gj oQW dh ,3.58 MHz OOdG GP FdG edG He
(Carrier) edG GOOJ qJ Ih Q GQTEG e k c E G . (Phase Shifter ) Q d G
jg Gj CG hO q dh jdG GQTEG jd ke cJh GOOd FdG
LN cjh Gg .90 `H odG NGO FdG edG QW N dPh
K eh dGh ddG bdG d (Vectorially) kgJG I ueh Q ue
(Sidebands) fdG bf kgJG j k GPEG .edG IQGd H a aj
GJ jg fdG bf L Yh .C IQTEG Gdqa Ih Q J Y JdG
- 574 -
 .3.58 MHz O O d G G P F d G e d G

a IMGh ja IQTEG a C jdG GQTEGh Y q dG GQTEG FH oM q J

J ,qSCGQh aoCG qeR f dH bdG IQGO J H ,edG IQGqdG
a QJo M edG IQGdG dEG kjCG g SJh Od ,dOeh e
.jdG IQTE SdG qedG UdG

eqe f Y j e g (Color Sync Burst) zeGdG qdG QqJ{ EG

FdG edG GQhO H e QJ c dCj .jdG IQTEG Y J iNCG
FdG edG qCh .aCG d f c dEG j dG Z 3.58 MHz
eGd odG b e dNOEG IOYEG Lj Ih Q JGQTEG dJ H dGREG qJ
.SdG a UCG FdG edG QW e jL e NdG FdG edG QW

ja IQTEG SG Y j ce IQTEG Y jc g edG IQGdG N EG

QdG f H L Y J gh (Color Plexed Video Signal) fe
dEG dSQEGh J j jdG GQTEG e cdG dG gh .bdGh
a dG J e Ha dG SdG a iNoCG GQGdG eqCG .jdG qeo
.OSCGh HCG Se

qfjdG dG
,6-19 dG a qdG jOMCG fjd dG dG a j c
O K d G T C G U h U e Y (TV Receiver ) j d G e j
G fG GQGO eD J . fh dG GQGO e a e ,Q U U hCG CRT
.CRT `dG Y M qcdG dG e Ye d QdG (Deflection Circuits)
fEa ,qceCG qWdG fjdG fCG d jd HdG IdG a Wo ch
Sd dG a dG hdEG M J ,dG dG H
.NGdG TdG d QSdG dG Y k GqL HQe aCG kWN

e a IOLdG GQGdG L Y qdG jdG e j

qSSCG GdCG GQTEG jd eL GQGO dEG kaVEG ,OSCGh HCG jdG
- 575 -
OSCGh HCG GQTEG EG .qdG edG e QRCGh NCGh MCc
ja eMh kjOOJ qeo U eM e L dCJ fqdG GQTEGh
GQTEG a c ,dG GQTEG a jdG f dCJ .6 MHz H kjS qe
J , j O d G d G h I Q d G f d ao C G d G e , O S C G h H C G
.eqeh Se f

dG e
dG Tc dG
dG GOOdG GP
dG
SdG
dG e

q e
GOOdG jdG Tc jdG e
SdG U
IQdG
eGdG IQGO HHdG SdG
AGC f aCG-SCGQ aCG-SCGQ aCG-SCGQ

ddG e
ddG

. d G O M C G j d G d e J S Q :6-19 d G

jdG GQTEG EG K .(Composite) cdG GQTEG dG GQGdG dJo

e dEG qJh (RF Amplifier) jOGQ OOJ eo SGH Jo dGh
SdG GOOdG Jo K .e Heh (Mixer) N Y SdG OOdG
J QhH TdG j .TdG NO dEG SJh GOOd e Y
e 4.5 MHz ` H IF j d G e M O O J (Heterodyne ) j j h AM j d G G Q T E G
. J d G FM GQ TE G

IjdG g Y J dG OO dG a s jh ,1-19 dG a j ch
4.5 MHz Q G e c e O O H I j L G Q T E G d E G d G G Q T E G a (Heterodyning )
q
IQTEG J O j .(Intercarrier Detection) dG edG c j G gh
d E G SJ h IF S d G GOO d e SG H 4.5 MHz OO d G GP d G

- 576 -
qj TdG SGH dG J IOYEG Hh .FM kjOOJ qeo S Tc
g fjdG GQTEG c a q dG eM GOOJ EG .dG qeo qd
. j d G e M GOOJ e 4.5 MHz `H YC G

GP q dG GQTEG J M jdG GQTEG (Demodulate) J dGREG j

.jdG dG b e Me a jdG GQTEG Jo gY .4.5 MHz OOdG
3.58 MHz GOOH eqdG GdCG GQJ Yh C jdG Y Y dG joh
7-19 d G a d G d G a j e G gh . TJ T 3 SG H
q
IQTEG J K .GdCG fEG Jo dG qdG jdG SG GQGH dG
d E G S J C G b Y d G e S G H h ,Y G Q T E N C d G I Q G H k G Q h e ,Y
IQGdG dEG dUh eGj M Y IQTEG NCdG IQGO J .adG IQGdG
.qaVEG de Y J dG C IQTEG Uh e adG

q eo SGH Joh ,Teo SGH jdG IQTEG Y C IQTEG J dc

jdG Qh I JGQ TEG (Demodulators) d Jo K eh C jdG

J ,Qh I JQTEG dEG kaVEH .C IQTEG e GdCG fH (Extract) j
N OE G I O YE G V d G e 3.58 MHz OO d G GP d G d G e d G L d G C I Q TE G
3.58 MHz edG LdG dq Jo .dG GQTEG US e dG g
H (4-19 d G ) S d G Q W V J h 3.58 MHz O O H H e S G H
.jdG GQTEG e e TJ H J dG zeqnodG qdG QJ{ IQTEG
NCdG IQGO dG e
TdG Y GQTE Y

dG jdG e J e IQGdG
dG TdG C I
adG
jdG

jdG GQTEG GOOJ He J e

Y IQOdG TdG
3.58 MHz Q
jdG Tc

`H QdG je fEG IO YEG GQGO :7-19 dG

90
.fjdG dG a GdCG
- 577 -
I dG je dEG MHz 3.58 OOH HdG e Ik T e MGh N S jo
IQTEG e dG edG LdG QW MGREG J .dG I GQTECG US
g Hh .(Modulator) qdG dEG dSQEG j CG b 90 `H SdG a Q
CG b 90 QdG je SGH 90 QH HdG e NBG N qjo ,qdG
J j .dG Q IQTEG USH U dG ,Q dG jd j
k GNCGh .Y IQTEG e kYJ (Matrix) adG Y dG Qh I GQTEG
e qUCG GdCG GQTEG fEG IOYE H UdG H dG GQTEG cJ
J .CRT TCG U dEG SJo dGh (B) QRCGh (G) NCGh (R) MCG
dG aNGh CRT TCG U J eY kfhdEG nMp IT GQTEG
.IQq dG J GdCGh

jdG Gec eU
Image ) I Q d G b (1 : g F Q b C G Y ZC H f j d G J
a . (Scan Section ) d G b (3 , (Storage Target ) d G N (2 , (Section
IQdG jH FdG QGUEd l S j hdEG jqHh IQdG b
GP IQU jd dG N b S Y Icqe ,fhdG IQU dEG jqdG
b IcqdG FHdG dG qa dG N eqCG .He FHc T
eM J .dG b a ddG hdEG eM H dPh dGh GAGdG
,k GQGJh k GQGe d dG dG (Scan) H YdG dG hdEG
Spatial Charge) dG jRJ M e SJ bdG Jhe GQTEG dsJo M
G S H (Vidicon ) f j d G j d G e U J f K M f e . (Distribution
. j d G X h A G O C (Photoconductive Targets ) F V U e G P G g C G

(ja) fjdG jdG eU

U g ,8-19 d G a j c , (Vidicon Tubes VT ) j a U E G
IQdG cqJ .qFV Ue P g e jJ Ged qf Hh U
Ue aT IOH NGdG e dG LGdG Md Y SY SGH qjH
e bQ W SJ j .FHdG GQTEd k GOhdG j kbQ AkZ qJo

- 578 -
OhdG Y ,jdG KK jdc ,qFV Ue P Ue T AZ
ae Y IQOdG hdEG eM cqJh .z c{ j T F H c
e j W Y j h , e e e S G H (Electron Gun ) f h d E G
. (Raster Scan ) d R G d G d H e d G J d A M E G
cdG qe UG e
Ue GP W
FV
OKdG

bdG AdG

dG
N IQTEG ae
FHc b fhdEG
dbdGh aCG GfG e

. ( j a ) f j d G j d G G e c e U :8-19 d G

SJ ,O K d H J e M d hC G I Q TE G Oh d E G Y e 20 VDC d G M e
.OKdG da dG T a dG S Y fhdG SdG hdEG eM
aJ e IAdG WdG a UdG OGOJ ,dG Y IQq dG cqJ Mh
kSb fe kjQJ WdG g a MdG dG Jh .dG
(Neutralize ) H e d G f h d G J . d e e Y H O K d H
J j dG IQTEG OhdEG W a ja GQTEG dqoa cGdG dG
N e ,FdG UdG J M jdGh dG IQhO J .mFH
kTqJ (ja) jdG Gec U j .Le T KCJ ,dG
Je SM J ah .e QJ ie Y j fC dPh cj
dG Gg EG .(Capacitive Effects) jqdG GKCdG H NCdG H j
V IQb hPh ,Nh ,U fjJ U fC e GedG eU e
bGdG FGhO fCG a c JeJhCG dG RfEh H Y jd
Y dG H dG CCD dG b IGOCG Gec CGH ,k GNDe .dG
.jGe f
- 579 -
 jd KQhCG eU
Image Orthicon TV Camera ) jdG Ged jd KQhCG U j
Q G U E G M d N e f h d E G k G Q U ,9-19 d G a e g c , (Tube
fL e d e g N e IMGh L Y IQdG cqJ .FdG
IQTEG dJ .YdG H IOY fhdEG e fe fhdEG eM SGH NBG
.dG N e LdG hdEG M J e dG
GfG e
cdG
q e dG dbdGh aCG e
UG
cdG e T
UdG OjO h

fhdEG Ye
SY MGe 5 hP
Gec
qe dG T ae
dG fhdEG
FV OKc ddG

. Q q d K Q h C G f C G : 9 - 1 9 d G

KCJ , IQeh e fhdEG e LdG hdEG M dCJ

cKQhCG j a ,dGh JShdG dH gQe N
eqdG g qSM EG .Yeo hdEG SGH YdG joh .IQdG
:cKQhCG e Yf g CG c .X T a QdG d j H dY
.qdG OMCGh qdG

Qd chjCG U
, (Image Isocon TV Camera Tube ) j d G G e d Q d c h j C G U E G
Md dh ,Qd KQhCG qU e IQqe f g ,10-19 dG a dG
ke ,dG fhdEG Y IQdG fhdEG J UN qLJ
Yd dG MGdG N a IQdG fh dEG J d H

- 580 -
f e j MdG e dG Ggh .IQTEG fE aOdG fh dG
Sj LdG dG e QdG AdG EG .IQdG chjCG a dG
Qj dG Y hdEG c KCJ eh ,dG Y IOLdG dGh kjOW
OGORG fdG fG Gg OGORG c .qHjEG dG J Ood e jdG
.IQSG c
cdG cdG e UG e
q e dG

SY
GedG

FdG OKdG GfG e hdG Ye ae

dbdGh aCG MGdG SdG hdG

. Q d c h j C G G e c U :10-19 d G

qdG b IGOCG Gec

g (Charged-Coupled Device (CCD) Cameras) qdG b IGOCG Gec EG
J qc ,(CCD Imager) qT b IGOCG Que d qfj J G e c
e a e g ,11-19 dG a j c ,(Imager) Qu dGh . JQ d
.fhdEG IQTEG dEG FdG bdG qJ ,S IcQ Y FdG dG
IAVEG IT e Sj QGH adG e e c a FdG qdG dqjo
BG e fe ae e jdG GQTEG e S fE . dEG L
q dG
.CGJ CG kKJ fdG (Packets) RqdG J Y ,dG

dG qj CG j dG jdG S HH g qdG b IGOCG ILCG EG

kf j Ggh ,NBG dEG e e ,qeR HbQ Jh FJ H fdG
e Ye dEG jQq dG QSG Ye e H a jo ,OHCG FK
a KdG dG RQp j ,dK U g ,aCG dG EG .e jJ
KK gh .jdG H dG e dG GNEG qdBG J .IM
q e S
- 581 -
 q dG jdG
(2 ,(Frame) QWEG j dG (1 : dG g e G fCG
q d G Q W E G j d G (3 , (Interline )
. (Frame-Interline )

FV e

ILCG U FHc GOhdEG

IQdG QSG bdH d

IdG WGb

S U dG qe JEG
jdG

aCG S jdG N
dG

.qdG b IGOCG Gec a IQdG jJ g :11-19 dG

Uh QdG dG U gh QWEG jdG a e U j

cGJo .jdG Ia N QSG Ye Y IQdG cqJ .jdG S
e hdG FdG dG ,QWEG jdG H a ,jqOdG qFdG dG
N ,dG e jf ah .SdG SGH Y IcqdG jqdG IQdG IQfEG
bQ eR HbQ Jh , k S FdG dG U j ,aCG jdG Ia
dEG aCG qdG b IGOCG N IGRGH ,dH dG f YH qj
.AdG e bH dG jdG S Qe

AKCGh .jL e fdG dG T Ad k GgL IQdG T GaEG S j

S dEG jdG S QN MGh m H qdG RQ J fdG dG e
CGJo M .jd dG dG g NCG Gg N jh ,J aoCG
RGdG jdG S k GgL mFY dG j jdG S U L
jdGh qdG jdG Y QHG J .dGhO Ggh ,QdG S e ddG
jdG Y eqCG .qe hX a IQdG LJ hO j d dG QWEG
.qdG b IGOCG GQqe L a Hj Ma QWEG
- 582 -
eU e CCD TV RdG Ged qdG b IGOCG ILCG M d
a (Camcorders) dG qY a edG jdG ILCG a G e dG
jJh ,NCdG J :cCG qejO k GOHCG J a ,fjdG dG gjOS
.IQq dG a FGdG

,aCG Y 700 dEG 300 e (Solid-State Imager) dG ddG Qqe dqCj

a j ch .NTSC H eGSG jh ,SCGQ Y 500 e H j
Ged qdG IGOCG I LCG E a ,12-19 dG a q dG fdG dG
aoCG Y 500 Y j e qc (Imagers) GQqe 3 ah qdG jdG
Y CCD Gec ODJo .QRCGh NCGh MCG dG jd Qhe
jdG FSh Jh .kHS IQcdG dG jJ jW SGH dG
.jd N GQTEG Jh dG dG U ac d

dG NCG TdG MCG dG

QGeEd dG jd
AGMGh dG

dG NCG TdG NCG dG

AGMGh QGeEd dG jd
dG

dG NCG dG TdG QRCG dG

AGMGh QGeEd jd
dG

SY

.CCD qdG b IGOCG Ged fhdGh jqdG UdG :12-19 dG

eqCG .LLR Qd KdG LhCH HJh bO H QudG bbQ cJo

bbQ HJ .dG UY H Ga IqY Sa ,dG jdG bbQ
cqJ M H qUN jqH NGe a ,IqM Y e w c ,QRCGh MCG
b IGOCG ILCG bbQ e c NCa .NCG e H aCG Je
je e zQqdG{ j M UdG fe AbQdGh AGdG AGdG qdG
.hdH KdG GdCG GQTEG e c

- 583 -
GMhh GQTEG J GMh Y CCD qdG b IGOCG ILCG J
,jdG N J J IMh dEG c SGH GedG UJo .bdH J
qdH J GedG g .bdG Ohqeh ,jdG fH qeh ,dGh
.JedG ILCG J dG J hJ

jdG Gech qbdG GedG a ,fdG qdG b IGOCG Gec NCJ

J dG qYdG JdG jDhQ of a kjCG J e cJ ,jQdG
dG Th dGh ,ddG Jh ,IQhdG e HdG Z AGLCG qJh
qdG b IGOCG Gec EG .qdGh dGh dG M RJh Od (AdG)
J c qYdG JdG jDhQ of H a Jh ,c bCG qdG jqOMCG
zJdG jDhQ fCG{ Y WEG j) .JdGh fdG a bGe c
. (22 d G a z Y d G f h d G L d d G { h

jdG fjdG dG je
QdG hJ N f
d (Phase Alternation Line (PAL) System) Q dG O J N f EG
,zNTSC { H k G L d Gh , H hQ hC G a d G j Q d G M C G g f j d G
.kJK cCG d fE Y NOCG k GjJ CG ASH

a k M 50) hCG fdG a k GQWEG 25 H QWEG d kN 625 dG j

H dG fH J M QdG fH J ,dG Y N .(fdG
EG dP j h ,HdG J N e TEGh dG fH o Joh .e
Y N dEG N e LQO 180 J ,Y H IMGh J qY SGH
Y e dG MdG jJ Oj .pnr odG a NCJ Hh SdG
jdG Y bhdG g EG .dG ie Y IMGh NCJ H dPh dG
H C G j d G S Q E G j d b d G a N G a e G S G j i No C G
.jdG OSCGh

,dG e qHhQhCG hdG e jdG Jh ,fdEG a (PAL) dG Gg QqW

- 584 -
dG fjHh ,GjSh ,jq dGh ,Gfgh ,Gah ,QfdGh ,Hh
qceCG dGh qjaCG hdG Hh dGSCc iNoCG G H dEG a VE H
.jRGdc

IcGdG e bdG qdG f

Q d G g (Sequential Color With Memory (SECAM) System ) d G G g
.kJK cCG d fE jJ Jh ,NTSC e kHJ cCG gh ,fdG HhQhCG

.fdG a (
k e 50) k GQWEG 25 QH QWEG a kN 625 dG Gg j
a NCG jh :QRCG dG FGR q dG fH jdG dG Jh
.q dG GQTEG e QRCGh MCG fH W jW Y odG

,i N C G b T H hQ hC G hOh ShQ h , f a a d G d G g SECAM E G

keJ aGe fqdG fjdG d dG Gg jJ J .jaEG hO dEG kaVEG
g a ee GJ dG (OSCGh HCH) qdG jqOMCG fjdG e
.GdG

SQE dG jdG bha dEG

k UC G O J SECAM a a N G g E G
.qdG OMCG jdG

(qdG GQTEH) dG IdG

NGhCG a (Cable Television CATV) qdG GQTEH dG IdG apYo
j dG ,dG FGdG jdG SG J VdG dG e HQCG
a .k GL dY GOOHh k GL IH fjJ H e e jqb GQTEG SQEH
e S V 6 MHz H J 12 `d G f j d G G d G f c b d G d P
e qJ jqdG CATV `dG cJ EG .216 MHz h 54 MHz H hGJ GOOdG
Y bGdG SQEG GHCG e SQEG ILCG GOOJ dG dEG j FGg
.eJ dG dG MGdG a GbCG e JQG

- 585 -
,(Head End) FdG FdG dG g ,jqY qaW e dqCa jRdG f eqCG
Coaxial) QdG e c SGH jRJ fh IS eh ,kFGg J
. (Cable

dEG FGdG e cdG IQTEG j dG g QdG e dG L EG

JG S W Y IQTEG s Jo .cdG Re M dG WdG
q dG dG e dG QdG e rndG j a
AMCG H IQTEG
:Multitap) RqH WHe QdG Ie c jW Y cdG H d
.dRe fL Y OLdG jdG c e (Qe IqY hP RL

e dG jW Y ,dG H qfjdG cGTEG RqJo SdG H

.QdG

GQ TE H d G R d G e N YR d a hC G e H 1970 Y j G H e h
J qdG qadG jqdG Ja .JdG e kqS GQTEG SG dG
.(Super Trunks) UN SCG Y IHh FQ qaW jqH

d ,13-19 dG a dG VdG dG a LPdG dG Gg qj

fjdG SQEG a QdGh jqdG dCH SCG Hc SH AdG j
.1980 Y j G H M

j e qJ CG feEH jdG SG ILCGh jqQdG QdG Se EG

d G Y 750 MHz d E G 50 MHz e h ,700 MHz O O d G d G a G b 110 d E G
.MGdG

c a jqdG dH H Y d jdG QdG Ie dG Jh

.P I N F d G F d G b d G T H S G I L C G Y j d G h j d G d C G

a jdG c EG .dG Qe NCd jRdG f Oj ,IdG RhJ H

a R d G e e d G a 90 e c C H J d G GQ TE H d G I d G
. e d G a 60 e c C G J h I d G j d G

- 586 -
 JS
FdG FdG dG
(jdG adG)
IY
dG edG jH
dG Sd e
Qd Se
LdG OMCG jqdG dCG S c
S eL
e QdG e c Oe dG Sd e

UdG c

. d G I d G U d j d G d C H J G S :13-19 d G

fjdG dG fCG L FCC qdGQdG JG d eCG ,1972 Y a

SQEG Y k GQOb jRdG f H , e 500 e cCG J dG ,CATV
. V d G G d 35 MHz h 5 MHz H hG J GOOJ Y e J J h . g J H
J GSG Y edG g ee e b OY EG j d BG qM dh
c e 3.25 qe dG e H q b dG dG c J Hh .GOO dG
e 90 e c C H d G N J , d Gh . c e C G VGQ C G a c Y c d
. e e 6 5 e d G H c d G O Y S ,1 9 9 8 Y e h . c e C G H

ddG VdG jJ
g (High-Definition Television HDTV) VdG ddG fjdG EG
,dG MVH qJ dG fqdG bdG dG fjJ e QqdG jdG dG
Y qfjJ qdY je KK qgCG J dG ,JdG ef Ibh ,gQU bHh
fG Y fjdG g SDJ .SECAM ,PAL ,NTSC :gh FYEG
dG bqdG q dGh ,SQEG jqOqJh ,dG cJhH Yh ,jdG
Z fdG d bdG dGh ,GdG SGdG Dolby AC-3 dG
. MPEG-2 cdG QdG AGN Ye f Y qc J dGh ,XdG

- 587 -
 VC G 6 g b d G G gh I Q U Y 2,073,600 Y HDTV `d G I Q U J
IQU Y 337,920 qddG gQU qg a J dG NTSC je UY OY
V Je CG fdG a k GQWEG 60 qH kbDe kfJ bdG dG eDj .cCH
kqSCGQh kaoCG IQdG J .fdG a k GQWEG 29.97 hj dG IQd NTSC Qe
ILCG a IOdG 4:3 ` dG NTSC fG L e 16:9 H ShCG fG L Y
, SG dG fG dG n pf e a VEG F dG g Hh . SG
5 cCG ,fH VdG ddG fjdG g SQEG j ,dG eh
VY a 6 MHz c Hh .qddG qfjdG jdG SJ e ,bCG Y Ge
SGH Se 20 Mbps kjJ hj H qbQ Ib HDTV f Sj IdG f
.dG Z fdG d bdG dG

k GOGeG ShCG IQdG j qfCG Y kceCG qdG dG g HDTV `dG UCG

dG dP bCG Y Oj Hh OdG jdG J H ,TdG Y
VdG dY fjdG AfG Y e GTDch .eqdG UGbCG e Rj
OqT bh .IOLdG NTSC fCG e eAe g (HDTV Standard) jQdG
NTSC `d dG fjdG dG j CG Y ke dGQdG JG d
q
.OSCGh HCH fjdG H e (Compatible) kFe

d e Sj e QN ,Format cJ 18 qfjdG dG J
k SGh k GQfG cCG fc cdG g e kHQCG CG Z ,bdG fjdG
a
:gh ,e CG SG bQ jJ CG SH fC dPh ,dG

dh
k S G c C G V d G d Y d G g h , (Interlaced H e )1080- I (1
e kfQe kdbT kN 1920 e HJ dG gh kfJ kaCG kN ,1080
.SCGQ N 704 `H kaoCG kN 480 Y J INCG a ,NTSC cJ

IQb J dGh YCG dG cJ gh ,(Progressive qeJ) 1080-P (2

kjQJ 1080 `dG aoCG dG GQTEG SJ M IOLdG fjdG GdG
.HJ hO e

- 588 -
Gb L e aGJh cdG je YCG gh ,(qeJ) 720- P (3
e kaJ cCG cdG g Jh .UGdG d kaCG kN 720 dh ,jdG
. 1080- I `d G

W N c H V d G a Q d G c d G g J ,( e J ) 480-P (4
bQCG OY Y J NTSC -480- I cJ EG .qedG bdG ,480 `dG qaCG
.I Q U Y 304,000 J O J h , H e f C G Z , f

ILCG fE j fdG bdG fjdG SG ILCG e qEG

cdG S FGhO j e e ,VdG deh Se ,dY ,SG
cCG bQ eN NBG dG j a IdG H j dG ,VhdG
.H J j d k GQJ

qdG jRJh SG ILCG

S G I L C G h C G , (Set-Top Boxes STB ) d G j R J h S G I L C G E G
RL ch qdG GQTEG H Sc J e IMh g ,dG jJh
kah Ie eN eCd dPh ,VCR jdG jT e hCG ,dG SG
c dG eN e b e IqdG qdG eGdG a STB `dG j .d
.qfjdG YdG a bf J hCG ,adG Z (Tunning) dG VuJo
e e Igeh dG eGH AfG hCG efdG e YdG RdG Gg j
cQdGh GSG GQSG Y ITdG HLEG dEG kaVEG ,FGT b
.TdG dG a qjQdGh

(Microprocessors) jhe d eo j STB `dG e j dG dG EG

eh .jqb J fCG GP eH Y J GJc aGSh ,ibCG
a dG dEGh e J YdG Fa qbQ GQTEG jJ dEG Qj CG bdG
dEG NdG e jdG RL a YdG edG g J dG e
,FGT b aCG e VYh ,fhdG jdG Jh ,jdG ffEG
dCGh ,qe a hCG d L q dG YEGh jdGh ,fhdEG dGh
.ddG VdG gjah qYdG
- 589 -
qbdG GQTEG LJ Y JQH d dG STB `dG ILCG H Rj
HDTV V J .NTSC Y d K J G Q T E G d E G V d G d e h C G , d d G
jdG Zj dG Gdh ,cCH Ikb j dSQEG qCG EG IRe k GQU
f j d G J a , M Gh HDTV d h , d I Oh d G J G b SG a
d h NTSC f j J J i e H I Q U d G V d G GP b d G
EG .iNCG eN eCJ hCG iNCG eGH Vd dG Ib e kac k e J
RL a qbdG IcGdG e 10 MB bCG Y j HDTV IQTEG SG
.SQEG e YdG jg J J j NGdG IQGdG SHh .SG
,6 bit hCG ,7 bit dEG J j IQq dG UY j dG (8 bit Data Byte) `dG EGh
.5 bit d E G M hC G

FdG JdG FGg jJ

Satellite Master Antenna Television ) FdG JdG FG g j J EG
IMGh ImQY V ce eH Qe Fa fjJ e g (SMATV
hCG YU FGM hCG eL M a c HQe GQ Y Y e V hCG
,e d G Ohe e STB d G j R J h SG R L d G L
q Dj .e
j h d (1.83 m ) 6 ft H L P f , M e a e b F G g c H a
FGdG j .qdG GQTEd dG jJ H cdG d SG
Soa ,JdG HCG e jdH kWe j b jdG a e YCG Y
.iNoCG HCG a FHdG dEG c SGH mM eGdG

qbdG JGdG fCG

bQ H f g (Digital Satellite System- DSS) qbdG JGdG f EG
g .a odG MU dEG qdY qYf GP GQTEG Sj ,Te Fa
d G a G Q G d G J . (46 cm ) 18 in H a e b F G H I e f C G
Y d G e E H a (Scrambled Signals ) M G d G G Q T E G H
j OGd G GOO d j M Y a hC G Q d G a F G d G c j . f j J I b 178

w c j dG fCG e jdG g ,dGh .JdG f L q j h , (RF-Shelter )

.e GOOJ Y e
- 590 -
 h d G dG

H Y JG LdJ

jdG

eT If
(Communications ) J G
(International Transmission Standards) qddG SQEG je
(Data Communications Channels ) f d G U G J G b
(Channel Bandwidth ) O O d G I d G f V Y
(Analog Transmission ) K d G S Q E G
(Digital Transmission ) b d G S Q E G
(Channel Configuration ) I d G J
(Data Communication Line Sharing ) f d G J G q H cQdG
(Data Serial Transmission ) f d d G Y S Q E G
(Packet Networks) eRqdG T
(Synchronous/ Isochronous Encoding) OOqdG he /eGdG dG
(T1 Carrier) T1 e M
(Narrowband ISDN ) d G V ISDN
e GJ d G SQ E G f h d G j Y ISDN
(Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN) and Asynchronous Transfer Mode)

- 591 -
 (Pulse-Amplitude Modulation- PAM ) d G S J
(Code-Division Multiple Access- CDMA) OdG H OqdG NdG
(Telephone Systems ) J d G f C G
(Computer Networks ) J d G T
(Satellite Communications ) J d G J G
(Global Telephone Satellite ) d d G J d G J G S

eT If
Qe dEG Y m H (Telecommunications) zHo Y JG{ e Oj
hCG (Wire) dG SGH (Intelligent Signals) qcdG GQTEG SGh SQEG
Q d G P f j d Gh j OGd G SQ E G H gh .A G d G Y hC G (Cable) d G
dEG f e ,cdGh ,jdGh ,fdGh ,dG GQTEG SQEG J MGdG
M CG Yh .jqhdG LdG dEG dG e GOOqdG e ao Y iNCG
,dG QdGh ,dG Y JdG JG Y cqj dhCG de Gj
a dG g c ,Q dG J dGh ,(Fiber Optic) F dG dCGh
HGhQh , J dG M eh ,(Terrestrial Microwave) VQCG jh dG
. (Cellular Mobile Telephone Links ) d G d G J d G I L C G ( U h )

dG a GRCG b H e JdG Th GJdG e c eO qEG

JdG q N Oeh JdG H dG qCG ia .LddG H LGdG
,ffEG GSGh ,cdG :ddG edG eqCG b (Telephone-Line Modem)
e S hCG c HGhQ e m d CG kY ,fhdEG jdG SGh SQEGh
Cellular Mobile) dG dG J dG I LCG e c j . U Nh
c ,jqjOGdG GOOqdG (Uh) HGhQ Y (Cordless) SdGh (Telephone
Handheld) jqhdG GJ dGh (Pagers) dBG AG dG I LCG a dG g
Personal Communications ) d G J G I L C H a h d G (Computers
q
. (Devices - PCDs

- 592 -
qVh a cCH dG Gg AHEH JG e a IjdG gdG opJn
JGS e WSCG qCG if , k a .eOdG GdG OG eG Y FG dG Q q dG
AG LEG eqD j e ,VQCG M d Y GQG e dEG aQ jqQ dG JG
JG N aJ ah .VQCG S Y be CG H JdG JG
c q bCG qVQCG UdG QNG qj ,(Alternative Land Links) jdG qVQCG
G P Q S H d G h j j j E G J G S B G a J h . (Lower-Cost Terrestrial Links )
Geosynchronous Inmarsat ) SQ f E G f h S d G J G S d G J Q G
.qddG JdG edG IQJ e a (Satellites

IH a e V d dG J dG e N J c T G bEG qEG
A G T Y (Long-Distance Multinational Telephone Service Providers Company )
JeGQdG GqdG Y dc J Cable Television fjdG dG cT
JdG cT S ,dG idG a .JG e a UdG
S dG JG dch ,qqdG JdG IQJ dEG NdG e IdG
JdG eo CG fK Mf e dh .IdG adG JG eN e
edG dGh JdG cT cqJ M ,V dM a fCch dG dG
(Fiberoptic Cable ) d G d G c h (Coaxial Cable ) Q d G e d G Y
RdGh ,(High-Speed Internet Access) jdG ffEG eN eD j j dG
d G J G e N d c h , f h d E G j d G h , (Interactive TV ) Y d G
.IdG adh

e (TV Receiver) RdG e a qddG GJdG NOEG qj

Set-Top ) d G Y e Q J h (Video Card Add-Ons ) a d G j d G b H
q
kdO ,ffEGh qYJ aW jf dEG RdG e qJ dG (Boxes
dG Gg a IjL Vc jh c .LddG H dG Y kVGh
d SSCG H j dG dG NdG qddG GJdG H S
d SSCG dG Y dG Gg fG dh .ffEG GSH dh
JdG H dG Y IQb cCGh SCG jhe dd dGh jGdG
UdG deh ,SdGh ,(Data Processing) fdG dc jqdG

- 593 -
qfCG dEG IQTEG jh .(Desktop Publication) dG dGh ,(Word Processing)
C G d E G J g (Higher-Level Computers ) a Q C G i d G G J c M
e . (High-Speed Cables ) Y d G F a c S G H f f E H H J h C G U J
d IUdG JG qJ JQKCG dG IqdG cdG Cch ,iNCG Mf
IjL e OLh Y edG FHdG aGdG H YCG a ,ac J
.JTh AHdG N Y JdG GQTEG d

JG
f e edG SQEG Y qfCG Y (Communication) JG qJo
(ca) ca hCG ,ja hCG ,qbQ fH hCG ,U T Y iNCG dEG
qeo hCG FSh iMEG g (Service Networks) dG eN qEG .(Facsimile)
d E Gh e e d G SGh SQ E H J (Communications Facilities) J G
a ,NBG dEG me e edG SQEH g SQEG qeo Jh .dG
H SQEG qeo UH (Switching Facilities) jdG qeo J M
.dG bdG hCG dG a Jo edG J

SQEG hCG JG a .KJh bQ U dEG JG L J

MCG (MGh hCG U) (bits) dG hCG (Binary Digits) qFdG bQCG Jo ,bdG
dG fH aO Jh dJ jh (Alphanumeric Characters) qbdG jHCG
( F d G b Q C G) d G O Y j h .(Compatible Terminal) a G e W SG H
.(Code) ( Y G b h R e Q Y e ) O d H d G h J H b d G h M d

American Standard Code) (SCG) edG Od QdG ceCG OdG qjo

.fdG SQG e a keGSG cCG OdG (for Information Interchange ASCII
DadG d fN dGE aV
E H ,M q d (H) qFK bQCG 7 Y OdG Gg Jjh
E G QoJ) .(Parity Bit) HdG bQ
.(H 8 `H Oc SCG kjCG aqj qfCG dGE IQT

dG jQdG JG GAGLEG qfCG Y qa (Protocols) cJhdG eqCG

d dH KJ d gh ;SG Ge SQEG J H aGdG eqDJ
.(Spoken Languages) d G
q
- 594 -
e Yj dG edG T OhM g ,(Interface) dG dG hCG ,UdG GE
CG QhdG e .(Terminals) qadG e kYf
k e dG e dG dN
.JG Ib e (Binary Serial Data) FdG bdG J fH aGJ

:j H GdGh fd cdG JG qaW FXh OJ

GJdG HJ dG ,(Cluster Controllers) qdG /jOdG dG

.JG H (Peripherals) dG hCG
JG H qJ dG ,(Front-End Processors) qeeCG dodG
.(Host Computer) dG Jd HdG (Communications Lines)
J f GP (Bimodal) dG FK IQGO Y IQY gh (Modem) OdG
g jJ Jh JdG N Y SQ E d qe KJ T dGE qbdG fdG
.dG Y qbQ fH dGE GQT
E G
jf e J CG j dG ,(Personal Computers) qdG GJdG
H hCG qUN H qUJ eY (Intelligent Data Terminals) qcdG fdG
.(Public Switched-Telephone Network - PSTN) eqdG JdG
GMh g ,(Remote Data Concentrators RDCs) H Y fdG Gcqe
E Gh edG IOYGEh (Slow- Speed Lines) dG YdG N e FSdG U
SQ
.(High-Speed Lines) ddG YdG N Y (Multiplexing) FSd OdG
(Time Division Multiplexers TDMs) edG OdG SQ E Gh edG IMh
q H dG YdG N e cCG hCG N J IMh gh
dY YS P MGh
.(Time-Sharing) edG cQdG jW Y
NdG eqDJ dG ,(Video Display Terminals VDT) jdG VdG aW
N GRM Je H dG g c ,edG Od ce Jc dGE
,(Travel Agencies) dGh GdG chh ,(Airline Reservations Desks) GdG
.(Securities Offices) jdGh eCG Je
Voice Data Private Branch Exchanges ) qUdG JdG fdG OJ a
q

- 595 -
Je a gZh JdG JG Gqe e c OY IQGOEH J gh ,(PBXs
.cdGh fdG

ddG SQG je
f d (International Transmission Standards ) ddG SQEG je qJo
.V dH CGJh ,bdG jqHCG GOH JG

28.8 YH edG OdG d IOqdG Jd ddG QdG gh V.34

dEG j b AH OdG j CG j QdG Gg J .SCG hCG fdH Hc
. e e C G a d G VhC G d Y d G j d d H h 2400 b/s
.eOdG a ANCG feG d ddG QdG gh V.42 bis

.56 kb/s Y d G P O d H J d j d G Q d G g h V.90

fdG UGJ Gb
HGQ hCG (Data Communications Channels) f dG UG J I b q Jo
h C G , e H f d G S G J Q e q f C H ( C o m m u n i c a t i o n s L i n k ) J G
H hCG ,(Single Wire) Oa H eqEG IkOY QdG Gg j .cCG hCG ,jf
e c h C G , S C G e j R G e Y e h C G , (Twisted Pair Of Wires ) e h e
SQEG a JGQb J OhM GdG g dh .LLR d c hCG ,QdG
fd IdG M pS Jh .FjdGh FHdG FN VJ fdG
.(Bandwidth) OOqdG dG VH

(cdG Z) dG (1 :g FQ GfCG KK dEG f dG bCG Jo

(Full LGhORG e c (3h ,(Half-Duplex) LGhORG dG (2 ,(Simplex)
dG ILCG a IOLdG SQEG fCG e G fCG g H J .Duplex)
(Simplex) dG IdG J .edG jOGdGh JdG Lseh ,(Mobile)
.dG hCG odG dEG SdG e - a mMGh mJG a edG SQEH

H keGJ a (Time-Shared Transmission) dG edG SQEG eCG

- 596 -
, L G h O R G f I d G a (Two Sender/Receivers ) e h / S e , K G
H IQGO Jo eY eqCG .MGh m SQEG e cCG eG H jo M
T E G , b G d G a h . S Q E G J G d d G b a (Two-Wire Circuit )
qC dPh LGhORG f T g (Public Telephone Network) eqdG JdG
.S GP IQGO g qdG dG

eh /Se aW H (Simultaneous Transmission) eGdG SQEG eqCG

d j e , (Full Duplex Channel ) L G h O R G e d G I d G a a
JH dG GP IQGdG J .zOdG{ Y IQdG Se /e
iNCG Mf e .qdGh SQEG bC e GOOJ AYEG Y LGhORG ec
a .keGSG cCG g (Four-Wire Circuits) HQCG SCG GP GQGdG qEG
cdG edG hCG JG cT aJ c eCG I dG j dG
. S C G H Q C G h d G G P J d G e c G S G (Common Carriers )

(Simplex Mode) dG dG jH dG GP IdG Jo b dP e

a zSQEG{ W UH NBG Hh ,SQEG JG qadG OM M a
d c . (Receive-Only Terminal ) a S G H (Transmit-Only Terminal )
OdG c GPEG ,LGhORG f dG a jo CG dG P q d j
JdG T OOJ f VY H eOdG J M , q dG b Y k GQOb
Ib d (Subchannels) qYa SGh SQEG Gb dEG dG GP eqdG
. (Full-Duplex Channel ) L G h O R G e c

,LGhORG ec JG a Jo , HQCG SCG GP I dG eqCG

JG a Jo bh c .SGh SQEd e SCG Y FGM
. (Line Turnaround ) d G b d E G L d G h O L G h O R G f

S OJ qj Jch H W H FSdG SQEG CG dEG IQTEG QJ

qJ kS IQeo GQTEG a cJhdG eqCG .dSdG d GQTEG e
hCG QdH cJhdG OJ jh .dSQEG eGJ Vh FSdG aH
. (Handshaking ) J G c C J O J C G ) a d G

- 597 -
 :j d kah fdG JG Ib sJo
.(Bandwidth) OOqdG dG VY -1
Private Versus Switched Access - ) d G N d G H e U d G N d G -2
q
.(PVSA)
. (Propagation Delay ) Q f E G j J -3
. (Line Configuration ) J G N J -4
. c J h d G G SG -5
. (Availability ) d G -6
. c d G c h e R -7
hCG , (Point To Point) f dEG f f e eqEG a JG q N J eqCG
. (Loop ) W f C G f e , (Multipoint ) d G I O e e

OOqdG IdG f VY
IdG IQb Se qfCG Y (Channel Bandwidth) OOqdG dG VY qjo
qa ,SQEG YoSh OOqdG f VY H bY gh .edG M Y
GOdH YdG SJo .cCG fdG f YS fc ShCG dG VY c
Y c GPEa .IMGdG fdH RedG hCG q d G a I Q TE G U Y O H hC G Bauds
q Ea FdG ddG e dM qj IQTEG
(Bit Rate) d G e h J GO d G
dG dM a VdG g c ,e dM e cCG g j eY eCG
(Multiphase QGWCG Oqe dG hCG (Multilevel Modulation) idG OqdG
.GOdG dG qe ia ,Modulation)

ddG GOOqdG qCG EG ,4 kHz g JdG OOqdG Ib VY qCG hdG e

hCG qdG fdG J .3500 Hzh 200 Hz H a ILGdG g KdG SQEd
Y Jj ,M a .IQTEG Y c a IqdG dG OY Y dG e
Coding) dG f Yh ,(bQ hCG KJ) qdG SQEG f Y IQTEG
o
.(Modulation Method ) d G j W h (Scheme

- 598 -
 KdG SQEG
S Jo J dG N Y (Analog Transmission) KdG SQEG d M a
J dG JG Ib a (Amplitudes) dGh GOOqdG e UGe Ye
TdGh ,(Linear Amplifiers) qdG dG Joh .fdGh dG
Y AHE d (Transformers) q dGh ,(Attenuators) g dGh ,(Filters)
J dG CG if dG Gg e .(Signal Quality) IQTEG IOLh qYf
(Error Rates) CdG qe j qe ,edG M IOjR e dG IOjH
.bdG SQEG a e KdG SQEG a cCG

dGh ,(Capacitance) dG j dG J dG N F N qEG

dG GOOq dG GP GQ TEG gq Jh NqD J , eh dGh ,(Inductance)
edG ie Y CGJ dG GdG g qJo .(Different Frequencies)
.(Attenuation Distortion) gdG qJ hCG (Envelope Delay) dG jH

ae Y Teh qN e OLh KdG SQEG fCG qJ

g H adG OqJo ;TdH dG e dh IQTEG jd dPh ,HK
Y dG VJ k a .(End To End Media) j f d E G j f e G d G
e h d G d G GhRC G d M a H Y ( e 1830 ) b 6000 J a e
fdG SQEG a eOe OLh qj ,iNCG Mf eh .JdG a edG
.ddG KdG JdG N Y bdG

bdG SQEG
f T Y f H (Digital Transmission ) b d G S Q E G f C G J
m H JG Ib Y
C G j . (Digital Carrier ) b d G e d G Y J
f VY aqJ Y bQ H jjdGh ,qJdGh ,bdG fdG Jo
(Regenerative Repeaters) ddG IOYEG Ge qbdG fCG J .Fe
GdG g RJh .(Deshape Pulses) qbdG dG T AdEGh bJ IOYE
fCG a qdG GdG e cCG bqH qUCG LdG T fEG Jo qfCH

- 599 -
J dGh dSQ
q d JG ANCG e bCG k GOY Jo a ddHh ,qKdG
.KdG SQEG a ANCG f e dH 2 hCG 1 bdG SQEG a f

bdG edG e p GfCG IqY H f bdG dG a dG dG e

.cdGh ,fdGh ,fhdEG jdGh ,JdG eh ,dGh ,dG e
j c , e C G M d c C G d H J C G b d G f d j , d P Y k a
.OOqdG dG VY a cCG Me d V
:j H KdG FdG ddG bdG SdG jdG OJ
(Time Division Multiple Access TDMA ) O d G N d G e R J -1
Code-Division Multiple Access ) OdG OdG NdG O c J -2
(CDMA
.(Global System For Mobile- c d G I L C G J d d G d G -3
GSM)

C G S Q E G f (Capacity ) d (TDMA) O d G N d G e R J j
LdG HGhQh dG dG c Y fdG f a SCG Lh OGOJ
SQEG qc jRH (CDMA) OqdG NdG Oc J j ,M a .jhdG
FSdG (CDMA) OqdG NdG Oc b jh .aqdG OOqdG f ec Y
(Prearranged Binary Pulse Trains) kHS IdG qFdG dG GWb GSH
RdG J ddG dG je eqCG .SG Ff Y gJ q j dGh
`dG f aqj .(CDMA) h (TDMA) `dG LdJ H J a GSM dG
Y j g c h ,GSM 1900 h C G GSM 900 d H G H 110 a GSM
. (CDMA ) h (TDMA ) G O O J e Y C G G O O J

Y IQTEG de a Jo IYb g (Nyquist Theorm) jf Va EG

High) ddG GOOqdG V e d dPh KdG IQTEG OOJ je
J . (Digital Conversion ) b d G j d G Y f O C G d G d E G (Frequency Noise
Nyquist jf OOJ dG) KdG OOqdG je j qfCG Y VdG
q
bCG Y JH cCG (Nyquist Rate /jf qH j) qoH (Frequency

- 600 -
U -QY Ib je J CG j ,dG S Yh .YCG OOqdG e
d d P h ,8 kHz e Y 4 kHz f V Y G P (Voice-Grade Channel )
ee id (Accurate Digital Representation) bO bQ J Y
. (Signals Information Content ) I Q T E G

QdG dG hCG ,IQTEG V bqe Z dY GOOJ hM M a

GQTEG H J gh .gdH jo e j ,NdG Ib a IQTEG a
OOqdG GP IQTEG fqd NGdG dG Y Jf ,GOOqdG e HPc
gdG J Y Hh .OOqdG je aGJ e (NdG V) ddG
T C G f C G a J f C G M a , J G a H Z e Z k G e C G (Aliasing )
hCG jdG GdCG GP WdG a odG Z qadG H j dG dG
.VdG TT Y fdG fCG

EG ,jf e jJ eEa ahe IOdG JG GOOJ qCG H

ac a dG hM d adG YdH fdG je MG NDj b dP qCG
dG (Low-Pass Filters) dG GOOqdG QGeEG Te eEHh .dG
g H J CG (Anti-Aliasing) g d IO dG T d H n Jo
.H ZdG Z ddG GOOqdG g (Attenuate)

IdG J
- dEG - f IOe HGhH eEG fdG (Channel Configuration) Gb qJo
qN H hCG ,(Point-To-Point Network) f - dEG - f H hCG ,f
M IFGH hCG (Loop) GQhO W fC H hCG ,(Multipoint Line) dG Oqe
H f d G O J f - d E G - f N Y e C G Q h H a . (Ring )
dEG f HGhQ e dG qa f dEG f T eCG .(Connection) HdG AH
jdGh (Communications Controllers) JH qdG H f
.IdG

GbG QNG cJhH OLh (Multipoint Line) dG OqdG dG qj

- 601 -
 q d (Dedicated Frequencies) e GOOJ OLh hCG (Poll-Select Protocol)
d E G (Shared Inbound Channel ) c d G O Q G d G I b d E G N d G J a G H I d G
dG GTEH dG IFGdG qJo .(Central Computer) cdG JdG
e hCG ,(Twisted-Pair) hdG hdG e eqEG j ,U N J SG H
qFQ qJ q e e dG qJ .LLR d c hCG ,(Coaxial) QdG
e U G d H d j d G G b G Q N G c J h H (Master Control Station )
L J ,NBG H .(Slave Stations) edG e hCG jqfdG dG
.H e UGJ CG dG NGO IOLdG dG

T N qfCG Y (Voice-Grade Lines) dG - QY N qJo

jh (Public Switched Telephone Network-PSTN) edG jdG JdG
Conditional And Unconditional ) Wh e Zh Wh e U N N Q SG
dG OOqdG dG VY M Hj .(Provider) qdG e (Private
a dqdG fdG e J H ,3.2 kHz dGM qoa dG d
q N
g d h , (Signal Noise ) I Q T G d O J e U q dh .H
.(Envelope Delay Distortion) dG jJ qdh (Amplitude Attenuation) dG

, (Two-Wire Pairs ) S G h R C G e (Dial-Up-Lines ) d B G A G d G N d C J

g Jo .(PSTN) `dG a (Common Carriers) edG JG cT e aqJ
Worldwide ) d d G J d G T N GO f C G e UG d G a J d G d G
q
dU dG g fc GPEG e j H O dG j .(Telephone Network
T Y dG g JJh ,LGhORG f hCG LGhORG ec Jd
H ijo CG j JG .(Point-To-Point Links) f dEG f HGhQ
e e O e S G H h C G (Operator ) J e Y S G H (Manual ) h j
d H j e ,(Autoanswer) q dBG H LEGh (Autocall) dBG J d
. (Unattended Operation ) H e Z d B G J H

e j dG g ,(PSTN) edG jdG JdG T Se fL dEG

j e ,kTqe JdG q N c GPEG qS dG dG :eh , k dG

- 602 -
keYh .a Y hCG edG Gao M a jH q N OjEG hCG dSdG QGJ
IOL d QGb CG PJG JG qaW hCG GJ dG IQ H a
Y IQdG a hCG dH fdG a j ddHh ,SdG qbdG edG
Delay) j dG J q jh .T dGh dG H a hCG g J
q
SQEG YS NG K j dGh ,(PSTN) `d f dG dG (Distortion
odG a AkNCG j kjCG Ggh .SdG IQTEd jOOqdG fqdG d
HdG QGJ f (PSTN) a bdG IQN a ddG dG eCG .o dG
d G (One Work Times ) M G d G A G L E G d G J h (Disconnect/Connect ) d G h
.SdG dG qqc e jdG edG e q o jn
:e Se IqH (PSTN) N Y qUdG ILCodG dG qJ
Freedom ) d d G G Q T E G e Q d G h , (Ready Availability ) j Q d G M J E G
q q
H hCG f dEG f e JG Y eqDJ kjCG gh .(From Busy Signals
jh aCG e qYH qj dG hdG dG e Hh IOdG dG
.YCG SQEG eo

d dU SCG HQCG GP GQGO e keY ILCdG dG qJ

HQCG SCG GP IQGdG qCG Hh .GhORG ec hCG LGhOREG f JG
q N b qJ
S Q E G f e E H j d P E a , (Turnaround Line ) J G
Z ILCdG dG a fdG bO J dc .kFGO eGdG SGh
.(PSTN) a J e Gqe H aCG (Unconditioned Leased Lines) WhdG
Microprocessor-Based) h dG d dG Y F dG eO dG V Jh
q dG YCG (Automatic Adaptive Equilizers) qdBG dG Oeo e (Modems

.c H YCG YdG Y ANCG Jh

bYEG bdG qMJEG Yh ILC odG dG d gdG dG jo

hj jdG ed dqa - c GP qJo fCG EG ,dG d JMdG
.ddG IOdG GP JGh ddG dG

- 603 -
 fdG JG H cQdG
H (Data Communications Line Sharing) dG fH cQdG J
H cQdG EG .fdG Jh ,qbKdG Jh , dG J
IO dG dG : Y Jo Gq e O L H J eO dGh JG
fdG Gcqeh ,(Cluster Controllers) edG eh ,(Multiplexers)
Modem) cQ dG O dG G Mhh ,(Remote Data Concentrators) IdG
eh ,(Port Sharing Units) adH cQ dG G Mhh ,(Sharing Units
. (Lineplexers ) d G e h , (Port Selectors ) d G

d S Q J C G J I Q G O g (MUX ) h C G (Multiplexer ) O d G d G E G
OOqd kah OOqdG dG VY H dP jh ,IOe JG Ib a cCG hCG
J d (Serial Ports ) d G a d H M G h (MUX ) e U j . e d G h C G
qdG adG e W q H Hjo H k GH NBG eo Vjh cdG
H SodG fdG Y k GHCG KqDj dG qCG hdG eh .J d H
.HSG eR Y k V k GKCJ EG j h ,IdG qdGh JdG
:g dG RfE SSCG jW dg
,(Frequency-Division Multiplexer- FDM) OOqdG H OudG dG
Narrower) VCG bf dEG f adG OOqdG dG VY j dG
q
FDM OOqdG H dG jo .qe Ib qfCG Y e c jo ,(Bands
q dG SQEG a
YdG dG eGdG P LGhORG ec LC o dG -
. (Full-Duplex Leased-Line Transmission Low-Speed Synchronous )
G g j ,(Time-Division Multiplexer- TDM) e d G H O d G d G
Y ,qe Ga Yh ,JGdH L GWCG Uh Y dG e dG
fCG a MCG ZCG a (TDM) jo .dG JG e VY OGeG
G SG f e E G ZQ d Ph , 1.544 Mb/s Y S Y (T1-Carrier Systems) T1 e M
hCG eGdG LGhORG ec LCodG q dG SQEG a dG e dG Gg
.eGJdG

- 604 -
 (Time Division Multiple Access TDMA ) e d G H O d G N d G E G
bdG dG JdG N a edG QdG qjo ceCG Qe f g
q c jo .IOqe SQEG eR d ee IqY H JdG JG Gbh

qK eh (Data Signals) fdG GQTEGh (Digitized Voice) bdG dG e
GdG OY Oj (Time Slots) edG dG e OmY dEG Jh ,qJ
edG e IOe Ia a FH qedG dG SJo a .IOLdG qJdG
eGUG d dPh QWEG e qeR a c qJo .(Frame) QWEG qJo
zeGdG bdG f{ odG IcQ Gg j .GQTEG H (Collisions)
dG fH mFH dG j .(Synchronous Transfer Mode STM)
N dG e jh qedG dG e (Users Data Bursts) FdG
. (ms ) f K e

g (Code Division Multiple Access CDMA ) O d G N d G O c J E G

dG VY OGeG Y sdG JQTEG H Se d j SQEG f
S SGH JdG qJ .(Common Carriers) cdG ed OqodG
a jo .dGh SdG e d ke edG FdG dG e
(CDMA) aJ .dG V Y JdG dSdG j CG qdG d
e jd) .KdG JG GQb e cCG Iqe 15h 10 dEG JG GQb
G g a O Q G d G { O d G N d G O c J { f G , (CDMA ) Y e d G
.(dG

H (Statistical Multiplexes) qFMEG IOdG dG J -

e IOSH dPh .FXd kah qdG ILCd M H edG a
Data ) f d G Q e e c C G O Y d H Q a , (Idle Time ) F d G e d G
ae hCG qaW fK dEG HQCG HJo ,IkOY .dG JG q N a (Streams
q dG N SQEG j dG FMEG OdG dH Jd
LCdG
.eGdG LGhORG ec

q jh (Cluster Controller) dH qdG jjo -

ILCG dEGh e FSdG L

- 605 -
JdG e eGhCG QJh (Poll) Me fH J eY IdG qodG
fCG qJ .(Front-End Processor) qeeCG - ddG I Mh hCG c dG
, (Video Display Terminals - VDTs) jdG Vd qaW g ILCG
qeo H jdG g J M .HdGh PCs qdG GJdGh
.cdG JdG dEG dSQEG j dG fdG H dG b e

e f g ,(Remote Data Concentrator- RDC) H Y fdG cueo EG -

(Front-End Processor- FEP) e e C G j d G d e e J G d e G f C G
q
dG FXh e H Y fdG cueo FXh HJ .H mbe a VdG
dG qCG dEG IQTEG QJ .fdG jd Fe Z fCG EG FMEG
JdG e j dG RDCs `dG H Jc f CG a Jo
.LfEG q N Fd kUN

j R L g , (Modem-Sharing Unit- MSU ) c d G O d G I M h E G -

GbG j .f eGdG OdG a QdH eGe qaW q S dEG KG e
Y dH dG dG j H cdG JdG SGH adG
O d G (MSU ) c d G O d G I M h J . f d G S Q E H e C G J h , f G Y
,(Request-To-Send Signals) I Q T E G - S Q E H e C G H a j W h C
.eo iNCG adG L Jh

CG ASH ,MSU cdG OdG IMh PSU cdG dG IMh Jo

. (Clocks ) b d G S G h S Q E H U N S Q E G b J Q e J PSU
(Polled Synchronous Terminals) e G e M e a W 6 d E G 2 H e PSU H J
q
eh IH hCG IkTe dUeh qe eqEG adG J .Oa Jc eh
M d G d G a J d G a e O Y H PSU J h . O d G SG H
.(Polled Network)

IMH kjCG Yjo e hCG ,PBX fH hCG (Port Selector - PS) dG eo EG

Z dG a JdG ae OY qj ,(Port Contention Unit) dG aJ
aJ CG j dG dG Y kjCG jo .(Nonpolled Network - PS) MdG

- 606 -
PS qjo .(Host Computer) dG JdG a adG dEG Ud gY GWCG
G b hCG (Inbound Devices) NGdG f dG ILCd JdG a e
qCG EG ,(Fisrt-Come, Fist-Served) k hCG jo
k hqCG j e IYd kJ JG
.iNCG Y jqdhCG GdG hCG ILCG d

. c C G hC G J G J b d E G J d G e (Lineplexer) q dG dG j
,1 9 . 2 k b / s Y d G G P ( D a t a S t r e a m s ) d G a J j C G d j
k a
J , 4 k H z e c h J , f V Y J b d E G 1 4 . 4 k b / s h C G ,1 6 . 8 k b / s h
Digital b d G d G e d hC G (Leased Lines) I L C d G d G e d
q o
.Data Services

fd dG Y SQEG

r en fH SQEG g ,(Data Serial Transmission) dG Y SQEG qEG

c qjo e (Single Conductor) Oa Ue Y (Data Single File) Oa
b J J j M a e d G M d Gh (Wiring) SC G j J h U d G
fH SQEG a ,(Parallel Transmission) RGdG Y SQEG eCG .kjCG fdG
,(Parallel Conductors) j R G e U e Y (Parallel Files) j R G e e a
dG qJ c ,(]30.5 m[ CG 100 ft e q bCG) Ib H adG J H
.Fa YS

,eGdG jdG g dG Y SQEG a fd SSCG T dg

Isochronous) O Oq dG h dG SQEG jh . eG dG Z j dGh
. e G d G Z h e G d G j d G H (Transmission

qfCG Y (Asynchronous Data Transmission) eGdG Z fdG SQEG qjo

M q c H bGdG qedG UGdG hCG qedG GdG a J dG SQEG
Start ) j G d G H g M Gh H C G j Q WE H M c j . k W jhe Z Seo
d G S Q E G C G j . (Stop bit ) b d G H g K G h C G M G h H j h , (bit
OhM qjo dG g qdG Ggh .dG z0{ dM dEG z1{ dM e dG qH

- 607 -
cG odG Y jh .(Characters Bit Cell Bounding) dG H fN
fN Sh a H c jJo H (Fast Clock) jS YS SGH qdG Gg
Z GH dG f eqDj SQEG e dG Gg qCG Hh .(Bit Cell) dG
Low-Speed) dG Y dG GP a dG a eG SG j , jh e
q
.ke a fdG NO j dG (Terminals

j d G a , (Synchronous Data Transmission ) e G d G f d G S Q E G e C G

jGdG H hO e m UGe m H (Characters ) M C G S Q E G a j d G
qe eGe GQTEG OJ N e SQEGh SG ILCG eGJ .bqdGh
.dSQ c SQEG b ,ImTe hCG ,Ga Y eqEG ke

j qK .bJ hCG jGH zH{ hO MCG e k jW

k S SQEG RL j
Hh ,dG fCG kVe (ASCII eJ a) dhCG fdG dG qH dG
J M dSQEGh ddG MCG qY jo K eh ,JdG dEG gQj dP
.(dG b e dSGh edH dSdG e SQEG JEG CG) dSdG

JdG Md jf J Yd eGodG Z SQEG GSG q jo keY

M m G H M C G b H J q f C , d G
q d j q f C G H h . j h e Z
aodG dG g qJo ,(bqd KG dEG MGhh jGd MGh) H KK dEG H
:SQEG e dG Gg qS g gh SQEG da e qJ qaVEG IQN
qj edG d (8- bit) H -fK c qCG if ,ASCII eJ a , k a
73 dGM CG 11/8 SQEG IAc hCG da J dHh .Sjo c H 11 e
q
.dH

dG c UY H OOqdG he fdG SQEG j ,iNCG Mf e

M q d a .eGdG SQEG e Iqe dM gh ,eGdG Zh eGdG
eEH .jhe Z UGa hCG m GH hdG SJo M bqJ Hh jGH H
Ga j b dP CG Z SQEG e dG Gg a eGdG eOdG GSG
j .bqdG Hh jGdG H OLd SdG dSdG AGLCG H ZGa hCG Gaps
g SQEG e dG Gg qEG .fdG SQEG AKCG dGh SdG e cq eGJ

- 608 -
 dEG J b YoS - OOqdG he SQEG eDa .eGodG Z dG e SCG
kY (Buffering Of Data) dG ed Ic IcGP dEG LdG hO 96 kb/s
dGH eG`dG Z SQEG Y`S OqJ `M a ,`SCG eG`dG `SQEG C`H
.1.8 kb/s

eRqdG T
Idle ) F d G e d G h C G b d G d (Packet Networks ) e R d G T N
qJ
o
jH J gh .SQEG qeo GSG dh fdG SQEG a (Time
L H hme mSSCG Yh SodG qSSCG d kah a JG c
dEG MGh W e SodG dSdG J dG g a qj .dG ee
.(Bytes) jH 128h jH 53 H hGj (Byte) mdG Oqe jH e RQ dEG NBG
RdG g dEG S odG GdH dG Ohq J (Header) Ja eRQo qd j
dEG QdG e IM Y eRQ c Jo CG j dHh ,(Destination Address)
H e MGh mW e cCG RQ NH dG g J .SG be
Ojo qFdG bGe dEG RodG g Uh b .UdG fGY e m a dG
.(Destination Switching Centers- DSC) d G j J c G e a J J h J
`eG`edG `SQG ``fh `j`dG ``dG (ISDN) dG G`g a k`jCG ``fCG)
. (Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN) and Asynchronous Transfer Mode )

OOqdG he /eGdG dG
(Synchronous/ Isochronous Encoding) edG jhdG/eGdG fdG qJo
dG QW IQGd dG ie a SQEG e adG OdH dG d kFGO
YS GS dPh ,OdG hCG jdG a (Phase-Locked Loop-PLL) odG
(Transmit Clock) SQEG YS dG ej .odG dG e SG
dG
q a SGH fdG e SG YS Jo H ,f dG e
:j e SQEG J Wo qJ .(Decoding)

d d G g h , (Nonreturn-To-Zero ) (NRZ ) d G - d E G - I O d G Y j W

- 609 -
,ke qda ie qj Uh ,dY da ie qjo 1 a j dG
.dG fN Sh a da U dEG OJ H bh

Nonreturn-To-Zero ) (NRZI ) SdG - dG - dEG - IOdG Y jW

e U Y (Binary Signal State ) F d G b d G I Q T E G d M J g h , (Inverted
.dSdG e e 1 Y (J hO) VdG H cJh dSdG e

eeh YdG J jW gh ,(Manchester Code) Oc f e

,f dEG H eQ c q jo .dG ReQ dEG (Data Bit Information) dG fH
dG 0 U dG qj .hqCG dG b H fdG dG b Jh
eqCG .fdG dG a jqb hCG dY b Jh ,ed hqCG dG a dG
dG dH kYe edG e hqCG dG a dY c a 1 dG
dG Y g dG jW J ,QNHh .fdG dG N dG
.kSSCG

jh .(b/s) fK /dH (Data Transmission Rate) fdG SQGE qeo Y qjo

Y H dPh ,(Characters Per Second) fdH MCG dGE dG g LJ
a ,4.8b/s hj S qe J q d c GPEG ,
k a .M c H OY
.eGdG SQEd ASCII eJ a (4800/8) fdG a M 600 OJo dG

odG dG qeo hCG GQTEG OJ YS IMh g Baud (Bd) OdG EG

Se dEG IMdG g J OJn .fdG a Red hCG fdG a IQTEG Ud
OH qe e qCG dEG f .(J. Baudot) Y SdG dG a fdG JG
Y W e GOdH IQTEG YS hJ .e f g OH fC OQGh Z
Jo dG HdG
k a ,k GOe k GY adGh dG e c Jh .fdH IQTEG
.fdG a dG dG a g OH b qEG .50 Bd Y J fdG a f 25

T1 - e M
Iqe hqCG eb qJg eN Y IQY g jQdG (T1-Carrier) T1 eM qEG
I b 24 H 1.544 Mb/s Y b d G J d e d G g J .1962 S
- 610 -
dG eH dG e qdG Gg jo .edG J H dPh ,JU
PCM eqdG dG jdG Y dG Gg j .(Digital Loop Carrier) bdG
q
e S 256 `H j e K J U I b
q d I Q T E G Y
q d H f K ed
8) Nyquist qH (4 kHz) Y JdG IdG je j .(Discrete Amplitudes)
q
IQTEG J ,iNCG Mf e 64 kb/s Ojo fH Ib qe fE (kb/s
Le T AH IOYE dPh gOOJ JH je dEG bQ Jo c KdG
qdhdG jQSG dG Vh d .jJ CG hO (Original Waveform) UCG
qJdG Id fdG a qY 8000 H jQe je qeo CCITT dGh Jd
. ( f K h e ) 125 s c Y N D J .3400 Hz d E G 300 Hz e b f V Y j d G

Le HGhQ hCG (Copper Wire Pairs) qSf qS GhRCG Y dG Jo

J a e Y Repeaters G d G V J h .(Microwave Links) jq h e
T (Retime ) b J h (Regenerate ) d J I O Y E H Y ( 1 8 3 0 m) 6000 ft
GQTEG SQE S SC H T1-bdG edG qoU d .bdG LdG
jJ ae H Y J dG (Central Offices) jqcdG JdG H JdG
OdG dG H g T1-bdG edG f qEG .(80 km) 50 mi Y
jo dG PCM edG dG dG fC HdG (Multiplexing Structure)
.qddG ceC JdG QdG

d G V ISDN
Integrated Services Digital) edG edG bdG dG
q op r n J
(Single Digital-Transmission Network) jqOa bQ JG T (Network- ISDN
q
,(Text) UqdGh ,(Voice) qJdG edG :e edG SGh J eCd
jdG dG ah ,(Video) jqjdGh ,(Video Text) jdG dGh ,cdGh
Y f d G S Q E G d G g Y S H .( S w itch ed A n d N on s w itch ed ) j d G Z h
JG jqOe GSH JdG N N e 128 kb/s `dG bf VY
edG g qCG kY ;qUN JG (Software) J eHh (Hardware)
dG g Jh .f H He JdG eN eo b e (ISDN) qJo

- 611 -
J YH f JG N Y fdGh dG SQEG Y JQH
(Public Switched-Telephone eqdG dG-JdG T eqJo dG YdG
e Y e Y d G g e hC G I a J h .I O L d G Network PSTN)
.1980 S I Q O d G d d G j d G

(Basic-Rate H SSCG - e Uh :g ,ISDN `dG e Yf kqdM jo

H ,JdG cd cdG dG e S GP k JG XqJo dG Interface)
qe Uh g fdG PdGh .JG q c a f K /H c 144 O J f VY
dGM J ,SCG HQCH k JG XqJo dG (Primary-Rate Interface) H dhCG -
hdG Od dhCG qdG hP dG jo 2.048 Mb/s dEG 1.544 Mb/s
j d G - d d G d G G d h C G (Private Branch Exchanges PBXs ) U d G
.eqd SSCG - dG j H ,(High End Networking Equipment)

(B) M Jb :bCG K dEG 144 kb/s GP dG SSCG qdG Uh Jo

,qbQ qKdG dG GQTEG Y Jo dG qodG FGd ,64 kb/s e q d
e c G d G g a J G j .16 kb/s Y S O J (D ) d O I b d E G h
p Jnh .eGe
o r m H Ib q c Y fdG Jo H ,(Full-Duplex) LGhORG
O J D I d G J M a K d G J d G J G (Equivalent) A a e B J b
(Call Progress A G d G J Y e e h (Call-Set Up) A G d G OG YE c :GQ TE G
Hh ,B bCG e d 64 kb/s edG YdG aqJo fdG f Y .Information)
(Packet Data) fdG RQ QJ H ,dG JdG Gqd ,ke hCG e
.GQTEG fH OJ e IdH (9600 b/s dEG J YS qJ dG)

J dG SSCG qdG Ud HdG Dh B Gd SSCG dG EG

g hqCG :T dG dhqCG qdG Ud CG c 192 kb/s YH edG e
b d G Q d G g f d G h , (US T1 Digital Standard ) c e C G T1 b d G Q d G
dG dhqCG qdG Uh qJ .(European E1 Digital Standard) HhQhCG E1
J h , (D Channel ) I M G h D d O I b h B e M e I b 23 Y T S S C G G P
VY j h .I M Gh D d O I b h (B Channels) B I b 30 Y E S SC G GP
.64 kb/s `d kjhe Dh B e d dG

- 612 -
,D Ib a ce e qeh W H ISDN `dG a fH HGQ Uh j
hO mbh q C G a (Call-Control Signals) A G d H d G GQ TE G O J j h
dG AGdH dG ee qJ .(B-Channel) B IdG J dEG LdG
,(Called And Calling Numbers) H dG bQCGh o dG bQCG : d dG
e d G f h B- I d G X h h ,(Bandwidth Requirements) d G V Y e h
jf dEG jf cJhHh ,(eRQo hCG IQGO ,qfH hCG qJU) (Service Request) HdG
.kjCG iNoCG eN W Ua d aj bh c .(End To End Protocol)

e ,dG jY T d UCG ISDN e qSJh qeG d

YH ,(Synchronous Optical Network - SONET) eGdG jqdG dG
dG V ISDN aod (B-ISDN) jdG dH qSh ,cCG hCG 155Mb/s
. U C G (N-ISDN )

J b a (Synchronous TDM) e G d G e d G H d G N-ISDN j

eRdG jJ qJ SCG B-ISBN T J H ,64 kb/s YdG GP B
IqodGh (Asynchronous Fast Packet Switching Technique) eGdG Z jdG
a kXe k GqJ qM N-ISDN qCG hdG eh .ATM eGdG dG H
hCG dBG jdG a H ,S dG YGNG e CG e cCG edG JdG T
b d G j J h , (Tone Dialing ) d H j h d G , (Automatic Switching ) J e J G
dG dh bdG SQEd jqdhCG YCG ah .cdG dG e
SQEG LH q ao J jLCG (Intelligent Network Design) qcdG
dEG SdG e edG bdG SQEG (N-ISDN) eqDJ Y m Hh .JdG
Local) dG dG M dEG b dG N dG a H dPh dG
q o
dch .cdG dG dEG (HdG) odG be e (Subscribers Lap
.Oa xN Y fdGh dG H eeo eN kjCG (N-ISDN) f eDj

,bdG dEG KdG qdG e k qjQJ eqdG JdG T d qJ d

Uh GQGO Nh bQ jJ GP dG jqcdG JdG e UCa
cdG M GJ ,dP ZQh .bdG SQEd Iqeo (Trunk Lines) qSSCG
.qKJ qdG
- 613 -
Y eNh Uh IqY b Jo qfCG cf CG j ,N-ISDN dEG IOdH
m Uh gaJ dEG aVEH .f JG N
d G h ,64 kb/s O J F g Y H
dHh .IOqdG UdG g eH J a ,jJ eOdG J
,dP Y k a .e mVGZC J e k H JdG H QdG j
.e Rd G hC G I Q G d G f C H Q h d G ISDN e e Y S H

Z Ib (Circuit-Mode Data Service) IQGdG f GP fdG eN eqDJ

Q d G e (Bit Stream ) d G i e j H , (Unrestricted Channel ) I e
jf qc Y od HJ RL edG H qj .qj CG hO dG dEG
Mq d G Q W E H h C G X .25 e c J h H d P h f d G h d G S Q E G J Q H
. (Frame Relay )

Circuit-Mode Speech ) IQGdG f GP HdGh JdG dG eN eqCG

JdG T jW H qJdG GQTEG a (And Voice Band Services
q dG ie qj .eqdG jdG
dG jH bqe qKJ GQTEG e
eN qEG .e J je GP T Y qJ eY qJh qJ ,SdG
b e eodG edG f g .3.1 kHz OOqdG GP FdG JdG dG
.eOdG

dEG NdG dG qJ ,(Packet-Mode Data Service - PMDS) eN eCG

q Jo dG (X.25 Packet Network Service) X.25 eRdG T e N
dG o
SSCG -qdG a a LJ edG g .FdG dH ITe qodG
.(Basic-Rate B and D) D hn B Jd

e G J d G S Q E G f h d G j Y ISDN
a (N-ISDN) qdG d k GOG eG (B-ISDN) jdG dG ISDN qjo
a fdGh dG JG H k eJ enbn dG Yf e dhCG LddG
f eGSG g B-ISDN `d qSSCG IdG qEG .ad ae e jJ
Q Y G j d H h , (Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) ) e G d G Z d G

- 614 -

k J eDJ Yf e Ija LdJ ATM `dG qJ .ATM `d kaOGeo B-ISDN
SQEG jLh QfG dch ddG YdG GP fdG d kce
dG L e SJ ATM fN g qEa ,dP dEG aVEH .qJdG
m H H H J C G J h ,(WANs) I d G d G h (LANs) d G
.cCG q
qLdd edG bCG MEG dEG (ATM) eGdG Z SQEG f Oj
(Route ) L q jo dG (Digital Packet-Switching) bdG RdG jJ
q j h (Relay) M
SSCG Y dG Gg j .eRQ c qJ jhY SGH (Traffic) MGdG
(Asynchronous Time-Division Multiplexing ) e G d G Z e d G H d G
bjh Cells. fdG Jo HK m W GPh Ib RpH edG M a
jdG RdG P QWEG M q e hCG X.25 e iNCG RdG qLdJ e dP
.dG IqdGh

5 Bytes GP (Header) J a Y J h ,53 Bytes W ATM f d

e 48 Bytes Yh (CdG e dGh jdG GOch GY qJ)
`dG Mq ` dG Q`WEG ` H `dPh ,(Information Field) e`dG d
Jh .dG qe ee eh Jd 4 Bytes hCG 2 Bytes Y `j
odG fH e GQWEG M q Jo hCG J qfC Q WEG M
q e S H ATM
Gb qJo 1500 Bytes e cCGh 64 H dW hGjh .(Frames Of User Data)
VGaG IdG qe GOc (Virtual Path) VGaG QdH ATM fH
e LJ J Jo dGh ,eRQ qc a (Virtual Channel Identifier Codes)
qj d fdG J CG cdH jL .(Different Routing Techniques)
.dG Y AkH

e cCG JG Gb GSG IA c e j J R dG q L d J EG
dG d IkOY Jo dG (STM) eGdG SQEG f Ld J
iNCG STM e Nh (T1-Carrier System) T1-eM f j .bodG
eqEG (Dedicated Lines Setup) dG OGYEG N Y (Routed) L q dG
,T1 - e M E G ,
k a .GdH e cCG UN q H H d H h C G (Dialing ) j h d H

- 615 -
.qJU Ib 24 dEG q eo QWEG Y JJ ,(TDM) edG H dG H
T1-IQTEG qod H QWEH H e (Time Slots) edG dG Jh
dG dG qCG j da ,H QWEH eqJ qeR a c qCG Hh .(T1-Signal)
,(Voice Call) k GMGh kJU AGf eR a c Jo .(zT1-eM{ fCG) STM g
qdG qedG d (Digitized Voice Traffic) bqdG dG NO j e
.GdG e dh QWEG a be e JG jqg Jh .JG Ie a
dP qjoh ,STM QWEG V edG dH JG QJ j dHh
.fdG SQE e Z qfCG EG qJdG edG a
k e k GeCG

jqRL H dG SQEG Y a IAc cCG fdGh RdG J Jo

jh .Aj e JG Ib GSG dG j M ,FGdG JG
JdG gJ .ATM a dG e JG Iqeh FG Y m G H dG
e d G J Y I Q d G G a a d G G Y Y J d G (Header )
dG e ATM fN W b Sj .f QWEG V qedG a
dG QhdG eR e g Zh ,(Video) FdG IQ dGh , d c (Data)
,dG edG GdG SQEG qFGY e kjCG fj b dG (Real-Time Traffic)
. (Delays ) j d G h

jdG bdG QH d dG (Vehicles) jqOdG cdG XJ Vd

dG MdG aGd cc (Multilane Hightways) GQdG IOqdG
Qhe CG k e cqDJ ATM qEa ddh ,QdG jqOa bW Y J dG GWCG
fN e cCG j a ,jqdhCG jo CG j ,dG S Y,jdGh dG
I b a J C G b (155 Mb/s e f H e Y 3 s C G ) 53 Bytes e R
a AGLCG IqY ,STM qLdH Oj ,Gg QfG bh qCG M a .JG
. (ms ) f d G e d C G

kjCG eqDJo gh ,(1.5 Mb/s CG) T1-qe Y JG dG ATM Jo

J .ShCG f VH dh ,JdG Zh JdG fd ee eN
(Interactive Computer Communications ) Y d G J d G J (B-ISDN )

- 616 -
SdG J dG YRqdG d dG Jh ,YCG YH dH
jRJ e IjL m H J c .dG QGe Y YRqdG dG QOeh
.(Digital Video Data) qbdG (jjdG) FdG QdG fH

(Public Telecommunications eY JG c gjJ J b B-ISDN

q CG H
bdG JGdGh eGdG jqdG dG je J S qfEa Network)
Synchronous Optical Networks and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy- ) e G d G
,JdG JG fe q a jdG dCG c aqJ eY eqCG (SONET
e 155 Mb/s f d G e d E G d G e O d Gh J G d G SG H J M
.YCG e J feEG

dG S J
a j c ,(Pulse-Amplitude Modulation- PAM) d G S J E G
(Pulse L e T Y d G e M S j J Y g ,1 -20 f d G d G
JU GQTG K ( h , ,CG) 1-20 dG d joh .Carrier Waveform)
dG edG J a SJoh Jo H e m bhCG a je J
q
.(O- 1 -20 d G) , M Gh SQ E G q N Y (Correct Time Sequence )

(CG)

()

() S J Oe 1-20 dG
,,,CG TCG J :(PAM) dG
a e JU GQTEG K je
a -O dG eCG , e bhCG
(O) .MGh N Y Seh Ie Le
- 617 -
 dG Oc J
dG qj c ,(Pulse Code Modulation - PCM) dG Oc J EG
k jQhO IQ TEG (Sampled) je d N J dG dG g ,2-20 fdG
fhdG qe SGH jdG J . dG S H (Periodically)
hCG dG qJo qK eh ,(Stepping Switch) LQqJ qc j (Electronic Switch)
dEG dqjh qY qd dG hCG JQG SH qdG j .(Quantized) qJo
d G d G g .11100010 h C G 1011000 e , (Binary Number ) F K b Q
OdG jJ Oa ,Sd FdG dG Y eqCG .f dG (1s) SdG
.PAM qY dEG (Binary Code) FdG

PAM Y

Audio 1

CODER
dG
dG e jJ

Audio 2

PCM GT

. (PCM) dG Oc J Oe 2 -20 dG

OdG H OdG NdG

(Code-Division Multiple Access - CDMA) OqdG NdG Oc-eo a
(-1s)h (+1s) FdG dG J dd odGh SodG e q c ejo
Prearranged Pseudorandom Binary) FGdG Th e JdGh dG
bdGh (+1s) LdG FdG bdH H kH HdG Gg joh .(Pulse Train
Digitized Voice ) b d G J d G I Q T E G a j O L d G (-1s ) d d G F d G
q
HJ fQH .od dG Y Y JdG HdG Sjo qKo eh .(Signal

- 618 -
eJ
q a hCG a j odG b e JdG HdG e NGdG qFdG bQCG
Original) UCG FGdG T FdG dG HH HoV dG JdG dG
q
. (Pseudorandom Binary Pulse Train

e FGY Th ke Je f J T a Se c j
dG a SQEG d j dHh .Sj dG IQTEG j e Y
VY a e dSQ c J .gqJ dGh H qUdG FGdG T JGOc
Spread-Spectrum) QfG - W IQTEG dH qe ,d dG dG dG
dSdG e SQE dPh ,J qe H cCG f VY q J (Signal
.a

L (CDMA) W fCG a FGdG T dG J Jo

S G J C d G N O j G g h . (Mutual Interference ) d O d G N G d G
dG qge (CDMA) e bqj GPEG . k e d dh d e Z
kWN bqdG c M a ,(-1 dS hCG +1 Le FK eqEG) odG JdG
(+1s) LdG OMBG `dG a) kSe d k GQhe k J dP Oj
. ( U d G h (-1s ) d d G O M B G e

JG fCG a CDMA QfG W J jo ,i NoCG L e

ddG aGdG bdG jJ fCG ah ,jQdG JGdG JGh dG
.ceCG adG b gjjo dG JGdG Y IJdG

:ddG SdH j QfG W e j Ggh

.JG T a OqodG dG dEG IkTe FSdG LJ qfeEG
,GFdGh ,dG be J hCG jd e dY-f SG V
.(Navigational Aid) qMdG IYdG eCJ dEG aVEH ,cdGh
Deliberate) dG jdH hCG dG dH SQEG NGJ Y
. (Jamming
.SQEd idG dY jM eCJ

- 619 -
 JdG fCG
JG a keGSG adG cCG J jdG JdG ILCG GJ
, (Desk Type ) d G J d G e I c m TCH aqJ gh ,dG JdG
P fh ,(Cordless) S dGh ,(Wall-Mounted) F dG Y q o dGh
e dG JdG RL qj .(Toll-Calling Model) YadG ddG
Y d G J . (Transceiver ) S Q E G S G R L h (Handset ) Y d G : j C G L
Y qS{ dGh (ahdG) S odG Y IQqdG dG ILCG a
I M h d E G e H d U e h C G W H e e H (Headphone ) z J d G
Tone) ke kSLh ,da ee IQGO T J dG SG SQEG
U d G J d G b Q C G d (Touch-Tone Keypad ) e - d I O a Q h , (Ringer
(Hook ka q N kM e hCG (Switch Cradle) YdG k eM kMeh ,ddH
S d G f f Q h , d G J d h .Y d G a Q Y J d G d Switch)
FGdG hCG dhCG JdG ILCG a (Rotary Dials) QGhqdG jhdGh ,(Bell Ringers)
.BG H Jo J d

W fG Y IQ Y g , dG dG V eh ,G UCG EG
Y IQY gh ,GUCG J .dG AGdG jd de Jh
QJhCG) ffdG QJhCG hCG dG e ,Yqe qfe bW QOe , dW Le
(Acoustic J U b W j d G J d G L d G J .(I d G Q J hC G h d G
q q
qJdG LdG g j dG RGgd ahdG W ad ac Energy)
JdG Ib f VY jo ,iNCG L e . F H c J U GOO J dEG
ie Y dPh VGhh e N jd jc kjY ,4 kHz `d hdG
e g Z h (Tone Dialing) d G j h J a c ,3500 Hz h 200Hz H h G j
. (Telephone Control Signals ) J d H d G G Q T E G

(Off-Hook) dG hCG YdG eM e YqdG qodG j eY

H J (Loop) M J S d G SC G e hR N e J G Y J
TdG QdG ijh .JdG d qdG cdG dH JdG e

- 620 -
,(Calling Telephone) qodG JdG dEG 84 V `dG GP cdG dG jQH e
dG a ESS fhdEG dG d (Signaling) GQTEG j ddHh
f) ESS `dG j FH .JG eN j dG qCG k e c dG
AGLEG qfeEG dEG Jo qfQ AYEH CG) (Dial Tone) jhJ qfH (fhdEG dG
H JG ZdG bdG dG dG Na ,(dG GSG hCG JqG
dqH dUe J dG ,(Touch-Tone Keypad) dG jhdG Je GSH
LhR Sjo mFY .(Dual-Frequency Signal Generator) hOe OOqJ P IQTEG
JdG IOaQ e W bQ c He cdG dG dEG GOOqdG e e
.(Keypad)

Stored) dG qdG efd kah ESS cdG dG Oe j

Address ) d G G d G j d G , b d G J d G a (Program Control - SPC
q
.IcGdG q e a bqDe H j qK eh qbQ GQTEG dEG (Tones
hC G J d G Q d G d VY b C Gh b C G SQ E G Q e ESS `d G L j g Y
q N Y
e h C G d G F d G d G d E G (Trunk Line ) F d G J G k fG
qf IQTEG SQEGh jJ j M ,(Central Office) cdG dH jo
dEG eGe qf IQTEG Y bdG a J .H qodG JdG dEG (Ring Signal)
Z hCG /GSG dM a CG) k e H qdG q dG c M ah .qdG
H o s odG nanQn GPEG eqCG .(Busy Signal) k GQa ze{ IQTEG qd Sj (aqe
hCG zfdG{ H cdG d k Ge DCQdG gY j ,ke YqdG
Y NGdGh qdG JG qJ iNCG L eh .qdG IQGO jh bJ
JG eqCG ,(Voice-Grade Trunks) LQdG -FdG dG JG N
Y SJ qK e ,IOY (Multiplexed) Jh ,(Digitized) bJo a idG IH
VQCG dG hCG , L L dG dCG c e i NCG JG F Sh
.(Satellite Microwave Links) j h d G J d G L e H G h Q h C G ,(Terrestrial)

H dG JdG M ed dG JdG a SdG kS jo

G g S G b h , (Ring Wire ) F G d G / d G d G h C G (Tip Wire) d G
Early) FGdG jdG - dG J Je GdCG a k UCG dG
q
- 621 -
e (Handset) YqdG Jo ea .(Operator-Switched Telephone Keyboards
,(Tip) dGh (Ring) jFGdG dG e c ee Jo Cradle YqdG eM
cdG dGh JdG YSh ahdG H J dG IQGdG dH a
dH kFGO dUe Jd jFGdG dG J ,Y Hh .ESS dG
YS J eY H dG JdG dEG f SQEG j H ,cdG
. (On Hook ) J d M a j h d G

fRh q NCG YqSh fahH IOhe ,jdG fhdEG JdG EG

YdGh (Carbon Microphones) fHdG fahdG e IAc cCGh
fdG JGdG a (Permanent-Magnet Headphones) qdG - FGdG
,17 dG a zEarphones{ PCG YqSh zfahdG{ fG . q dhCG
JdG edG H qj b .zbdG eh fhdEG dG{
jqg Tch ,(Voice Mail) JdG jdG dG JdH qJo dG aVEG
J G h C G , d G d G d E G J G j J e N h ,(Caller ID) d G
. (Call Forwarding ) N B G H

iNCG JdG GqH

GqdH J H UN jJ ILCG Y jqQdG cdG e dG j
JdG UH J ,(Private Branch Exchanges PBXs) qUdG YdG
a J gh .eqdG JdG N GSG dEG LdG hO cdG V
dEG LJh (Incoming Calls) eOdG hCG qLQdG JG SH Y bdG
QN OmGaCH
m JG CG CG dEG IQTEG QJ .cdG NGO OdG dG
.eqdG dG dEG PBX Y qj CG j cdG

Private Automatic Branch Exchange - ) UdG JeJhCG dG dGqH EG

f (Centrex Switches) G d G e O D J h .PBX ` d f h d G f (PABE
JdG a Vjh cd e LCeo Jg RL qfCG Z ,PBXs FXh
.jqcdG

- 622 -
HJ ee qUN jJ T SDdG H eSG iNCG Mf e
a bGdG cdG AGLCG Vh e IqY hCG MGh e V UdG JG
J Y IQdG cd dG g esDJ .iNoCG mGH a M hCG e e
NGO Jg eN eDe fCch a ,OdG eN eDeh ,qdG ddG
.cdH UdG NGdG JdG eN eqDj ,e

SQEG dSCG hCG Wo

(Twisted ehe qS GhRCG Y JU OOH eEG JdG JG SJo
e n Jo dG (Voice Frequency Channels) JdG OOqdG GH hCG ,Wire Pairs)
(Analog KdG edG dM a FDM OOqdG H dG SGH H
.(Digital Carriers) b d G e d G d M a e d d G d H h C G Carriers)
hCG ,(Paired-Wire Cable) hOdG dG c Y dG IQTEG Jo dP H
e c V e h ) L L d G d G c h C G ,(Coaxial Cable) Q d G e d G
JdG HGhQ J a ,(RF Relays) jqjOGdG GOOqdG Me hCG ,QdG J
f C G ) .30 GHz h 2 GHz H h G J m GOOJ Y (Terrestrial) VQ C Gh h d G
dG zGlobal Telephone Satellites{ zqddG JGdG JGSh ,JdG JG{
.(dG Gg a coS

qdG dG JdG ILCG fCG

, (Cellular Mobile Telephone System ) d G d G J d G R L f E G
HGhQ Y j f g 3-20 fdG dG a dG dG a qe g c
Jh GUCGh fdG SJ .PSTN e JG jd jjOGdG GOOqdG
e h ,(Relay Back) L d G M
u odG be dEG (dG JdG) ce IMh e
(Mobile Telephone Switching Office MTSO ) d G J d G j J e d E G
.JdG H JG Hj dG

q dG hCG (Cell Site) dG be eqDjo

j j OGd G H Ghd G (Base Station) S SC G
G g j h .MTSO d E G f d G h d G H G h Q h d G J d G G M h e
.SGh SQEG Gqeh qFGdG Y bdG
- 623 -
 SJ M a 849 MHz h 824 MHz H hG J GOOJ d G J d G Sj
kjCG Joh) MTSO J 894 MHz h 869 MHz H hGJ GOOJ SSCG e
dG ddG Y J a jqdG bGdG L H (dG jJ q H
,JdG cT JH dUe fHh U HGhQ Yh (Switch) qdGh
,(Controls Call Processing) H dGh ddG Y dH kjCG Jh
. (Billing ) I J d G d E G a V E H

MdG j fC jjOGdG GdG O Y e dG J dG f j j

fdG Jo H GOOqdG RJ .(Cells) fN hCG jN dEG aGdG
jN dEG keY aGdG bdG q jh .f GOOqdG J hCG IQhdG
OOqJ GP (Cell Site) N be e q d , (Hexagonal Cells ) d G S e
NBG dEG MGh N be e (Paging Signal) qdG IQTEG (MTSO) Rj .Oqeo
SQEH gY OdG dG JdG Oqa ,OdG JdG bQ dEG j qM
.(Local Cell Site) dG qdG be dEG (Acknowledgment) aGe HSG
.ddG cE GgL adG c qCG (MTSO) pjo ,jdG Hh

UGd UN OGYEG Gb j dG I LCGh (MTSO) e q c j

.GdG H dG ee L Qjh ,ddG Ad bdG fdH
GdG g JGdG a ,N Jg q d J b H (MTSO ) J
a I O L e d G J d G G M h e G O e (Voice Links ) J d G H G h d G h C G
ddG AGLEG N iNCG dEG qN e JdG qj eY eqCG .qSSCG gjN
OOqJ Ib dEG JG dG qa ,IjL Ib dEG fG qfBG qdG be j
ddG qJ .dG J hCG ddG b hO ,IjL qN be a IjL
.jdH je JG aW GO e

j) RdG Nh ,dG U SG SQG RL g dG JdG EG

e g c , j Q d H j h , d H j g h , (248 g C G f h C G Y e b C G
h C G , F S Q H T T h , N J e I O a Q e R d G G g qd C j . 4 - 2 0 d G a
Vh M ee e H qdG bdG dEG J hCG qJ LED Ad YH OjO e

- 624 -
a JGdG g J jqQH eqCG .(LCN) dG dG Th jQdG
- d G e h C G , (Lithium Ion ) d G j C G h , d G - d G j Q g e
. (Nickel Cadium ) e O d G

be
1 dG
jJ e
jhdG T JdG be
adG GP dG 2 dG
ITdG (jHdG)
dG be
3 dG dG JdG IMh
MTSO
N
dG JdG f 3 -20 dG

EG ,ceCG IdG jdG a GSG FT KdG dG fCG EG

edG aGdG qdG qCG e jdG QfH NCG bdG dG fCG qCG
dG jJ e ZdG Y fCG f fQdH .BG M J d ceCG jd
IOe KdG dG fCG GJ ,SdGh bdG dG qLdJ e
QhH qCG M a FDMA OOqdG H OdG NdG Schemes H
,TDMA edG H OqdG NdGh ,FDMA GSG bdG dG fCG
NdG Oe e QNG Y .(CDMA) OdG H OqdG NdG dch
cJhdGh FXdG L a qe d HJ (Multiple Access Scheme)
.q dG Gg e aGe J CG dGh

c j h ,IS/54-IS -136 Q d G Y d d G c e C G TDMA e J j

fCd dG GOOqdG H ddG ceCG CDMAh FDMA ef e
S SC G e - J g GOOJ Y e c j d H h 850 MHz f K d G
J g - dEG S SCG e GOO J Yh 849 MHzh 824 MHz H hG J
H Lho dG CDMA J .894 MHz h 869 MHz H hGJ (Base-To-Phone)
d G J d H U d G L d d G g L E G .IS-95 Q d G Y TDMA
.aGe Z bdG

H j a ,fdCG a QqW dG ,GSM e Jd ddG dG Qe

- 625 -
gh ,GSM 900 qEG .ISDN e Aj fCG Y k a ,TDMA h FDMA L d d G
Y j ,(European Digital Cellular Standard) b d G d H h Q h C G Q d G
GOOJ Yh 960 MHz h 935 MHz H hG J S SC G e d E G - J g GOOJ
72 a kdY J gh 915 MHz dEG 890 MHz H J Jg dEG SSCG e
1805h 1785 MHz dGE 1710 MHz e m GOOJ Y j dG GSM 19000 aqj .k GH
. N B G k G H 3 6 h , G c h , c e C G I d G j d G a 1 8 8 0 M H z d E G MH z

PCS qbdG dG JG eN GOOJ q N ,iNCG Mf e

a G S d ,850 MHz d G d E G a V E H ,1900 MHz h C G 1.9 GHz f Y
1910 MHz dEG 1850 MHz e OOqdG j 1900 MHz dG ah .ddG ceCG
.Jg dGE SSCG e e 1990 MHz dGE 1930 MHz eh SSCG e dGE - Jg
a 900 MHz OOJ Y j SMR eM e f jOGQ aj ,iNCG L e
jjOGQ HGhQ aH dG JdG eN e H jh .ddG ceCG
SQE j dG I LCG dEG (PCDs) dG JG ILCG e I q e
.SdG fdG
FGdG

d dG AdG

FdG QdG e VY TT

bdG JdG IOaQ

XdG JdGh

ahdG .dG JdG :4 -20 dG

g J qEG PEG ,3-20 dG a qdG dG bdG dG dG j

.bdG edG iMEG hCG KJ eN AGd UdG odG j fCG
fhdEG jdG SGh SQEG :e IY UGe qbdG edG eDJ
,JG LJh ,dG jg Tch ,JdG jdGh ,UdG e gZh
dG e cCG j M q Jo qfCG dEG a VE H ,f fEG NO e Nh

- 626 -
bdG jdG JGdG e c AGT j .edG b Sh (Earsdropping)
(Dual-Mode) hOe f GP P f Y d G j d c h , K d Gh
dG P JdG AGT J M ah .(bdGh KdG) KG H J
eGSG j M IadG qbdG edG OJ jO dG E a hO dG
.TDMA h C G CDMA f c E G C G ,(Formats) J h

:ddG UGdH dG JdG ILCG L qJ

,(Authentication) d U C G
,(dG ITh dH) dH dG HGV
,(Battery Strength Indicator) j Q d G I b T D e
,(Audible Keypad Feedback) J d G J d G I O a Q H S G
.(DTMF) LhOdG dG Oqe OOqdG e IQTEG

:e dG ILCG H a LJ iNCG Gqpe g

,bQCGh ASCG M Hb
,(Any-Key Answering) e C H d d G H L E G H b
.(Audible Elapsed Talk Timers) U GP de bqDe

SdG JGdG
(Separate Handset) e jhj YS (Cordless Telephones) SdG JGd
q
I`b jq`jOGQ HGH (Base Module) PdG I`Yb dGE JdG GQTE G H J
dG a dG dG a gX g c ,Range Radio Link) (Short- i`dG
IOaQ e (Radio Transceiver) jOGQ SQGEh SG RL g IOY YqdGh .5-20
200 dGM Y ie jh ,jqQdH iqJ hCG Jo gh ,(Dialing) jhd Je
iqJ ,(Transceivers) SQGEh SG RL kjCG a PdG IYb eCG .60 m CG ft
.220 hCG 120 VAC N e AC-to-DC e QJ dGE he QJ e e bdH
KdG JGdG e GE .PSTN dGE S SGH (Module) PdG Gg qUj VAC
Lj .900 MHz OOH KJ JGg kjCG aJ .49 MHz GOOJ Y J SdG
.2.4 GHz h 900 MHz H bf hGj m GOOJ Y J S bQ JGg kjCG
q q
- 627 -
 he e

N T RF e
jdG
JdG N Ye
(Duplexer)
q f Q T c RF Se
JdG Uh
(CG) jjOGQ

RF e
Ye
(Duplexer)

RF Se

Je Md
he e ee
jhdG
dG
()
.jhdG YdG IMh - ,SSCG IMdG -CG :SdG Jd J SdG 5 -20 dG

JdG T
O J d (Computer Networks ) m H H e JdG ILCG HJo
ON Se gCG e .f SDdG a edG UTCG H edG
e G H e d G M Y Q O b J c R L g h , (Network Server ) d G
g AYEG ddHh ,dG IdG dG YGbh dG dG
(Hard-Drive U Ub - bGS IcGP aqJ qj eh .d kah edG
GJc L Hb g iNCG Ie g .jqOdG GJdG a Memory)
qEG .H QdGh (Plotters) dBG eSGdGh HdG GS IMGdG dG
Th ,(LAN) dG dG : g k Y T J c T K cCG
d E G H d G O j h ,(WAN) S G d G d G T h ,(MAN) d H h d G
.qdG Fdh dG Jh d HdG dG

qdG dG
f d G J G T g , (Local Area Network LANs ) d G d G E G
,(Computer Servers) J d G e O N h , H d G h , G J d G H H J d G
- 628 -
,fdG e Ye Y YRe hCG ,dG HGW e mMGh m HW a adGh
CG LANs qdG d j .cdG qeh edG M a dG g c
EG .50 Mb/s h 100 kb/s H g dYh Se fH YS qe Y SJo
je EG .Iaqe JH ,150 Mb/s dEG 50 Mb/s CG ,YS cCG dG dG
jdG dCG fH Qf dG dG hCG je e aGJ qqdG dG
- RqdG hOdG dGh (Fiber-Distributed Data Interface Fiber- FDDI)
d G d G I e J h (Distributed-Queue Dual Bus DQSB ) Q H d H
J GQGO Y J a ,H UdG jdG G d eG S H
Qe J CG j ,(Public Utility Carrier Circuits) dG G SG
UN H qUd (Bridges) QL hCG ,(Routers) Leh ,(Gateways)
qj e ,g d SSCG (Topologies) LdW K g .PSTN `Hh iNCG
dGE IQT E G QJ .(Ring) jFGdG dGh ,(Bus) dGh ,(Star) dG ,6 - 20 dG
LdG IQT E kah eqGE J dG J g IadG SdG dG dG qCG
.(Radio Frequency Bands) jOGdG OOqdG bd hCG (Infrared) AGdG J

()

d G L d W :6 - 20 d G
, d G - , d G - C G LAN: d G
(CG) hCG JdG .jFGdG dG-
dG ()

dHhdG T
Jo CG (Metropolitan Area Network - MAN) dHhe d j
je IqY g .cCH je d fdG e OY H J aGL Me
e c hCG QdG e c e LhOe e Ho gGMEa ,dHhdG d
b .FDDI Uh gdh ,cCG hCG 44.736 MB/s qH j jdG dCG

- 629 -
bdH fU dhDe gY OJh dHhdG T cT e cCG J
m cT e
.q e

SGdG - dG T
H J J G T) (Wide Area Network - WAN) SG d G d G T E G
,dHhdG T e H cCG AGMG T g (e qaGL We H
T J .dG NGO LANs qe T IqY H HJ hCG e IqY Jh
cd dG e dG Gg jo X.25 eRdG qe Y SGdG dG
ceCG a IdG feh JH dG JT HQ ddGh qdG
eDe ,dGh qdG dG GP qUHh ,dG g j . e
jdG - eRQ GP edG fdG T aJ Y hQOdG qdG JG
. (Packet Switched Public Data Network PSPDNs )

JdG JG
j Q J Y UG Q b C G g (Satellite Communications) J G J G S E G
a VQCG GQhO Yd jhe GQhO YH VQCG M GQGe a QhJ
qe g c ,AGSG N e IOe Wd dH (Geostationary) kaGL cS
C-) hCG C GOOqdG f fdG JG JGS H j .7-20 dG a
.( VQ C G d E G J d G e ) 4 GHz h (J d G d E G VQ C G q d G e ) 6 GHz : (Band
d E G Ku (Ku band): 13 GHz f GOO H m eN eCJ JGdG H eEH
hC G j H J G d G J . VQ C G d E G SC G J H 11 GHz h J d G f YC G
SG q e dEG VQCG jOGQ Seo e SodG jjOGdG GQTEG H IOYEG
.QGdG a HdG JdG JQG e dPh ,VQCG Y me CG a cCG hCG IMGh
qe CG eDJ dG dG Y odG qc IH SGh J JGdG g eDJ
FG H e k jCG gh ,(Terrestrial Radio Relay Station) VQCG jqjOGQ M J
QdG J ch jqhdG HGhd (Long-Hand Alternatives) IdG adG
. (Undersea Cables )

- 630 -
 ddG dG

JdG

AGSG N VQCG

dG dEG dG e cM HdG QGdG

VQCd dH J dG QG e 7 -20 dG
VQCG d dH kaGL cdG

IQGLh ihL dG YJQG GP WdG KCG iNCG Mf e

,eRdG dG IAc eqDJ d dG JGQGe qCG EG ,JGdH JG
.qY JG ad q GL V (Passive Reflectors) dG IJdG JQTEa
hCG) jdG eh q dGh ,(Active Satellites) ddG JGdG QqWo dh
GOOJ dEG jJh ,odG GQTEG d (Transponders) (dG IOYEG
dhCG qCG dEG IQTEG QJ .VQCG SG e dEG dSQEG IOYEG qK eh
J J d GfBG jQGdG qC e m GQGe a Vh edG JGdG
o
fc ,dd .kVQCG eGe YHh dY GQGe dEG djE adG IQdG
jJ e .Ib ej SG Gdh V e a aGdG dG
e eGdG JGdG GQGe dEG JGdG SQEG eEH UCG aGdG jQGdG
b e j M ,A G S G N a (35880 km) 22300 mi J Q G Yh VQ C G
a HK q c JGdG g cqQ qY Ghdh .VQCG GQhO e keGe
JGdG eqDJ .YdG QGe Y SGh SQEG ed JFGg LJh AdG
q N e L Q O 60 d E G
k T LQO 60 j VQCG M jY mGM J eGdG
.(South Latitude) H d G V d G

,(Geosynchronous Communication Satellite) V Q C G e e G d G J G d G E G

(1610 km) CG 1000 mi Qj e jo T VY d ,8-20 dG a qe g c
Partially ) c G d G d G F L J G S Y e d H a . VQ C G S e

- 631 -
SQEG ae Ho qCG EG dG a 40 QGe e J CG e (Overlapping Coverage
(High Signal Losses) d d G m GQTEG Ga e N b eGdG JGdG
d E G J d G e I Q T E G S Q E G j P E G .(Propagation Delays) Q f G N C J h
. f K 0.24 j E Gh g d G M Q a N C d G a f K 0.12 VQ C G

j d G a H J G d G J G a (Transponders) j d G q e iqJo
g Lq J .FHc bW dEG dG TCG qJ dG (Solar Cells) qdG
eqCG .dG idG bdG dd FGO m H d G f (Arrays) a d G
.g jdG qY jqQdG dqa dG dM a

qdG Md e (Spin-Stabilized Satellites) jhdH fRGdG JGdG QhJ

,(60 rpm) bdG a IQhO 60 QGH fGSCG eLCG M VdG qdG
GP JGS g .VQCG f L q e J d JG Y qFGdG QhJ a
Y gOpJ dG qdG - dG MH Iqe fRGe GQhO Qhe KK
jhJ GP NGO Y SGH HShL fe Jh ,QGdG a gLGJ
.YdG dY
cdG
gJG d FGg SQEG FGg
(4 GHz d E G 6 GHz )

jJ T
edG -

SG FGg

qeh IQTEG de
LdG FGdG dG IYb
dG MdG

.JG JS :8 -20 :dG

- 632 -
dSQEG K
q eh GQTEG S e FGg JGdG e YdG d qEG
.e m GOOH VQCG dEG

GOOH dEG GQTEG p

o SJo VQCG H jQdG JGdG e JJh
GQTEG qJh 6.4 MHz h 5.9 MHz H hGJ dG (Uplink) OdG Uh
h 3.6 GHz H J d G (Downlink) d G Uh GOO H VQ C G d E G
q dG
(Direct TV Broadcast- ITdG RdG H JGS J ,iNCG Mf e .4.2 GHz
,11 GHz O O H g U h h 14 GHz G O O J Y O U U h Satellites)
8 GHz OOqH OU Uh Y jqdG ceCG JG JGS J a
.7 GHz O O H g U h h

ed oU b a ,JGdG JG jJ e J J
dH dG Y IJe J dG (Single Carrier Signals) IOodG GQTEG
H ,NdG IOqe fCH d NBG dG U a .OOqdG hCG edG
.eGe H e qVQCG e IqY e GQTEG IMGh jJ e sJo
q e 24 ` H ,(Intelsat V) J d G , C G d G S Y d P e
,J g 12000 h j J
.(Color TV Circuits) qe RJ JQGOh

AL c qjoh ,AGLCG dEG q e jJ q e d OOqdG f qCG f FDMA a

dG V UGdG SQEH q e d j e ,e qVQCG d
J ,bGdG a .iNCG GQTEG e WdG hO ,d dG OOqdG
IOqdG GQTEG J IOYEH J qfCG EG ,GQTEG L VQCG q dG
q e f VY qVQCG
q d G L a .TDMA a e C G . a d
(Uplink OdG Uh GQTEG SJo .edG e Ib Id d f jdG
q d H dG J dG jh ,F a
GQTEG H jdG m H Signals)
. q dG H kWg dUdG

,IQGdG LQO :ddG G qdG J Gqe Y JGdG e j

e dEG SQEG IOYE dMh JGdG NGO dG dGh ,TEGh
e Oqeo H Vh CG e d dPh ,H qUdG qVQCG qdGh IQGOEG

- 633 -
GdG AKCG qdG GQTEG e JGdG H qj .qdG jdG
.qVd e J CG AGLE dPh

JH qUdG (Ground Tracking Stations) qVQCG q dG e EG

S 60 dB Ojo mH (Sensitive Antennas) SM qFGg a ,JGdG
0.6) LQdG e 0.001 hJ bqH g dG FGg L q Joh .dG GQTEG
q q
.(SdG e fK

qddG JdG JGS

B G , (Global Telephone Satellites ) d d G J d G J G Y j d H h
.(Constellations) (AdG a IO qe We) G HCG hCG JG S fCG K K Y
c J .1979 Y e O L d G ,(Inmarsat) S f E G g f C G g H b C G h
C G 22300 mi d G M h ` j Q G d G H K ` J Q G Y H Q C G S f C G J G S
(Global Star) Q S H Z h (Iridium) j j j E G e c j M a . (35880 km )
Y (Iridium 66 ) j j j C G 66 J G d G L G a , d G J Q G G Q G e a
Global ) Q S H Z 48 J G d G h (710 km ) C G 440 mi ` d G d G M J Q H G Q G e
qCG dEG IQTEG QJ .(1420 km) CG 880 mi dGM JQH GQGe Y (Star 48
e bCG IQTEG jEG/gP MQ a NqCJ dG JQG GP JGd
.(Geosynchronous Satellites) V Q C G e e G d G J G d G

SQfEG
e e G d G J d H Q C G (Inmarsat ) S Q f E G J G S Y e e D J
S Y dG jd dhCG Hh ,qdG JG eN VQCG
dEGh e JdG fHh qJdG FSdG M q nJo .dG a idG cGdG
CG H JG qY qJ .(Two-Ways) gJG P JH IdG dG
jqOdG jdG H JdG bQ jhJh ,dG JdG odG Oq j
1.6 `H SQ f E G Y e GOOJ O J h . d h d G J G d G J G a I d G
q
N Q G e Y J G d G e Y d G g J . (L Band ) (L d G a GHz

- 634 -
,dG dG Yh ,WCG dG e ah ,jRGdG a AGSG
,eT Iqeo J eDJ M IjdG d OdG dG Z OGeG Yh
.qdG WdG ASH

jjjEG
gh , k J S 66 e e F a J U SGJ f g (Iridium) j j j E G E G
.(710 km hCG 440 mi dGM) JQG dG GQGd qdY JGS T cCG
qS a (Symmetrical) Xe H Je dG g e k JS Y MEG g
g aJ .(AGSG q N i e Y 90 j hGH J ) b GQ G e e M
JS c j .qVQCG IdG S dLE qbQ qJU Jee J dG
Y j h ,726 kg C G 1600 lb O j e j R G d G K d G Q h d G J G S e
JS dEG J S e (Cross Links) ce WJ Uhh ,de q e
gUe dEG dUh NCJ d ,FSdG Od (Satellite- To-Satellite)
UdGh (Downlink) dG Uhh ,(Uplink) OdG Uh GOOJ OqJo .qFdG
.1.6 GHz Y qa (Subscribers) cdG GOOJ eqCG ,20 GHzz`H cdG

(Iridiums Personal Communicators) qdG jjjEG JGg M j

F Sd G SGh SQ E G a TDMA f J gh .j d G J G d G I L C G M
Pagers dBG AGf ILCc JGdG g H j .bdG f dGh J dG
FSdG L iNCG JGdG M q Jo H ,a qbdG fdG FSQ S
hOdG - dG JGg a JGdG e ddG dG eCG .jjjEG JS Y
H ( g a J M a ) N J g U h Q N G g Q h H d G ,(Dual-Mode)
.ddG JGdG HGhd jc dBG

gh , k JS 77 qd kSSCG U fC (Iridium) jjjEG `H dG Gg qoS d

Q q J iOCG .(Iridium Nucleus) jjjEG IG f M I FG dG fh dEG O Y
.edG JGdG OY J dEG dG jeh LddG

- 635 -
 QS HZ
J d G SG d G J G S f C G e N BG f g (Globalstar) Q S H d G E G
QJ d dPh ,hjjG e WH cCG Y H .jjjEG d adG
aGeoh GOGeEG Y JGdG g J ,dHh .H e JGdG HGhQ
.FSdG jd (Facilities Existing Ground-Based) IOLdG VQCG IYdG
dG /RGdG KdG QdG GhP e k J S 48 `d J E G Q S H d G e D J
Fe jqFGO cGe fK a JGdG g J .(qWMG JGS 8 dEG aVEH)
Y (1420 km C G ) 880 mi h j J Q G Y A G S G q d d H 52 L Q H
f (222 kg C G ) 490 lb f R h j d G Q S H Z J G S e c j . V Q C G
.AMDC

Md qJ qfHh JU JG J QS HZ JGS Ye eDJ

JGdG qj e ,kHLh q N 70 d G M d E G J
k T (Latitude) V d G
g e EG .JGdG d k NO eqDJ CG jdG JGdG H dG ddG
JJ .VQCG dG T NO Y IQOdG ,hOdG dG e JGdG
q e 125 d G M
- d G J g H Q S H Z J G S e 16 `H VQ C G
.ddG M KdG VQCG

- 636 -
 h d G h M G d G dG

qcSG fhdEG dG

jdG

eT If
(Videocassette Recorders VCRs ) j d G S d G q e
(Camcorders ) j d G G e c
(Audio Compact Disks) qdG edG UGbCG
(Audio CD Players) dG edG UGbCG qe
(Digital Video Disks DVDs ) b d G j d G U G b C G
(DVD Players) bdG jdG Ub qe
(DVD RAM Drives) FGY NO IcGP GP qbdG jdG UGbCG bGqS
(Home Theater ) d d G d G
(Direct Satellite TV Receivers ) T d G J d G j W Y R d G e
(Facsimile (Fax) Machines ) ( d G) c d G I L C G
(Magnetic-Tape Recorders ) d G S d G q e
(Microwave Ovens) jqhdG GaCG
(Pagers ) d B G A G d G I L C G
(Digital Cameras) qbdG GedG
(Automotive Electronics) crndG fhdEG
(Automated Teller Machine ATMs) dBG GqdG BG
(Bar-Code Readers ) d G O d G S e
- 637 -
 eT If
dG dEG (Consumer Electronic) dG fhdEG e Oj
jOdG WGdG b e FQ
m H iJo dG fh dEG Gq dGh
GqdG UCG dG e g eh .ddG hCG dG GSd
GJdG J .kjCG qcSG e Jo (Office Equipments) qdG
fqdG HdG J dG RdG e a ,dG g H k GRhH cCG
,(Scanners) SdGh ,(Copying Machines) SG BGh ,(Color Printers)
. (Facsimile or Fax ) c d G I L C G h

dH j cSG fhdEG dG d QX hCG c

Battery-Powered Vacuum Tube) jQdHh ZdG epdH J dG jjOGdG
e (Record Players) fG SCG q eo X q K eh ,(Radio Receivers
b o dG IQGhq dG UG bCGh ,(Electronic Amplifiers) fhdEG qdG
dG HdG qeo e qM dG (Motor-Driven Turntables) qH
. (Spring-Wound Mechanical Players ) f d G

UCG dEG VCG dG fhdEG dG e jW F dEG aVEH

:j e J iNCG e dg ,HdG dG f N qcSG dG
,(Hi-Fi Stereo Systems) HiFi jdG fCGh ,(TV Receivers) RdG e
,(Camcorders) j dG G e ch ,(VCRs) j dG S dG q eh
dG e dG U o dG q eh ,(Tape Recorders) S dG q eh
q
UodG qeh ,(Microwave Ovens) jhdG GaCGh ,(Audio CD Players)
,ddG jqQdH j dG jOG dG - S dGh , jOG dG e dG
(Cellular) dG J dG I LCGh ,(Digital Cameras) qbdG Ge dGh
. (Phone Answering Machines ) d B G J d G d G h , (Cordless ) S d G h
fCGh ,HdG cCG hqCG Tch ,NdG Tc FdG g dEG fh
G j O G Q h , (Closed-Circuit TV ) I Q G d G e R d G I L C G J h d d G j d G
Y k a , (Pagers ) d B G A G d G I L C G h , (Weather-Alarm Radios ) d G Q G f E G

- 638 -
 .(DVD Players) bdG jdG Ub qeoh DVD bdG jdG Ub

H dGh S dG q dBG e fh dEG GQG dG Y e q M d

,FdG YSh jqhdG Y dG e a (Gear-and-Spring Mechanisms)
e d (Mechanical Calculator) fdG S dG BG NGh
qVjdG dG q M J d G , (Electronic Models ) f h d E G P d G
FHdG GhOCG e dG qEa iNCG Mf eh .JTT Y dG VYh
IdH dqM o b ,fhdEG dG V Jo dG ,jdG ddG
cf ,bOh IQqe eR bDH IOhqeh GSG S GhOCG dEG fhdEG
.HWdG jeh ,hdG dGh ,qqdGh ,jdGh ,dq dG :e

dEG KdG dG fEG e qdH cSG fhdEG YU NCGh

J dGR e dG qdG GdG GSG T bh ,bdG dG fEG
(HDTV ) d d G d G f j J j J G S G G g C G d E G f h . L H
Digital TV Broadcasting ) b d G f j d G d i N C G J h g Q J h
q
Ud jc (DVD) bdG j dG U b q bo ,i NCG L eh .(Formats
qd e H ,e TCG H aq j dG ,(CD) edG
High-End) dG GJd j dG fCG a (Embedded) ZdG
q
a (Playback) dG IO YE e NBG dGh ,(Personal Computers
, (DVD-Video ) b d G j d G U b d G S a . (TV Sets ) R d G I L C G
(Stand-Alone DVD Player) e bQ ja Ub qeo AGT J j
c jW H RdG RL dEG H UdG dG dG IQTEG Sd H Qj
qCG e ,LCJo hCG iJ CG bdG jdG UGbC j .(Video Cable) jdG
.IaqdG aCG Ye

d G , (Divx ) j d G b d G j d G g j L Q J H DVD ` d G R H d h
(Rental Video Tape Cassette ) L C d G j d G j T S c G S G d E G e j
dG Divx qe j CG EG HdG Y eh .bCG mH LCeo ja UH
Gj ,iNCG Mf eh .JdG q N Y cdG JdH UdG hCG

- 639 -
NOEH e Qc jh ,ke eo (Audio CD) dG edG U o dG
CD) jdG edG UodG e a j j d Y jJh m J
. (Players Conventional

H GQdG a fhdEG AGLCG OGORG ,VdG dG GdG N

e jdG qJ QdG Gg a IjdG YGNG e OY Xh ,JeGQO
M : e .(Electronically Controlled Functions) fhdEG dG F Xh
f Yh ,(Engine Operation) qdG J eGOEGh ,(Fuel Injection) ObdG
d G h , (Antilock Braking ) f d I O d G e G d G h , (Transmission ) c d G
dG Vh ,dG ILCG dEG a VE H ,(Traction Control) dG Iq b a
do C G . ( S e c u r i t y S y s t e m s ) j d G f C G h , ( I n t e r i o r C l i m a t e C o n t r o l ) N G d G
GOeh (Night Vision) AGdG J qTCH jDhdG fCG YGNG H
Sb GYeh ,GPS aGdG bdG jJ f GSH IQqdG b e
Distance-Measuring Electronic Aids for) IQdG cr pd fh dEG a dG
n
. (Parking

e jL m L jH cSG fhdEGh qedG cT Jh

qddG dG V dG eh H e UGJ dG zcdG{ dG e
/de Y qFHdG GhOCGh dG g L o HnJo .ffH WHdG
c .Y qeo Jd dY je e aGe (Processor/Controller) e
,DVD eh ,jdG fh ,RdG RL e GMh dG q J
QN e ffG Y H dG qj dG ,dG qdG FHdG GhOCGh
dH qUdG FHdG GjdG J SCG e T Y hCG dG
. (House Holds Electrical Wiring Within the Home ) d G V

gQhO Sd d ce J eH VYh GbG J dh

:N e

I Q H H e I M h c a g J h (Distributed Concept ) R d G d G (1
d G h e d G j R J a Q J h , d (Processing Power ) d e

- 640 -
 .jce J f d dh ,(Attached Units) qdG AGLCG d

H d N e d G j h , (Centralized Concept ) c d G d G (2
h C G , (TV Set Tapbod ) R J R H h C G , T J H e E G H d G G M d G
.AGdG J qTCH H Y dG IMh

L d d G Y G J h (Monolithic ) d G j O M C G G Q G d G Y e Q X E G K
YU g iNCG YU f q J dEG OqCG VdG S HQCG N jdG
.eo cSG QJ S gh ,(Marine Electronics) jqdG fhdEG
, d G I gR VHF S G / SQ E G I L C G : d G g Y e C G e h
Depth) YCG G H Sh ,GPS aGdG bdG j J f eh
IdG dG d dG GQGOGQh ,(Fish Finders) SCG f bh ,(Finders
. (Short-Range Solid-State Radars ) i d G

GY J ,19 `dG a a jqjOGdG odG Ve dEG dG qj

a RdG e Y jdG dEG jh zjjOGdG dGh SdG{
a oa JdG ILCG eqCG ;19 dG a zdG LdJh fjdG dG{
fhdEG Ve bjo H .zJG LdJ{ SG J 20 dG
dEG qjh ,24 dG a zjqdG fhdEG LdJ{ Ve a jdG
f h d E G f C G{ G Y J 25 h 24 d G a a G d G b d G R L V e
.zjdG fhdEGh AdG

jdG SdG
q e
H (Video Cassette Recorders VCRs ) j d G S d G q e J
Sc a ja jT Y (Audio Signals) qdGh jqjdG GQTEG Jh
RdG eGH q Jo CG VCR J .(dG dBG jT e M) (Cassette)
gh .keo q odG jqQdG aCd jdG Sc Jh ,kM Jgd
,(8 mm System) e fdG fh ,(Beta) qHh ,VHS :g VCR `d TCG K
.H e keGSG cCG Jo VCR qCG EG

- 641 -
 jdG GQhO
SCGdG IQGOEG

VHS HGJ dBG

YdG IH dEG dG IH
jT eM hCG H YCG
dG
jdG jT Sc J qdBG :1- 21 dG

3.58 d E G j f VY GP VCRs d G I O YE Gh J F G T J
jdG jT jo M .(Helical Scanning) ddG dH Jo SH MHz
J J .1- 21 dG a qe g c ,VCR qdBH H UdG SdG e
Y (Guide Rollers) L dG G Hh (Capstans) j M dG e M dG
M 180 L Q H d d H S d G q oa ,SCGdG H qJh SdG
. d H 2- 21 d G a j c , (Read/ Write Heads ) H d G / I A G d G S h D h Q
jd mce mJH dG ShDhQ Y J dG dG J K eh
bCG Hh bCG YS P jH j e ,jdG J YS e bCG YH
jdG ShDhQ
SCGdG IQGOEG

dG ie

jT

jdG LJ

j d G j T S d ( d G / G S G ) H d G / I A G d G S C G Q :2-21 d G
- 642 -
Y IOLdG jdG fH Hch IAGH J dG g dG g qEG .jd
c j . (Start-Track Scanning Method ) Q d G - e S C H d P h j d G
(GNG SGh Y fdG a q Jo e Ib gh) ,(Track) Qe ie
IQTEG q Jo .(Full-TV Frame) ec fjJ QWEG JE jQhdG fdG Y
Y (Control Signal) qdG IQTEG q Jh ,SdG e MGh xM Y qdG
Standard) Qe SCH ,VCRs J j fCG dEG IQTEG QJh .NBG qdG
j T Y S Y d G j . (Extended Play - EP ) e H h C G (Play SP
e H qdG jdG Y (5.8 m/s) 229 in/s OJ (Head-to-Tape) SCGQ dEG
. (Cobalt-Alloy-Coated Tape ) H d G

f qgh J jH eb (JVC) qfHdG Qa cT CG cdH jdGh

`SdG hP `dG `dG `SdG SdG UCa .(VHS) ddG jdG
qj dG jdG VY (13 cm) 0.5 in Y (2.5 cm * 10 * 19 cm) 73/8 * 4 * 1 in
.(17 mm/s hCG 33 mm/s) 0. 66 in/s hCG 1.33 in/s YS Y NGO JH H

aVEH ,jQdGh dG bd kbQ kVY VCR `d LPdG MdG RJh

LQEGh ,dG Iqeh ,qe efd (Cumulative) cGdG dG eR dEG
,jQGdGh bdG Vh ,GdG QNG Je Y Jh .jGdG dEG jdG
dEG jJ hCG hCG dEG jdG jT IOYEGh ,dBG hCG JeJhCG dG Iqeoh
jcCG J jqQdH J dG H Y qdG ILCG qEG dEG fh .YH NBG
. e e C G VCRs M d a L J d G J d Gh H G d G

dG SJoh (Monophonic) qJU jOMCG g jdG q e e qEG

Hi-Fi j d G
q e kdM aJ ,m M CG Yh .SdG e cCG JdG
4 kdM J qfCG f jqQdG VCR FN Y jdHh (IhdG dY)
eH j c . q bCG Y Ib c 125 SG Y IQdG dh jqja ShDhQ
f bdG a GMCG 8 Jh ke kej 365 `d g jdG q e reo
H Jh .(k GMGh kKM SCG c hCG j c d edG VdG qjo)
dG Sd dPh EP dEG SP e kqJeJhCG qdH jdG q e

- 643 -
SP OYH YS qM dG VHS jdG Sc QhH UCG PEG ;jdG
. EP O Y H Y S Sh

jdG Gec
j dG G e c H LhG e d M g (Camcorders) j dG G e c EG
(CCD) d H d G R L GP j d G G e c F Xh H J , q dGh
qe g c ,GedG d SSCG AGLCG qJ .VCR jdG Sc q eh
,(Lens) SdGh ,GdCG IOqdG FdG QqdG TT :j e 3-21 dG a
j J b h , N G O a h e h , (CCD Detector ) d H d G R L T c h
jdG b CG dEG dG jh .jdG jT q e h , (Conversion Section )
IQTEG QJh .FHc T dEG jqjdGh qdG GQTEG qj dG g
. (Pixels ) I Q U Y 250,000 O j e j (CCD) T c C G d E G

(VHS) ddG jdG f :e Ic mMCGh m TCH jdG Gec aqJ

C G h d G h . (DVC ) b d G j d G S c h ,Hi8 mm h ,VHS-C h , e d G
c C G ,(VHS-C) S c E a (VCRs VHS) e A G J d G I d G VHS G e c
J qjh .He m H dh q dG (VHS) Sc e UCG g ,k GQfG
U h M ) (Adapter ) A j e O L h j Q d G (VHS VCR) a (VHS-C) j T
bO 30 Iqd k J (VHS-C) eqDJ .(UdG a NG Y qd H
dG SdG

ae jdG Ve

AdG FdG QqdG VY TT

dG SdG

LCD FS QqH TH ja Gec 3-21 dG

- 644 -
bCG qdG QqdG EP dG a bO 90 Idh SP QdG dG a a
(V j j d G q d G e S j j a 8-mm S c d E G f H h .I O L
I M d G U J hC G b L j 68-mm G e c q e I g d h . j d G (VHS)
- e G S H h C G ,(VCR) j d G e a h C G R d G a H b a I T e
8-mm f j d G G e c q C G d E G , I Q T E G Q J (8mm VCR ) C G 8-mm f j a
IqHh ,(VHS0C) h (VHS) J dG J e cCG dG a Ihfh IOH J
.EP a 4h h SP a 2h d E G J e R J

L H Ihf cCG IQ U GP a (DVCs) qbdG jdG Gec eqCG

e d G G g j . J J (Dubbed ) H O h (Edit ) j J j h , G e d G
dG IOYEG qUH 8-mm Gec e HJ gh ,SdG Y GedG
Y IkTe jdG VY jOdG H j ,dP Y IhY .(Playback)
.qdG GJdG

,GdCG Oe FS QqH TT Y jqjdG GedG GfCG MCG J

Built-in Video) e j a AG VCGh ,(Stabilization Image) Q U RG eh
q
eqCG ,(Stereo Audio) S jS Yh ,SGh jJ ie SYh ,(Lights
, (Power-Zoom Lens ) O H C G h , j d G I Q b S Y a i N C G F d G
Z d G Z g d G J h A d E (Flying-Erase Head ) Q d G S d G S C G d G h
.gdG We H a

dHh GedG IQGOEH qdG IQH GMdG g J dP Y k a

jGdG dEG JO YEGh , eCG dEG S dG j Hh ,(Stop) bd Hh ,(Play)
, (Balance ) f R G d H h , (Zoom ) j d H h , h d G h d B G c d H h , (Rewind )
q
jqQH GedG g J .(View Finder) dG ue SGH dPh LQEGh
jJ Y qJ .(Alkaline Cells) jqb jN SGH hCG dG IO YE H b
A G L E G j H ,VCR j d G H j d G G e c U H (Edit ) S d G
.dG ue Y dH hCG RdG Ige Y jdG

- 645 -
 qdG edG UGbCG
RN (120 mm) 43/4 in H H Ub g CD dG edG UodG qEG
Y (Microscopic Pits) jqe M a iNCG m GUCdh ,SdGh ,d
FQ Ub Y dG q jo .(Reflective Surface) cdG UodG S
. (Pitted Spiral Track ) Q e d d i e Y j Q d S G H (Master Disk )
ROM a IAGdG IcGP

dd ien
dG

IM
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dG

IM
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aT IcQ
jdG W

dG SdG
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d H d P h S H U b d E G F G O f Y (Pit Pattern )
o dG f jo
d d G ) Vinyl f G S C G J V Y d G g c , (Stamping ) d G h C G
e q odG odG qJo .(Vinyl Long-Playing) jdG dG (jQc a
(Low-Power Laser) IqdG-e Qd zStylus{ CG (zb{) eM LH CD
dG hCG dG jd dG AdG gQhH qJ dG ,cqodG o dG Y
j .CD `dG (Playback) J IOYEGh J Oe 4-21 dG jo .UCG
- 646 -
jqe M
o T Y jJh kbQ fdG J qc CD `dG e dG AdG
.Ud cdG dG Y e

Vinyl fGSCG J e Y Hh CD edG UGbCG qM

ddG bqd kah q dG SdG J JHh ,jdG Sch jdG dG
bqO eCH edG UGbCG qJh .J dG dGh dG IOYE
kjCG cfh .IRdG qaGMG dH kfQe dG J a bGhh
Q X h C G (Selection ) d G H (Tick ) U a I Q T E G h C G J C G O L h Y
.SdG bJ Y e CG

qdG enodG UGbCG qeo

j ,5-21 dG qjo c ,(Audio CD Players) enodG UGbCG qe qCG
IOYEG fh (Motor-Driven Turn Table) qH bodG IQGhqdG UGbCG H
qodG g qJ .(Electro-Optical Playback System) HhdG dG
j qS IQTEG dEG UodG Y cqdG o dG e dG QdG AV
Ud dG OdG UodG e jQdH J .H a J
dch ,6-21 dG a gX g c ,SCGdG YqS SGH dG SG
kjCG gh .ddG GSd UGbCG IOq dG d d H eCG
.(Single-Disk Automotive Units) IQqd JeJhCG Oa Ub e

M Y IQdG (Home CD Changers) qddG edG UGbCG qod qEG

qCG M a ,(Revolving Carousel Drawer) IQGhO jQGL fGN a UGbCG 6 hCG 5
j .kY T bCG Q U (Magazine-Style Changers) jdG OdG jhM
. CD e e U b 200 d E G 25 d G M (Jukebox ) S e h O b h U

S ee UGbCG 10 jdG f a (Players) dG H pjn

.UGdG SG e YS uod (Rotary Feeder) QGhqdG qdG a Je
Random-Play) FGY J fCH ,IaG dG (Controls) HGdG Jh
. ( d G / f Z C G J H J h ) S d G J H , (Modes

- 647 -
jdG dG GP (Speakers) dG Gqe N e UGbCG g Jo
SG qHb d J CD `dG e qCG c .(Stereo Systems Speaker)
hCG Ho Y dG H dG qj .IkTe UodG Y Se e C
UodG jJ odG j .qdG a IOLdG qdG Md GSH
Z m L C G d E G f ZC G Q G J h , b hC G e C G d E G L J h CD e d G
J qbQ VY TT Y qodG g e J ,dP Y IkhY .Oqeo
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.e m J qCHh ZCG 32 dEG 5 eJo qfCH dG

a CD-ROM a IAG dG I cGP GP - e dG U o dG eo eCG

VJ M .qdG edG UGbCG qJ kjCG a qdG GJdG

edG UodG
dG dG Y M
SdG IGRGdG J
dG
edG e OjGdG
QdG

IBGe
MdG
LdG Md SdG IRdG
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TdG

edG UodG d VJ e :5-21 dG

d a ,JdG IQCa GSH qJo qY qJ Md JdG TT

bGeh YdG hCG SdG J JJh dGh ,dG V Y IQdG
UodG{ fCG) .dG FbO OY J gh ,UdG J N GdG g
G e I L C G { ` H S d G ,16 d G a CD-ROM a I A G d G I c G P P e d G
.(zLQdG fhdG JdG

- 648 -
 dG edG UodG qeo 6-21 dG

qbdG jdG UGbCG

Ud jJ g (Digital Video Disk DVD) bdG jdG UodG EG
dG LdJ Y Jj , cCG SG IQb Y d CD edG
DVD ` d G e e T C G S g . (Optical Storage Technology ) d G
.(Digital Versatile Disk) eGSG Oqe bdG UodH kjCG jo dG
NBG dGh qdG GJdG a d UGbCG g H jo
.RdG ILCG Y d

Ub J Y jdG (DVD) bdG jdG Ub Jh qg J

. a J d G a j d G (DVD-ROM ) a I A G d G I c G P P b d G j d G
f j qfCG CG ,9 GB OJ N IQH DVD-ROM `dG e dG Gg qj
Theater-Quality Full-Length ) j d Gh I O d G d Y M d G a C G e Y S
,keaCG j a ,qde J SGh (DVD) bdG jdG Ub qjo .(Movies
Movie-Type Video) FS HW GP jqja GVeh ,fjJ eGHh
bdG jdG Ub J j .jdG Sd eCG jdG qjh (Cassette
jdG J Y dG g c RdG H nUjo e DVD qe Y
LPdG qdG e d kah dG J jdG DVD UGbCG e qEG .Sc
e qVY fSG qj DVD `dG Gg CG Y k a . (16:9 ) T T V Y f h (4:3 )
.kjCG qdG edG UGbCG J Y IQdG DVD dh .qN 500

- 649 -
T g (Digital Video Express - Divx) jdG bdG jdG UodG EG
k jH j H aj O Lhh , LC dG (DVD) e (Proprietary) qJ

,jWh dY IOL GP aCG Y j gh .ILCdG jdG Sd

Y Uj dG ,Divx Ub IQGOE e AGT Qj .qdG LdG e LCJo
Joh IgR H UGbCG LCJo ,Jd kah .JdH JdG N
EG Y a QSG Ia dWEG dG OGQCG M ah ,QSG Iqeo GW
ed IQJa OGYEGh UodG b H j dG Divx Jc dEG W SQEG
.aVEG dG

48 Id J eR eqDjh ,17 GB qM j qfCG (Divx) UodG Ge e

$15 h $10 H hG j H UGb C G e d G G g A G T j h .$5 e
q bCH YS
`dG J Y IQdG d Divx e qCG kjCG cfh ,OdG Z d dPh
(DVD) AGH fQe gdG dG a (Divx) M J .jqdG (DVDs)
Y IOLdG J e eGdG e cCG Ye H bdGh ,jdG
.jqQdG hCG jqdG bdG jjdG UGbCG

GP dG qjo (DVD) `dG e f g (DVD-Audio) dG DVD `dG EG

17 GB dGM UodG Gg j .(Super-High-Fidelity Sound) ddG a YdG
dEG aVEH .(Audio CDs) kS kee kUb 25 `d jdG IQb Oj e CG
Dolby Digital AC-3) bQ JU dhO GQTEG dG (DVD) `dG eqnDjo ,dP
q q
.ec ie GP e N ,Gb ppd (Surround Sound Signals

dEG dH H a jdG dG jh ,kb 40 dEG dG (DVD) `dG jo

.YH dG dEG hCG eCG

fCG ,Jeoh iNCG (DVD) `dG J M edG e jd)

,16 d G a J e h (Digital Video Disks DVDs ) b d G j d G U G b C G
.(zqLQdG fhdG JdG Geh ILCG{

- 650 -
 bdG jdG Ub qeo
d fehc f g (DVD Player) bdG jdG Ub qeo EG
SdG e M H q eo Y a dG qVj .(DVD) Gja
(DVD) `dG e Hjo .eeCG qJ Mdh bQ YH IOhqe ,VCR jdG
q q
qdBGh GQGO Y qdG Gg jh .H (TV Receiver) fjdG dH
d G d ) NTSC GQ TE G d E G GQ TE G g j H h (DVD) `d G I A G H U N
H (DVD) `dG e jOe H qJh ,aGdG (WdG fj dG
qdG edG UGbCGh (CD-ROMs) a IAGdG IcGP GP edG UGbCG
q C G E G (Audio CDs )
.Divx U G b C G J Y I Q d G j L

UGbCG d qe ,(DVD) d He gh ,(Divx) qe EG

N dEG (Divx) qe UJ j .(Rental Divx Disks) ILCodG Divx
IQJdG fH jh (Forward Viewing Data) fdG VY QhH Qqj Jg
I a e c C G d G j J d M a , c d G J d G (Divx) e (Billing Data )
(DVD) `dG q J (Divx) e CG dEG IQTEG QJh .YadG Q SG
.kjCG (QdG) dG

FGY NO IcGP GP qbdG jdG UGbCG bGqS

FGdG N dG I cGP GP - q b dG jq j dG UG bCG bG S J
100,000 `dG dGd f bdG UodG Y dG IOYEGh ,dGh ,dH
OMoCG UodG Y 2.6 GB OJo fH N IQH (DVD-RAM) qJ .Iqe
Double-Sided) fdG hOe UodG Y 5.2 GB h (Single-Sided Disk) fdG
IcGP (DVD) Y e fdG IAGb Y JQH (DVD-RAM) bGS qJ .(Disk
H d G e d G U G b C G e h ,(CD-ROM) h ,(CD-R) h ,(DVD-R) h , a I A G d G
adG TCG cCG qEG ,dEG k GNCG f .(CD-RW Disks) Y HdG IOYE
.3-GB G N G H f d G O M C G H Ub Y j h d G J S

- 651 -
 ddG dG
c c I e U N e a a Z Y I Q Y (Home Theater ) d d G d G E G
S d e h (Multimedia Entertainment Center ) F S d G I O e d
IkOY j .Y J P RJ Igeh f HF dY SS GP GUCG dEG
:ddG GqdG Y ddG dG
. (Projection TV Receiver ) R d G e V Y R L h C G I c T T
.High-Fidelity (HF) Stereo Receiver) ) d Y I h f P j S e
.(Audio CD Player) dG edG UodG qeo
.(DVD Player) bdG jdG Ub qeo
q e
.VCR j d G U b
.(Gqe 6 jd) High-Fidelity (HF) Speakers)) dY Ihf GP U Gqe

adG J CG Qjh .g dG Gqe e kLPf kf 7-21 dG qjo

d (Speakers) qJdG GqdG H eRdG adG eCd mc
m H SGh
ce U qe

eeCG U qe eeCG U qe
QdG L Y dG L Y

RdG RL

jdG e SdG jhM

edG UodG e b d G j d G U b e DVD

Sc jdG
q e
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qe IYb
dG
QNG

dG Gqe
dG dG

d d G d G J J :7-21 d G
- 652 -
dGh GQd jQhdG JdG hdG aJh ,IAc cCG dG Jo
.(Full Performance Capabilities) Gd eqdG AGOCG GQb QXE qVQCGh
dG e dG AdG) adG NBG a dG hCG h g dG j
,RdG TT fL Y eeCG GqdG Vjh ,je mSGc Y (VdG
Rear Surround) dG dG Ge eqCG ,TdG a cdG dG cqjoh
q q
jdG GqdG aVEG jh .dG N Va (Sound Speakers
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Stereo TV ) jS fjJ RL OLh adG d dG dG qj b

VCR j d G e j S h C G (Audio Output Jacks ) S N H G b e (Set
q
d G e O L h h , (Stereo High Fidelity VCR ) d Y - U Y f G P
Dolby Pro ) z L d h H d h O { h C G (Dolby Digital ) z d h O { b d G d G
Stereo ) j j S I b c a 100W h 50W H h G J I Q b S j d G (Logic
H qdG j .gcP S dG dG Gqe dEG aVEH ,(Channel
qTCH edG bdG H Y dG RL SGH GqdGh ILCG g L
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q dGh ,SdG jTh ,CDs (edG) UGbCG e qEG ,dG LH

dG dG Gbh jqcdG GdG CG EG .Jb Sd Jo FM YGPEG

(Track) e dEG o s Jo q a VEG (Center and Surround-Sound Channels)
GqdG g HQCG GdG Jo .fjdG dh aCd IOqdG jdG
jCG) qeeCG dG qd fdGh dhCG IdG a :dG JdG
Rear ) d G j d G H c e J I b h , c d G d I b h ,( j C Gh
q q
Bass) G U C G L R G H E Q N G d G d G j a . (Speakers
q
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TdG JdG jW Y RdG e

Satellite Digital TV) JdG jW Y bdG RdG e f j
TdG dG qUj (457 cm) 18 in H ae b FGg e (Receiver System

- 653 -
 J d G e T d G R d G e :8-21 d G

VCR a V d G g c h (8-21 d G ) c S G H f j d G J d G d
e Y jh ,QdG RdG popH dG qUj ,RdG ch
dG Gg qj .JdG qH IQTEG IT j CG (Subscribers Receivers) pnodG
kLGe ,JdG f gJG cqj H QdG a FGdG cqjoh .Ib 175
Y RdG e H j .VQCG e ddG dG a d
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(dG) cdG ILCG

FKdG e FXh H (Facsimile (Fax) Machines) cdG RL j
jhdG JGg N Y I qdG FKdG J .Wh Jh d SQEGh
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,RdG dEG dSQEG OGdG KdG NJo :ddG dG Y cdG RL j

Optical ) j H e G M J h . H K j h G R Y H Q h d (Drum ) W M a
q
JQ jhe ae j S GM Y c e F V N (Carriages
a C G j d G h C G (Specified Rectilinear Area ) d G d G G P M d G
e k GQqJ qFdG qdG Jo ,mFH .SodG KdG VY M (Horizontal Strip)
eh .(Helical-Scantrack) ddG dG ie a jo (Pixels) IQdG UY

- 654 -
dEG JdG q N Y dSQE jOe SGH jdG hCG FdG dG N qj qK
L e h . e S G Y Q O d G (Compatible Fax Machine ) F G d G c d G R L
Sq M GQhCG Y Jo H IQTEG jH dG cdG RL j iNCG
. (Thermal Paper ) I Q G d

dG Jh k Gaqe RdG Jo qUN JGg bQCG IkOY cdG ILC OqJo

cdG ILCG H gh .qJdG JdG eN e NGdG hO ,dG a YS 24
Document) FK dG b e hCG (Scanners) FdG SdG Y J dG
,JdG a fN hCG eGS qbQ dM dEG FKdG J dG (Digitizers
. (C o p y i n g M a ch in e s ) j d G I L C G Y J d G c d G I L C G Y
k a

dG SdG
q e
R L Y I Q Y g (Magnetic-Tape Recorder ) d G S d G q e qEG
Y I O L d G (Audio-Frequency Signals ) d G O O d G G Q T E G J h J
qY J .RdG Gd qSSCG AGLCG 9-21 dG qj .dG SdG
qY J a ,SdG jT Y e f dEG IQTEG jH dG
O O J G Q T E G d E G d G d G g j J I O Y E H , (Play Back ) d G I O Y E G
adG IH dG IH

jdG SdG SCGdG dG IOYEG SCGQ jMdG GqS

dG SCGQ dG fGSG

dG SdG e qdBG 9-21 dG

- 655 -
 q e qJh . q eh U qe e IkOY q dG g qJ .qS
h C G j Q d H J q f C H ( P o r t a b l e T a p e R e c o r d e r s ) d d G d G S d G
C G d E G g I Q T E G Q J . (AC- Line Transformer ) h d G Q d G N H
.dG SdG q e Y J fdG dG ILCG

jqhdG GaCG
qe IGOCG g (Microwave Ovens) (jhjdG hCG) hdG dG EG
W RdG Gg Sjo .jqhdG LdG bW GSH YH dG d
Y FGdG qdG WCGh (Homogeneous Foods) fdG jZCG e
OGdG Hh WCG qJ .(dG Gd ke k GAL 10-21 dG j) .AGdG
qdG qj M a J JjL a jqhdG bdG ddG HWdG GP
dEG ODj dG eCG ,H FdG MG jOGdG OOdG d jdG
jqOOdG bdG FGdG N
jqjOGdG
he
LdG ddG

e f

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bdG Vh bJ
qda qe
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IM) dG
(fdG

. h e d e S Q 10-21 d G
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 .qSdGh eGdGh FdG OGdG kjCG j dG Gg .dG J

Microwave) jqhe H H e e U SG H jqh dG G aCG i Jo

2.45 Y H H P h d G d j . (Magnetron ) h e J (Oscillator Tubes
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H hGJ qeR Iqe a dG jJ a OLdG dG j hCG q oa ,dG
NGO jqhdG bdG Rqj e qEG .Th dG cJ M dPh FbOh mGK
Rotating Fanlike) Mhe T Y QGhqdG cdG dG a g dG a
. (Mode Stirrer )
q d G d H h d G (Reflector
J H 500 Wh 400 W H qLPdG IdG jqhdG GaCG Jn
h dG dG qCG dEG IQ TEG Q Jh .800Wh 700W H I dG G aCG
Radar Transmitter ) Q GOGd G SQ E G h e e TG hC G j J g f h d G
dG J hCG d JdG qYdG jhdG GaCG J .(Magnetron
a zjqhdG edG{ kjCG fG) .iNCG OGdG d dG dh
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dBG AGdG ILCG

Pocket-Sized ) d G H j O G Q e g (Pager ) d B G A G d G R L E G
q
bQ qCG keo qdG dBG AGdG eN e e GQTEG j (Radio Receiver

. d B G A G f R L :11-21 d G
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Gg aj .e (dBG AGdG RL de Jg bQ ZCG Y) kqe Jg
,11-21 dG q j .GReGh FdG Yeh e jOH RdG
a LCD FdG QqdG Td j .dG gRh H dBG AGf RL Pf
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GRGgG j hCG - S IQTEG ILCG g H Qj a ,qdG FSdG
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qbdG GedG
q Jh k GQU J dH Jo Gec g (Digital Camera) qbdG GedG EG
aCG Y dh (Digital Storage Medium) bQ N Sh Y qbQ jH
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SdG f e qbdG GedG qJ .jqdG GedG ILCG a c qaGZJa
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Y ,gNCG H IkTe QdG Ige j .qNGdG JcGP a d CMOS
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dG I cG dG b H a U dG T I cG dG a Q dG J
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- 658 -
HW SH fdG hCG HCGh OSCH QdG g W qHb dEG aVEH
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.1800 * 1200 dpi dGE J Je (Contrast) J LQO bdG GedG H qjo

GedG J V QdG qeH Jo .jQdH GedG g Jh
.GedG K JQG bO OGRh edG g QqJ qa ,IkOY YodG

cdG fhdEG
j O d G f c h .GQ d G j OGQ I L C G d hC G S 60 e c C G e X
.(Vacuum-Tube Circuitry) Ze epU e GQGO Ye Y J dhCG
qdG UUdG jqQH Jo dG ddG e cCG qda qj J ch
e b e eDJ g ddG ddG fc .(6V gh) IQqdG NGO IOLdG
(DC) d G Q d G j H j (Chopper ) H T H j f e h c
q
.GQ G d G d E G GQ Sf G d G VC G 1960 Y a h .I T e e Q J d E G
,INCG dG GdG N fhdEG GQdG f qe fG d
qdG J FXh LJ qj .Y J jdG GQqdG UCG H
SGH MGdGh edG hDH qdG Q eCG dEG a VE H c M Vh
IqH e jqhe de gh ,(Microcontrollers) jhdG dG
N dG / dG a eh ,I cG dG e ,(Peripherals) qFQ Jc a W
fdG a IkOY jhdG dG g eJo .f bbdG a IOLdG
j IQdG de CG dEG IQTEG QJh .kJeJhCG dG JdG d
FXh HGV e kUN ,AGLCG g fhdEG eH Y WqG dEG
ddG FXdH kqdM fhdEG GQGdG Ye J .d qFe Z AGLCG g
:IQdG NGO
.qdG IQb d (Throttle Control) ObdG SGhO V
(JeJhCG) dBG fG Y (Gear-Change) SdG- qJ qSM V
.Yd

- 659 -
.(Air-Fuel Mixture) ObdG - AGdG E G ObdG M f IQGOGE
q N qjh ,fhd
. (Antilock Braking Control ) d G V d G V
. (Traction Control ) d H d G
qH qdGh ,DVD jdG UodG bGqS ,CD edG UodG ,jOGdG
. (Audiotape Player ) d G S d G
FdG (Electronic Map Guidance) fhdEG jdG dOh IQqdG be
GPS. d d G a G d G b d G j J f Y

.(Interior Climate Control) NGdG dH qdG

.(Automotive Diagnostic Functions) JGdG qdG FXdG
Seat-Belt) dG G M q T bG e R L ,(Airbag) FG dG IO S dG
.(Curtain Control) FdH qdGh ,(Tensioner
. (Power Window and Door-Lack Control ) d G H d G h I a d G j J
. (Instrument Panel Information Control ) G O G d G M d H d G
Drivers Seat ) dBG jdH qdGh FdG Sc IQGM LQH qdG
. (Heating and Automatic Adjustment Control
zeCG dEG -fCG{ AGdG J qTCG jDhQ H qdG jDhdG J
.zlook-Ahead {
.(Security and Alarm Control) jdGh QGfEG RH qdG
Parking Guidance)adG jf - Y Sb f OYH IQdG crQ OTQEG
q n
. (With a Rear-End Distance-Measuring System
IBGdG a jDhdGh ,(Map Light) jdG AV :YdG qdG FXh
.(Defroster) dG jeoh ,(Rear-View Mirror) dG

AYEG Y IQdG MCG H a IQdG be jJh OTQEG f qj bh

- 660 -
 M a (Local Highway Patrol ) d G j d G j d G N d E G F Q W b e d S Q
.IQqdG a N hCG OM CG bh

GdG a X dG dG fhdEG e dG a ,M q CG Yh
edG qJ d kf ,IQdG a Ieo J ah a fCG EG INCG
WGdG f GjOGQ :IdG fhdEG g Y eCG eh .d
,(Synthesized Speech Warnings) JdG j dGh ,(Citizens Band Radios)
dG GhOCG Je GdCGh ,(The Talking Dash Board) qdG IOdG Mdh
d (Push Buttons) V QGQRCGh ,(Digital Readouts) qbQ GAGb QJo
KdG YdG OGqY e c GSG YoCG bh .(Climate Controls) dG Vh
.k GOe d f (Rotary Knobs) QGhqdG dGh (Analog Speedometer)

Y j dG fhdEG ObdG M H (Carburetor) HdG oSG d

VhCG hCG hX qT J (Cylinder) fGSG a bH ObdG aJ Sb CGe
TG IGOCG NCGh .(Engine Idle) qdG N dM V e ,dG
dG qgh ,(Distributors) YRqdG e (Electronic Ignition)fhdEG
gdG Jo (fhdEG TG IGOCG CG) a (Condensers) qdGh (Points)
kah (Leaner Air-Fuel Mixtures) ObdG - AGdG N d RdG NdG
. (Clear Air Laws ) d G A G d G f G d

J dG (Route Planning) dGh OTQEGh LdG fCG UCG ,kjM

,Iaqe GPS aGdG bdG jJ d JdG be GQTEG e J e Y
cdH jL .(Dashboard) IOdG Md TT Y UdGh FGdG VJo M
f fG) .he e e e cCG Y j jdG GQqdG H qCG
f C G{ `H S d G 23 d G a z d G j D hd G{ f h GPS d d G a G d G b d G
a zGPS d d G a G d G b d G e h ,z F d Gh j d G f h d E G
.(z j d G f h d E G L d J { `H S d G 23 d G

- 661 -
 dG qV dG fCG
c f g (Antilock Braking System ABS ) d G V d G f E G
FdG Ga qfeEG q Jo dG fhdEG H qJ IQqd dhQg
bdG a HdG GSG Y (Skidding) fd kf IQdH qdG
:ddG GqdH ABS qj .ddG
.dG N IAH IOdG Y FdG Yjo
.IQqdG JG QGSG Y ajo

k e Ye dG HdG e cCG Ib ae Yh eBG m H IQqdG bjo

. (Unassisted Brakes ) d
YH kqdBG (eGdG) HdG Y dH ABS dG V dG f j
QqJh (Traction) dG a dG dG J M eCG Ib Hh
QdGh jdG dG EG .eCH IQqdG bqJ M Gqe IqY g dG Y
bdG a YCG IAH HdG qj fhdEG dG a IQqdG He Y
f Gqeo NOEG J d .OdG IOdG H fQe dH I q dG hCG qdG
Long-Haul ) d G - j d G M d Gh c d G a ABS d G V d G
. S 25 e c C G e (Tracks

fCG g H aNG OqJoh ,Qe ABS f Lj dG Yh

fh ,Y HQCh ,d c f a .dG Oe N kJ
. e Y F N e d h , (Diagonally Split System ) d G d G
dG YS e Y IOY LPdG dG V dG f jh
Electronic Control Unit ) f h d E G d G I M h h , (Wheel-Speed Sensors )
.J j (Hydraulic Unit) qdhQg IMhh ,(ECU

SJo .dG YS e Sj qH da f dG e Jo
fhdEG dG IMh a hdG dG dEG SCG Y dG g
b hM qfeEG OqJ qM dG fG Jh GQTEG qJo dG (ECU)
ECU fhdEG dG IMh SJo hdG jb dG b j eY .dG

- 662 -
dG L
q J K eh ,(Hydraulic Unit) dhQdG IMdG dEG qe GQTEG
adG LJ qjh dG Qqoa ,dG /SGhO dEG dG qdhQdG
bqJ dM a IQqdG Jh dG IQH dG Y IQdG dG J M
Electric Motor)fhdEG dG e NCj fCG H ah .H qe
q
e kjCG gh .HdG d dhQdG dG e (Modulation
(Interconnecting Wires ) H G d G S C G j J d E G J G Q d G e d
.jH dCG H

dH qdG fCG
(Sensors) e e (Traction-Control System) dH qdG f qj
J .fH CGS IQdG CGh ac Z dG L dM J e S
dEG ObdG jL dBG hdG dG j AdG a ,IQqdG Y IdG qY
HdG Y dG dG aGj ,YSh IQqdG cM jo qe ,qdG
a jqQNG g qUdG gh .JQqS RGJ Y adG a FdG IYd
.ge gaj hCG eqjo dG GQqdG e

dBG GqdG BG
ae jf g (Automatic Teller Machines - ATMs) dBG GqdG dBG qEG
dG S Y IQdG FHd Jo (Convenient-Banking Terminal) Fe qaW
dBG gh .qUN qae bH eGSG qjh .dG hCG QdG e kYS CG a
.dG JdG f Y ce JH Ue W Y IQY dG a g

30 b qceCG IdG jdG a BG e dG Gd QX hqCG c

cGeh ,QdG L a Y kaQeh kHe k GAL UCa BG eqCG ,keY
a H dBG GqdG BG OY qCG dEG GAMEG Joh .GQdGh ,qdG
11 e c C H d G SG H J h , c e C G j d G a d BG 165,000 d G M 1998 Y
q q
.YdG a qY e 1.2 Ojo e CG qjJ qY Qe

qJh ,OYG bd He M a (Banking Card) adG bdG eCG

- 663 -
 CRT TT

OdG S a
SG HW
Jc

bdG Qb bf GM

JdG Md OdG Re
adG hU FV e

dG jOU

dBG GqdG dBG 12-21 dG

bQh ,HdG M bQh ,d fhdEG GdG j (ke) kjT

Njo .bQ H (Personal Identification Number - PIN) dG jdG
a ,12-21 dG a qe g c ,bdH UdG dG a bdG dG
dG jdG bQ dG Nj qK CRT. dBG GqdG TT Y dG
S dG ddG dG e aVEG edG Hh H /H UdG
(Connection) HGQ jH gY dBG GqdG dBG J .JdG Md GSH
,dG jdG bQ q Uh ,dG fH e cqCd dG Jc e
j edG aGJ M ah .HdG dGh ,HM b e qdGh
.jQdG qdG JEH JdG

HdG dEG HdG ddG dG AYEH dBG GqdG dBG J ,dP H

GqdG dBG EG .(Security Checks) jdGh qdG qY e S J
e Y dG jh .f bdG a IMGh jf Y e cCG Jo dBG
kYf qCG e qd AGdG J qTCG bW Sjo dG ,AGdG J qTCG
CG bh M ah .jqdG dG q U e hCG ,NG b jdG dG e k GMGh
- 664 -
cqCdG M qdG He qJ .(Reject Box) adG Y dEG dG Gg qj CN
dG S a a (Holding Area) dG e ZHh aqc ddG dG e
d dG dEG dG IQGhdG dGhdG e Ye poa ,(Dispensing Slot)
``dG `JEG `J `d`SQ `dG dEG `dBG `SJ `Y `bdG ah ,`j
bdG OJoh HdG M b jH JdG j .(Completion Message)
O`H a d`NOEG q J ` dG `dG ` a e `dBG ` L Jo) ` M`U dEG
.(`eCG

dBG GqdG jM IOjR qfeEG Y kqdM dBG GqdG dBG e cqjo

Y IQOb e aVEH dPh ;Y qJ dG qadG jdG Y eSh
GSH hCG (Customers Voice and/or Face) dG Lh hCG/h U dEG qdG
d G j d G b Q h (Iris ) Y M b h C G , H d G H F G J d G S d G
.H UdG

(OcQdG) dG OdG Se
AGOdGh AdG dG e eo Ye g (Bar Code) OcQdG EG
cSG dH qdG edG d cdG dG jRGdG
Y hCG dG Z Y kYe qeEG OcQdG j .dG e a VhdG
qY jJ dEG OcQdG qqgCG OJ .dG Z Y Jo (Labels) U bQo
.qdG NGO dGh FdG Y eRdG fdG H OdG qY Jh dG
e e gZh cQeHdG e a OcQdG GSG j e cCGh
OcQdG CGjo zY H{ .(Consumer Goods Outlets) IdG qcSG FdG
e SdG AdG LJo dG SdG hCG FQdG e f CG GSH
Jc dEG SJo qbQ GT hCG qbQ GOc dEG OcQdG a AdG adG
.
q dG

dG Oc g qceCG IdG jdG a keGSG GOdG cCG qEG

12- Digit) kjeQ kbQ 12 e dqCj gh .(Universal Product Code UPC) ddG
dG bQCG qJh ,dG Gd dG dG Y a hqCG bdG qj :(Code

- 665 -
Individual) f dG dEG J dG dG bQCG eJ a ;dG qeo ddG
OdG q U e qd (Check Digit) dG eQ a NCG bdG eqCG ;(Item
e d G Y i N C G e e d E G UPC j b (Scanned Code ) . d G
. (Taxes ) F G d G h , (Inventory Count ) I a d G d G O Y h , d G

dG dG FdG SdG eh FdG SdG e GfCG IY g

OjdG e qj dG ,(Wand) FQdG dG hCG (Handheld Pen Scanner) dH
ee e qj gh ,dG SCGQ Y Ad Qc (LED) Ad YdG
H U N F V T c L j M (Coded Label ) U d G O d G b Q Y j J
UdG OdG bQ Y SCGdG jJ j , dG Yh .(Photo Detector)
eEG dG qj eY UN bd e qdG gh ,JAGd cCH
.OY J Zh fGSCG T GP dG fc GPEG S ,dH dG

Stationary Laser) HdG jqQdG FdG S dG G NG

q J , Yh
q
Hb a ,dG g q d (Bar-Code Readers ) O c Q d G F Q b h C G (Scanners
SCG dG FdG SdG Y dG Qqjo .Y mGbCG IqY j OcQH IAGd
.Te H SdG CGa SCG dEG OdG j H dG ce

dG OdG Se Xh qj kVJ ke 13-21 dG qj

bdG e F e A d Q d O jO q J fCG i a , H dG jQ dG
QdG eM qJ .GQhdG dBG eg IBGeh (Low-Power Visible-Light Laser Diode)
LJ cqj qe YH IQGhqdG IBGdG e IMGh L a gEG IBGe Y
dEG FdG jGdG g ODJ .dM J dG FdG jGdG e ae Y edG
qK eh .dG jGdG e e jGhH QdG ed ddG SfG bJ
dG UdG OcQdG bQ P dG JH Te SGH YCG dEG L L q J
OcQdG S jqQdG dG g qCG Hh .dG FdG SdG a Qeo
dG Sd j PEG kqe d qe H OcQdG LJ qEa e jGhR e
.OcQdG d a fc mVe CG a edG

- 666 -
 q N
dG

dG QdG eM L
q dG QdG eM
Te
HdG IBGdG
dG

IBGdG IQGhqdG jGdG

HdG

QdG OjdG

qdG
HdG IBGdG

H d G Q d G d G O d G S e 13-21 d G

.IAGdG JE UdG bdG e J qac bW IOhe GK a QJh

QdG eM J dG jdG H UdG bdG e dG AdG jh
IqdG g dG bdG qCG EG .IQGhqdG IBGdG e Jh OJ dGh LQdG
e F d G d G J h (Parabolic Mirror ) g E G I B G d G e c J d G g
dEG FdG AdG FdG dG qj mFH (Opposite Wall) cdG dG
hCG Oc dEG FHdG IQTEG g jH fhdEG IQGdG Jh FHc IQTEG
JdG j qK eh .J e Mh q dG Jc j ,qe bQ eQ
XdG gQSCGh ,eMCGh ,dG ASCG fH IYH bdG OdG fQH
JdG (Update) qjoh ,(HdG) od IQJa Jo dP H .IcGdG a
hCG fdG dG jJ dEG LdG W aH JdG j bh . q dG IOL
qdG Y ie J dG H OY fG M a dG a IOLdG
. (Quantity Threshold Level )

- 667 -
- 668 -
 h d Gh f d G dG

qYdG fhdEG LdJ

jdG
eT If
(Data-Acquisition Systems) fdG PGSG fCG
(Virtual Instrumentation) VGaG GhOCG
(Digital Panel Meters) qbdG GOGdG Md
(Closed-Loop Control Systems) dG dH qdG f
(Open-Loop Control Systems) MdG dH qdG f
(Servosystem Control) IQRGDdG qdBG IS f
(Synchrosystems) eGdG dG f
(Robotics) qdBG YGdG /HhdG Y
(Robot Classification) HhdG J
(Computer Vision Systems) JdG jDhQ fCG
(Programmable Controllers) ed HdG qdG

eT If
q o jp e g ,(Industrial
Y Electronics) YdG qfh dEG EG

669
,dG Yd IQqdG fCGh ,GQGdGh ,q dG q fh dEG I LCG
Y dc dG q j .YdG e gZh ,FGdG dGh ,jqhdGh
.( qdG /IdG) Yh ,VdG fCGh ,fdG PGSGh ,GOGdG
dG dG fCGh fqd kLPf qYdG qfhdEG qJo ,dHh
WdG GSG Ad VYo cCG a ,(Heavy-Duty Components Systems)
Y IhY .(Corrosive Chemicals) dcqCG FdG OGd Vqdh ,(Abuse)
Ge je ,J d EG ,HJo qbKH fhdEG g J CG j ,dP
IAc aJh fOCG dG dEG dG bqJ eR qJ d ,jqdG qfhdEG
e kfQe ,Uh e m H fqdG g e jdG qVjo ,dd .fEG
.qcSG hCG jqQdG fhdEG

,(Hardware) jOqdG e SGh Ye e YdG fhdEG J

dBH qdG GdG Sbh J GhOCG Mh bdG qeh q dc
,dGh ,IQGdG LQO e (Process Control) (IdG Y hCG) qdG Hh
QYEG j .bdGh ,ddGh ,Q qdGh , qdGh ,adG qeh ,YdGh
H LhGdG Y eCc hdG qdG GP GjodGh qYdG JHhdG
.(Industrial-Grade Electronics) qYdG JdG a fhdEGh qdBG

,(Closed and Open) dGh MdG dH qdH qdG VGdG qEG

dG ,(Synchrosystems) eGdG dG Hh ,(Servo) IQRGDdG qdBG Hh
jqdG fhdEG a a kjCG Y qdG qJ b dG Gg a Jo
GSG M a dG Qq dGh q dG H dPh , dG A dGh
fdG qddG dG N SCGh ,FdG dGh ,GFd dG
.gHh

IQd ,YdG fhdEG a c KCJ kjCG GJd qCG hdG eh

a Hb e cCG edG jW Y dGh FdH qdG Y JdG
qUdG GJda .IqdG qHdG FdG AGOCG ah fdG d e
M q dG e J qdG hCG IdH bdG GP dGh F d H

670
dG VJ .IdG SCG GQGO e aGH IOhqdG GQGdGh ,(Relays)
QU jDhQ dG AGQeh qd a ,jdG TT Y VGaG cqdG
J dG qFdG YdGh ,Jh J gh (Valves) edGh GhOCG
QJh .VdG bdG a qFHdG GQGdG hCG q dG Y SGdG a
,fEG eR qJh , dG e dG qJ GJdG CG dEG IQTEG
eS aQ a gJh ,edGh fdG a dG hT hCG VhCG q Joh
.qdG

AGOCG dG qdG GJdG eEH H qedG S Vf kfh

qYdG dG e jdH qdGh bGd IS J e M d QhO
qJ ,dG fd VGaG cqdG VhdG jJ Y k ah .dG
GAGbh (Waveforms) LdG d kVY qVGaG GqdG hCG GhOCG
.f VdG RL Y kL (Digital Readouts) qbQ N

GY J d H M T b b dG q eh q dG CG c fh
.17 dG a zqfhdEG bdG qeh q dG{

fdG PGSG fCG

bGe J Y Y (Data-Acquisition System) fdG PGSG f NC j
a hCG FdG a SM AGLCG NGO VdG q dGh bdG qe
e QWEG dEG bdG e hCG q dG N k qe ,dG dBG N
hCG FdG dEG IdG GQTEG k Geh ,(Display) Vd hCG (Logging) Nd
PGSG d kLPf kVJ k q e 1-22 dG joh .JGP dG dEG
.fH

,dG bdG qe hCG q dG bGJ :JBG dG Y dG Gg j

Analog) KdG GQTEG Ye dEG SJo K eh LN GQTEG q n oa
q
JHh dG Y QN QGhqdG dG QhO kjJ j dG ,(Multiplexer
Sample and Hold) dGh dG QNG IQGO Jo .(Repetitive Order) Qe
q

671
 bdG e e
V
e
IQT
E G KJ e
YS Mh je bQ dGE
KdG

qVh

dG dG
bQ e GYh IS e
V KJ dGE fdG

bQ e dG dG Jc
YS KJ dGE

bQ e
qVh KJ dGE

DA Q f d G P G S G f : 1 - 2 2 d G

- dEG - KJ e qe dEG SJo gQhH dGh ,N q d e b (Circuit

g bdG JdG j dG Gg a .(Analog-to-Digital Converter) bQ
HdG AGOC hCG H MG H edG d eH jh qdG
eo IOqdG dH qdG b QJ .JGP bdG a iNCG ee GS
GQTEG JdG Sjo OhdG g dG RhJ M ah ,(Preset Values)
hCG J dEG qbdG IdG GQTEG m
o sJo FH .(Corrective Signals) qJ
Digital-to-Analog) KJ dEG bQ e e SGH (Analog Format) KJ Ho
q q
WfCG JEG d d Hh , eCG O H Y f c e dEG d H O a (Converter
.IdG

bdG e hCG q dG H e keGSG cCG fdG PGSG fCG qEG

jqQG dG LhO dGh ,(Thermoswitches) jqQG dG dG g jqQG dG
Resistance-Temperature) IQGdG LQO - ehdG TGch ,(Thermocouples)
hCG a dG b W q e eCG .(Thermistors) GQ dGh ,(Detectors RTDs
J IGOCG) fG je a (Force and Pressure Transducers) dG
(Strain Gages) (OLG V J d FHdG ehdG a dG Sd
.(Piezoelectric Devices) FHdG OLEG ILCGh
672
.RdG aJ hCG FGdG Sd FT
m H (Flowmeters) aqdG je Jo

qVGaG GhOCG
qdG eEH UCG (DAQ Softwares) fdG PGSG qeH aqJ e
VGaG IdG Md Y VJ gh bGeh qYdG dG bGeh
IS Je bdG oVprjn M ,JdG a (Virtual Control Panel Displays)
H H dG T c e ,GhOCGh I LCG d G dC H e GOG Yh
qVh qJ cqe q e Jo qfCG c .IOdG jdGh (Oscilloscopes)
.gZh (Warning Alarms Systems) QGfEGh dG GhOCG J dG dG

aJ jh ,IQdG Sdh ,Qdh ,qdd

k NO qKdG GQTEG aJ
dG GQTEGh ,(Data Logging) NOEG fHh ,HdG dGh NdG J
QOdh ,(Waveform Generation) LdG T ddh ,IdG dh cd
.IqdG qddG

d HdG fdG PGSG GdCG e eqEG ,IMGh H edG HJ

External DAQ) LQdG fdG PGSG Y e hCG ,(Plug-in DAQ Boards)
q
jd dG FdG OdG Y J qedG g qCG f h .(Boxes
e cfh .bdGh ,bdGh ,KdG dG /NdG d hCG dG J
Gain per) Ib d dH qdG :edG g Y dhD dG dG
dG NCG J Hh ,(Sampling Rate) dG NCG q o Hh ,(Channel
qdG dEG aVEH ,(Digital Levels) qbdG jdHh ,(Sampling Order)
e edG /fdG f qY Y J qfCG c .bqDdGh OGqdG FXH
hCG ,(Interrupts) WdG qK eh ,(Polling) QNH dPh dG hCG dG dEGh
qd qU b (DAQ) eH H qCG M a .IkTe IcGdG NH
AGOC UdG GSG GP edG SqJo a ,a e H RdG
qdGh gUQ j dG dH IN hP ee b e IOqe eh QGhOCG
.H

673
 qbdG GOGdG Md
dG a J c ,(Digital Panel Meters DPM) qbdG GOGdG Md EG
jJ qK eh qKdG GdG Sb Y QOb fhdEG ee f g ,2-22
.RdG VY TT Y qJo bO qbQ IAGb dEG

VY TT
QdG FdG
(LCD)

UGdG ee

.DPM qbdG SdG IGOCG Md :2-22 dG

fhdEGh (ADC) bQ dEG KJ e g DPM `dG a FdG GQGdG EG

. qbdG VdG Td (Decoding and Driving Electronics) r Sh J a
jdG GP DPM `dG qJh .e Md V cqe Y a IkOY (DPM) VJ
e jqOdG GdG e kSGh kbf Va ,jd HH AHdG hCG jqQdH
.adG qe hCG ,IQGdG LQOh ,bdG a IQhdGh ,bdGh ,QdGh ,ddG
QH FS VY TT e Y m Hh LPdG (DPM) VY TT J
.(LEDs) Ad YH GOjO e hCG (LCDs)

Ffh ,dG SdG e dG a 0.005 dEG 0.1 e bqO je DPMs qJ

Analog Panel Meter ) KdG SdG Md J dG FdG e keY aCG
q
LQO e H dG dG e Y dG j NdG da .(APM
GqdG J M a .adGh ,RdGh ,YdGh ,dGh ,dGh IQGdG
.qdGh ,bdGh ,OOdGh ,ddGh ,QdG Sb j dG iNCG

q J CG UCG a (DPM) e dG c
- dG GP j dG e
jqOY N GAGb VJ M ,(Analog Moving-Coil Meters) p KdG qdG

674
eCG ,DPM `dG e (3.0 mm dEG 1.8 m) 10 ft dEG 6 ft Ho Y bqH JAGb j
.
q bCG jh ,SCGh cCG ,Sb bqO dG e d eDj dG
d jqOa Ib dEG QqW ,dG IAGb BG SSCG a gh ,(DPMs) qEG
e U H HQ e H hCG qe bW qH Jo eY ;fdG PGSG
(Stand-Alone) JGP qH kFb Sb f (DPM) J ,SdG GQGdG Ye
SQEGh d Jh , dG j J Y QO bh ,(Self-Powered) H f j j
kjCG PdG H j .(Local Readout) qe N IAGb AYEGh ,edG
e idG dG GQTEG d (Circuits Cards) IQGO b H Y
,(RTDs)h ,(Flow Meters) adG jeh ,(Thermocouples) jqQGdG LhOdG
GqdG qJ GQGO Ye Y dG j bh .q dG e gZh
.JdG dEG dSQE (ASCII Code) SCG Oc dEG odG

eGYh MCG e SGh H (Factory-Made) qdG (DPMs) aJ

Y VhdG bQCG OYh ,dG qUN GQ c (Form Factors) dG
4 * 2 * 4 in g YdG DPMs `d QdG dG M q CG .bdG jeh ,TdG
q
CG kjCG cf .220 VAC hCG 120 VAC IQb GP eh ,(10 * 5 * 10 cm)
VJh AMP `d jc qYCG bh (Read-only DPMs) a IAGd g (DPMs)
.(Battery Powered) jqQdG e jdH Jh jqQdG J e UCG mY NGO

1/2 `dG Oj a VdG TT Y kebQCG , -41/2 h ,-31/2h ,3 qLPdG DPMs `d EG

be a (1 Digit) 1 bQ GSG dEG (DPMs Display) DPM `dG VY J a
a dG SdG a .(Most-Significant-Digit Position) kMe cCG bdG
odG 1 bdG CG EG ,999 g ,dG S Y , -31/2 bdG GP VdG TT
d H j e G g h , (1999 ) c C G d G a 100 H b V J C G T d j
.(Percent Overange Condition 100) OqdG dG a dG a 100 dG
a 100 dG dM NdG qda q J eY Overload pdG a dM Jh
J dG QqdG edG e IkOY ddG g qJh ,OqdG dG a dG
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J M .(Confused) kehO ahe Z dM a ga DPMs `d d H

675
31/2) bQCG 31/2 `dG (DPM) EG , k e .TdG Y IgdG bQCG OY Y fSG
. d G a 0.05 hC G 2000 e k G M Gh k GA L
q J CG j (Digit DPM

dG dH qdG f
dG dH qdG d qCG 3-22 dG a VdG q dG qj
j d H q dG d cCG hCG a IOQ (Closed-Loop Control System)
eGhC dG HSG QGSH QJ dG (Feedback Control Loops) YLSG
j .HSG e gZh ,pdG Vhh ,HZdG YdG OqJ dGh NdG
qodG e ,YLSG jdG M a (Sensing Device) QSG R L
J RL) (Thermostat) SedGh ,(Tachometer) GQhdG OGqYh ,(Encoder)
(Input Command) NdG eCG H Qa hCG mNG CG QSH ,(IQGdG LQO
qdG dEG S Jo ,(Error Signal) CN IQTEG dqj qK eh ,dG H SGh
pdGh NdG q e e IQOdG IQTEG qJ mFH .(Amplifier) q dGh
dG AGOCG qEG .CdG IQTEG qdG g Y JdG dG jo H (Load)
(Position) be hCG ,YdG e ,H qdG (Activity) dG e ITe Sj
jdH qdG H dG G g j . dG IQG M LQO hCG , p dG
dG fCG J ,iNCG Mf e .(Feedback Control System) YLSG
kYT IdG Ge cCG qEG .Y dG hCG H qdG qd kah dG
,qVdGh , YdG g (Electromechanical Systems) fehdG dG a
.GqdG g e e J hCG ,GQhdG rYnh

a ZdG XdG
dG dG
qdG pdG

q dGh

QSG RL
H Y

. dG dH qdG f 3-22 dG

676
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Closed-Loop Velocity Control) dG dG a YdH qdG f Y
QSG J dG YLSG jdG M a e Y j CG (System
YdG Y aGfG e Se CN IQTEG QGUEG qK eh YdG a GqdG
j ,4-22 dG a VdG qdG a gdG ,GQhdG OGqY EG .HZdG
,CdG IQTEG OJ K .qdG YS e kSe kFHc kLN oa QhdG GH
q dGh qdG dEG ,YdG a qdG e SdG
qdG YS jd
.pdG GJ e ZdG Y IOdG YdG Y AHEGh
IOdG YdG

dG qdG pdG

q dGh

GQhdG OGqY

.dG d YdH qdG f 4-22 dG

qVdH qdG f
,(Closed-Looped Position-Control System) dG VdH qdG f j
q dG a gX g c
j J M a e Y ,5-22 d G a V d G
.keo IOqdG dd dH qdG fdG AdG qVh Oqjo YLSG
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dG dG pdG dG

q dGh

GQhdG OGYq

e hCG qe

.dG dG a VdH qdG f :5-22 dG

677
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dEG ,aGdG hCG ,QdG OdG hCG ,(Cutting Tool) dG IGOCG hCG ,pdG Uh
cdG e SdG (Counting Pulses) dG qnHp dPh ,IOdG qVdG
,(Input Setting) NdG V e (Pulse Count) dG e fQeh ,IjGdG
fCG e qEG ,dP Y k a .YdG ihj eY cdG qdG ba
RGJ Y aJ e YdH J M Y j VdH qdG
.dG QGSGh

qdG GQhO H qdG GQGO

QJ fQH (Motor Torque-Control Circuit) GQhdG H qdG IQGO J
QdG J qK eh NO Q q J e (Motors Output Current) qdG N
QqJ J j .(Loop Closure) dG Z d WN IQTCc eGS
GQhdG Y qC ,ZdG GQhdG H qdG Y AHEd qdG Y HK
.qdG QJ e Sj

IjGdG cdH qdG f

g (Incremental Motion-Control System) IjGdG cdH qdG f qEG
d J m H cCG hCG m qJ f H j dG dH qdG f
zVdG{ `dH UdG YLSG jdG M hP dG qj .qe mg
M (Velocity Profile) AdG IOqe YS Jq eH Y IQdH zYdG{h
qK eh Ieo mYS : k hqCG J a .IdG qVdG hCG bdG dEG UdG
M ba ,bJ CG dG AWEG b (Zero) U dEG (Ramp Down) QJ
c qdG (AGLCG) UdG hCG QdG OdG (bdG) qVdH q dG
.(Precise Position) qe mbe Y iNCG

MdG dH qdG f
a j c ,(Open-Loop Control System) MdG dH qdG f qEG
q dG
q C G e j f g ,6-22 d G a V d G
LN H fQe FSh

678
 a ZdG XdG dG
qeh e dG pdG

.MdG dH qdG f :6-22 dG

Y J dG IGOCG hCG cdG qJo YdG a .dH qdG H NOh

f ,M hCG mAT qVh hCG be jd (Stepping Motor) dG dG
ee NO d j dG q dG qC dP , M e m M
jGdG qdG dEG (Motors Rotor)qdG QGhqO aJ (Programmed Input Pulses)
dG qdG qCG dEG IQTEG QJ .IOdG qVdG hCG bdG dEG k Uh
dG dG e e OY SG qfeEG jo cdG a m b OjORG eh bdG
eqDJ dG g qCG kjCG cfh .e CN bCH ZdG bdG a J
SGH hCG ,(Variable Pulse-Generating Circuit) Iqe f dJ IQGO SGH
.JdG

IQRGDdG qdBG IS f
fCG e qe f g (Servosystem Control) IQRGDdG qdBG IS f qEG
Electromechanical Closed-Loop Central)fehdG dG dH qdG
q
Sj IQRGDdG qdBG f a .5-22h ,4-22h ,3-22 :TCG Jo c (System
ZdG XdG NO e QJ ,YLSG jJ hCG dG IOqQ Jh ,dG qJ
mQa CG jh .(IFGdG a X `H d IedG) (Summing Point) dG f Y a
Gg HSG J .dG Y e mAc qjo gYh ,CN hCG kaGfG H
bdG g dG dG f Xh Jh .dG g b qc Y IkOY dG
.NdGh dG H

e ZdH Y oU d kah dH QGSG IQRGDdG qdBG f qj e qEG

,(Amplifier Gain) q dG ch ,(Load Conditions) pdG hT a GqdG
aVEH ,(Wear on Mechanical Components) qfdG fqdG a AGgGh
YLSG jdG M qC dPh ,dG IQGM LQO a GdG dEG

679
dG a gdG ,MdG dG f e fQdHh .GdG g q J
Iqeo dM a dG Ge eGO e Y U d kah j qfCG of ,6-22
fdG H GgG hCG ,qdG c hCG ,pdG a qJ CG qEGh .Iqe Zh
.(Uncorrected Errors) odG Z ANCG JQG dEG ODj ,qfdG

QdG NJ j ,Iqe Z fCG UCG a g IQRGDdG fCG fc qd

Z m HJ dEG Vj b dG ,IHdG VhCG dEG HSG e dG d
q
H dEG IOY ODj e ,(Uncontrolled Oscillation) Y e hCG H qe
,kSM dG A HE (Time Delay) b dG a NC dG hCG (Damping) ONEG
L e .dG NGO IHdG VhCG Qhe e HdG dG qJ ddHh
dG HSG H k GL k jW CdG J a NCdG c M a ,iNCG
g qodG Z qdG f EG .qe Z dG j CG dEG CdG OGOj ,dG
a Nj e YSh (Error Signal) WN IQTEG AdEG Y QOb Z f Y mLH
.dG fqe J dEG ODj b e ,(Oscillation) HdG dM

k GQOb j CG a ddG dG hCG dG GP IQRGDdG qdBG f eCG

fCG a bCG qgCG GP qjo HSG eR dh ,YH ANCG J Y
Corrective) J mf q CG AH a .(Low-Gain Systems) dG dG
Over) jdG a dM q d GAG LEG P JqG L
q j dG a (Action
Inherent) dG a UCJ eR NCJ CG Y jdH dP jh .(Shooting
dEG qdG IQRGDdG qdBG f J j ,QNHh .(System Time Delay
pdG QGSGh (Load Positioning Accuracy) pdG VJ bqO H RGJ J
.(Load Stability)

j c CN Nd dG jJ ,IQRGDdG qdBG f QGSG J j

dEG aVEH ,(Step Command) LQdG eCG hCG (Step Function) qLQdG dGdH
IQTEG QJ .Ic HK da AYEH dP jh ,dG HSG SGh bGe
a EG ,Iqe J dM dEG kehO OS qdG IQRGDdG qdBG f qCG dEG
Z dG eCG .(Component Failure) d m e a m Y
q CG M M
qfdH hdG HdH q LQO dG d a (Frictionless) cMG

680
 .(Load) pdG e bdG J M jf e dEG HdG Gg qj .(Hunting)

Large Positive)dG LdG CdG J Y j jdG a e EG

q
M ah .LdG JH QdG OdG bGSh qdG J H (Error
UG k GRhe p dG q j MG hCG d c CG g j d
(Stability Reference Line) LdG dG QGSG hCG dG /NdG (Alignment)
.(Inertia) ddG hCG pdG a (Energy Stored)fdG bdG H

kqc qj eCG qCG EG ,CdG IQTEG Jo jdG a dM J eY

(Reverse Torque of the Motor) SdG qdG GQhO Y IOjd edG e kge
q dG dG CdG qCG Hh .pdGh QdG OdG jE m c H
e pdGh QdG OdG (Accelerates) Qjo qdG GQhO Y Ea qj
dodG aS iNCG Iqeh .cdG JG a (Zero Reference) dG LdG
J H ddG g J .bqdG be f QGSd QdG OdG
EGh .pdG e bdG Jo M qfdG j ,dP H .(Undershoot) jdG
qfdG bJ ddHh bdG OS dqdG GhOCG iMEG g MG He
. (Dampout Hunting)

e IQRGDdG qdBG f a LQdG eCd dG dG H SG EG

,7-22 dG gjo ch , g bd dH cMG dG e hCG MG
,(Critically Damped) dG ONEG (2 ,(Underdamped) ONG J (1:ddc
Upper) jqdG ONEG J H SG J .(Overdamped) O NEG a (3
dG CN ON
E G J

ONGE
M
ON
E G a

bdG
. d G d G f a L Q O d G O H S G e 7-22 d G
681
.(Damped Oscillation Curve) ONEG HJ c (Underdamped Response
gSh jdG Jh jdG a OY j MEG JQG eh
dEG dG VJ M ah .bdG Qhe e U dEG J M (Amplitude)
a c ,(Overdamped) ONEG a j ,(Excessive Friction) FGR M
dG ONEG dM a eCG .(Lower Response Curve) dG HSG e
Minimal) jdG a e fOCG dG d a mc l c jo eY)
e qCG dEG IQTEG QJ .SdG dH qJo HSG qEa (Overshoot
,(Slight Underdamping) dG ONEG d oU b IQRGDdG qdBG fCG
dG ONEG edG c e HSG cCG g ONEG J f qC dP
.ONEG ah

IQRGDdG qdBG f f VY
f qfCG Y (Servosystem Bandwidth) IQRGDdG qdBG f f VY qjo
qj a .(Substantially Stable) kqf Gve q dG c j M OOdG
OJo .8-22 dG dP joh ,F2 hn F1 IQdG f f H OOqdG a QdG
N Iqe 0.707 Oj gY dG j dG GOOdH IQdG f f
jo c ,dG J e dG a 70 H hCG ,(Midband Output) dG dG
q e
.OOqdG dEG dH dG
dG dG dG N

dG VY

OOdG

.fH H IQRGDdG qdBG f f jJ 8-22 dG

qbdG IQRGDdG qdBG f

j dG dG g ,(Digital Servosystem) qbdG IQRGDdG qdBG f EG

682
qKdG fqdG fc M a ,dG S a .bCG Y MGh e Y
g qbdG fdG qEa , q dGh ,qdGh ,GQhdG GOGqYh ,qdG g
.(Optical Encoder) dG qdG hCG (Microcontroller) hdG dG eqEG
bQ dEG e qe e NBG bQ qe Y kjCG dG Gg j bh
IQRGDdG dBG f AGOCG q Jo qbdG fqdG qEG .(Resolver-to-Digital Converter)
.fhdG a IOjR e d eDJo H

eGdG dG f
kqFHc jQe jOY H (Synchrosystem) eGdG dG f Hj
e keGe jOdG MCG GQhO hCG (Angular Position) hGdG VdG j H
.NBG Od hGdG JG

Y adG RH jo e hCG (Synchro hdG) eGdG dG RL EG

Qqd JGP eGJ GP IU dBG Y IQY g ,(Selsyn dG) JGdG eGdG
dBG g J .(Self-Synchronous Alternating-Current Machine) hdG OOqdG
e Qe OH H fhe (Two Trains of Gears) ShdG e GQb qfCc
SodG e c OHH FHdG SQEG j ,fK Mf e .(Flexible Shaft)
GbH J j hCG e g e cCG ,k Gc k GHo H Y odGh
NdG Vh hdG Vh
Seo hCG dqe e hCG qe

1 QGhO 1 cS 2 cS 2 QGhO

q N
hdG QdG
.eGdG dG d J SQ 9-22 dG

683
- dG qe qfCG Y eGdG qjo .(Mechanical Coupling) fdG
QdG OdG jhGR GSG qCG dEG ofh .(Angle-Sensing Transducer) hGdG
.QdGh ,YdGh ,qVdG Vh Sb a j

IdG eh Seo
IS Se :g ,JMh e dqCJ eGdG dG fCG GfCG HCG qEG
m d ,(Control Receiver) IS eh (Control Transmitter)
GQGhqO e
dG jo e Ggh ,kqfeh kqFHc fe (Stators) cSh (Rotors)
qd AGS xM Y dGh SodG QGhd .9-22 dG a q dG dG
/hdG QqdG IQKEG Qd OdG QdG Y WHe (Single Windings) jqOa
Y Uh K dEG aVEH .(Single-Phase AC Excitation Source) OOqdG
IYeh (Wye-Connected Field) f M e oT e x d Y T
dG cS qd GWCH SdG cS e qd c GWCG HJo .120 OhH
.(Three-Wire Circuit) SCG qKK IQGO qa

QGhd qdn c qJ (Energized) bdH hdG QqdG IQKEG IQGO jhJ Y

QJh .dG cdG qd a q d a q Jo d Hh ,(Transformer) c
GPEa .f QGhqdG qVh Y j cS c qd a qddG QGe qCG dEG IQTEG
cdG qda fc ,JXe qVh a dGh SdG GQGhO c
j ddHh .QdG a ceh IQdG a jhe JMdG a JXdG
.JMdG cS H HGdG SCG a Qqd aJ g

Y H JdG ddG J ,IXe Z QGhqdG qVh fc GPEGh

.cdG dG qd a qodG qddG Y cdG SdG qd a qdG
GQhdG Y eqDJ (Two Stators) cdG H J dG JdG GQqdG qEG
.SdG QGhqO qVh e IXe qVh dEG dG QGhqO j dG (Torque)
SdG QGhqO jH (Angular Difference)hGdG QdG qJo dG GQTEG SJo
.f jhGdH k GqJ qjh GQTEG d dG QGhqO jh ,jhGH

684
 IdG qe
IdG Sd He qe g (Control Transformers) IdG qe EG
cdG jf Y qc Y Y ,j a ddHh .(Control Transmitter)
j dG f GQTEG f ,(Three-Wire Stator Terminals) SCG KdG
e kFHc Sj dGh ,(Synchro-Control Transmitter) eGdG IdG Se
Three-Wire) SCG KK QGhdG jf Y Qj a dd .e OY jhGR
L e SJ OOdG eM GQTEG e SCG qKK Ye (Rotor Terminals
qfdG jqhGdG qVdGh FHdG jhGdG NO H hGdG NG (Sine)
.QdG Od

qVdG qodG Jn
Id He (Control Differential Transformer CDT) VdG qdG EG
KK he QJ N a QGhq d qCG A S H (Control Transmitter) SdG
gh) (Carrier Frequency) OOqdG eM GQTEG e Ye j a .SCG
SCG KK cdG jf Y (SdG IS SG H j dG dG
q
q N dEG
q N (Amplitude Ratios) S f qEG .(Three-Wire Stator Terminals)
Remote) H Y OdG jhGR e IXe g GQTEG Yd (Line-to-Line)
Ye (Differential Transformer) VdG qdG jo qK eh .(Shaft Angle
SCG KK QGhqdG jf Y KdG SCG GP OOdG eM GQTEG e
e Se a N dEG N S f J dGh (Three-Wire Rotor Terminals)
.QdG Od qfdG jqhGdG qVdGh jhGdG NO H QdG

GP bdG qe e j dG g ,(Synchros) eGdG dEG aVEH

qdG Oeh ,qodG eh ,(Angle-Sensing Transducers) hGdG q dG
qfCG M e eGdH dG JJ .(Resolver) dGh ,(Potentiometer)
OOd f S T Y QdG Od jqhGdG qVdG M e qJo
QGhqdGh ,dG GQTEGh GQTEG L qEG .(Excitation Frequency) IQKEG
f Y (Sine Waves) qL Le dG a g ,dGh NdGh ,cdGh

685
 .(Time-Phase Synchronization) QdG-eR eGJ fh OOqdG

qdBG YGdG /HhdG Y

,(Reprogrammable) edG IOYE Hb RL (dBG fEG) HhdG EG
jJ Y QOb (Multifunction Manipulator) FXdG Oqe (hGe) je gh
d kJ e jOCd cM IqH qe RL hCG .GhOCGh ,AGLCGh ,ATCG
HhdG qJ dG dG dG qCG hdG eh .(Programmed Control) ee
qdG g (Manually Operated Manipulator) hj je hCG e dBG CG Y
Computer)JdG qH dG Jo dGh (Programmed Control) edG
.YU JHhQ f Pf 10-22 dG qj . (Control
QdG M GQhO pdG
(Pitch) aCG

dG IGOCG Md
(Roll) dbdG QdG GQhO
dG hCG qUdG HhdG GQP

odG ce
JdH dG

e
bdG

. Y d G H h d G f 10-22 d G

dG jOCd IOqe HK qYU BG g kqdM edG JHhdG e qEG

Heavy-Duty Materials) dG OGdG e edG Y f jh ,fdG a
q
g J , NBG H .(Painting) A dGh ,(Welding) dGh ,(Handling
GQGd VqdG e edG IM Y k GN qJo b dG bGdG a JHhdG
M hCG AdG Y JdG Ndh ,(Welding Torches) dG Ye e IjdG

686
dG I qd hCG ,FHdG GaCG Y IQOdG WdG IQGdh ,O dG
bY d qYdG JHhdG H J dG YCG e qEG ,Y m Hh .UGdG
,YPdG) jhdG hCG eqdG FdG OGd TdG VqdH hCG pdGh qdH
We e qj d ,ed geoh e Gg dG qL qCG j h .(Caustic
.FGdG eCH QdG Yh YfG H J b OGMh

dG FXhh (Inspection) jdGh bGdG JHhQ e jdG g

e dH jeo H a d q J dG ,(Light-Duty Assembly) dG
FXH Jh ,(Monotonous) Jh AGOCG JHhdG g qJo M ,edG
YSH CG
k e dP e .qdG eqjo dG dG e cCG bqHh YH IQqe
dG q dh .bqJ hO UGe m H d G a Y S 24 `d d G J H hd G
Md a fhdEG fqdG Vhh QNG qdBG g dG e dG Gd aCG
.dG GQGdG Md IOL ah bGeh dG IQGO

GQP dBG fEG a ,dH JHhdG L J bGdG a j h

q e dBG j a . qdG Xd kah H q e JHhQ
Specialized)
a hCG ,cGdGh ,AdG a dG QdG RfC qe IGOCG hCG (Machine
cd j ,dG S Yh .eH qJ J dG YCG
dG jd JdH ejo CG (Planetary Lander) FdG Hhd hCG FdG
(Periodically) k jqQhO NqdG edG QhH fCG dEG IQTEG Qjh .qJHh dG
,k GJ bCG JHhdG eqCG .HhdG LJ IOYE hCG dG H a IYd
jdG SQEGh ,(Hospital Food Tray) dG W qU f JHhQ e
jRdG FXh AGOC e a ,dH (Office Mail Delivery) dG
ddG HdG JHhQ e eh Ic GfCG YNG ,dP Y k a .qJhdG
ihL j d e kJCG CG Z ,(Mobile Home House-Keeping Robots) cqdG
.Ic qH Jo dh (Cost-Effective) dG M e
:g qSSCG jqfK Ye K dEG qYdG JHhdG J
.(Required Tasks) HdG dG jOCd (Arm) GQdG hCG (Manipulator) jdG -1

687
LJ eGHh ,dGh ,fdG j dG ,(Controller) qdG -2
.(Manipulator) jdG cJ
.(Drives The Manipulator) jdG j dG (Power Supply) bdG e -3

QPCG hCG dG JHhdG

GQ bo Y (Robot Manipulators or Arm) GQ dG hCG Hh dG j e j
Mechanical) fdG HGhdG e Ye dG a GQ dGh . Hh dG
q
jOCd gJG H qdG Y IQOb J ,(Joints) UdGh (Linkages
qeo H hCG ,qdhQdG hCG ,FHdG bdH IkTe eqEG iJ gh .dG
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ZGHh ,(Chains) SdGh ,(Gears) ShdG SGH ITe bS j dch
.(Ball Screws) jhc

End) FdG dG Vh jd GQdG a qFdG WdG qJ

(Grippers) H dG QPCG e EG .(Tool Holder) IGOCG e M hCG (Effector
J fGSCH hCG (Electric Solenoids) FHc FTH IOhe keGSG cCGh
dG H Y ODJ CG j dGh (Pneumatic Cylinders) dG AGdH
:eh fHhdG e iNCG GfCG g .(Grasp and Release Loads) gjJh
,(Gas Torches) RdG Ye JHhQh ,(Paint-Spraying Heads) TdG ShhDQ JHhQ
,(Glue Applicators) jqodGh ,(Welding Rod Holders) dG b eMh
.(Suction Cups) UeG GbCG JHhQh

HGhdG L q Vh Oq Jo (Sensors) q H JHhdG e q Jo

dG OqQ q e J .qdG dEG QGSH dG SQEG Joh ,UdGh
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Sb eo hCG ,(Potentiometers) dG jeh ,(Encoders) GqdG e
(Tachometers) GQhdG GOGqY hCG (Resolvers For Measuring Position) qVdG
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688
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:ddG dG FXdG (Robot Controller) HhdG qe OqDJ
.jdG cJ AfEGh AH -1
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.qLQdG fdG - PGSG fCG e UGdG -3

e j a .dhCG LQdH dG IQbo Y HhdG AGOCG j

IQRGD dG q dB H IOhq e Z H (Open-Loop) M e M GP Hh dG
(Mechanical Step Sequencer)fe - LQJ e GP hCG (Nonservoed)
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dG HhQ qd j ,GMCG qHh .JcGd kah (Potentiometers)
Programmable) kee k qe j CG IQRGDdG dBH O hqdG Z dG
q
H M j .e Ub hCG U Ub bGqH k GOhqe k GJc hCG (Controller
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.(Removable Storage Media) d HdG dG FSh hCG U Ub bGqS Y
a YVe hCG odG e k GAL J CG qdG d j dP Y k a
.(Separate Cabinet) e IM

N e jdG cM joh CGj dG g qdG Ea ,S e Y AkHh ,k GPEG

hCG (Manipulators Control Valves) jdG IS eU e UGdH H S
HdH d kjCG eGSG j c .FHdG LSG q e e
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bdG jJ HhQ
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689
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Joint) HGdG cdG d (DC and AC) hdGh dG QdG e d
qdhQdG JHhdG J ,iNCG L eh .iNCG qodGh (Motors
.(Pump) qeh (Hydraulic Reservoir) dhQg jU Y bdH IGqodG
q H iqjo HhdG c GPEG eqCG
Shop) AGdG ZV GN e AGdG eqDa AGdG
.(Air Compressor

HhdG J
qdBH IOhqdG Z JHhdG :Yf dEG qJo JHhdG qCG cP qe f
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q odG bqO Y IQRGDdG qdBH IOhqdG Z JHhdG J .( dG
dH FdG odG Y qVh jd HGhdGh ShdGh (Actuators)
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IOhqdG JHhdG qEa ,fQdHh .(Limited-Sequence Machines) Oqeo - J
dG M a Fe q e Y J (Servoed Robots) IQRGDdG qdBH
.bhCG ac a FdG odG qVH Y Y jdG Jo

(Tool) IGOCG hCG FdG odG cH Ja JHhd fdG dG eqCG

.qeo Qe hCG ,f dEG f :(Programmed Task) ee qe hCG XH d
c ,IQRGDdG qdBH OhqdG Z HhdG a FdG dG j e IkOYh
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Hydraulic) dhQdG fGSCG SGH GhOCG g QGJo ,iNoCG Mf e
q
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Electric Stepping) FHc QJ GQJe hCG ,(Vane Motors) NGO jJ fYH
q q
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cH d gqDe IQRGDdG qdBH IOhqdG cdG qEa ,dG Yh

a FdG odG qj M .(Continuous-Path Motion) odG QdG
Continuous) I eo e cH IS J c SG H J Hh dG g
q

690
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OhMh YdG Y d IOY JHhdG g eJo .dGh FdG
.QdG

CG ,(Degrees of Freedom) jdG LQH jo e Y jdG dEG f

OY Oqjo ,IOda .(Arm) GQdG hCG (Manipulator) jodG Y JdG cdG
OY ihj ,Y m Hh .fheh MdG HhdG J jdG LQO
dEG IQTEG QJh .(Articulated Joints) IgdG UdG OY e jdG LQO
,jdG e qSSCG LQO K hCG LQO OqdG - dG JHhQ d qCG
.(Grippers) a HGdG Zh a Y IOY FXh Jh

(Servo Controlled Robot) IQRGDe qdBG qdBG HhdG QPC qEa ,M CG Yh

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K hCG LQO Yd .e Y aCG ODJ H dG q V dG a
g jhGR Vh a HdG hCG IGOCG j dG eCG ,qaVEG jM LQO
.RdG dH d (Optimum Angle of Attack) eo

hP gh ,(Robot Envelope) HhdG H hdG dG kjCG dg

qj H (Wrist) YdG hCG FdG dG cM OqJ OHCG KK T
.(Outer Limits of Motion) YdG dP cM e OhM QWEG QN J m H

JdG jDhQ fCG

Machine) jDh dG dB H q jo e hCG ,(Computer Vision) J dG jDhQ EG
.qFdG fdG AYEGh ,(Interpret) Jh ,RGME JdG Y J ,(Vision
Gec Y J YdG JdG jDhQ fCG e qCG hdG eh
,(Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) TV Cameras) T GbEG RL GP qfjJ
jqja IQU H GedG J .d SSCG dG GedG Jh
AYE (Image-Processing Techniques) IQdG - de qJ oa ,e Ad
LJh (Position) Vhh (Classify) Jh ,(Recognize) J Y IQdG dG

691
 .(Cameras Field of View) Ged jDhdG e V AdG (Orient)

,(Positioning) Vhh ,(Inspection) d YdG jDhdG fCG Jo ,IOY

eh .ATCG (Classification) Jh ,(Measuring) Sbh ,(Counting) OGJh
Computer Vision Inspection) JdG jh D H dG fCG J cCG qCG MdG
a gX g c ,(Parts Inspection) bGdG hCG dG AGLCG g kYT (Systems
qCG dEG fh .qdG AGLCG Y qdG (Sort) RH J dGh ,11-22 dG
jqdG JdG eH qJ qJ e qJ jDhdH dG f GAGLEG
e cd Yj eCG Ggh .(Conventional Computer Programming Techniques)
AGOCH U dGh (Subroutine) jqfdG FJdG GP dG M kH S c
.(Visual Processing Steps) qLQdG jdG ddG

IQdG de Jc

WGE e
Gec qeo
RdG

bdG GdG odG qS

. Y d G Y d G - J d G j D h Q f 11-22 d G

jqdG FdG Y (Host Computer) FdG hCG FdG JdG j

,(Templates) Gqe H Jh ,JcGP a dG LCd qdhCG Pd
g e fQH dPh jDhQ d kah hdG Z dG q jo H
dG dG e Ye g GqdG g qEG ,dHh .dG GqdG
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.JQdG H fQd SSCc Jo H LJh AdG Y qeo gh

692
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kjCG (Noncontact Measurement) edG Z SdG a jDhdG fCG J
SdG bqO qCG dEG ofh .d cCG hCG Ho OjE dG LH SdG Oqa
,(Placement of Camera) GedG beh ,IQdG fSG LQO Y J FdG
Objects) dG SfG e eG dG e g Z Yh ,(Lighting) IA VEGh
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k GQWEG 30 OJo LQO Y dG CCD Gec IQH qCG Y QdG e

GQTEH j qodG Gg qCG EG ,(Complete Frames Per Second) fdG a keqJ
g Ged dG qda qCG kjCG cfh .(External Clock Signals) qLQdG YdG
eh .(Frame Scan) QWEG e qY Y AdG ad dG edG e SJ QGe
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SdG Joh ,d (Wide-Angle View) jhGdG jY k Ge dG QDdG
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Interface) OdG dG dG ODa ,IQTEG dH j dG JdH
Circuit) IQGdG Yh ,(Digitizing) bdGh ,(Timing) bdG Y (Hardware
q
k GJ Sh fRN a kbqDe fdG J) (Buffering) dH hCG ,(Isolation
Y HH J CG VdG Td HdG bqdG IQGd j .(dP H d
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1 g qe Y Y IQdG a jqOedG jdG L IQGdG Y qJo

SdG CG hdG eh .(OSCG) (Zero) U e dG J g e ch (HCG)
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LQJ 10 dEG q Jo IkOY gh .OSCGh HCG H jqOedG e
k ec kbf
.(Steps)

693
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eqDj bQ q e g ,(Programmable Controllers) edG qdG EG
Gg dqCj .qYdG qdG J a SdG QGdG PJ dG dG
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M qd jdG e j e ,(Wiring) UdG a J CG G MEG
FTdGh ,cdH qd ddG dG OqdG UdG GP fhdEdh
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hCG ,J ILCGh ,hGe OLh dEG J a jOdG Z YdG dG
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qdG H FHdG HGhdG hCG UdG qJh .(Relay Ladder Diagram
.odGh

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Auxiliary Programming) Yeo eH RH hCG eeCG JdG MH qdG
q
q
dG a GJ GMEG j c .dG IcGP a joh ,(Device
UdG a J CG hOh ,jL e edG IOYEH dPh ,YH dG
d M a edG dG g GSG IOYEG j dP Y AkHh .qdG
Indicator) IAVEG qc jh .eH J dG GqdG dEG LH onf
q
qY d (Major Diagnostic Points) qFdG qdG VhCG Y (Lights
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dG Y bqdG eR e fOCG dG d WH qJ GqdG d fdG
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NGhCG a c (Programmable Controllers) edG qd QX hqCG qEG
UdG IOYEG qY qJ YGH dPh ,GQqdG YU e a 1960 Y
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g NCG .(Model Changeover) PdG jJ Y N bd dGh

694
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g aGJ .GJdG eeh FN e dG dG qJ dG ,(Circuitry
e jdG fCH qdGh bGdG feEG j e GJdG e dG
Cable-Connected) H UdG JdG Y dG a edG qdG
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dG (Control Logic Program) dG qdG efH L q j .(Power Supply)
.dG dh GMCd jqcdG ddG IMh QNG qdBG IcGdG a
k eo A dG c GPEG ,
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a UM mtJ qCG Ud Qqe
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Control) IdG M a JdGh dG e IQOU GQTEG Y IQY g
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QdG ce e H qdGh ,(Complex Mathematical Algorithms) IqdG
e dG qCG dEG aVEHh Gg .IQRGDdG qdBH IOhqdGh (Stepping Motors)
jJ fh ,(Self-Diagnostics) JGdG-dG Y J qdG
f OY d j b ,k GNCGh .(System Troubleshooting) qMh YCG
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dG e e S J ,Y J qJ d kah ,qdG W eh

695
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a dG dG efd kJ qdG cdG Mh ,I/Os `dG q Vh e
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NdG /dG f e dG jJo a ,dG eH d dH eqCG

dG a ee qFQ d HQCG gh .IS M e AL g dG
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dG qCH qfh qdG q dG (4h ,qdG
q dG (3 ,(Programming
.dG M q dG H Jj dG ,dG qdG e g IT cCG
qJ (PC) Jd (I/O Modules) dG /NdG GMh CG MdG eh
dJo dG (Logic Signal Levels) dG IQTEG je dEG NodG qddG
jqcdG ddG IMh e dG IQTEG je qJ kjCG gh ,(CPU)
J a ,aVEHh .qodG f a qd da je dEG (CPU)
e dG /NdG GMh Joh c .FHdG dG Y (CPU) fe
jeh ,(Push Bottons) dG QGQRCGh ,(Limit Switches) IOdG dG
e g Zh ,(Thermocouples) jqQGdG LhO dGh ,(Strain Gages) fG
.(ASCII Serial Interfacing) SG H UGJ aqJ a ,dch .q dG
e Y dG J dG /NdG GMh H qCG dEG IQTEG QJh
e dEG J CG b edG de J d (Microcontrollers) jqhe
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q CG Yh .IkTe dBG qVh hCG YH qdG Y QOdG Z dG
c Ea ,M
dG g qJo ,cdH qd jc kjS (Scan Rate) dG qe
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fCG a cdH qdG Y IQdG qd dP oa ,(Control Panels)
HSG f a MdG - dG VJ fCG ah ,dG - dG HSG
.dG dG

696
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dPh ,IOqe ae dEG AdG jH GQTEG eCG kqbQ Njo ,dG S
bdG qd KdG dG Sjo .keo qeo efH hCG JdG Md GSH
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dG IMdH MdG dG J Y dG j ,HdHh

.(Producing Drive Pulses) bGS f fEH dPh ,LQdG qdG cH
Qjh (Module) IMdG dEG cdG eGhCGh edG qdG Sj M
k GeCG Qj VdG NG M ah .edGh qdG qdG qVh
.(Actual Position of the Load) pdG qdG qVh jd k GjL

697
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jqdG eGSd fhdEG fCG

AdGh GdG e ah
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FdG J UGdG
(Underwater Communicators)
JdG (GQffGJ) dG
(Acoustic Transponders)
FdG J QdG f
(Underwater Laser Systems)
jdG dG jDhdG f
(Military Night Vision Systems)
ddG aGdG bdG J f (Enemy Surveillance) hdG SG
(Global Positioning System GPS)
jQdG idG J ILCG
(Laser Range Finders)
(Laser Guidance) QdG LdG
(Laser Gyroscope) QdG ShjdG
jQdG hCG ddG LdG f jOGdG OOdG (GQffGJ) e
(Inertial Guidance System)
jdG
eT If
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(Military Communication )
bdG Jh MdG
(Navigation and Position Finding)
QdH qdGh jdG
(Weapon Aiming and Fire Control)
(Target Detection) dG jJ
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(Electronic counter measures ECMD)
GFdG fhdEG fCG
(Avionics Systems)
(Radar Systems) QGOGdG fCG
(Radio frequency Transponders)
699
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700
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701
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FXdGh ddG e dG jdG qdGh IOdG T Jh

jOGdG fCa ,jdG FShh JLCG J a jQdG dH UdG
dGh ,AdG J gh UGdG e UGJ VLF k GL WGdG OOdG GP

702
J TCG GQd Jh ,AdG J JH J JdG SdG -
Highly Directional Covert) gJG d Y dG J H AG dG
.k GQfh k d (Communication

bdG Jh MdG
.SCG GH qdGh Md QGOGdG HdG dGh GFdG J
.jdG dGh Md IQU dG g X Y idG b QGOGdG ajh
Jh .HdG iNCG Y cdG LCG J Y IQdG GQGOGdG dh
d ge HdG GFdG e Y IOqLdG IFdG GQGOGdG TT
hCG dG be jJ kjCG jh .MGdGh ,GdGh ,QfCc aGL
adG dG Me fCG GSH dPh VYh W KGMEH IF dG
e JGdH MdG fCGh ,C GQd f e (Parabolic Navigation Systems)
JQG J GQGOGQ GSH bH IFdG zVh{ jJ jh c .GPS
Qe GSH bH dG J AdG Y jJ jh .GPS eh
.JdG YCG

hdG Y Jh jdG H dG jGhdG fH J

HGqSEG GQTE ,GFdGh dG Y (Identification Friend or Foe IFF)
.GFdG GQGOGQ hCG jdG dG Y IQOU Ie

d V d G e c d G h G F d G h d G j d IFF f U b h
a (Inertial Guidance Systems) QdG OTSG ILCG cJh .jU GH
ILCG g J bh .jdG idG GFW a MdG FShh UGdG
dGh jdG fdG HShdG H jQdG HShdG
bdG GOeh M dG fh dEGG E a e Y IQ Hh .(Accelerometers)
GFdGh dG a IOqLdGh fhdEG g e fdG fCd He
.jQdG

703
 QdH qdGh jdG
Weapon Aiming and Fire) QdG WEGh jH qdG GQGOGdG qM
G J dG d ch j dG j dG i dG GO e
q e (Control
J hCG VQCG adG a JGh dG ie jd feh dG
bGe jJ J UN GQGOGQ kjCG QJh .dG e Y ddG
(SH AGSG j e hCG) fdG jJ jH IQdG hdG ae
iNCG Qf qJ GQGOGQ fCG Jh .IOQGdG ahdG J e dG
aJh .VQCG - qLh ,qL - qLh ,VQCG - VQCG jQGU OTQEGh jdG Y
Y ddG jQGdGh ,VQCG jQGdG WEG q d IfdG QGOGdG fCG
LJ TEG e dG cdG fH dEG aVEH FJ g be ,dG
GQb aa k GqL ddG GQGOGdG eCG .odG jQG d zBeam Riding{
.VQCG - qLh ,qL - qL jGQU WE jRGe

a QGOGQ GSH e AGOC zjQGd IOdG{ jQGdG qU bh

.f H hCG Ie Le SQEG Y J jJ Se hCG

S Q E G a j S d G RF j Q G U g V Q G O G d M d G a d G E G
j eY JSd fBG dG a dch ,e Zh FGY H Le
jQGdG Y ddG dG LdG fCG Jh .be qH k GjJ
e dEG k Uh Qd QhdG dG e VQCG hCG qdG e nodG
dEG UdG b HdG SCGdG J a J kjCG QGOGdG eEHh .dG
,(800 km) 500 mi gGe j dG ,Rhc jQGU Jh . k a dTGE hO aH dG
FGd jJdG IAGdG hCG ,GPS Y Ie LJh Me fCG e Y
.HdG GgCd bO GSG d (Computerized Map Reading)

ed GgCd bdG idG jJ dG QdG idG Oe eEH

jh .HHdc ce e Y ddG J hCG jdG adG
VQCG - qLh ,qL - VQCGh ,VQCG - VQCG jQGU LJ a kjCG QdG GSG
SCG J .dG e SdG jQGdG bdG qJ H IOhqdG

704
a IAc J IQdG H gh - zcdG{ SCH dG H IOhqdG
HUEG dh ,jdG Z GgCG eJ feEG GN GgCG AfG
.QGqdG a edG jdG GdG jMh fdG H

jdG GHQdGh idG Ib HHd IOdG jQGdG LJ j

Qe Y J GQTEH jj aQ S SGH UGdG e o dG
Y MH S GQGH jQGdG H j .d HUEG e cCd bfG
jQGdG QOdG S L J (Passive IR-Seeking Circuits) IQG dG
da SCG g J d dh .GFdG ce OGY hCG hdG HHc
dG dEG aVEH jQGM QOeh N e j Y dG a j
.eo HjEG QOe e J jQGM VQCc d cCdG

dG jJ
J jJ ,aCd HdG idG GPh jdGh ,IdG GQGOGdG J
aVEH .eCG BG H Y adG ee QGfEGh jOdG ddG jQGdG
e Ic S Y YVeh da Me H GQGOGQ eE H dP dEG
,(AWACs) e QGfEG GFW Y k GqL ddG GQGOGdG hCG ,GFdG eM
GQGOGQ CG c .eCG e H Y gh dG jGQdGh GFdG jJ
50 mi Y J ae a bdG jdG c J idG Ib QdH qdG
.VGYG jQGH d dGh

hdG SG
(Enemy Surveillance) hd eCG jW bGdG hCG SH dG j
JGh e QGfEG GFWh ,VdGh bdG IjT J JGS GSH
.dY YJQH J dG U-2 f J GFW hCG ,idG IH (AWACs)
,OdG Ad SM jja hCG a Gec SGH hdG da J jh
e hCG dG AKCG jQGOGQ FGN VH dG j c - AGdG J TCG hCG
.dG aGZJdG jdG J dG hCG dH Ie AS N

705
 IOdG fhdEG GAGLEG
dG SCG e ECM jjOGdG GOOqd TudG fhdEG ILCG J
jh .IJdG JGQGOGQ GQTEGh jjOGdG JJG FSh e hdG jJ a
IOd kHSG ,YH JGOOJh dSQEG QGWCG J a da Se N e dP
.hdG a

eh .ce M hCG ,GFW hCG S e Y SdG g J b

hCG IJe g U Y k GQOb j CG j a Te CG CG hdG
H UdG FGdG eJh jjOGdG Se J dG hdG jQGU e efG
.jdGh jqdG q dG hCG ,VQCG e a KL gh

jJ dEG JQG dY GFdGh JGdG SGH dG bGdG J

VGQCG a IOqLdG GFdGh d dG fhdEG GjdG Jh
J HdG GFWh JdG e Ea dP Y k a .e kjb hCG hdG
T deh) fhdEG GjdG g e jJ Y IQdG d e
.dJh d iJ d gQOe gJG jJh (OdG hQdG LJ

Electronic) dG fh dEG IO dG GAG LEG G F W J

Le QGOGH IOhe gh .(Weasel) cdG YdH (Countermeasure ECM
jOdG TEG QOe bH OJ jjOGQ e dEG aVEH dT jY
eqdG ahdG LJ a e IOSd hCG Oe YaO AGLEc eEG deh
GFdG g OhJ .hdG AGqLCG a e JQG Y qe J e Y
GgCG fc GPEa .geJh hdG Se FGg J TCd IOe jQGH
GAGLEd IOe da dEG CJ GFdG Ea (ECM) IOe fhdEG Se
.(ECCM) CG IOdG fhdEG

jhU GOOJ SQEG Y Lh QGOGdH LdG jQGdG J CG j

LdG QGOGdG j dG OOdGh dG dG H (False Echoes) je
joh .GgCG bGe jJ a hdG QGOGQ a dEG ODj e hQd

706
YaO AGLEc SGh IQH ,kjCG QGOGd IOe jJ ee gh ,(Chaff)
He H T qJ Ibh aQ fe SCG e j gh ,Oe
kHbCG SCG g qJh ,jJ OGdG QGOGdG GOOJ e AGLCG hCG VCG g
a SCG g RJ .IOQGdG jGhhdG bW (Reradiate) SQEG IOYE FK
d GFWh S e hdG GjJ Qe JH AGdG a Jh jQGU
kM (Chaff) dqj ,dd .QGOGdH LdG hdG jQGU TJ cY keZ
.X ed ddG GOOdG a IM cCG KCJ jh (Volume Clutter) kjJ
(Resonate) J d bO GWCH SCG J CG j k GKDe (Chaff) j Mh
.jJ OGdG QGOGdG Y V dG GOOdG f a

kS Oe JQG Y SCd edG IdG H (Chaff) J Y J

dEG H J gh jdG a dG a IdG bCG FK d
.VQCG

eH ejEG hCG J j (Heat-Seeking) IQGd qdG jGQdG EG

e FGch .jQGdG g d bdG GFdGh dG e jQGM Ye
Y cJ YaO GQH GHdGh HdG GFdG H OhJ YdG g
.LJ fCG jd jQGdG jQGdG

GFdG fhdEG fCG

ILCG g RJ .GFdG a csd kN e fhdEG ILCG gh
fe jOU a jQdGh jdG GFdG a kf (Avionics Systems)
Se ILCG g J .fdG hCG GSG Y cJ IOYEGh a j
fHh ,GPS c ,Me ILCGh , eh , j jOGQh jQGOGQ
.(Inertial Guidance Systems) Qb LJ fCGh ,jQGOGQ

J CG hCG IFdG L Jh SJ UN FGg dEG GFdG J

jQe N QGOGdG FGg cqJoh .(dG) AGdG ehe d HfG
L J (Streamline Domes) HfG b H hCG IFdG ee a SH
.ba hCG IFdG
707
 adG Sb ILCG
jJ f g (Distance Measuring Equipment - DME) adG Sb ILCG EG
Airborne) k GL e SG RL Y j GFd LdG FK idG
q
Ground-Based) b dG VQCG (Transponder) QffG J eh (Interrogator
H 3.5 s IH 1 kW f dG SG RL Sj .(Transponder
d E G 1025 f a 1 MHz `H H Y J I b 126 e M Gh Y f d G a f 30
36 MHz Y J f K I b Y H e H Q f f G d G j 1150 MHz
GQTEG e IFdG b e dG GQTEG QJ .SG Ib J hCG a
dg .VY jh adG J K H edG dG jh ,SdG
dG dG g (Tacan) cJ EGh ,ddG Y a VQCG e 2000 dGM
.DME `d dG

qdG GUG OJ f
QGOGQ Y (Traffic Collision And Avoidance System - TCAS) dG Gg qSDj
,jhe GOOJ GP GQffGJ Y jh ,(SSR) fdG SG
e jd IkFW c Y e JU eh ,VY TTh ,GJch
bh a OdG M jQdG ac jH dG j .jqdG eOdG
g eh .KQdG Od GAGLEG e NCG Lj e NC Fe bHh mc
eY .iNCG IFdG Y OHd QGfG hCG dG hCG ,QdG J GAGLEG
e kHGqL J ,f dH IOhe jb IFW (TCAS) `H IOhe IFW qJ
jH HqdG IFd GqdG Gg j .iNCG IFdG QffGJ (SSR)
HJ YS M K .iNCG IFdG beh (Relative Altitude) dG JQG
Ib a VY TT (TCAS) fCG H J .kFb jdG c EG jd
H e HdG JFdG e d edG hdG IQhe J QdG
.dG

.(TCAS) ILCG J gh kdM ceCG jQdG cdG GFW e J

.d edG IFdG JQG dEG aVEH jg jd IQTEG QffGJ c Sjh

708
Y bdG a SJ e e a (TCAS) `H IOhqdG GFdG L Ea Ggh
EGh gJGh ,YSh ,YJQG UGh GJdG H dEG edG f
.QGfG CG J dM a fc

iNCG GFdG e dG edG ac k GqL dG JdG CGj

ILCG ac QXE (Plan-Position-Indicator- PPI) :be WQN TDe Y jh
CG eh (64 km) 40 mi IQe IFGO b V IOqLdG GFdG H e (TCAS)
GFd bCG QdG Y IFW c Y 40 mi id YG b e dG
hCG 20 mi QbCG fCG J d kjCG gOGYEG j fCG EG ,(Immediate Traffic)
dG e e IFdG GbG Y (8 km hCG 16 km ,32 km) 5 mi hCG 10 mi , 20 mi
Y ,VdG e NGO ,IFdG Jh .dY Qhe ac IFdG LGJ eY hCG
dG qjo QWEG Y cd JdG ejh .HCG e en H TdG
hCG (366 m) 1200 ft `H JJ e Y dG gEG QWEG jh .dG qdG
eCG Ije aHh (TCAS) `H IOhe iNCG IFW CG Y QGdG GH J
IFd dG dG QWEG e IFW J eYh .IFdG fL dEGh Nh
JGFd dG qdG dG CH Qd GjJ QGUEH JdG CGj dG
I F d G G b G O H h .b d G e d A GL E G j d e f K 40 N S
dG pndG IQTEG Jh QL H (Traffic, Traffic) AGdG j iNCG
dG Gg Mj .dG UCG dG dEG HCG dG e NdG IFd
YJQG J dG e HdG IFdG J TdG Y GAGdG e OY QX
.QGfG CG J dM a IFdG fc GPEG eh dG

d G d E G d N O e f K 25 N h - d H N d G I F d G Q G SG Y
AGdG IFGdG Jh NBG jJ AYEH JdG CGj - dG q dG
QdG eCj U QX e WS MCG He dEG NdG IFd dG IqdG
e Od eG hCG ,QGfG hCG dG e IOjH hCG ,QGfG hCG dH
.GUG Od dG GAGLEG

dH dG dEG LJ J NdG IFdG QW j ,f bdG a

709
g iNCG IFdG QW JG GPEa .dhCG IFdG dEG IdG dH bY GP
dG dEG JFdG H OdG N jh ,dG ae J dG
.fOCG

gJG OdGh k GL ddG OOdG ie

V e r y H i g h F r e q u e n c y) g JG O dGh k G L d dG OO dG i e EG
j h V Q C G Y S D e I F d M e f g (Omnidirection Range - VOR
230 mi Y jJ ae dEGh dG dY GFdG a e gh .VHF f Y
(48 km) GC 30 mi ae dGE dG WGh GFdG ah ,VOR e bGC Y (370 km)
cCGh IdG jdG a VOR e 1000 Y j e dg .dG Y kN
hCG (Conventional) kjJ VOR j CG j .ddG Y a e 1000 e
.118 MHz h 108 H G O O H I b 160 Y j Y d G c h (Doppler ) H h O

d d G V O R f e A G L C G Y P G S d F AA d G Q d G G d G I Q G O E G J
`H j e jQdG GFdG dO j CG H (Backup) fdG M Vd
.(Wide Area Augmentation System) jdG d OdG dG CG WAAS

QGOGdG fCG
Radio Detection) idG jJh jOGdG dG e (Radar) QGOGQ c J
idG jJh dG Y QOb a SGh SQEG f gh (and Ranging
.GFdG hCG dc IdG GgCd (Bearing0 JGh

Ojh j K RF bH IdG LCG (Rader System) QGOGdG f Aj

Y J CG jh VQCG e a GQGOGdG CJo .SdG bdG Vjh
a dG dG SdG a j .IQdG cdGh GFdGh dG X
. J f Q GOGQ f 1 -23 d G
FGg N Ib f H dY IQb (RF Transmitter) SdG SJ
,JdG idG jh .dG hCG dG AJ (Directive Antenna) LJ

710
 RF iU
Se
FGg
RF f

SQEG
SEG
SG U be
e FGdG

c Ob ja f
seo
Tc U
dO U
Tc

QGOGQ d e Y e 1 -23 T

SGH Jh TR Se - e a gQhe Hh .f FGdG b e IOY

j .(Wideband Receiver) jY f e a (Gain Amplifier) c e
Y hCG ,e gh TCH CRT e TCG U Y dG Nn VY
.(Scanned Liquid Crystal Display) (Raster) FS QH SGQ TT

SG Y FGdG Qe JG e (Azimuth) dG hCG dG JG Oj

ae dEG J (IO Y s fGKhe) eR GMH idG S jh .i dG
.(GbCGh ,QeCG ,GOQj ,jH eCG) ITe

jjOGdG LdG OOJ bW Ea ,dd 300 m/s CG ,AdG YH RF bW J

.kHjEG kHgP k GMGh k Gec d 7 s NCJ RF

GWCG EG Mh .IOY jGhdG f a ,dY GOOJ GQGOGdG SJo

d J IHh bO cCG ie IAGb Y WCG FGdG Jo IdG LdG
YSh Qeh dG JG Y ee TdG VY J jh .aCG
. CPA dEG Ud e bCGh
GfCG aCG Y d J j gQGJh SdG dG eR e EG
OGJQ aCG SH jS H Ib f SQEG jh .idG

711
ddG adc MdG odGh ,Cae a dc jdG GgCG e idG
.gZh (Marker Buoys)

Sb N e dG Ho OJ CW Ie RF LH GQGOGdG H j
e dG Gg eEHh .JdG idG a (Doppler Shift) HhdG GfG
.kjCG dG YS jJ QGOGdG

jJ eEH j d FM GOOJ SdG RF Le J j

(Modulation Characteristics) J UGN hCG Phase ddG fQe N e idG
.IFdGh SdG GQTEG

H d QWh QM bh e IOe bGe a d QGOGdG YG d

a GgCG Y dG IQb cCGh cCG jdG GQGOGdG QhHh .e
a QhJ jf hCG LCGh Fa ce H aNG Jh J hCG aCG
H GQGOGdG UCG aj ,dG SdG e NBG dG ah .QGdG dP
re Y IQdG gQdG dGh IdG d eDj gh 2000$ Y jj
aJ iNCG Mf e .dG dG a hCG dG M a eBG gh dG Y
a GFdG d a IYe jQdG GFdG e Y dG GQGOGdG
.dG jJh jYdG UGdGh HGhdc IdG dG M J

Air Traffic) j dG Id kN U a edG GQGOG dG eCG

q
MdGh ,j qdG ddG AGSh ,dG cM Y I dGh ,(Control
M dG ed q j GQGOGdG GfCG e YCG dG H ,LddG
Jh ,jQGdGh SCG WEGh jJh ,Sc U N e OD J
GbG id IdG GjdG WEGh ,dG jQGUh hdG b
GQGOGdG cCG EG .WdG OhM e idG IH G F W hCG d H jQG U
(Ground Based Phased Array Radars) ddG ae VQCG GQGOGQ g jdG
,AdG ceh ,ddG jQGdG d kfhdEG Le FGg Y jhM
e Y de iNCG IQOdG GQGOGdG LJh .AdG qJ dG jdGh
.idG IH dG QGfEG GFW e Yh S

712
,bW Gdqe 2-23 dG a e c ,cdG JGP QGOGdG fCG J
ce FGg e IMGh Hc NGO L ,jjOGQ JG ILCGh ,TTh
dEG GFdG Ld VQCG qJh IS ee e AL g dG Gg .ba
a Th jhM a FGg Nh edG J eEHh .jb He
JQG je hCG GOGc GQGOGdG e I dG G fCG H J .I F W
dG jh RJ dG fGdG SG fCG ah GFdG a Altimeters
.X Y

k GqL de QGOGQ ee :2 - 23 dG

:g da ee HQCG Y ,eqM Y dG H ,keY GQGOGdG J

.(Transmitters) Se -1
.(Antennas) (FGg) FGg -2
.(Receivers) e -3
.(Risplays) VY (TT) TT -4

713
 QGOGdG Se
Pulsed Radar) dG QGOGdG e e a (Radar Transmitter) SdG aJ
e eDdH d ac JQb J CG Ljh ,dG RF Le (System
mi 20 QGe Y b V MdG hCG idG H dGh dc FXh
hCG dG eh ,dG W :`H dG QGOGd dG UGdG J (32 km).
IhQdG IQbh ,(Duty Cycle) dG IQhOh ,(Repetition Frequency) QGdG OOJ
Carrier) edG LdG OOJh ,(Average Power) IQdG eh ,(Peak Power)
.(Frequency

WCG dGh .(s) fKhdH (Pluse Length) dG W S j

dG GQGOGQ GSG Y dG F f LCG Y d IO Y jQh V
J CG j (QeCG hCG GbCH Se) b ie Y d dh .dGh
.kf Ib dG g

UH d jdG a H kH j CG j :PRF dG QGJ OOJ

e J .ddG dG SQEG b JOY K LQdG gGe OhM dEG dG
,(Antenna Beamwidth) FGdG T VYh ,PRF `d j H dG GQGOGdG
FGdG j eY f 40 dEG 20 Sj CG ,(Rotation Rate) GQhdG eh
.GQTEG IOY QGH j M dG f Y k Gce Gj

,GdH Sj : (Peak Power and average power) IQdG Seh IhQdG IQb
k GOhe AGOCG j eY idG J a .qLdG GSd kah GOqjh
Pulse Compression) dG V H j e j SQEG IhQP IQH
dG VH dG J e bCG ie J J Y J dG (Technique
(Carrier Frequency) OOdG eM LdG QNG EG .(Radiated Pulse Width) dG
,dG IQdG H KCjh ,QGOGd qLdG dG N e kjCG g Oj
.fdG dGh ,edG hCG dG FGdG Mh

(Power Tube) IQb U j CG j QGOGdG Se a RF IQb Qe EG

714
e S hCG ,(Klystrone) h dG hCG (Magnetron) hdG e
g J CG j .(Oscillator-Power Amplifier Chain) jOO dG IQ dG
d dG IQdG e CG EG U dM ILCG jOOdG dG
.(TWT) hCG Traveling Wave Tube Je Le U bGdG a g

FHdG NpndG e IQdG J M s eo hCG OOdG IQdG U j

Pulse-Forming) dG jJ eo d H S c f IQ b dEG (Input)
dG T dEG dG e q e f d H a a ,(Modulator
.hdG OKd hCG dH UdG ( Modulating Grid)

MGh FGd a (Duplexer) hCG (TR) dG SdG Ye e eCG

a g (Duplexer) RL EG .SGh SQEG H d edG a j CG
e M hCG jdG SQEG GQTEG (Short Out) GaEH j jM RL dG
j G h h c d G L d J ,7 d G f G ) . a J E G h S d G d G d E G N d G
.(UHF `dGh

QGOGdG FGg
a kYT gcCG CG EG ,e TCH (Radar Antennas) QGOGdG FGg J
fe FU e YdG adG dG FGg g jdG eGSG
Open Frame) e Q WEG g a hCG ,(Barrel Stave) edG c h J
Yh e YH cj QJe e Y YdG c cj .(Structures
. 360 Q G e

b kf a MdG hCG MdG dGh d dG S FGg eCG

,30 jhGH Jj MhdH kT kjOY kYT qJ ,aCG jW Qe P ae
dG H j d ,LQO HQCG dEG LQO e cCH Jj VY CG EG
.ge a LfG hCG dG de EGh M

a jQGdG hCG eOdG GFdG JQG jJ a dG FGdG eCG

Mhe qd (dbT) OY ddG Qe ae b H e GP IOY
715
2 Y j j Y J Q G C G E G 30 d G G g VY j b . S d G j P T hC G a C G
csjo ,GCA GFd VQCG dG Y IdG fCG a .LQO 4 hCG
i e e 90 j hGH j C G d G e j d G A d j H F G d G
ah .d dG Me a IFd dG JQG Hd VQCG hCG dG
H (Height Finding Antenna) JQG Tc FGg cjo GCA ee H
cqjo iNCG GQGOGdG ah .360 ie Y dG GQhdG e j d e
.gJGh IFdG Ho jd f 360 edG GQhdG ie Y FGdG

SdG OOdG N e Th (Antenna Reflector) FGdG cY M Oj

f V edG idG jW GQGOGdh .(LdG W fCG Ye)
a , V c Y ( 2 G H z d E G 5 0 0 M H z ) W G h j h e G O O J Y h C G UH F
d E G 3 GHz ) Y C G j h e G O O J V J d G d G i d G G Q G O G Q J
(Radomes) ehOGH cdG g H j .IU cY Y (10 GHz
,6 A d G f G ) . d G e G Y e j d a T ( F G d G d F G d b )
.(zAntennas and Horns{ GHCGh FGdG

QGOGdG e
GQTEG e Lhe TR e e (Rarar Receivers) odG GQTEG J
J j IF Se OOJ IQTEG fE (Local Oscillator) e He
H H d G e E G h . 6 0 M H z h C G 3 0 M H z e E G Q G O G d d G IF b h . d e h
.SfG fhc e k jH AL ,U dM ILCG g ddG dG
IF e SGH JdG IF IQTGE Joh ,IQdG Ia a (Mixing) dG j
q
QGOGd J b .ja IQTEG j (Detector) Tc dEG J b (IF Amplifier)
.eGe Hh IQTEd IMGh qLQ Y e cCG dd jRGe SG Gb
J jdG IQTEG CG EG ,dG IQTEG Ib e kjOW jdG IQTEG da SJ
hCG (Cathode Ray Tube- CRT) e TCG be Y VJ d J Lj
.QGOGdG TT e iNCG GfCG

716
 QGOGdG TT
CRT VY FSh e e GfCG Y gJGh dG ie jJ j
dG a dG ,(PPI) hCG (Plan Position Indicator) WQdG be Tc :e
M a dG YdG fCG c ah LJ dd kYT cCG gh ,3-23
e (Polar-Coordinate Presentation) b KGMEG VQY g (PPI) EG .QGdG
Jh .(Radar Displays) TdG Sh a (Spot) f H e QGOGQ FGg
a eMCG H VQCG J a IAe H H (GFW hCG S e) GgCG
Lh fGQhH j gh (Radial Beam) dG dG Qhe H TdG e
H qj Ie c a jL e SQ Oj RedGh QdG ac CH kY ,TdG
.FGdG IQhO e keGJ dG

,(Compass) UH d kah VQCG dGh GgCG bGe VJ

J TdG Y dG cM CG c .QdG dG dG JG OJ
.kcS hCG kce eEG j dG QGOGdG cM dEG He

bGe N e Ieh jJ IQH gJGh GgCG ie jJ j

UdG GTCJh ,(Range Setting) OdG id dG adGh TdG
GAGb kdM aJ jdG GQGOGdG fCG e CG Z .(Compass Graduations)
.dG IQU Y Fe (Cursor) de Vh Y TdG Lh Y J bQ
dG dG
B dG
QdG

VQCG c QGhdG dG
A dG

Z T

idG M
FGdG be

C dG
dG L
PPI. WQdG be Tc QGOGQ TT :3 -23 T

717
gJGh ,dG ie jJ e J he dH IOhe ee aJ
.hL Hh TdG Y ITe YSh ,Qeh

EG dG X Y dG QGOGdG VY k GqL dG PPI QGOGQ VYn j

.VQCG JH e a FGdG C dGh LdG a HU cCG fCG

ddG e gZh ,Lh GHh QfCGh ,MGS OqLh Ea dG Gdh

.SGh MdG a eo ,IdG VQCG

a S ,VdG bh a UN cCG iNCG jQGOGQ VY jW dg

IH qdG GQGOGa ,IFdG JQG jc edG jdG eGSG
JGh idG J ,4-23 dG a qe g c ,B f VY TT QdG
VdG EG .QGOGdG TT e dG dG a GgCG e Od hCG ,e GgC
UdG VhdG e NBG f g , 5-23 dG a Vj c ,H dG H
.Y bdG a TdG Y dG JQGh JGh ie qj

KdG QGOGdG ee bH jdG jdG GQGOGdG e jdG j

e ja TT Y VYh FGdG e dG (Digitize Analog Radar)
dEG de Jh a cdG GgCG a J jdG TH T Se
.dGO ReQ

idG

.jQGOGdG B TT VY :4 -23 T

718
Zh IFGdG edG ac dGREG Y JdH IdG TdG g J
Ggh .Y J a dG b hCG SCG HV hCG ,QGOGdG d dG
Y d G a , j d G K d G PP I T d d d G b d G j J T d G g E a
a edG J TdG g J .RedG ah LJ a dS cCG VY
.zedGh ILCG TT VY{ (13 dG fG) jqdG IdG cGe

dG

JQG

idG

.jQGOGdG H TT VY :5 -23 T

QGOGdG GOOJ fCG

,(Designation Chart) dO e a ,edG jQGOGdG LdG GOOJ J
d E G d G G S G j h .1 -23 h d G a d G j h d G L d G G O O J
:g QGWCG
2 GHz dEG 1 e CG dG a qdG dGh dG GQGOGQ J -1
L
.(20 cm `dG f j dh , 30 cm dEG 15 cm e Le W)

W) 4 GHz dEG 2 CG ,S dG a idG jW jdG GQGOGdG J -2

.(10 cm `dG f j fCG EG 15 cm dEG 7.5 Le
dEG 3.75 Le W) 8 GHz dEG 4 CG ,C dG a dG GQGOGQ J -3
. (7.5 cm

719
12 GHz dEG 8 CG ,X dG V idG Ib jdG GQGOGdG J -4
. (3 cm d G j f C G E G ,3.75 cm d E G 2.50 L e W )
27.0 d E G 18.0 CG ,K dG V GQdG a VQCG IdG QGOGQ j -5
. ( G d G f j f C G E G ,1.7 cm d E G 1.1 L e W ) GHz
hCG dG AKCG j gGe CG EG eCG g VdG e LQO GOOdG g aJ
.GOOdG g j dG AdG QH H dG

.jdG GOOdG QGWC dO e :1 -23 hL

QGOGdG g FN
dP cJh ,Th M dGO g dG e dG RF GQTEG Ib EG
hCG ,dG FGdG dEG dH be dG Z e GPEG SfG jh .dG
e GPEG Fe Z J GFdGh dG dh .SdG JGOOJ e QGOGdG Z e GPEG
.(Head-On) SdG IQTEG JH eJ

OGdG e gZh ,dGh ,SZdG e YdG GgCG J dc

.QGOGdG b e Fe Zh aT ,fdG Z

d CH FdG adG Y (Stealth) dG dGh GFdG e j

TCd dH FdG dG CGh ,QGOGdG bW UeG Y IQ dG OG dG
.QGOGdG Y k GH TCG g S cY hCG e fc AGS eOdG jQGOGdG
720
bW Yh UeG) jKCdG jg c dG GFdG SG dh
GN e GFdG g J dHh ,J hCG (Echoe) iU CG d (QGOGdG
.e Jh jQGOGdG HbdG

a fe SH Ue hCG ,IU fe FU J iNCG Mf e

bdG e jdG LQEGh ,IAH QGOGdG GQTEG J CG ,dG hCG IFdG jGhR
H YVe dh cCG fe FU e fQdH QGOGdG e dEG
I dG TC J a W Y IO L e jGhR c Y CG c .O Y
jDhQ RJ ,YGdG dG QGU hCG ,dG e hCG (Channel-Marking Buoys)
.dG AKCG hCG dG a S ,d QGOGdG

QGOGdG AVV
IH kSb dY JT fc GPEG a jQGOGdG LdG iU c j
NGJ j bh .(Noise) AVdH J dGh dG RF GQTEG e
hdG H jW Y hCG ,fEG hCG dG a e jOGQ AVV e Le
.SG Y LdG NGa c H GOTE

jQGOGdG dG
dG QGOGdG Le e Le NGJ g (Radar Clutter) jQGOGdG dG EG
Gg .IFW hCG S c AGS dG dG Y IJdG GQTEG IOY j
(Surface Clutter) S H H j CG j GQTEd dG qLdG
Le e kjb FGdG Vh Y fdG dG a RF bW IQSG Y Jf
H J c .dG dM GVG hCG dG JQG e dG g OGOJ .dG
.QdGh dGh ,dGh ,dGh dG H kjCG (Volume Clutter) M

jdG GQGOGdG Y jdG Vd dG dG GMEG J j

b Fc J fe SCG e IU b hCG (Chaff) ee GSH
KCdG jT (Chaff) jh .q dG a g f Y (Resonan Dipoles) ffe
OQGdG ECM zfhdEG IOdG GAGLEG{ fG) .ddG jhdG GOOdH
721
 .(dG Gg a gcP

JQd IOdG GQGOGdG

a dGh dG Y QOb FGg (Hieght-Finding Radars) GQGOGdG d
eCG eh .jQGdGh GFdc IOe GgCG YJQG jd dPh OHCG KK
b H kfGSG kcY j e c JQG jJ Y IQOdG FGdG
.IOe YT e f Sjh ,kjOY ce ae

e ijh QJH e JQG SGe OHCG KK FGdG GfCG d

.HdG jSh aCG Mhe T d ,ae b H cY U
.d bO gJG Y d 360 GQhdG Y IQb FGdG jg dh

qdG GQGOGdG
MGh g J Y QOdG QGOGdG g (Tracking Radars) dG QGOGdG EG
CG Hh .dG dG JH Lj U FGg IOY dh .k GL bO H
jdG H jh ,fdG e e S SH CGj ,ag Y QGOGdG j
TCG kV kYT adG dG GP dG IQH f Y cdG (Feed Horn)
WhdG dH dG CGj jdG H J Yh .(Pencil Beam) dH
IJdG TCG (Phasing) IQheh S dJh .dG JH cdG Qe M
QGOGdG FGg J LGQ jc J (Error Signals) WN GQTEG dG
dP jhGR FGdG j keJ dG Y jo eYh .dG N JH
.ge bH dG

IMGdG dG GQGOGQ
dG jhGR Sb J mJ J Y GOGdG e dG G g AGOCG j
x
dG jd jdG dG gh ,(Monopulse Angle Measurement) jO MCG
Y MdG jQGdG b e QGOGdG GSG MG e J dG ,WhdG
GHCG e LhR GQGOGdG g a j .(Radar-Seeking-Missiles) GQGOGdG

722
jGhR e dG je J d cY Qe Y Ie aCGh jOdG jdG
LJ ,e Z GHCG Ch ,(Monopulse) IMGh f QGOGdG Sj .e
WN GQTEG LGdG GQTEG H NG djo .e IJe GQTEG HQCG
IMGdG dG FGg jh .keJ dG Y bj d FGdG Qe YJ
g Y jdG j .jQGdG LJ ah SCG G H q dG a
d H UdG bdG gh ,JQTEG QGd WGdG dG H GQGOGdG
TJ b dG Z dG e dG Gg EG .SdG AWEGh dG SQEG
Tj CG j IMGdG dG QGOGQ CH kY jh QGOGdG Y MdG hQdG
.kb ce GQTEG SGH

ModG adG GQGOGQ

OHCG KH kfhdEG J FGH IOhe (Phased-Array Radars) GQGOGQ g
JH FGdG jd LdG dH e ,RF bW SGh SQEH J d
IdG FXd ke ke 6-23 dG j .HdG JQG hCG
SG - SQEG UY e ae Y FGdG j .QGOGdG Gd qdGh
jJh NCJ AfG SGH adG J j .me S jd Se
,dG dG hCG dG hdG j H UdG e c e bdG SQEG
.6-23 dG a qe g c ,adG ce a (Apex) dG Jh

Yeh e d e HjEGh .S hCG HjEG eEG adG J

IQb GP FGdG g J ,dHh .UdG e Ye hCG Y c N
e J dG adG Ea dP e dG Yh .jdG Je e YCG
j CG j dGh HjEG adG e k c EG .jOGQ OOJ Qe
jJ e IOY Gg j .adG UY ac eh OdG SQEG N e IQTEG
.(Corporate) ce hCG ( Optical Feed) jH

IAVEH IkOY H j ,OMCG Qe g (Optical Feed) jdG jdG EG

.jhc QW LGH adG e dG AdG

723
fe N dSQEG j ad dG UdG SGH dG IQdG EG
Jh LGdG S fEH J dG (Phase Shifters) ddG e J
.SY fCch ,adG e NBG fdG e mFH bdG Jo .adG

S cY SQCG - SG fe
SG

GOOJ de

Jc
SQG
e
bGS
ddG eQ
jJ eQ QGhe T
dG

M d G a d G Q G O G Q F G g :6 - 23 T

T (Corporate Feed Networks) cdG jdG T e Yf dg

.IMGh jf e (Series Networks) dG dG iqJ .jRGeh e
dGh ,(Hierarchial Parallel Networks) LQdG jRGdG dG iJ a
e YdG c j .IdG L K j Q e e ,I d c J
e bJh ,UdG H IQTEG d SQEG N fe dG
.SdG dG NGO hCG UdG Y ddG

edG QdG OGeG Y Y e dM J ddG e J

qe (Digital) bdGh (Analog) KdG ddG e e c EG .ad
q dG j .(PIN Diodes) ,KK eU hCG (Ferrites) jjM ce NGO
dG Ggh .jdG ddG e Y k e (Reggia- Spencer)S - jQ
e j j M IO e e b e (Waveguide) L e dO Y IQ Y

724
M e jdS dEG aVEH NGdG a kjQe YVe (Ferromagnetic)
.LQdG fdG

J c EGh .dM j dHh ,IQdG RF GQTEG ddG e NDj

jh ,jddH QdG QdG N e Y IdG j (Phase Shift) ddG
HK a J dEG ODjh jfdG J Y JdG ddG dG dG
J Y IdH a (RF Energy Propagation) jOGdG OOdG bW QfEG
.dG QdG SGH ddG

j a ddG jd (Reciprocal) OOJ Oe g S - jQ e EG

e{ kjCG fG) .gJG c a IQTEG Qhd JGP ddG J j hCG
.(zUHF `dGh jGhhdG LdJ 7 AdG a .Reggia-Spencer dG

a IOdG jdG GP TR UY e e e LodG GQTEG Jo

,eCG jW HCd hCG AdG S dG c ,I dG fCG
.dG dG e GSd Hb (Modules) GMc

OY NCG C jQJ NCG QGWCG IdG MdG adG GQGOGd

.edG AGOCG Y kje KDJ odG eUh jOdG TR AGLCG e U

CG j .f jH jJ k GqL ddG MdG adG GQGOGdh

fe FGg GSH Fa YH kfhdEG GQGOGdG g (Scanned) J
k GqL dG QGOGdG e NCG cCH QGOGdG Ea Gg eh .ae b P HdG
.bCG Me edG d jRCG b dG GQJe C ,dG

JCG J f gh ,(AEGIS) H ceCG jdG b H L o d

Oe ddG ae QGOGQ Y dG Gg SDj .qdG adG VGZC eeh
HK e FGg ae HQCG Y j dG (AN/SPY A/B) FXdG
d dG S Y OY T Ve a ce (Fixed Planar Antenna Arrays)
4400 e cCG Y (3m) 10 ft H ae c Jh .H e 90 jhGR LGJ
.qe mY
725
jd YdG UY H ddG bY GJdG RGJ e YS
CG J dHh .b e a kaGgCG d kfhdEG ae c T JG
a kVQCGh kjqL kag 250 e cCG Y YadG SCG jd J fH aJ
x
.hdG f e a Ie GJ g

OJ CG VQCG gYGb a dG MdG adG FGg eEH

J .AdG ce e gZh ,jQGdG dch ,IOe JGS Jh
IOdG jQdG a cdG GQGOGdG MdG adG QGOGQ ee
U bh .ddG jQGdG d ICdGh ,VQCG YGdG a ,jQGd
(hdG) QJQdG Gf d MdG a dG GQGOGQ e i NCG G fCG
(Trajectories) dG GQ dG H G J dG J . a dGh
LCG e d dG SCd aGdG KGMEG M j eh ,ahd
.geJ

jHhdG IqdG LdG GQGOGQ

(Continuous-Wave (CW) Doppler Radars) HhdG IdG LdG QGOGQ jo
qj ,CW Se Y FGM dPh ,HdGh cdG GgCG H dG Y
da HdG GgCG J RF. bW H Le N e LGdG RF bW jJ
OOJ a g (Alternating) Hhe da J cdG GgCG CG EG ,HK
dG M a fCG QGOGdG Gg jo .dGh SdG GQTEG H HhdG
GgCG OqLh jd dch ,GgCd gJG (Radial Velocities) YdG
(dG) idG OJ GQGOGdG g Ea ,dd .bH be jJ H ce
.bH

dG HhdG GQGOGQ
LdG HhO QGOGd jJ g (Pulse Doppler Radars (PDR)) GQGOGdG gh
,CW HhO QGOGQ T e ee Y dG e j dG CW IdG
f HdG dG j .CW GJe e IU AGLCG g dG dGh

726
(Amplitude) S a J ce GgCG Y IQOdG dG CG EG e
dG iU IOY Yh Ie c ah .(Phase Coherence) ddG HGJ H kjQhO
d e ddG NH qe dG ddG e f idG Gg j ,HdG
.dSQEG

qdG dG J GQGOGQ
g (Moving-Target Indication (MTI)) dG dG J GQGOGQ EG
GPEG idG J bO ee Y dG e J d f CW GQGOGQ
g dG dGh , (Pulse Modulated) dH qe CW Le eM c
,e (LGQ) IJe f HdG dG j .CW GJe e IU Y
jh .jQhO IQH S a J ce GgCG e IJdG dG dh
Je e idG f W N e cdGh HdG GgCG H MTI QGOGQ
GP fh HdG d HK S GP f dG g J .SdG
GgCG VY ke j FYh .cdG GgCd (de) e S
.LGdG HdG dG M N e a cdG

QdH qdG GQGOGQ

dG GgCG J a e (Fire Control Radars) GQGOGQ g
,adG Gf Ld bdG edG g Jh .gJGh gGe jd
.jQGdG WEG Ldh ,jQGdG GOeh ,qdG GOeh

dG IOe adG GQGOGQ

dG Xh H (Limited-Scan Array Radars) GQGOGdG e dG Gg j
GP RF dM e e PAA Me ae FGg Y j gh ,dGh
f j .(Digital Signal Processor) bQ GQTEG de IS J dY bW
Y SQEH b GPEG LhOe XH dG QGOGdG Gd e ,d Se FGg
.d eCG OOdGh d eCG OOdG H aJ OOJ

727
 dG GQGOGQ
jQGOGQ ee jCG Y eH J (Search Radars) dG GQGOGQ J EG
hCG ,VQCG Y GgCG jJh FGdG M AdG e hc f M d
FGg hCG ,e H QGhO fe FGg Y J bh .qdG hCG ,dG a
Ib GQGOQ dEG edG d GOOdG e L hCG S QdG a kf j PAA
.QdG WEH qdG hCG g J LC aCG MVhh ,YCG OOJ GP idG
J eY (Surveillance Radars) YSG GQGOGdH kjCG GQGOGdG g J
.fdG jqdG bGdG f a c idG IH GgCG bGe

dG GQGOGQ
g AHEG Y e J QGOGQ f g (Tracking Radars) dG QGOGQ EG
.GgCG bGd OCG jdG LCG e IdG bGdG J cCG hCG MGh
dG dG QGOGQ dEG dG QGOGQ gOj dG dG GgCG J j e kdZh
N e (dGh dG) XdG c GQGOGdG H j .Y j
.PAA FGdG b e dG d edG cQdG

jfdG SG GQGOGQ
GFdG Jh H J dG jqdG IdG QGOGQ GMh iMEG g
IdG QGOGQ H f fe e dDe gh .ddG Y a HdGh fdG
Secondary Surveillance) fdG SG QGOGQ EG . FAA `d HdG ATCRBS jdG
q
a d HdG FGdG cjoh jqdG IdG QGOGQ e kf e (Radars - SSR
.(jqdG IdG) ATC QGOGQ FGg

T SGH IFdG a (QffGJ) dG GqSH VQCG dG J

j d d P h 1090 MHz O O J Y H L E G J h ,1030 MHz O O J h V Q W
jg OJ dG e S IFdG QffGJ Ljoh IFdG J JGh ie
dG jdG jdG jJ f e QGOGdG Gg QW d .YJQGh IFdG

728
(Identification Friend hdG e jdG jg jJ fG) . IFF zhqY CG jU{
.dG Gg e j e a or Foe - IFF)

jOGdG OOdG (GQffGJ) e

j H g (Radio Frequency Trasponders) (dG) QffGdG EG
RF GQffGJ cqJ .UN OOJ Y HGSG H FSG jg jJ IH
q
IQTEG SJ .jdG dG X Y dch jdGh fdG GFdG Y
IFW a hCG VQCG Y IOqLe Se e IOY (Interrogation Signal) GqSEG
EG QffGdG j .(Reply) HLEH QffGdG HSG J .S hCG
SG e d hCG eCG SC dP ,e OOJ GP IQTEH qSG GPEG
.bdG

jqdG IdG GQffGJ

Aircraft) jqdG IdG fCG a dG ILCG e RF GQffGJ J
d j jQJ IFW Y QffGdG .(Trafic Control Transponders - ATC
IOYh .qdG dhdG AGqLCG dNO id HGqSG H IFdG be bGH ATC
a GqSG IT SQEH ATC QGOGQ j .GQdG e dG Y
,IFd dG cdG SG J dG UdG JH IFdG a QffGdG
bQCGh h M e d SQ dEG H LEG g q Jo . JQGh M dG bQh
dG dG bdG a ATC QGOGQ TT Y Jh ,(Alphanumeric Message)
id k Ge kYqLQ GQffGdG g HLEG aJo .JGh idG Ojo d
jg J YS ATC bGd HLEG g J .GQGOGdG H iH fQe
.GFdH kMOe c GPEG Sh jdG qdG dG a GFdG

JGdG GQffGJ
J ,fhdEG GQGO YH jdGh jQdG JG JGS J
e e RF SQEG SH J ,(Satellite Transponders) zGQffGJ{ kjCG
IQTEG SGH NBG OOH VQCG dEG dSQEG OhJ K (Uplink) e OOJ Y VQCG
729
dG HdG IQTEH IdG SG e OJ .(Downlink Signal) S HQ
.IQdGh ,SQEG OOJ QhH Oj dG Jd S HQ FGg b e

SQEG ah jdG eGH (Relay) Me a GQffGdG g J

.jQdGh jdG fdG hCG dG

hY CG jU ,jdG J
Y cqeo he OOJ QffGJ Y SDe Y jg J f g
GQGOGQ hCG ,Qf qJ hCG ,IS GQGOGQ e GqSd VJ jU IFW
VJ RdG Gg j .S hCG IFW e Y hCG ,VQCG Y IOqLe H
cq Jo .jQGU hCG ,GFd IOe ae gQe j U G d I F dG
IOY (Identification, Friend Or Foe - IFF) hY CG jU ,jdG J GQffGJ
GFW a eGSGh HJ d kej HSG GT Jh GFdG Y
.QGOGdG TT gJ CG hO d hdG

TT Y HLEG Jh jQGOGQ f SGH IFF QffGJ qj

.gJGh IFdG ie OJ Ie fCc HqodG PPI GQGOGQ

QfdG fCG
(Sound Navigation) JdG MdG e e d :(Sonar) Q f dG EG
YqLQ YS Sbh AdG a JU bW SQEG f g (Ranging) idG jJh
(Y) ie jd dPh ,AdG NGO LCG S Y gOGJQG H ic
Q f S d J e 7 -23 d G a j . g J G d c h L C G g
,Qdc dGh ,bQdG dGh UGdG jJ a dG j .a
.jdG dCGh

d IOdG jDhdG aJ jja VY TT IOY QfdG f j

jg M JU ee ad (Audio Speaker) U e dEG a VE H
dEG dH d f cdG IQTEG (Pitch) If IM a dG TDjh .dG

730
GY dG QGOGdG f Kj a QfS f EG .HhdG CGd kah ,QfdG f
JdG bdG e Kj .jjOGdG bdG dh dG g SQEG Sh CG
a FGdG g (Transducer Array) bdG e ae hCG (Sonar Transducer)
H O j H h ,360 j C G b d G e H e E H - Q G O G d G f
, d e b C G h , Y S h , Q e h , d G i e J a e N e .90 Y j
.JdG Y Vj hCG ,dG j e SQ e dG Gg a

Ld (bdG e) bdG e Drive J GQTEG S dG q jo

e J KCG GP OGe e QfdG bW e J .AdG dEG dG
.(Piezoelectric) Vhc hCG (Magnetostrictive)

idG Jh J dG fhdEG GQGdG odG e j

.GgCG hCG dG Hd TT d jja GQTEG dEG dJh

,e
eh ,e
IQTEG
U e
TDe e
SCGQ YS
IS IMh
AGg

He Se e
f eh
ae
bdG e
Le f

QfdG b

LGQ iU

a Qfd J e :7 - 23 T

d (R ecip r o ca l A c tio n ) d O d G d G e G U C G Y d G j
J d Q e U e g h , (H y d r o p h o n e ) F d G d G e h C G b d G
Ydh ,dG d YdG GUCG kjCG FdG dG aj .AdG
731
 . c M h d G M e g e e Q f d G (O p e r at o r ) e A Y E d P h S C G d G

JJh dH dG dG Q f dG e (Pings) dG f J J
a dG id d edG a dG SQEG NCj .qe GQTEc
dG bdG Sb N e idG Ojh .jo d QfdG ie OhM
(Bearing) JG Oj .idG SG IOYh dG SQEG H (Elapsed Time)
a SdG N be J fehc e hCG (Encoders) Geeo SGH
.cJ c adG hCG bdG e

UGdG Hd HdG dG S Y ddG QfdG ILCG J

Passive) dG QfdG Y UGdG Jh .jdG dCG Y dh
GPEG geCG j q d iNCG UGdGh jdG dG Leh J a (Sonar
Y J da GQfH kjCG IOhe dh .da bW e eSG
.FdG dCG jJ Vd hCG MGdG e jb J eY MdG

e k GOY CG EG jY SGh c fCG bGdG a g QfdG fCG EG

b UGZh Y HCG S Y cqodG IQdG jdG QfdG ILCG
.cGh dG a dch YCG a MdG a dY kb KCG

fbh ,dG H J AdG Y qJo dG YCG He e c EG

f Y j ,cMh bGe Jh SCG GSCG J dG SCG
.UdG dGh jQdG dG Y GSG Ic gh ,QfdG Va
LdJ{ ,24 dG a zSCG fb{h zYCG He{ kjCG fG)
.(zjdG fhdEG

AdG a dG fG
IOjH OGOJh dGM ddG AdG a dG YS J
(1463 m/s) 4800 ft/s
(1615 m/s) 5300 ft/s dGE (0C) 32F LQO a (1430 m/s) 4700 ft/s e IQGdG LQO
.(kjJ AGdG a dG YS HQ YdG g OJ) .(29C) 85F LQO a

732
jh (75 mm) 3 in Oj Le W d dG Ae a 20 kHz OOH dG EG
kbGNG 50 kHz - 10 WGdG GOOdG aJh .eDdG dG Y QdG OOdG
. a C G g Vh a J 200 kHz d G M , d d G GOO d G d h YC d a C G

GgCG J a ke k eY (Salinity) MdGh IQGdG LQO e w c j

OGOj dG S Y jH b SGH UGZ OqLh c Ea .QfdH
.Ybh dG S H MdGh IQGdG LQO a dG OGR c HU

dEG WH e CaOCG S IQGM LQO Ae dEG NGdG dG T j

J Ae dEG NGdG dG dh .(Refractive Effect) QfG Y H SCG
d jdG QhdG Ea Gd .YCG dEG j WH Y S IQGM LQO
Y OHG dEG ODjh bh Qe OGeG Y GAfG e OY j b JU
.ec IQH GgCG H

aGdG AdGh OQdG AdG H IQGdG LQO fG e a AdG W Ea ,Yh

keJ UdG e QGqdG a UGZ J b ,(Thermocline) jceK IdG,
h j dG JdG dG C ,dG QfdG ie V fc EGh M
J JdG UGdG Y QOdG dG Ea , d Hh . UG dG dEG j
SG e (ASW) hdG S J a dG j a j jcedG
(Background Noise) VQCG AVV QOd j iNCG Mf e .UGdG
QOe gCG eh .AGS M Y dGh dG QfdG e c KCJ VEG
Fe V eh d aGdG SadGh FdG GUCG VQCG AVV
.f FdG dG SaQ

J .jW c Y ahQ g b e (ASW) S H j

Y dGh jcedG e GN dG Y a IQdG a dG
.J UGdG

Ya (Hydrodynamic Noise) ejOhQdG AVd FdG QOdG e

.(Cavitation) dG IgXh ,(Turbulences) FdG eGhdGh ,AGdG

733
GOGJQG Y JdG (Reverberation) zLdH{ j e iNCG QOdG eh
.dG gGdG e gZh UGdG J Ybh dG S H IOe JU
GfCG Hh ,dGh ,HhdG CG c .dG dG a AVdG g OGOJh
.IOZR hCG W H AVV J b SCG

UGdG QfS
Mf C UGqdG dEG dH ed gCG QdG g dG QfdG EG
id kjS cEd VY UGqdG Jh .pJ Y j e a
.hdG S e HGbG Y ,(HjEG) a (Transducer) bW d eGSG
ch MdG FXh Y qdG Qfd eGSG UGdG J dd
eY dG cS jd UGdG b e j dG QfdG CG c .dCG
.dG IdG dG J J

1000 e jhc aH j dG c eCG j dG UG Z Jh

j .UGdG DLDL a VJ SZdG e b hCG he NGO ceo ahQg
Y QOdG dG J e j dG ahQdG dEG hdG Y dG
j ahQdG ae dEG NGdG dG Ea eSG Hh . k eCG J GgCG
adG QGOGQ a dG d He jH KK OHCG a kfhdEGG J
.(Phased Array Radar) MdG

a J dG NGdG e SadGh FdG AVd QfdG Ic J

AS e QJh Jh ,GUCG g J .UGdG e dch dG
IYb a ,(Signatures hCG) bdH sJo dGh ,dG BG e IQOU AVV
IQOdG AVdGh dG AVdG H bGdG g J .Jc Y ee
Mh YGfCGh UGdGh dG J j SGHh .SadGh FdG Y
Y ee GQTEd ,jJdG dG e jdG aj ,dc .e H
eY eGS jhdG ahQdG ae J bdG e cqjo .idG
.UGdG OqLh S c dEG ODj h ,keBG dG dG GSG j

734
, UG d G D L D L M 220 Oh H k G e J e e C G Q f d G I c f c d
dG AdG e IQe dah dS GQfS aVEH jDhdG e Jo fEa
(760 m) 2500 ft ad QdG dGE IQdG ddG adG f jh .UGd
dg (460 m) 1500 ft ad QdG dEG ddG QfdG ae f j a
.kjCG UGdG ee a dah S ae d feEG

H (16km) 10 mi e cCG dEG j ie a jdG UGdG GHQW eCG

edG NOEG jh .QfdG SGH hCG kS eEG LJ jh ,b WEG
.JdG SGH bWEG H GHQdG dEG dH UdG

ke j aQ S N dEG SJh HQdG WEG H edG sJo

j g ah ,a hCG S QfS GSH ag HQdG j .UGdH
dG SG jh jj ag HQdG CNCG GPEa dG j ag e
k a k GQfS kee
.H kUN

qdG dG bdG e
NOEGh L H U dG ,(Magnetostrictive Transducer) R dG G g j
dPh dG e e Ye eU e M e ,AdG J QfdG GQTEG
e e OqLH M OGOa e J KCJ j U c C
.GQdG a (Piezoelectric) VhdG OLEG KCH KCdG Gg Qjh .b

Se e FHc f J (Coils) H e dG M J
Ib edG be Y JdG ehdG a dSG J .QfdG
CJ FY .AdG e SJ Y j (Diaphragm) M Y KDJ fe
a OqLdG QdG OOJ e Sj OOH H dG AdG a J U L e
.dG

,Y kV ke dG dEG idG Oj fdG dG N eh

.dG dG a da kKMh ,edG GWCG keh

735
,TT Y VJ d jja GQTEG dEG jJh ddG J mFH j
.dG Ieh ahQd JU GOOJ dEGh

VhdG bdG e
KCdG Y (Piezoelectric Transducers) VhdG bdG e j
FjdG gOHCG qJ dG adGh GQdG H J dG VhdG
UUdG cQdG fJ J .JShdEGG e V VJ eY
bW e GQfS d jQdG f J Nh ,(Lead-Zirconite-Titanate)
b hCG UGbCG H bdG e j .SCG fbh YCG GHS
e a k GOJ dG J .jQfdG SdG e FHdG ed VJ
.bdG e f OOJ g OOH H dG AdG Y kV j dG bdG
idG jh .(Sound Beam) JdG dG T bdG e T Oj
.da fEG Y jh T k Ge bdG e Y kV dG H JdG
e dG Yh .JUh jja GQTEG dEG Jh mFH ddG g q Jo
cCG IAc VhdG bdG e aJ ,dG dG bW e
bdG e CG GY ,KdG ddG OOJ H JU bW fEGh bdG f a
.a j hCG dG Ad Vqjo CG j adG VhdG

JdG GOOdG a GRGgG VhdG bdG e H pjo

IdG LCG H J dG JdG dG jhM a (JU dG)
bdG e Y eCG e .J dH CJ eY dG U
.SAW dG JdG LdG RLh QdG ahdG VhdG

dG dG GQfS
VJ QfS f g (Variable-Depth Sonar-Vds) dG dG QfS EG
T jhM a d IfdG fhdEGh bdG jH UdG a e
TCG jW M SGH ASW UGd IOe HM S N Joh HQdH
CG Qfd j H ,IWdG dG b e GfEG Y Oj .dG dH

736
e jhdG SfG d dG J SG a q j Y dEG j
(Interferences) NGdG d dPh ,IWdG dG Y k GHh ,dG S
QfdG Y jJ eEHh .SaQh dG e AVV e JBG JdG
e GPEG fCG QfdG Gd adG SdG e .kjCG jcedG W J d
d G j U G Z H Q W b e I Q d G d d G (VD S ) a e a S G
dG Vj eJ Ea (Submarine Launched Acoustic-Homing Torpedo)
.d IWdG

IdG LdG GQfS

b QfS g (Continuous-Wave (CW) Sonars) IdG LdG QfS EG
HCG a edG c IU Y UGZ L d Q e i dG
CW QfdG aj .LdjdG aSGh jdG QKBG Yh ,LddG
jDhdG hX a dG QfdG QU e kMVh cCG od jDhQ UGdG bd
a J a (Submersibles) UdG Y UG dG k jCG CW YJo .dG
jJh ,OdGh dG dc dG J FGdG a eBG MdG
.J hCG UGdG PDJ CG j dG QdG

fdG jDhdG GQfS

VDS dG dG Qfd He Qe f g GQfdG e dG Gg
g SJ .Ie IQHh dG Qe fL Y dG b j dG
LCG M GTDe jh dG S W j e Y MdG
H Q d G d H d G Q f d G g 8 -23 d G a j . gC G GP b Q d G
.dG dH T H S N Qe gh

QfdG j dG QdG Y Fb jhGH dG V bdG e n Jo

J hCG (Monitor) be Y bdG de GQTEG VJ K .d IWdG dGh
(Side-Looking Sonars - SLS) fdG jDhdG GQfS QW d .fH Qh Y
Y dG Y a gGhL KCGh ,dG b FGN SQh MdG Y

737
 fHh ,b c
bW e
JU
c T

SLS fdG jDhdG QfS :8 - 23 T

aJ dP dEG aVEH .RdG Sh bQdG UGdG fG a dch dG

e SGh Yd aGZHdG FGdG SQ a Ie fH eSdG AGUCG
.dG b

SdG QfdG
j QfS f g (Dipping Sonar) dG QfS hCG SdG QfdG EG
.ASW Hg NGO dG ALh ,Seh ,qJ RLh ,VY TT OLh
dJo .fhdEGhc aQ c H j HfG jhM NGO bdG e j PEG
b JQG Y ee Hg IFW J dG dEG bdG e (fh) aGQ
.dG AfG Y e dEG aJh ,dGh dG Y N b YHh
c .HdG N kfe j d fYH HfG bdG e g Ohj
YSG J e bdG d e YCG dEG jhdG J eEH fCG
IOY bdG e jo .bH bQdG UGdG be jJ K eh idG Ld
ae SGH ke OM dG UGd dG bdG a jW ad
.ASW GFW e WSEG j dG (Sonobuoy) JdG adG
738
Sd ahQg Y j m W W g (Sonobuoy) JdG adG EG
ejo .(ASW) IFW dEG GUCG g SQE Seh ,UGdG AVV dEG
UGdG CG j dG dG ujo Hh IOY Ic OGYCH JdG adG
e cCG jSh bO IQH SdG QfdG jJ jh .a Ie
j M ag Y SdG QfdG j EG e .dG S Y GQfdG
ME (ASW) S JCJ K ,J hCG J CG IOQodG UGdG Y dG e
.e edGh QdG

FdG J UGdG
JU Jg Se dG a g (Underwater Communicator) RdG Gg EG
N Ie IQTEG hCG U SQE (Acoustic Megaphone Transmitter - AMT)
hCG LJ AYE e RdGh .bQZ UGZ hCG SZ dEG S e AdG
dEG RdG Y j .AdG J jdG UTCG hCG Sd GjJ
hCG (Code Generators) Ie Gde SGH qJo VhdEG bW bGf
.H U

JdG (GQffGJ) dG
J U f H g (Acoustic Transponders ) d G G Q f f G d G g E G
AYh a IOY fhdEG JGQGO RJh ,Iqeo HGqSG FSQ dSG id J
.dG S J GbCG e Y Y AdG V jh ,AdG Nj V
bW bf SGH qj eY Iqeo jJ GQTEG SGH RdG j
b Y b e W J a e ,RF b W b d K e G g b d G b f h . J U
cCG hCG mSGe K (Anchored) SJo dG dG a .e dH hCG dG
dEG IOdG e HEG hCG PfEG S J d QdG dG M UN H
,bQdG d bdG bdG J a Ie g bdG bfh .JQOe H bdG
IQdG aJ .jdG QKBG bGe dch ,dG S J RdGh dG Mh
a HGqSG Id HSG N e GQffGdG d FH dG
. j W G d (Stand By ) W M G j R d G d H A d G f e E H h

739
 FdG J QdG f
a dG (Underwater Laser System) Fe dG QdG dG f j
Motor-Driven) GQ J H QGhO jG eh ZQCG - Q j Y ,9-23 dG
ceo (Light-to-Digital Convertor Circuitry) bQ e - AV IQGOh ,(Mirrores
dG jh .dG N gb j HQW H dG e jhM a
jhdG dEG dG QdG AV Ojh ,bGe bGH dG b H QdG
CRT TT Y VY j (Raster Scan) dG N f GQTEG dEG d
jh ,QdG Sd b ee dG Gg ajo .HK QU dEG J hCG
CG jh ,dG SG a dch ,QKBG fGh PfEG Y a
.fdG jDhdG QfS QU e kMVh cCG dG Y Ie LC k GQU aj
ZQCG Qd QJe

QdH IAVEG fdG LSG

Se Qd AV

e f
Qd

Fe dG QdG f :9 - 23 T

jdG dG jDhdG f
LCG Ige Y (Military Night-Vision Systems) fCG g YJ
VJh dG be J dG IAVEG GSG dEG LdG hO k d XdGh
(Image-Intensifier) IQdG H j e Y fCG g J .qd
ueo eU Jh .(Image Convertor Tubes) IQdG jJ eUh
Night Vision Light Multiplier) dG jDhd AdG Ye eH IQdG

740
dc W FV QOe GSH k d e jDhdG J Sh gh .(Tubes
eU J dP e dG Yh .dG SfG e M hCG qdGh
hCG ,FdG Z IR AGdG J TCG SGH dG IAVEG dEG ,IQdG jJ
k d Fe ge dEG IR e IAVEG J fCG a ,QdG e
.

Y (Passive Night-Vission) dG dG jDhdG fCG J iNCG Mf e

bGd hCG dG JjQhO a Od UdG gCG GP IQdG e eU
ddG dG jDhdG fCG J .e We a JGFH j jdG GFdG
b ag IgH d j e IR `H IAVEGh IQdG jJ U Y
.eGO X a gh ,fSG

Fe e dEG AGdG J TCH AdG dG jJ dG eEH

Y IOY fCG g cqJo .SGh jd Se LQO dEG WSh
q dG e gZh HHdG ah ,cdG HdG Yh jQGd aPb GFW
.jdG

CG j jdG dG N IR `dH IAVEG dEG J jDhQ ee jCG EG

jDhdG XGd dG hdG b e c d dPh UMh QH nJo
N kf ddG dG jDhdG fCG J dc .(Night-Vision Scope) dG
.dGh ANEG dEG LdG dG SGT J M LdG dG

dG jOMCG dG jDhdG XGf

Y J , dG jOMCGh S (Night-Vision Scopes) d jDhQ XGf g
dG a dG ,XGdG g e QdG dG j .IQdG J U
j h M a d G j h , (10-23 d G ) I Q d e U Y ,10 -23
d (Ocular) Y SYh IQdG d (Objective) T SY Y J
Ye IQGOh ,dY da Qe jhdG e SCG A dG jh .IQ dG
Y eH RdG Rh jj h .jQHh ,(Voltage Multiplier Circuit) dd
.I M Gh H M j Yh 454g

741
 jdG dCH IQU Y SY
eh cY

IQGOh jQH
dY da
T SY

d G j D h d G Q X f :10- 23 d G

e dG AdG j eY k d dG OMCG dG jDhdG QXf j

AdG J eEHh ,k GL k b ,dG SfGh ,dGh ,dG e QOe
,jQhdGh ,dG SG a kf RdG Gg j .Ie 30,000 dG
e gZh ,TTdG aGdGh ,UdG OH Y cJ kYGfCG dg CH kY
Jh ,(Nightscope) dG QXdH kjCG QXdG Gg j .dG SCG
QXdGh (Sniperscope) UdG QX fh ,(Night-Vision Telescope) dG jDhdG
eU{ fG) .(Starlight Scope) qdG AV QXfh ,(Snooperscope) dG
jdG fhdEG f e{ S dG ,12 dG a zIQ dG J
.(zJGh

dG FK dG jDhdG XGf
XGf e hR gh (Night-Vision Goggles) dG jDhdG GQf kjCG J
Je ,IQdG eh jQhdG jdG e dG dG jOMCG dG jDhdG
e jDhdG QXf e c Kj .aCG H jDhQ Y dG e J jH
dH GTG e dh , dG O MCG dG jDh dG Q X f eh , NBG

742
d e a dG IPN Y dG dG jDhdG GQf eCG .FHdG
k d cdG IOb hCG ,(kUN HdG) IFdG IOb e
a S ,kfeCG cCG
d IM GQdG FS hCG jQdG jCG J a ,qdG TG We
.iNCG H

FdG TCG e AGHG TCG GfCG d SM dG jDhdG fCG H EG

Output) JdG HSG J dh .(900 nm) IR e jdG Mh nm 350
Z d gQNG j GFdG a Fe dG jDhdG GQd (Response
jdG (nm 600) FdG MCG e Ad Jh ,NCGh QRCd SM
.(900 nm) IR e

(Airborne Night-Vision) hCG (ANVIS) j qdG dG jDhdG GQf J

fe{ .12 dG a zIQd dG edG{ fG) .(Imaging System)
.(zJGh jdG fhdEG

ddG aGdG bdG J f

Passive) dG dG jh ,JGdG Y j jOGQ Me f g
kSb bH qdG hCG ,dG hCG ,VQCG Y e be jd (Triangulation
Navstar Global) kSQ dG j .MdG iNCG jjOGdG MdG fCG Y
.(Navstar) JGS e ej fC (Positioning Systems

.edGh YdGh ,OHCG KK bdG bdG dG dG e j

edG Jh ,fdGh dG G S d GPS fCG b dh
j h , V Q C G c d G h , d G h , G F d G a G PS e j d G
.jjCH jhdG dG OdG e IdG

(Global Positioning System - GPS) ddG aGdG bdG J f QW d

bO cCG jH jdG GFdGh dG jhd ceCG adG IQGRh b e
Inertial) ddG LdG f e ,VQCG S Y e CG a ,bdG jd
d bdG SG j J e dG c ,d c .(Guidance System
743
VQCG OSEG ILCGh JGdG GJ h .dG A KCG j dG B dGh
.ceCG adG IQGRh b e FGOCG jS Y ae

Precise Positioning)bdG bdG eN :GQTEG e U JGdG SJo

Standard) SdG bdG eNh ,VdG dG GSd (Service-PPS
CG a ,T C kfe Me IQTEG gh GPS-C hCG (Positioning Service SPC
.jQJ (SG RL) e jd ,e

GQTE dG Gg dh (15 m) 50 ft dGM PPS a aCG bdG bO J

NO g a GPS GQTEG SJ .(90 m) 300 ft dGM j ddG Z GPS-C
EG .(CDMA) hCG (Access Format Code Division Multiple) qeo QfG d Oe
GPS-C IQTEG e Ge 10 QGH VYCG IQHh dG a J PPS IQTEG CG
.(Jamming) jdG Y Y d (2 MHz He 20 MHz)

J S d . M G J G S 3 H h Q a f J S 2 4 Y GPS f j
L h ,55 j h G H F e j Q G e j e 6 a J G S H Q C G h 12-h a Q h j Q G e
.11-23 T a Ve GPS f fe EG .(15, 250 km) 10900 mi JQG Y

G PS F G S
(Qaf)

SQEG fH
dRfh IYU
FGg GQTEG
YU SQEG Me

e
IS bGe e
FQ
dG X Y e

GPS aGdG bdG jJ f Y e :11 -23 dG

744
. b 65000 e c e g h (910 kg ) W d G M Q a f J G S e J S c j
e 710 W JdG fL Y (Solar-Array Panels) dG adG GdCG dJh
YS HQCH JS c jh .JdG e Y SdG d FHdG IQdG
e KGh jdG e Y dG g e KG : dG H J jQP
.e d fdG J YdG g iMEG J GPEa .jHhdG

jOOJ Yh Iqe GQTEH dG jh .bdG a jZ bGH JGdG J

A N C Gh J G d G b G e Y j J f H GQ TE G g J h 1.228 MHz h 1.575
e QdG e MGh c a (30 cm) k GMGh keb jjOGdG LdG Jh .bdG
a kC N j f d G e Q d H M G h Q G e b d G a kC N C G j G g h . f d G
be jJ bO Y dh .k GMGh keb QGe GPS e be jJ
Y eGj CG j ddG ie Y jdG VGZCd (15 m) 50 ft OhH
. f d G e A L Q e 13 e A L d E G C d G M G d J d G Y S

J h . Y a e N h M CS F Q V Q C G b G e e J G d G J
dEG fdG g SQEGh ,QGe a JS c be H kjCG dG g
eJ IOYEGh ANCG d dPh (Uplink) HQ e K e JdG
.JYS

dSG j dGh ,JGdG e bdG d kS odG dG j

CG) cd bdGh dG bdG jH d ,VQCG Y e CG a
IQTEG Uh bh J dG Gg odG J eYh .(dG cM
fKhdH bdG jg H dG Sj K .JdG e dSQEG bH fQJh
YH SdG IQTEG cM eR H mFH hdG ddG d ,(s)
QJ K .JS hCG Ho Y d dPh (300.000 km/s hCG 186.000 mi/s) AdG
N V bGdG JGdG H bGe d cCG hCG Ge HQCG g dG jW
.dG GSH aCG a jDhQ

Vh Y bdG a jOGdG aCG a J bCG a JGS fK dg

Oe Yd M AGLEH mFH hdG ddG j .e c ie

745
 Sb bO N e bdG bO OJ .bdG dG be jd eGe Hh
eH j .dG dEG JGdG e (Transit-Time) GQTEG fG eR
k GOYG JgJGh VQCG Y bGdG H AGeCG d kjCG hdG ddG
.(Location Information) bdG ee Y

,dG KGMEG e ,Iee KGMEG H (Positions) bGdG VY j

dh ,ddG dG be OS ie Sb K EGh .JQGh VdGh
CN CG Y jd HGQ JS e ee dEG jdG bGdG a LM dg
JQGc IQH HHH Ie jQJ e kdM aJh .dG bJ a
GS K c a IMGh fK J hCG J dG (Quartz-Crystal Oscilators)
S e Ib 12 Y ddG dG b dG Jh .kjJ
IOqLdG jQdG YdGh .Y bdG a eGe IQH k J S 12 e GQ TE G
IOqLdG JQGdG IQH HHe e k GQGSG cCG Ie 10,000 g JS c Y
. S 300,000 d I M Gh f K gQ G e b O a J d Gh , d G a

GFdGh QGdG dd Sh ,fdG eGSG e jdG LC

cCG bO dEG LdG dh .Se J (90 m) 300 ft V Sb bO Ea IdG
dH dch .V Gb a dG Y J dG jQdG d jQhV
dG LdG dEG aVEH ,dBG dG FSh J dG jQdG GFd
.dG V cd

jJ qJ bO cCG M e K Y d (GPS-C) GQTEG dh

Differential Global) VdG dhdG aGdG bdG jJ f : e f
Wide Area) SG dG M dG e J fh (DGPS ) (Positioning System
AL e fG DGPS M edG e jd) .(WAAS) (Augmentation System
. ( z j d G f h d E G L d J { ,24 d G a d M

SGdG MdG eJ f
dG (Accuracy of Location Fixes) dG K bO d NBG f g

746
dG bdG a GPS-C GQTEG J .jQdG GFd GPS-C e kFe
JS SGH IFdG dEG dSQEG j VQCG e a Ide jJ IQTEG SGH
O e dG G g j CG b jh .(Geosynchronous Satellite) VQCG eG J
dh .ceCG IdG jdG a J dG jQdG GFdH GSG
F Shh j OGQ H 1000 e c C G J d G d d G d G H J h I Q GOE G Y
I d G a b Ge b e ,i d G j W Q GOGQ 100 e c C Gh ,j j OGQ I Y e
c hCG edG g e kb CH kY .QGdG PJGh SGQdG b J jqdG
.(Wide Area Augmentation System) SGdG MdG eJ f V J b

e b G e f Q e V d O d G Y a L e e FA A C f C G d
S Q E G h b G d G j J a A N C G d d P h G PS b e H d G b G d G
QGdG a JS dEG FdG YGPEGh d jce e dEG fdG g
fH YGPEH mFH JdG Gg j .(Geosynchronous Orbit) eGJdG
GFdG b e JGQTEG SG Yh .IdG jdG Y dEG ANCG J
b e d O C G e e F Y E , e Y GPS ` d G I L C G d J
.KdG OHCG a IFdG

GPS-C e be ge bH OJ CG gQhH S WAAS CG j

,IdG jdG AGqLCG e e CG a (6 m) 20 ft e bG dEG IFdG a
gh ,dG a Qb hCG YCG jCH mGK 6 RhJ Ia a jQdG QS dHh
.dG hCG dG dhe AdE ac Ia

GQTEG MS JGdG CG GY PPGS Xh f kFe WAAS f ODS

dG e aCG AGqLCG a gh IFd SGh J Y d dG
LdJ{ ,24 dG a DPGS Y WG) .(DPGS) VQCG IYb a jOGdG
.(Marine Electronic Technology zjdG fhdEG

jQdG idG J ILCG

Qd f g (Laser Range Finders - LRF) QdG idG J RL EG

747
fCG EG jhdG LdG QGOGd Ke RL gh .GgCG ie jd Y
jGOdG Qdc keJ adG idG eo Ojh ,FV Le Y j
ueo j .dG QdG bW qLQ Ia M N e (Laser Geodimeter)
fdG ejOdG j dG Yh .IR e V kf dG idG
idG e jh FdG MCG e V (CW) IdG LdG SCH
e AL IOYh dG dEG (Coherent Pulse) HGe IR f JQG eR QdG
Te J Fe Z SQEG EG Mh .(Detector) dG dEG bW
.j RdG CG d UN

V j eh QdGh ,dGh ,NdH jQdG idG eo J

QdG idG qeo J Oj .14 m dEG 8 hCG 5 mh 3 H Le f
:JBG eGdG OYH jdG eGSd
.( a C G g c C G) d G F N -1
.LdG dG (Output) e Le W -2
.jqdG hdG -3
. d G d G -4
. d G V J d G R d Gh d G GO e -5

bdG GP jdG fCGh kfGe ddG ddG idG e J

H QdG Gg IhQP hGJh (ND:YAG) hCG (Neodymium: YAG) jOdG Qd
QJ e jh ,IMGdG d (MW) WGhe IY h WGdG e IY
,I Q b e h ,j Q H ,Q d G d E G a VE H , d G j b 100 pps d E G d G
Pockets) L N GSh (Range Counter) ie OGYh ,ie eh ,Seh
.(Flash-Lamp Trigger Module) eh e G e f eh ,(Cell Driver
iQJ F V O jGO hCG S PIN e eEG fCG g Jh
IhQd dG bW e b dEG QdG dG j .(Avalanche Photodiode)
.jqdG hdG e J dG idG

748
 QdG LdG
H Ie ,IFW LCG Ld (Semipassive) S f J g
QdG LdG e dG Gg EG .QdH dG IAVE J (Sensors)
HdGh jQGdH GgCG eJh bdG jdH j (Laser Guidance)
.cdG

Laser Target) Qd g e Y dG QdG LdG f j

IR `dG T V j CG hQdG Yh .dG dP YH Aj (Designator
jh .dG dEG j M dG QdG bW SG e V j d
QdG LdG fCG J .Qd LJ d kJ ke 12-23 dG
d Fe Z YT C d (IR-Emitting Lasers) e IR GQd jdG
SdG SCG J .hd QdG Qe j dHh IOdG jdG
fhdEG GSH dG dP dEG UdG e IR bH AdG dG ed
GPh WfCG e IFGO H GW IS eeh ,QdG bd SM
jJ GQGO zJ{ ,ea .(Closed-Loop Feedback Flight Control) LGQ jJ
ee J GQTEG dJ AdG dG Y hQdG a IR Y MdG
,dG bdG he V FHE fYRh hQdG LCG Y IdG
.eJ dG dG g hdG dP b a

hQdG CG c .f LdG IFdG Y QdG dG eo jo b

j) .e iNCG IFW a fj CG j cdG dG hCG QdG Y MdG
.(VQCG Y c GPEG k GKCJ cCG ddG dG H a QdG e

gCG GP jdG g IR `H LdG jQGd TdG GgCG cCG EG

dJ e hCG ,SCG feh ,IOdG Gqc JGSEG hCG dG
a FdG M d bH de qJ bGe a IOqLdG FHdG bdG
.fdH HUEG ddHh fdG RdGh BdG

749
 TCH IAVEG RL g
AGdG J
jJ RL
dG

jH IMh IR e

Qd e GQTEG de
VY TT

a Qd LJ f :12 -23 dG

L Y NhQdG MdG GQGOh k GqL dG QdG e c cqjo

SG e j d (kFGO qe Vh a ILCG g AHE IGOCG) (Gimbles)
jQdG LdG fCG d .eGe jOY gJG K a Jh dG
jdG jh .IOe (Illuminators) IAVEG ILCH GgCG e OY J Y IQdG
d .e GH f hCG GOOJ e GQd SGH GgCG H
fC ,MdG hQdG NGO fS Detectors Te LdG IR fCG
.dG IAVE IH dG YAG (1.06 m) :jOf Qd Kf SM

. CO2 GQd (Illuminators) c LdG jW Te dGE LM dgh

hQU QdG dH Ld kN dG jQGdG Y eCG e

cP Hb dEG jdG HdG jJ jh .(Hellfire) jg (VQCG - qL)
jQd LJ e Y j ee Y ce H L GPEG zSmart{
.fGW IS fYRh

IR IMh hCG) FLIR IMh ceCG dG a ddG IR Te fCG eh

e jQd Se IMdG g Jh .(IR Forward-Looking eCG dEG d
.(Image Converter Tube) IQdG e U Y SDe

750
 N e dG JGh ie jJh ,Jh ,c e (FLIR) J
H J e e ae Y kjCG (FLIR) J .TCG J
mFY .gMCG Y J eY jja GQTEG dJ K IFW LCG Y MH dG
q
TT dEG Ie ee SQEGh GQTEG g H GQTEG de j
F d H d dG f e dG IO e e dG dG Yh .V dG
.FGOCG b a d 30K LQO dEG Oqjo CG ,(Mercury-Doped Germanium- Ge: Hg)
.jja (TT) VQY Y e H LGdG GQTEG VY j k GNCGh

QdG ShjdG
dG dG a j c ,(Laser Gyroscope) QdG ShjdG EG
e J d I F GO a J e GQ d e e f e g 13 -23 d G
M ddG dG g OfCGh OKdG H adGh .e Qe M GQhdG
Qd YT j .jQd f GQP jJh (Voltage Discharge) ddG jJ aj
e Y dG jh .(Interference Frings) NGJ aM jd ce
JH j CG Y LdG W f e Qd T jo eY T dG
.dH T jqJ a ce

V M GQhO e Y Y dG H GOO dG a NG j
Y e OOH Qd c HJ j c .(Gyroscope Mount) ShjdG
,bCG Qe W GP gJG MCG a QdG T hjh .VGdG Qe W
H GOOdG a NG EG . WCG Q e GP i NCG g JG a h j a
NG Ggh .d dG QdG M dG GQhO e dGO g YdG
jh .(Rate Turn Signal) GQhO e IQTEc ,JAGbh J j OOdG a
LdG IQTEG e ee N e bdH UN ee Y dG
.(Rate Output Signal)

jQjdG HShjd (Configratioin) dG jdG Y Yf dg

:g

751
QdG YT dJ j eh ,(Active Ring) ddG dG HShjL -1
.(He: Ne) dGh dG RH e M hCG Iqa NGO

QN a GQdG Jh .(Passive Ring) dG dG HShjL -2

.jH dCG Ue e YdG dG NGO QdG YT Ljh ,dG

IQTEG de dEG
e jH hOe FV OjGO
dG eo eh

OfCG
bW e IBGe T
Vhc CCW
- He IBGe
LM
T
CW

GQhO
NdG
OfCG
jJ e
a f
e IBGe

Qd Shjd J T :13 -23 dG

(Drift Rates) GfG e e fJ QdG M HShjL CG J d

HShjdG e M dEG j gAGOCG CGh , Y dG a LQO 0.005 OhH
J fdG HShjdG CG .(Nav Grade) MdG dG GP fdG
e IQTEG dh (Angular Displacement) jshGR MGREG T Y (Output) kLe
Solid State) U dM OGe e jQd M ShjL k GNDe QW bh .GQhO
u
.(Gallium Arseinide) ddG fQR e jQd M J (Ring Laser Gyros

jQdG hCG ddG LdG f

,dGh ,GFd JGH Fb Me (Inertial Guidance Systems) f g

752
e ce (Acceleromenters) d e e Y SDe UGdGh
bdGh bO KGMEG NOEG MdG jGH a j .kHShjL fRGe e
Sb N e kJeJhCG bdG J NDj mFY .dG Jc dEG dG
JdG jh .Iee gJG KK a JGh (dG) QdG c
(Intergration) eJ IQhS cJ dG adG K e d a YdG H
a e g ch .(Reference Coordinates) LdG KGMEG Y aGfd
Q e e H S h j L K K I d G d G e J ,14 -23 d G
Iee Qhe OGeG Y QdG J e KKh e O Y
(Midcourse Corrections) jdG e jJ Ea e g Mh .ce
Me MH dG N e kJeJhCG gDhGLEG j bdG bd
.(Celestial Navigation Stars) eqf
L - T ShjL

GQhO L
Se) e (QdG Se) e
(QdG
ShjL IFdG H e QWEG
OY

e
Ie

/dG L
QGfG

(QdG Se) e
Z - T ShjL

ddG LdG f : 14 -23 T

753
754
 h dG h HG d G dG

jqdG fhdEG LdJ

jdG

(Loran C) C GQd eT If
aGdG bdG jJ f e
(Global Positioning System) d dG (Depth Sounders) YCG He
(GPS) Receivers
bd IO dG j jOG dG f dG SCG (be GOqe hCG) bGd
Emergency Position- Indicating) jQGVG(Fish Finders)
(Radio Beacons EPIRBs
jjOGdG JG (qe) GOe IdG GFdG GQGOGQ
(Radio Direction Finders RDFs) (Small Craft Radars)
fhdEG dG SGQ
(Electronic Chart Plotters)

eT If
Jd jQdG NGdG X Y eSG dG fhdEG hCG fc
jjOGQ eh Se Y IQY QGdG a IdG AYSGh jOYG

755
jdG M a IOY IdG YJoh .(Radio Transmitters and Receivers)
dG e Y ML hCG ,IN Ve M OLH hCG ,dGh ,OdGh
.qMe FSc jjOGdG JG qeo fhdEG g H AL K .jdG
dG QGOGdG dEG jQJ fCG VCG fdG ddG dG Hh ,dh
Z UdG AGLCG a dch bdG dG MdG a od GQd ILCGh
.dG a feCGh edG dH q a ,MdG

jQdG YCG He e jdG bh SCG U YU OSGh

dG IAc IOjd dPh ,zSCG b{ qdG QfdG RL e eh
k GOTSG ,keBG e LdGh dG e dEG UdG Lh ,L e Mh
.iNCG L e ,GQdGh QGOGdG e e eH

a gNCe edG GQGdGh dG ddG GQGO jJ Y NCG dh

Se QSCH d dPh jdG fhdEG g ch ,Mh ,Rh GNG
qeh .UdG dG dd dch jQdG dG a GSd Meh
J fc dG ,(Shipboard Electronics) dG X qfhdEG J Y
jhM dEG jJh ,dY FHc IQb Jh Ic keMh Me
jQdG jdG fhdEG YU a IQd ,de jhj GMh hCG IU
Iq odG jQj fG dG I LCG FGhCG e ch . dG i e Yh
,YCG GHS Jh ,VHFh UHF f (Transceivers) dG SdG
a ZdG Obh .jjOGdG JG GOeh ,jQd eh GQGOG dGh
N qe TT e IFGQ YGNG dEG FHdG IQdG SG GNG
C GQdh .fhdG dG SGhQh ,SCG bh ,jdG dG
aGdG bdG J ILCG e dEG aVEH ,jQdH QGodG hdG
. G PS d d G

fhdG dG SGhQ fCG jdG fhdEG e MCG eh

Y Jh GPS `dGh QGOGdG e e dG fdG pe Jo dG
k jCG d gh .(Cartridge)
q Sc H Neoh ,qe qM e e

756
jdG Y a MdG WdG ad dG g Vd Me CD-ROMs
e hCG ce bf Jh .de jjj GJc Y dSGh IdG
qTDe dEG fdG NOEH GPS d (Standardized Bus Connection) Sb
. CD-ROM Y Ide e Y INdG be Oqj qe

jJ fH IqodG fhdEG Y SDdG iNCG YdG eh

SdG ie AGQh a GSd dG (EPIRBs) FQGdG jjOGdG bdG
. V HF d G

M JGQGe a YdG QbCG dEG KSG GAGf SQEG EPIRBs eEH

PfEG e bCG dEG LJh dG dG be QbCG J Oa VQCG
.jH hCG jL

S d G ,18 d G a b f a j O G d G ( S Q E G ) d G h S G e C G
G PS ` d G h Q f d G h , Q G O G d G O e b f h . z j j O G d G d G h S d G {
GdH UdGh jdG fhdEG fC H S dG ,23 dG a
.zAdGh

YCG He
feEH jdG VGZCd fhdEG RL (Depth Sounder) dG Qe EG
qe a AdG q d IaGQ gh) dG (Keel) DLDL J AdG Y jJ
bdG deo e J d JdG bd dG edG Sb N e (dG
1-24 dG jh .iNCG Ie ddG dEG Od dG e qJJh (Transducer)
q q q
.QdG Y Oe

e gZh SCG OLh CG EG ,adG Sb SSCG QdG Xh EG

QfdGh dG He Xh SnDJoh .dG IAGb Y KDj AdG J LCG
SSCG fqdG eh .kjG g Jfqe HJ Gd ,OdG f Y IOY
bdG d qeh (Display/Control Head) VQdG dG SCGQ YCG Q d
e - Se e bQ TT Y VQdG dG SCGQ j .(Transducer)
757
Coaxial) QdG e c SGH ddH jhdG UJh jhdG f a
eG dG e U U b H a FG c dq dG a ,(Cable
Ja ie a dqdG OOqJ .ITe Ad VdG (Piezoelectric) VhdG
JH qV eM H kqSCGQ ddG bdG Jh .200 kHz OhH (JU a)
VQdG /dG SCGQ a OGY (Output Pulse) LdG dG jh .dG
dJh .dRdG dG Y bJ V jhU GQTEG d dG a
.(Digital Readout) bQ IAGH fjhd LGdG GQTEG

e Se
J QGQRCG TT e

bW de
Se f VhdG

IJe GQTEG dG b

Y C G Q e Y 1-24 T

hCG QeCG hCG ,GbCH d IAGb dEG fhdEG GQGdG SGH LJ j

GOOdG e cCG Y H d dG GOO dG A dG q jh .(Fathoms) edG
Y jj dG dG a Ya cCG 50 kHz `H bW dqe fc ,dd .dG
.aCG (Resolution) fSG Iqb aqJ 200 kHz dh ,(120 m) b 400 Y

dG H e GPEG bO Y IAGb aJ CG dG JdG edG eEH

e I Q T E G f R d G b d G E G . d G e (10 ) L Q O Y V d G
a dG YH (GbCH) AdG Y V UM g dG b dEG ddG
M Q d G J (30 m ) 100 ft Y Y h . (1460 m/s h C G 4800 ft/s d G M ) A d G

758
dG b S CG hdG eh .fdG e 1/25 a dEGh dqdG e ec
GQTEG e dG qj ,dd .Yf Y j CG e fN cCG GdGh
.dqdG dEG a e dG Ljh IJdG

hCG dG QHEG N S ,IdG MdG FSh e YCG Qe j

be dG Y GPEa .VGh dG M ddG J eY dG AKCG
e H Ke KGMEG Y dG feEH j ,dG dMh jdG dG
(Nautical Charts) MdG FGdG Y dG dG e dG GAGb fQe N
Jh dG Sb H VGZCG IOe dG GHS H jh .dG d
d IQU VY qjh dG NCJ dG dG SQ dch SCG VGe
Y ReQ H dEG aVEH LCD TT Y J fHh ee e dG
fdG Y Vjoh ,dG J dG GSCG Qhe qJ TdG e fL
,dG be qj GPS Seo e e fEG bQ e keGJ NBG
q
dEG Ud RdG edGh jdG Y dG JGh ie dEG a VE H
Depth) dG GO qe kjCG dG He Joh .d gGdG Y d H
q
.(Fathometer) edG OGqY hCG (Finders

SCG (be GOqe hCG) bGd

XH YCG Qe jOQ Y (Fishfinders) ILCG e dG Gg j
e VY / q J IMh RdG jh .SCG ee bGe H dG
IMGh jhM a kf cqe e Seh ,(Graphic Display) fH VY TT
hCG LCD TT Y VdG jh .QdG e c SGH dqdG e Jeh
k GReQ aj c ,dG J dG d kJ AS aj dG CRT be
Wh dG Jf dEG aVEH SCd e ee OJ TdG Y
.VrndG a d he de Y jdG SCG b jh .cGJ
e dG d OHCG KK QU aJ SCG bGd e iNCG GfCG eEHh
.AGLCG IY dEG bdG dqe eM FJ N

PdG H a (Steerable) Ld Hbh Se bW qe J j

759
fCG a dGh eCG dEG hCG fGdG dEG J hCG kdbT dG jJ d
LQO Sd (Sensors) q e IQdG SCG bGd dh .M QfS
YS Y IAGH bdG OhqJ ILCG H e dG WJQG CG c ,AdG IQGM
d HH ddGh jQdG SCG b Ohq Jh . b eh dG
.dG hCG SQGdG VGZC e Qh Y VhdG

IdG GFdG GQGOGQ

IdG QGdGh d QGOGQ fCG AGT ,e Hh ,k M e UCG
GQGOGdc IOe JeN kLhCG aJ ,(Small Craft Radars) dG GFdh
dP J bh .IdG GFdGh jQdG dG X Y IOLdG IdG
GQGOh dG d qe SGQ e dG jOMCG LCD VY TT jH
i e g h , (32 km ) 20 mi d G M G Q G O G d G d d G i d G j h . d G d d G
bCG dEG FHdG IQdG SG NG dh .cdG H jdG d Se
i d G GP I d G c d G GQ GOGQ d h .R d G d E G a VE H 30 W e
j dh dG d qe SGQ e dG jOMCG CRT TT WCG
H J jdG dG hCG bdG aJ VQdG g CG eh .cCG FHc IQb
a de bdG e LQH Me ee aJ GJ a ,cCG PPI CRT VQY
.IdG QGdG

Y 240 * 320 Pixel GQe H LCD TH IdG GQGOGdG VJ

J Md e c H jhM a qceo (cm 18) 7 in M VIS TT
fhdEG JG Nh e OGeEG GqTDe Jh ,fL dEG YVe
e Me Me fd kbQ kVY iNCG Pf aqJ .(Bearing Lines)
kYT cCG JQG dh .dG X Y IOLe iNCG ILCG e c SGH
.ddG dG dEG QHEd MdG edH QGOGdG Ohqj dG GPS `dH g
QU VH j d QGOGdG H Y kjCG e Qb bEG eEHh
g a (Radomes) QGOGdG FGg d FGdG qdG QbCG Jh .QR H
q
4.5 kg) 12 lb dEG 10 lb Y fRh jj h (46 cm dEG 30 cm) 18 in dEG 12 in fCG
: j e Y Q GOGd G d d G UG d G J (5.4 kg d E G

760
 .36 mi (26 km - 52 km ) d E G 16 mi e i e b C G
.4 kW dEG 2 W qeo N
.30 d E G 25 O d G d G V Y
.7 d E G 4 a C G d G V Y
.3 A d E G 2 A I Q d G S G
.1 J G b O
.20 m d G M h C G 1.5 d E G 1 e i d G b O

Ad jdG fhdEG fCG{ ,23 dG a QGOGdG fCG kjCG fG

.zGdGh

fhdEG dG SGQ
TT Y Vj CG (Electronic Chart Plotters) SGdG e dG Gg eEH
V Jo . HCGh O SC H (Nautical Chart) jH WQN dG IAe LCD
Y cJ j dG c H jhM a ,(15 cm) 6 in dWh VIS TdG
J ,I cGP S c NOEG eE Hh . dG h c (Bracket) e
Ohqd jhdG a UN IMh a ,ddG M e MS Wd e
dG N M ee FGdG aqJ .dG dG M e H
SQEG Y IQdG aqJ c ,MGdG Sh , YCG Lh ,V dGh
j CH od J (Omnidirectional Trackpad) L IY a GQTEG
QdG Sd hCG ,aVEG ee Y d TdG e L jCG dEG k GTDe
.dG dEG zdG{

K WQdG S Y (Cursor) de LJh jH GQdG J j

KGMEG gOqj dG bGdG gh) (Waypoints) c NOE MGh e d
(Waypoints) QNG OH h .QJ M (dG VM a VdGh dG
d kah bdG jJ QGSG Y adG e QdG N UJ K
.TdG Y eeCG kJeJhCG ke
q OCG QdG S dG

761
 d U e G PS S e G S H b d G j J e E H H f C G h d G e
I A G b J d G e E H h . G Q d e h C G L Q N G PS e h C G d G H
dBG dG dEG LdH IQTEG SQEG hCG f T dG Y dG Y
.dH d (Autopilot)

f CG H JGh idG M a ReQ hCG GMCG NOEG eEHh

dGh (Zoom-in) jdG dBG Jh .JeJhCG IQH , gQ NG j
.jb If NC TdG ce a e CG J Ib a dH (Zoom-out)

jQdH j T Jc Rd CD-ROM Y MdG qeH J

d Lf VJo CG j dc .ce Me VY Tc j CG
e bdG fH NOEG jh .dG JdG TT Y SQ jY
H JdG Uh jW Y (Loran) GQd hCG Fe LQN GPS e
Users) jdG dG b M QGSH qeo be WQN Y d
o
.(Vessel

e jH fOhqj fhdG MdG dG e dG Gg Ea ,Ggh

EGh .QdG dMh fBG jdGh ,ddG bdG dEG aVEH ,jdG Md
,ddG dG dEG JGh idG a hCG ,(Cross-Track Error) QdG a CdG
Ea ,dP Y k a .hCH
k hCG TdG Y Vjo ,dEG jdG UdG eh
feEG e ,dG a e CG Jh J Y YJ edG edG
WQdG e AGLCG j CG dG eEH ,dP dEG .dG Sb f J
Nautical) jdG MdG N SQ hCG ,(Floatplan) dhCG WQN J dEG aVEH
.bh SCHh k ec (Travel Hinerary

C GQd
Y j GFdGh d fhdEG Me (Loran C) C GQd RL EG
Long-Range) zjdG idG Me{ e SG
q o TG bh , j jOG dG GQ TEG
K Y d a e gG S SG f g GQdh .(Navigation

762
gOJ dG VdGh dG KGMGE e (Accurate Navigational Fix) bO Me
. C GQdH k GNDe oSG K zSdG GQdH{ dhqCG A GQd qoS bh .dG

K Gh F Q e S S Yh 100 kHz OOJ Y C GQ d Se J

dEG ae FdG dG Jh ,(Slave Stations) eON Ya e HQCG dEG
g a k hCG JGQTEG SQEH FdG dG J .YdG dG e c
dG dEG Y bdG a J a dH IdG dG a kLQN
J fEa YdG J e a F dG GQ TEG J e Yh . Y dG
e ee SQEH e c a ,H UdG JGQTEG SQE (Triggered)
IQ TEG QG J G a N e dG q Jo .OO dG f Y GQ TEG
YS SGH JGOOJh GQd Se SQEG GQTEG Jh .d HdG YdG
dG YJ .dSQEG bdG a bdG ejO d (Atomic Clock) jQP
a HK N jd IOe aH H Y eOdG YdGh FdG
eR NG dP Y j .dG g e c e GQTEG SQEG H bdG
Sb j ,dG e hR c e GQTEG Uh a (Time Difference TD)
H adG e kjOW edG NG Gg Sjh .GQd e SG H
.SdGh dG

bh H J K GQd e b e k hCG FdG dG GQTEG Jo

AH Q qj) edG NG Gg jh .a dG dG GQ TEG Uh
CG Hh .dG jOqDJ dG HdG e jd SSCG g (fdG e dH
ae b H J dG e hR c H edG NG HK SQ
MdG e Y IOdG dG GhRCG e ae b SQ qj ,(Parabola)
.SdG

hR H edG N dG dG Y adG dG be jJ e
Line of Position) be N jJ e dG j ,ahdG GQd e e
e jdG LOP hCG ,fdG IdG a edG d adG b WJ qj .( LOP
Ie dG bO e aVEG LOP OGYCG jJh ,kbO kMe kK S hCG LOP

763
186,000 mi/s jjOGdG GQTEd HdG YdG Y GQd bO Jh .iNCG H
GQd e SGH ae dEG bH RF fG eR jJ jh .(300,000 km/s)
.f

L (Microcontroller) hdG qdG Y IdG GQGdG aqJ q dh

d ,IQe c GPh ,eh ,RdG N GQd e fEG feEG
.ke k GeCG ,GFdGh jQdGh UdG

dG KGME ITe GAGb aJ ,dc ,GQ d e eE H

Me ee VY e J c ,dG KGMEG NOEG H VdGh
YdG dEG aVEH ,ddG dG dEG JGh ,idc LCD TT Y iNCG
.ddG dG YH dG J dEG Ud jdG bdGh ,QdG Y

e (2200 km ) 1200 nmi d G M V Q C G C G Q d L d d G i d G j

I O h d G d G e E H h . (5500 km ) 3000 nmi d G H F a L e S G
be Y J hCG jJ bH bGe (Fix) OJ CG jhe H
Y (930 km) 500 nmi gbo IFGO Vh ,(150 m) 500 ft e cCH dG
dch ,QGOGdH dG HQ j .JGe jL hX J GQd Se
eEHh .edG a cCG S d d dG SGQh ,dG SGH
J dd ,C GQd bO e H cCG bH S Ve jJ GPS f e
. I Q d G M d G e d G f C G Y G PS e H N C G G S G

N Gb Jo b ,GPS ed jdGh ddG SG Hh

e e Y j e dg CG e ZdG Y C GQd ceCG MGdG
.f IdG jdG a GQd fC

ddG aGdG bdG jJ f e

dG a (Global Positioning System (GPS) Receivers) dG g Uh J
d .z A d Gh G d G e a h j d G f h d E G f C G{ `H S d G 23
da aVEG AYCG KKh (Navstar) k qa (JS) kYUG k Gb 21 e cc GPS
764
Jg iMEG q No . e GOO J Y GQ TEG e Y e J
YdGh ,jQhV ReQ a IQGO e jdG d Y dG
e CG ah T C He hH dGh dG GPS-C GQTE iNCG
jd Qaf f{ `H kSQ GPS f j .jQJ e j ddG a
GPS e eEH .(Navstar Global Positioning System) zddG bdG
C G Z , d G b d G e (15 cm ) 50 ft V b e K O J C G j d G
bdG Y (90 m) 300 ft V be K J CG J GPS-C e
.dG
d dH Se e cCG g bdG J bO a idG Gg e EG
g G PS ` d d G d G C G E G . j Q d G d G h g d G Q G h R d M d G
KGMG NOEG H .gUeh JLh dEG MdG LJ Y JQb a
JGh adG f dG a QdG Y ddG d VdGh dG
J dEG Ud RdG edGh ,QdG Y GfG ANCG dch ,dEG Ud
.d ddG YdG a dG
j h , G S G h J d G a J G PS e e I O e P f a J
jhj GPS d kf kLPf 2-24 dG j .QhO 200 e bCH H
PdG EG .je NGO U FGH IOhqeh ,jYb jN e bW qJ
Md e cCG VY IQb aqJ fCG EG ,IOY c cCG HdG cd dG
.aCG S FGgh Je
e j e $200 Y J H IqdGh ,SSCG jhdG GPS e aqJ
:edG
V Q C G b d G e (90 m ) 300 ft V V d V d G h d G K G M E G
.dG
.VQCG S hCG dG S a JGh YdG
.ddG QdGh YdG Y k GOYG e f dEG Ud dG edG
500 J d G d G I F G d G j W OG e G Y W d G a d Gh J G
.dG IcGP a fhe k jH kjW 20h e

765
 C G e c e E H , j R G e I b 1 2 d G M M C G GPS e J h
TT J GPS LCDs e dh .bdG f a e JGS qJ
ee d J VhY QNG Y IQOb (Graphic LCDs) aGZ jQH
e e , dG b e q jo e gh ,(Steering Information) jqJ
e BG NG b be (Fix) K hCG Y d RdG bdG EG .ee
O L h e f K 45 e b C G d E G ,G b 3 d E G 1 Y J e e b O
.I b 12 Y J P f

,VHF GjOGQ e GPS eJo dG qe GMh g GPS e H EG

e VhdG GQTEG Qh Hh . SCG H b hCG , YCG H e e hCG
Sc e dqe fhdG e SGQ Y kf dG be jJ dG
FXh VJ CG GPS `dG e SGhQ TT H eEH .CD-ROM hCG
.Ud RdG edGh ,JG a dG ANCGh ,JGh idG e e
.dH UdG TdG J edG g Lh

(Differential Global Positioning System - DGPS) VdG GPS f ajh

Y hCG dG AKCG V Gb a MdG VGZC bdG M bO cCG ee
IQTE (jJ) J jJ N e XdG H RdG jh .dG
. DGPS e NGd GPS e e VJ .GPS-C

NGO FGg

Je Md

LCD TT

hj GPS RL e :2-24 T
766
H q jo e jQdG GFdG Md MdG iNCG GPS I LCG e
jh (Wide-Area Augmentation System WAAS) IjGdG jdG MdG
aVEG FGg dEG aVEH ,UN H SG GQGO dEG jRdG jg e c
.adG fdG S

H qoU a ,jdG eGSG Y k GM GPS e J dh

FGN Y J gh ,jdG a hCG ahdG bdG Y Md PdG
.dhdG dG dEG aVEH fCGh Gdc aGL de J bd
k jH kjW 20h jdG Y e 500 N ILCG g e eEHh
.

c BG I a e gh , bQ j Y S V GPS e V J
dG KGMEG qJo a ,bdH Jo fCG GY ,YdG gh .d
Y Le d kah YdG be qJo H WQN dEG aVEH ,VdGh
.dG IOe LCD `dG TT

VdG ddG bdG jJ f

Differential Global Positioning) VdG ddG bdG jJ f Vqj
GSH dP j eY bdG jd eRdG bdG Y Y (System DGPS
jOGdG dG f e Fb Se DGPS f j .GPS-C GQTEG
aqJ .d kT ke 3-24 dG jh .(Radio Beacon System RBS)
,dGh ,dG dEG J ceCG MGdG N gjjo VQCG Y Se
.idG GdG eh dG f dEG aVEH ,dG MGS dEGh

GQTEG H (Differential Reference Station) VJ Le e J

dG bdGh dG hdG bdG H UM CN Y SDe J
(12 cm) 4 ft dEG 200 b/s - 100 b/s -OOH IQTEG g Sjo .GPS-C e JOM
J) GPS H QhH Je NCGh ,RTS dEG He WS GQd FGg
bO J IQTEG QhHh .(RBS SG GQGO ddG GPS e H
jhe YS bHh (90 m 5 m) 30 ft - 15 ft M dEG dG Z GPS e
.(knot) IY 0.1 `d
767
 G PS J G S

GQTEG
M e GPS

D GPS G Q T E G

Le e e G PS e
VJ H f GQTEGh
jOGQ RBS

V d G a G d G b d G j J f j d J T 3-24 d G

M H jj h ,(804.5 km) 500 mi bo f Y RBS IQTEG Joh

.OY hj GPS M Y VdG GPS `d RBS

jQGVG bd IOdG jjOGdG fdG

Emergency) jQG VG d jOGQ H Y IQ Y R dG G g
a dG eJh jQH Ohqe (Position-Indication Radio Beacons EPIRBs
ie AGQh a d qeo RdGh .IdG W YJ dG dG M
.a (zMayday{) fhfCG IQdh ,VHF SdG dG

SG FSd be j QGVG EPIRB SQEG RL 4-24 dG qj

MS e bCG dEG KSG jH gQhH J dG ,JGdGh GFdG
.PfEGh dG Y QNE

Y hCG dG d VJ hCG ,dG J eY EG EPIRBs RL qjo

.Id Oe Ve hCG Qd e Y T VqJ

(dG) 243 MHz h (fdG) 121.5 MHz OOdG GP fdG dSG d

768
GP EPIRBs fH Sh 4.6 MHz OOH Ya cCG IjL fH
M VQCG Y bGe a kFL edG a 243 MHzh 121.5 MHz GOOdG
bh) UGJ d VQCG dGh dG e c f N Y JdG j
.QGVG (a

JGQTEG C jOhdG g QN dG 406 MHz OOdG P EPIRB eEH

dG dEG fdG Jh (Link) JQG M M JdG IcGP a fhe
bdG M iNCGh dG be Y ee RdG Gg GQTEG aqJ .VQCG
f j ,dP Y k a .243 MHz h 121.5 MHz f C G a J e b O c C G e d G
dG YJ kbQ Iqe jg jJ GQTEG SQEH 406 MHz hP EPIRB
.CdG Hh ,dGh ,dGh ,SH dG dG J a VQCG
dG dGh dG IQGOEG dEG GTdG jH QGe a gh JdG jh
406 MHz GOOH EPIRB Y ceCG MGdG N qJo dG NOAA WdG
. 121.5 MHz h

e FGg

Y sjo e
Ad ee

d jQH

QGd EPIRB H :4- 24 T

dG CGj H cJ qJh I JdGh MHz 406 OO dG hP EPIRBs qoU

qj a II JdG EPIRB eEG .Y cqodG IYdG kcQJ jh kJeJhCG
A dG J 243.0 MHzh 121.5 MHz OOdG GhP EPIRBs GfCG fch .kjhj
q
.kjhj qJo fc GPEG B dGh kJeJhCG qJo fc GPEG

769
gj Ad Ie Z SH jhM a JjQHh EPIRB Se VJo
N Y GP d jQH jdG PdG OhqJh .dG eh FGdG
f c b h . UG e j C G N I d GQ TE G SQ E H J h S 10 e j
.AdG ee Y J jQH OhqR b jdG PdG

b e dch GFdG e ,IIh I dG e EPIRB GQTEG SG eEH

dG QGe a COSPAS JadG PfEGh dH UdG SARSAT JdG
bCG a ceCG MGh JS dgh (800 km - 970 km) 600 mi 500 mi ,bCG
C G E G , G Q T E G g S G j (35880 km ) 22300 mi J Q H b d G H K
e S dEG KSG GQTEG jJ j a dG Y qdG JdG
.VQCG H Y a LUTs hCG VQCG dG

GQTEG SfG f SH dG be JGdG Y fhdEG J

IQTEG S j eY HSG eR bCG Sb dEG aVEH ,d HdG HhO
Jo eY PfEGh dH AdG QGb NDj .f dEG IOjR e (Signal Pitch)
ce dEG k GQNEG QhH j dG MCC IdG ce a LUT e edG
fhdG dhdG hdG SARSAT-COSPAS qJoh .fCG RCC PfEd dG
.dG ac Y IOe hO a Jh PfEd gCG

jjOGdG JG (qeo) GOqeo

Visual Null) U Fe TDeh ,gJG FGg e jjOGQ SG ILCG g
dG be d RDF jo ,k Gb jDhdG ie j ea .(Indicator
.CadG dP e J jb Se Y k GOYG ae dEG UdG e dG jh
dG j a GQhdG e RDFs ILCG e a gJG FGdG j
dG e e f dG a g RDF RL EG .HK be dEG kWHe
H hCG (Loop) WfCG T Y j QGhqO FGg e ddG jjOGdG
dG Sb j a 30 cm hCG 1 ft dGM FGdG FGdG bo j .b
I Q T E G I b J ,360 F G d G Q h j a h . (15 * 2.5 cm ) 6 * 1 in S d H d G
e a Meh (idG gOhM) IdG e a Me N IQOdG

770
 IdG b YJ CG j ,kjf Null. jdG MdH e c qJ dG
,iNCG Mf e .IdG qb fL Y 90 jhGH Nulls J a 180 `H H Y
Null Ea ,IOe Zh VYCG IdG b J a bOh IOqM Nulls Ch
q
ShJ SGH ,RDF ILCG e a ,FGdG QGjo .JG jd Jo
d jh .SG Y a NGdG e dG j AYE fe
dG be a c EG CG) dG N e FGd dG bdG Y j CG
k GTCJ d Analog Meter KJ OGqH IOhqe RDF ILCG e dh .(Null hCG
:jOOJ Le K IOY RDF RL j .kFe
. LF d G OO d G GP d G L e (1
.SdG jjOGdG AM Le (2
.3 MHz h 2 MHz H e h G j O O J G P J G L e (3

e dHh ceCG MdG OGeG Y jOGdG jdG IdG H j

h 285 kHz H GOO H c e C G M G d G N L e SG H , d G G d G
CG EG .INdG d (Bearing) gJG OCG GOOdG Gg aqj .325 kHz
j kjCG g cCG hCG bCG GOOJ Y J dGh GdH UdG fdG
.JgJG jJ a dG b e eGSG

771
772
 h d G h e d G dG

qdGh qdG GqdGh ILCG

jdG

qfhdEG HShdG eT If
(Electron Microscope)
JdH q odG dG SdG
(Computer Aided Medical Imaging)

eT If
fhdG a SSCG GQdG FGhCG e dG qTCG cG c d
(Wilhelm Roentgen) fhQ jh fdCG FjdG j Y dP ch ,dG
IQbo cG eY H OKc fCG Y HQJ j fhQ c .1895 Y
qdCJ QS Y j Y d cJh qdG OGdG GNG Y jdG qTCG
a AdG ae d dG qTCG hCG (X-Rays) gqS bh .(Fluorescent Screen)
Gd u bo dh .LdG dG Ib ehdG q TC H b dG dP
FdG a NGdG AYCd NGdG Z UdG feEG ,Ie hC ,cG
.dGh dG HCG a IOe J TCG d QU Ggh ,dG

773
QU (Resolution) fSG q J X- TCG Fe a MdG GQdG ah
dG dEG IdG TCG dEG jdG jJ bh qJ a (Radiogram) TCG
.fOCG

jM ,GJdGh GdCG IOe CRTsh ,dG IFGdG RJ QqJ Hh

KGQZdh bQ GQTEG de e SSCG YTEG jdG j J
k eCG
(Video Slices) jja W d Q U j d (Software Algorithms)eH
Computer Tomography ) JdG GZedH Jo H ,dG AYCd
q
k GQU aqj dG ,(CT Scanning) JdG GZedG SGH dG hCG (CT
.qe NGO L da d GdCH Ieqe

(Sensors) q e e jFGO ae e IPNCe fH e QdG qJoh

OHCG KK ge dG fdG ddG Jh .QGhqO X-Ray SH J
.dGh SGQdGh dG VGZC dG hCG edc jdG AYCd

CG Lho eY dG ILCG e a MdH q M NBG QqJ M

e e OLH fQ RF jjOGQ GOOqJ J dG dG a GQqdG
q
dG jdG f e G NG dEG dP iOqCG bh . j jOGQ L eh b
aJ feEH iNCG NGJ J gh ,(Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI)
cG S .dG dG NGO AYCd GdCG IOeh OHCG KK QU
q
Y IdG iNCG dG IQhda ,JdG GZedH dG
Positron-Emission) hjRdG fG GZeJ h jJdG fdG de
H bS dG Gg a .(Sonograph) GZfdGh ,(Tomography PET
fhdG H kbGh UCG dG IQqdG dG ILCH UdG eCG
ddG fhdG eR b YNG dG AWCG GhOCG e dG CG EG :JdGh
(Microcontrollers) jhdG dG GSH jJ iL b ,dG
S Y dP e .bO cCGh SCG GAGb Y d fhdG GQGdGh
RLh ,bdG dG V Sb RLh ,bdG (Thermometer) QGdG dG
.(Electrocardiograph) fhcEG dG jJ

774
e a L HC VY f dG a g dG ILCG H EG
q
a Ie VdG Yh J a dG ILCG H CG c dG a iNCG
e a adG e dG oSGh .LddGh fdGh ,dG HCG
We da je a GdG Me e ,dG S Y ,edG FXh
.W Zh W OGaCG e e Ff fQe Y edG e e

ch dhCG dG qTCG HfCG e Te

q e fhdEG ShdG EG
,LddGh ,FdG HCG a dG acG e OY a dH KCG d
GfCG kdM ajh .f fhdEG e a Mh ,OdG Y ah ,dGh
.e FGHh e M d fhdEG HShdG e e

dG dG a fhdG dN e gS dG FGdG ac be EG
Yh fhdEG CG EG .Gg O T SG dO Q WEG Q N T h H g
,(Meteorology) jdG OUQCG Yh ,dG Y Ya H GQqK b JdG
dG Y QJ bh .a e Z Ggh ,(Oceanography) dG Yh
Tqd jdG dG Qe ae dEG J fc HCG f k e jOGdG
.JG e kfMCG NGj dG (Radio Noise) jOGdG

JdH qodG dG SdG

a e J dEG (Computer-Aided Medical Imaging) dG g TDJ
L NGO fCGh AYCG IgH MGqdGh AWCd S jdGh JdG
jJc J N qSDJh .fCGh AYCG g JEG hO fEG
k J cCG QU AH hCG jJ a JdG IQb Y dG d e
e
:gh .J FGW hCG SSCG q e e ITe Y dG j
Computer) JdH Iq dG aGZedG hCG (CT) jJdG aGZedG (1
(Aided Tomography CAT
(MRI) dG fdH jdG (2
D SA b d G j d G W ( 3

775
 (PET) hjRdG fG aGZeJ (4
(Sonograph) (GZfdG) QfdG (5

jJdG aGZedG
k GOYG kjJc dG H Jo (Computed Tomography CT) J g
QdG e S jJ Y (Scanners) Se J ah .X- qTCG Y
jja QU jd e eH IYH LJo bQ IT dEG YdG
.1- 25 dG a CT `dH dG Oe VJh CRT. be Y dG dY
ie a 360C N Qhj FGO QWEG Y CT SdG a X- qTCG eU cqJo
Y j MhdH kT kaQ kYT SdG Qjoh .jdG L N j

X - TCG fCG
CRT TT
JG
dG
GQh

2 bdG

dG TCG e eM
dG

3 bdG

Jc
CT j J d G a G Z e d H d G f : 1 - 2 5 d G

776
QWEG NGO cqeo SM (Detector) e dgh .dM fGQhO AKCG jdG
SGH de qJ GQTEG dEG qTCd IqdG fCG qjo fCG He
.JdG

dEG jJh dG fH bH J iNCG e eH dg

VY (TV Monitor) RdG bdG eEHh .jdG d Se GQTEG
.dW OGeG Y f jCG a jdG d bqdG a jZ FGT hCG qVY We
jJ kjCG eEHh .GqdG e gZ hCG dG ac N e dG Ojh
.GdCG IOeh OHCG KK QU

jdG fdG LCG hCG dc dG dG cGJ a X- TCG qJo

qTDJh .c UeG hO qdG fCG Y qJ dh ,UUdG bWEG e
,dG X TCG a Y dG cGdG IOdG jdG GP dG dG
X- qTCG C aN
k X AMCGh dGh dc INdG fCG Jo a
e dG Jo dG YdG QdG aCG Ea dHh .cCG dH bJ
g CGh ,(Radiology) TCG H qeo b e jhCJ dEG J IMGh jhGR
C HU cCG dG jh .dG Lh a Nd J jhCdG
dH gh iNCG a IMGdG cGe iNCG AYCGh dGh dG X
.dG dG aGfG H ,kFL hCG kgAGQh qc Jo

VhCG YoT QU fEG dEG X- qTCG Fe a jdG dG OCG dh

bQ eEH QU BGh ,IQqdG qTCG g e q bCG QGd jdG jJ e
d kjJc de J M jdG X- TCG Fe e IPNCdG QdG
.gQXEG ie

dG fdH jdG
Nuclear Magnetic) hdG dG fdH jdG Jo dG g fc
q
L fCGh NGdG AYCG Igd J gh ,(Resonance Imaging NMRI
V J eY qdG fCG a jjOGdG LdG Ya Y k GOYG fEG

777
,Jc (TT) be Y dG fdG VJoh .b e e
j K eh dGh dG d ,GdCHh OHCG KK hCG FK Qc
VdG fdG SdG a MRI d SSCG AGLCG Jh .VdG LSG
.2-25

.(Atomic Resonance) QqdG fdG SH ahdG IgdG Y MRI J J

Mh .jOGQ OOqJh ,fehc qH We fGSCG NGO jdG Nnjo
J h d G j . Y L hQ g i e a A e f E G L e d G a 70 E G
ehc e OLH dh ,FGY gJH IOY LhQdG IQqP V
fdG bCG JH LhQdG GQqP fJhH q J MRI SGe NGO
UG dM a fJhdG g jo dG Gg CG dEG k Gfh .fhdEG
dG Ib e OOdG Gg Sjh .e OOqH (Wobble) qfJ a ,U
.dG

Y - QJ e

jOGdG OOdG e
X - QJ e
. d G f d H j d G R L 2-25 d G

eGJ dG jOGdG OOdG e eH fJhdG g H MRI Se j

e hdG Y Joh fRGJ fJhdG a fJhdG tfJ GOOJ e

778
K fJhdG (Resonate) qfJ CG fdG e dCG e AGLCG N a dG
OhJ CG bh , Jo f Jh dG CG dGh . a UG dEG L dG Oh J
d QU dEG jH JdG j V RF GQTEG ,a UG
.MdG

dM dG dG e YJh LhQdG GQqP ac qJo CG MRI eEH

.UdG dG OGeG Y VY We a fCG e

da ddh LhQdG adGh Sj Fe ie AYCGh fCd

.H dG Y QOb

LQO dEG MDI (SGdG) SdG a fGSCG fhdG fdG Os Jo

e j LQN qH fdG g qJoh .odG dG SGH k GL e
g Rh jh .SCG dEG Lhh KL je NOE ac ae gh ,dG
e fEG Y IQOb gh (18.100 kg) kW 20 e f MRI RL a fdG
q
j j ` e ` g h f G ` S C G j ` d G ` N G O (1.5 Tesla ) 1.5 T O h ` H e
jjOGdG GOOdG dqJ .OYG VQCG dG dG Y Ie 30000 `H
hCG ,fGSCG ShDhQ hCG ,S e SGH GQTEG Joh ,e SGH RF
Jc ajh .dG jJ NGO e cCG - dG Y - e
GOOdG e eH (MRI) RL M Ljh .jjdG QdG qe beh
.Se fe LM SGH LQdG jjOGdG

,x OHCG KK a YVdG IdG jOdG e (Grid) T JdG dDj

z dG a k hCG dG dG jH (M UY hCG) (Voxels) qJo zh ,y
NGO RF e Jh .dG e AdG dP e S M z ie d
jjOGQ GQTEG e qe GQqP a kfQ qd mc OOH f dG
dM dEG JOYh GQTEG g fG qe LH (MRI) SGe j .N
.dG dd IQU JdG d Ahe ie dEG CG UG

iNCG e J fdG ojh UG dM dEG fJhdG OJ CG b

779
e JH fJhd fQ cM j e y JG a dG IdG d
Voxels `dG Oj CG JdG QhH j mFY .SCG dEG idG YCG
.fdG GQhdG BG jJ H y JH

fJhdG tfJ q eo x JH dG dG mFH dG qJo

gJG a Voxel c be jJ Hh .aUG OhJ eY e GOOqH
.(Pixel) c CRT bdG TT Y Voxel `dG VH JdG j z ,y ,x
Voxel cdG V LhQdG fJhH OH dG S IT OJh
j eY IAGd HdG IQdG dG qJh .dG dG Uh
.jdG be TT Y dG f (Raster) SGdG

QU a kMVh cCG AdG e dY je f Y jhdG dG AGLCG J

.dGh SCc ,AdG e bCG c Y jhdG AGLCH fQe (MRI)

Y JQd (CT) SGdH cEG qTCG QU Y J (MRI) QU Ea Gd

.dH We fc EGh M ,VGh H dG (f) fh fCG QXEG
cCG AdH dG jOedG IOdGh AdG edG IOe H dG kjCG (MRI) eEHh
. (CT) SGdH X TCG e H

kbh NCJ fWdG fCG e J dG jOGdG GQTEG CG kjCG Lh bh

dd .dG fCG e dG GQTEG e fQe (Decay) J d WCG
.e aJ h (CT) SGdG QU e eJ (MRI) QU Ea

g YJ bGH j e FdG Z GQhCG jJ e kjCG (MRI) J

IQH QdG be a J OGodG o dG jJh ,FdG dG e GQhCG
QJhCGh dG c e J a k jCG (MRI) GSG eEHh .IT e
. X- T C H g J j d G I N d G f C G d E G a V E H , d d G

,jdG e iNCG UY dh ,(MRI) SGd SSCc LhQdG jo

eY HZ hCG gOLh joh ,kjCG g fdH KCJ ,QdGh ,jOdGh
dG GP (MRI) SGe EG .dG eRCG hCG ddG d Ie jjJ
780
` H V Q C G d G d G I T Y J T j J d G ,(4 Tesla) 4 T d G
dG dG dG Ea he g ch . k a D h H J b I e 80,000
.YCG dG ie GP TdG a IQdG Yf e e H J

bdG jdG W
e q e T g (Digital Subtraction Angiography DSA) dG g EG
kZUCG dG J .dG ce d JdG X- qTCH jdG
dEG QdG JdG qjh .X- TCG e edH jGdG a Jo e (Dyes)
.e jGhR e IPNCe X- TCG QU e S fQd Jo bQ ReQ
jGdG hCG qdG IOQhCG GY IQdG e AT c dGREH (DSA) a eH Jh
.SGQdG J

L e a d b d G X- T C G S G e S G H d
k h C G X- T C H I Q U N D J
jGdG dEG (Catheter) Qb N dG hCG fQdG eGY Jo K ,fQd
YhCG N j gh edG QXE fK X- TCH IQU NDJ K .qLdG
gh a dG IQdG kcQJ fdG e dhCG IQdG JdG jh .dG
.dG Y jhdG jedG YhCG IQU

e ,fEG L a ejO m Gf Y (Highlighting) AdG J SGHh

d G N G S G Q O a Y d G d G D SA J J , d G N d G Q h e
.dG HdG hCG dG VdG Jh

hjRdG fG aGZeJ
T e I MGh g (Positron Emission Tomography PET) dG g
GP qdG eSG bh .jKCG qH J eY qodG FdG jd
,(Epilepsy) r n n dG SGQ d IA H (Radioactive Traces) Y TEG dG
ddGh ,(Parkinsons) cQ dGh ,(Schizophrenia) odG hCG jah dGh
q e e M Y ,3-25 dG a ijo c ,(PET) SGe j .(Stroke)
.jdG L QhH d c oH J M M Jqeo TEG Y qdG
781
 hdG - hjRH JQG
j e
e f Y

e M e SGe
jQH TGc

PET hjRd YdG GZedG RL :3-25 dG

Ff H (RdG e k GAL d) e bW hPh U hJjS j

Wf f OGdG g Jh .(PET) Sd Ib Fja ,f QYC H
j dG a oM j eYh .gdJ e YS hCG FbO N YTEG
SGH gJ M c j (Positrons) fhjRH TEG dG dG
fEG L a fhjRdG J eYh .jdG M q dG M
TCG Jh .eZ YnoT eo NBG gMCG a fhdG e J
QqdG TdH eeh dG cQJ ce gJG a g dG
TC GQqdG J .(PET) SGe NGO M ae H dG TCd
jh .bQ GQTEG dEG kfhdEG jJ j bW e eh WEH bdG eZ
L V YTEG QdG Sjh edG g e c be H Jc
cJ TDjh .CRT TT Y QU dEG fdG LH mFH j K ,fEG
.LddG ddG ie a aNG (GdCH) TdG Y VhdG FdG

782
 Oe Ja f HdG aGZedG
(Single-Photon-Emission Computer Tomography SPECT) aGZedG g GE
SPECT Jh . q odG dG e jKCG c Y J jd iNCG jW g
c e c M dGE j e ,kjQJ Iae qe Ff GSG Y JQd PET Y
.dG dG

aGZfdG
Le L q Jo ah ,NGJ Z SGe J g (Sonography) aGZfdG
m Y OOqJ GP JU
EG .IQU d (Echoes) gGU joh fEG L dEG
jd eoh e b ie hP QfS f dG a g dG g
.NGdG fCGh AYCG
qeo e idG Ibh OOdG dY JU Le LJ dG g a j
q J K , fEG L dEG (Piezoelectric Transducer) V FHc bW
j GQTEG g de Hh .FHc GQTEG dEG dG JdG LdG
.Jc TT Y VY

dd SfG qUGN ah adG a bhdG QXEG Y dG g J

e jdG GfCG eE Hh .O SCGh HC H hCG ,G dC H ShQ dG dG
g aGZfdG EG .SGQdG J d OHCG KK IQU aJ GZfdG
feEHh .edG ICGdG d H Ujo dG JdH Iq dG dG jW
kjCG Fe jdG g .jJ b gqJ jCG Tc d q e QH fjhJ
.jhGdG U n dGh ,dGh ,dG e iNCG L AYCG d
fhdEG HShdG
SdG fhdEG ShdG
Scanning Electron Microscope ) SdG fhdEG ShdG SoCG
q
L K bO fhdG oT SGH SGQO OGdG qdG e CGe Y (SEM
a hj .e qTCG HfoCG TT Y IQU Jh IQdG fhcG
.Se fhdEG Shd q e VY e 4-25 dG
783
 a

fCG TT
dG TCG c IQGOh e SY

fhdG a

Y
IQTEG e

(SEM) SdG fhdEG ShdG :4-25 dG

dG jh (Vacuum) AGdG e Ze IM o V ShdG LGj

dG jh .fhdEd YH IOH q e a J SGH fhdEG
SdG j ehc q e SGH dY da M a fhdEG
Sweep) c IQGO SGH fhdG nJoh .(Condensing Lenses) pndG
o
(CRT) a j c (Raster Scan) dG N f S e a (Circuit
.RdG Td ehdG

gJG ac a fhdG Qa qdH fhdEG dG j

Joh IQdG fhdEG Jo .H eGUG H FV qTCG fCch
.jdG TT dEG SJo K (Signal Detection Circuit) GQTEG c IQGO SGH

.Ie 10,000 dEG gJ eEHh ,OHCG KK ,TdG Y qdG Jh

dPh Zeo SJ IM NGO K e e bQ H qdG H Joh
fhdEG HShdG Jo .fhdEG IQSG Y JQb d
e MCG dG Gg qjo PEG edG IQGdG bbQo Pf jd SdG
HShdG g Jh .bKdG dY UdG fCG ILCG gCJ
fCH ddG FGH fqdG FdGh jhdG bdG e jd kjCG
GfCG Hh ,ShdGh jdc LddG qdG dch ,UdG

784
SEMs e QdG dG q jo .fG dGh ,G dGh , b dG J dG
aj .(Cold-Field Emission Microscope) OQdG dG P YdG ShdH
dG (Flash Coding Metal) edH edG e dEG LdG ShdG Gg
HShdG g J .j hCG W qj CG j dGh qdG H eJo
.Ie 200,000 qdG J feEHh AGdG e kFL Zqeoh IOQH IM o a

bdG fhdEG ShdG

Transmission Electron Microscope ) g bdG fhd E G ShdG GE
p
Shd He jH fhdEG d nr eo She (TEM
a Ve g c ,dG qTCG fCH bo Y e kjCG gh .FdG AdG
.jJ IH e ShdG EG .5-25 dG a q dG VdG dG
eh fhcEd YH IOH e a H fhdEG dG j
gh dG j .AdG f a LLdG Sdc J ehc H
dG dG zSdG{ e S N K qdG N ddG dY e a
qdG IQdG je jh .(Fluorescent Screen) SQa TT Y gcJ
.(Optical Eyepiece) jH Y SY N TdG Y

kb kT (SEM) a qdG QU J ,(SEM) a FdG QdG Y Y

dG e a qY jd kFe (SEM) oSG .dG qdG H
.KGQdGh dG
a

e SY

Y SY

SQa TT

(TEM) bdG fhdEG ShdG :5-25 dG

785
786
 h d G h S O d G dG

UdG fCG ILCG J

jdG

(BiCMOS Fabrication) BiCMOS-IC J eT If

(Wafer Sorting ) a G d G R a (Crystal Growth) IQqdG qf
(Microlithography) jhdG aGZdG (Wafer Preparation ) a G d G J
cqdG UdG fCG (Mask Preparation ) d G J
(Compound Semiconductors )
ddG fQR QjfGJ J (Wafer Fabrication ) a G d G J
(Gallium Arsenide Transistor Manufacturing)
edG ddG fQR GQGO J MOSFET QjfGdG J
(Gallium Arsenide IC Manufacturing) (MOSFET Transistor Fabrication)
dG SdG GQhS edG IQGdG J
(Epitaxial Process ) (Integrated-Circuit Manufacturing )

eT If
edG jOMCG dG IQGdG YoNG Ib IH QjfGdG GNG H

787
S eh .fhdG YdG QqK dG (Monolithic Integrated Circuit)
fCG ILCG d I j L e c L d J Y o NG V dG dG
ddG bbQo h SHqdG SCGQ H GOjGdG H MhGJ dG UdG
.jdG HW H g dG hdG

qJ HS YU e H qoSG b ICs `dG J LdJ fc

ILCG J CG EG ,iNCG UdG fCG ILCG e gZh GQjfGdG
LCG eh .JLCGh q e aGZd FGW OLh j HShe ppH
a V E H , J F S h h I L C G h G h O C G Y G Q h d G e j d G fo C G d P
LeG dh .FSdG g RQh d ddG M dG Ua je N dEG
LddG g QJ e edG Jh JdG LdJ a bGNG
.VdG S KdG a J e Y kSb ILCG AGOCG a Fg Ib d

fG c T SD e ,(Gordon Moore) Q e hOQ L bq J 1964 S ah

ee IQGO a GQ j fG dG O Y C H ,(Intel Corporation) jGQHQc
ac a IOjdG aGJ dh .bdG g J bh ,k GT 18 c YS
dG IYb a IdG OHCG fGh ,RdG M a GNG e IQGdG
G g Y f b h . e h j d G H Q d E G G e h d G G Y e (Design Rule )
aVEH ,bKhh RdG YS a e QJ dG a JeGQdG VfG
L dEG Ud aj dG Gj h .FHdG IQdG SG a VfG dEG
,iNCG Mf e .(0.18 m) ehdG No Y J OHCH ICs `dG e jL
GQdG a J eCG e ,VfG a edG GQGdG QSCG SG
M JQG dHh .ddG dG c j dG jO b d SGQ dG
.SdG IdG g LH OdG Y JQd kah fGh qdG

H ,UdG f RL J LQO hCG Mh f Y dG Hh

g L dCJh .aNG e k H IjGe HJ J dG GQhS
(Semiconductor Wafers) U dG fCG G aGh fG e GQh dG
e ge d YNEG b ,I c GQ q H e ND J dG ,I cD dG

788
 dGh ,(Patterning) dGh (Layering) H V d c GQh dG
d I L C G H Y a , (Heat Treatment ) j Q G d G d d G K (Doping )
.dG Vd Rd IgL J CG b eQU UH J CG Jh J

CG EG .UdG fCG J a IFdG hCG ddG IOdG dG jh

,jY hCG jQJ ,bQh ,Ke ,H Uh ILCG e iNCG kYGfCG dg
edGh (Discrete) Ij dG Zh dG GQG dG e c Y jh M
dPh (Gallium Arsenide GaAs) ddG fQR IOe e qeo ,(Integrated)
fCG e fQdH d be jGe ceG H ,keY 20 Y jJ Ie e
eheh ,OOdGh YdG :jGdG g eh .dG e dG UdG
.TCG

feL LdH j jL d VJ GaAs Ld J CG EG

j G h j d G h j O G d G O O d G d (Silicon Germanium SiGe ) d G
IdG GQjfGdG J a fedG SG dh .(jhdG LdG)
.dG Y J e YS fCG EG

IQqdG qf
dG dG g k GOe kSg kf QqdG g j U IOe IQqdG
Ic GQqdG Y eCGh .AdG S hCG ,RdG T j dG (Lattice)
fedGh ,OqedGh ,bdGh ,SdGh ,JQGdGh ,dGh ,dG GAg :eh
a Jo qe Ue f GQqH Lh ,ddG fRh ,dGh
IQ` qdG qd dGLh`J jW q Jo . U dG `fCG I LCG J
,1-26 dG a VdG dG a qdG ,(Czochralski (Cz) Growth Method)
fCG ILCG d IOdGh IdG GQqdG qf a kYT GQhdG cCG e
.(Crystal Puller) IQqdG MS a dGLhJ IQqH qf jh .UdG

IU b Vh j jdG g ah .CZ jH dG GQqH e qjo

b c e (dG) JQGdG e JH a GQdG Oe dG UY e

789
 e d G G f C G e h .P h C G N f S j d F d G (Dope ) e d G U Y e
,QSdGh ,fQdG gh (Donors) fdG j e N d dG
dG j dG ,P f d dG edG Y eh . j dGh
. h Q d G Y , (Acceptor )

IH QGhO b
IQqdG S

aGdG S UY dG IQH

L
dG U

dG eM

dG jhd b

.IQqdG d dGLhJ f 1-26 dG

J M O e a (Pullers ) M S U Y S G H
k hCG dG j
dG e IU IQqH hCG (Seed) IQH NDJh .(Melt) dH Jh FS
IQGhO m GQP a Jh ,IQhdG AGH HdG dG e (Doped Silicon) eqdG
QhJ a MGh JH IQdG QhJ .dG NGO kjQJ dJ K dG a
.NBG JH SdG GQdG a dG

qJ e CGjh ,dG a kjQJ IQdG aJo eY IQqdG qf mFH CGj

W jh .OGHH NCG c IQdH dG QdG dG e AZ
.d NGdG OHCGh ,dG Yh ,IQGdG LQO Y gboh IQqdG
d qdG IQhS N fdG gOhM a IQGdG LQO QtJ L Lj

790
dG a dG GQqP VJ ,OJ g ah .cJh IQqdG H q J
k W J gh IQqdG N QhH qj dG QqdG dG cdG e f

.k Gboh

e WfCG SGH ,dG e hCG ,YdH dG j qdG A KCG

jhdG EG .dG odG dEG IQqdG qf d Jc N e (Closed Loop)
Radial) YdG IQGdG LQO QJ e j dGh IQdG IQqd cdG
q
.ke kjQqH k Gqf IQGhqdG IQd AdG dG jh ,(Temperature Gradient
jJ j dG e CG EG c H ddG dG hX dJh
.YdG a fEG H dEG

(8 in) 200 mm dEG J QbCG GP IOdG dG GQqH UCG d

AfE ILCG dgh .UdG fCG YU a Sb GbCG Id j Hh
.OdG YdG SdG dG g J CG bqjo ,(12 in) 300 mm H GaGh
fEG c Jh aGh d bbdG OY YH dG aGdG M j
Gec SGH IQqdG f IQhS bGe Jh .dG a 40 dEG J H
.WMG AGLEc S M GP bGe IM a IFGdG e jJ

hCG qdG Fd dGLhJ jW qJo CZ jd IQqeo jW dg

OGe AfE Jo gh ,(Liquid-Encapsulated Czorchralski LEC) qdG
.GaP d d G S a h GaAs d d G f Q R e III-V f U d G f C G

aGdG J
edG dG GQ qH dGREH (Wafer Preparation) zaGdG{ J CGj
IdGh .HqdG aW joh qjo K ,(Puller) MdG dG e IOqdGh
,(Centerless Grinder) jce Z fMW a IQqdG bo ec S g MdG
Process) IQhdG eGd SdG odG Ho e dG aGdG Fj H
,(X-Ray Diffraction) dG TCG OM jH FH IQqdG Jo .(Holders
be jd (Collimated Light Refraction) OqdG AdG QfG jH hCG

791
IQqdG Y (Electrical Conductivity) FHdG UdG QNG qjh .eheh
NOEG jh .U H LCG bh ke c GPEG qdG Me N edH
,(P hCG N) UdG f Vjo hCG j (Polarity Meter) bo Se e e
.ehdG Sb N e IQqdG a edG c jJ a

dG qjo meo S j dG dBH e GJ IQqdG J ah

(Sliced) j H dG g J .IQqdG W ec ,(Major Flat) FdG
UdG d RGe H YVeh kLe ITDe aM d J h aGh c
Orientation) bdG QNG SGH gjJ J dGh ,dG IQqdG H
. (Test

.L MdG aGdG GQhS N kLe kjf kbJ (Flat) dG aj

Y kSb (Patterned Masks) dG dG ac Vh j aGdG J Hh
jd IQqdG Y fK ie S jh .LdG idG dG Gg
.dG e J d Ueh aGdG Ve

.bQh FGO Qe f SGH NGdG aM e IQqdG e aGdG qjoh

aGh c K jh . k UCG dG H j dG SdCH QdG aM s Jh
U H F H U d G a G d G j .(0.02 in) 0.5 mm d G M U e
meo fCGh ,e Z We hCG qb QKBG e dG qN e cCd (Polishing)
(Lapping Process) dH dG jH U Y hCG AGLEG j .keJ
d P j h , I B G c U J M (Abrasive Slurry ) T c Z O Q G S H
Mechanical) fdG dGh ,(Chemical Etching) FdG dG :jH
eh adG J Ua d dH aGdG aM jJ j jdG ah .(Buffing
.aGdG c K

aGdG Y dG cCG fK e aM W qJo ,dG RLG Hh

CG jh .12000C dEG 1000C LQH RdG e Qd Vqj a N gOGeEH
,RdG jL qeh ,IQGdG LQH dG N e cCG W pK jo
.edGh

792
dG aGdGh .dGh ThdG e Jh aGdG S dG g Jo
CG b dG SGQ e W qj CMOS ILCG J Y a jo
.cDjo

dG J
d G h , f (Mask Preparation ) j d G d G J I Q h S g
, d d G G Q G d G h , U d G f C G I L C G a c J a e R d G (Reticles )
J d G G d G e S a U d G f C G I L C G J j .IC ` d G h
e c j d G h (Masking Operation ) d G Y e , c C G h C G ,20 d E G 5 e
JdH QRGD eo J SGH IOY dG q Jh .H UN H dEG
Computer-Aided Manufacturing ) JdH QRGD dG d H hCG ,(CAD)
. (CAM

.UN J eH Ohqe Jc UdG f RL J H jh

MJCG bh .OLe e e kbTG hCG ,kUCG kJf FdG odG j bh
. (Block Diagrams ) M G d J S Q J d d G b Q h d G e d G
C G j . I O e G d C H (Workstation ) Y e Y H h , e c G Q G O S Q h
hCG (Cells) jdh (Gates) HGqd Se H IC bbd jdG dG
,ee IYb a Jc IcGP e LJo dG (Macrocells) jhcdG jdG
eo H AGHG j ,dG Yh .dG e Jc TT Y JqJoh
.HS eJ e IPNCe fH e

e J c T T Y (Dynamical Simulation ) e j O I c e A G L E G j
Y Oj CG Hh .dG hCG jdG RdG H S dG d dG
Y dG gOHCH bGdG RdG UY VJ ,dG H dG
IYb a XdG dGh P dG L S H i NCG I eh , T dG
Master ) F Q e Y d G d G J h .J d G I c GP a e d G
e c C G d G G g M j h . G d C H T d G Y d G O e (Drawing
J Ljh .dG fEG H e QS dG dG RdG M

793
 .bO H IOdG dG ac

SSCG H fE x-y SGQ dEG W d auodG bdG fdG mFH SJo

. d G d (Master Mask )

q jo e d (Photoreduced) kFV dP H FdG dG q Jo

eo a e JQGc hCG LR Y qeh q e (Pattern ) P f g h d H
j c .Le hCG dS IQd Gg PdG j CG jh .hdG e bQh
QGH dch ,Id QdG IOe H jd Ge IY dG fEG IOYEG
.bdG Y a jJ j d zaGdG{ Y QdG e fEGh jdG

aGdG J
fCG I LCG J A KCG J dG GQh dG e H dP j
ad Reh cDeh e (Blank) Zo aGH dG jW J .UdG
N zaGdG{ Y J e Y HQCG dgh .QNGh dG MGe
:gh dG Y
. (Layering ) H V d G (1
. (Patterning ) P d G j J (2
. (Doping ) e d H e d G (3
. (Heat Treatment ) Q G d G d G (4
J Y k GOYG dG N Ge IY MGdG g H qJ CG j
.J LQOh RdG

H VdG J
dG g J bh .aGdG S dEG IOdG W a Jo Y g
.e H LfEG J e OG d U e hCG ,(Insulators) RG Y
Y dG cCG fK W fGE FGW iMGE g (IcCG hCG) cCdGh
fE G FGW eh .zaGdG{ J Y N Uh J c ,dG zaGh{
Chemical) FdG QH SdG J gh ,SdG jW FdG iNCG
794
dG jh UN GaCG a i Jo dG Vapor Deposition (CVD) Technique)
IQqdG Ve fG) .jJ IM o NGO qodG Od (Sputtering) TTdGh
e dG Gg j dG (Vapor Phase Epitaxy VPE) dG IQqdGh jQdG
.dG

eJ jQqH W AfE W Vh IQhS gh :(Epitaxy) dG IQqdG EG

Y h C G (Different Dopants ) e e e P d j d G h a G d G S Y
jH dG g J Jh .jQdG dG dG f d dh ,fOCG dH
dG jh .QdG QqdG e hCG QqdG QH e J IQqH IOe dEG bdG
IOdG cJ N e QqdG dG d (Atomic Orientation) jQqdG VdH
Epitaxial) dG IQ qdG IQh S k jCG fG) .(Substrate) I c dG hCG S SCG
. d G G g j d G (Process

PdG jJ hCG dG LdJ

a qJo GdG e S g (Pattering Technology) LddG g EG
ZdG Z OGdG dGREG N e ke ae W Y IOe Pfh fCG
F dG aG Z dG hCG U dG :GQ dG Jh .k jQ NG , a
g d E G L (Microlithography ) j h d G a G Z d G h , (Photolithography )
e ddG AGLCG aGdG S Y qdG PdG hCG dG Ojo .IQhdG
.aGdG Y dG bdG a dG Vj dG WdG OHCG a RdG
.dG Y a ddG gCG e gJ GNh dG J hCG IQhS qJh
j MGdG e Me jCG a OHCGh JSb a hCG PdG Ve a CdG EG
.k GAS cCG eCG gh ,J dEG ODj HQ hCG ,Rd FHdG ddG

hCG (Photographic Masks) aGZJdG dG J GN J

dG qdG H Jh ,aT SSCG IOe Y f dG dG
jo dG dG qdG e HdG Z WdG HGPEG N e (Photoresist)
H dch ,aGdG Y SJ iL dG fdG AdG hCG cDdG AdG
, U d G f a G h Y , c C G A Z a f d G (Oxide Mask ) c C G

795
 H , (Dry and Wet Chemical Etching ) WdGh dG FdG dG jH
.dG qdH UdG

YH Qj Nh SM q H AZ g (Photoresist) dG sdG EG
a ,H N ,dY jJ IH H a qTC jJ b aGdG Y
dG dG a jh ddG qdG Gg (Cross Link) kde j .qdG
H h J a j d e h e d G g J .UV T C j J Y d
d S IQU dGh .dG e dG AGLCH J J dG AGLCG
jh (LdG) HjEG dG dG kde j ,dG Yh .aGdG Y
a jd kehe H dHh ,UV `dG e J dG d dG dG J
(Le) HjEG IQU Y dG g dGh .a VqdG AGLCG hJ
.IqdG IOdG jRCG M WdG g a dG jh .d

edH ddG FGW

a G d G S d E G e c a V E G g (Doping e d G h C G ) e d H d d G E G
eY edH ddG Jh .dG dG a qe (Windows) a N
hCG (Donors) fe UY aVEG id qdG IQhS N d GQqdG VJ
a G d G J N e d G E a , i N C G M f e . d G d E G (Receptors ) e
Ion ) f j C G G Q S G h C G (Thermal Diffusion ) Q G d G Q f H J j
aGdG S a P hCG N f (Pockets) oL o N e d G j h . (Implantation
dGh ,ehdGh ,GQjfGdGh ,FdG e dG q J dGh
.fhdEG ILCd

a a H a G d G e J I Q h S g (Thermal Diffusion ) Q G d G Q f G
I O e Q d j J K j e L Q O 1000 I Q GM L Q O d E G Y e hX J
edH edG Z UdG f OGdG cJ EG .aGdG S J dG edG
j ,(Predoped) hCG (Extrinsic) H ke edG hCG ,(Undoped) hCG (Intrinsic)
j c .eJ j eqdG Z OGdGh ,jdG H jJ hCG gJ
.dG hCG N dEG P f e ke edH edG OGdG jJ

796
GQqP J FfG eJ IQhS g (Ion Implementation) fjCG GQSG
b Hh .adG IQGM LQO Y UdG f aGh NGO dEG jqDdG edG
s Jo) s Jo e dG GQqP e cCG hCG h dG (Stripping)
JdG fjCG (
g c ,aGdG S a dG fCG dEG Lj kV kYoT d ddG ddH
K dG J d bdG e j e fjCd jh .2-26 dG a eo
Jh .bW QGeh fjCG c gOJ YCH ,aGdG NGO Jh J
U N e J j dP CG EG ,IQqdG H k GQGVCG dG fjCG
(Ion Implantation ) f j C G G Q S G j W J . a a a G d G (Annealing )
e e GfCG GSG j c .bO LQO dEG edG ie a dH
.QGdG QfG jH SJ j dG edG

fjCG T

cCG H

jDe We

dG SSCG IOe

d G a G h a j C G G Q S G 2-26 d G

jQGdG ddG
IQqdG T a QGVCG Jh ,aGdG jJh J jH jJ IQhS g
Y qdG jQqdG dG a UdG GOLEG dGREGh ,fjCG dG Y qdG
,iNCG J jHh .Oqjo K 1000C LQH aGdG jo .QGdG QfG
H ,IOY dCG gh ,UdG W UBa Oqjo K 450C dEG aGdG j
.bCd FHdG UdG J dHh ,SSCG IQqdG IOH kJK cCG

797
 MOSFET Q j f G d G J
e dG ddG dG QjfGJ J GQhd ddG UdG EG
O d J J b MOSFET k GQ N G hC G e - c C G U e f C G
.dG IQhd dG UdG eN a e Z LdJ UJ a ddG
H JGP H IQhdG CG EG ,aUdG jdH MOSFET GQjfGJ qJoh
a TCG SH GZdG IQhS dG GN a Jo .g c
q dG SdG a S AGLCH jdG q ao bh .dG GN a dG
,a a JcCG qJ edG b P f S aGH IQhdG CGJ .3-26 d
e bQ H cCG W FH aGdG ej .CG-3-26 dG a qe g c
AGLCG fe d ,FV H N UV `d Vsoj K , FdG qdG
je GSH qdG e HdG Z AGLCG GJh .qdG W e IQdG
b hCG f IQhS Jh .qTCd J dG cCG W Vqjo Fc
dG a qeo g c ,OdG P dG dEG J (Windows) GK d
GdG N N f edG fjCG Jo ,fjCG GQSG jW ah .-3-26
f dEG P f e edH ke edG dG d cCG W a MdG
. Y d G d G V ,N

dGh (Source) QdG GK H cCG e GJo ,ddG MdG a

mFH Jo .-3-26 dG a e g c ,P f HGH e Va ,(Drain)
q
Ph N f dG Weh ,cCG W e qJ e a IjL cCG W
K . d G W e h N f Q d G a I j L G K d , ( ` g-3-26 T )
We e Te SJ a SJ j PEG ,dCG g fh fe W SJ
dGRE f IQhSh Hh ,NBG FV e W J ,dG HGH qJh N
JGaQh edG dG H ,QdGh HGdG H (FdG) FGdG dG
.h-3-26 dG a qe g c ,FHdG dG ad IUBdG

J bGdG cCGh HGdG Y SJ f H fdG UGhCG d

dGh QdG e a dG jd a NGO LhdG a aGdG Qqjo

798
 (CG) ()

() (O)
HGH
Qe e

(`g) (h)

. d d G d G Q j f G J J I Q h S G N 3-26 T

Z) g dG jW a INCG IdGh .J dH J S dEG

edG S jd aGdG ec a S aM W SJ g (Vhe
e g ddG c W f Jo .RdG Y GW ,RdGh ,dG N
.SCG UBJ QGeE GadG SCG H RdG

Bipolar Junction ) dG LhOe Uh GQjfGJ e iNCG ILCG qJo

J e d h , J G P I Q h d H MOSFET d G H G H h (Transistors BJTs
j e d E G e d G I Q G d G J j h . c C G J h f G N h (Masking )
.ee GQGO Y jhdG Z ILCG e fQe dG GNh dG e
keJ Y bdG a J qdGh ehodc dG fqdG CG Z
.GQjfGdGh ddG (GOjGdG) FdG edc

799
 edG IQGdG J
zMOSFET GQjfGJ J{ GY J aUdG HQCG ddG Jo
GQGdG J a IQGdH ddGh ,edGh ,dGh ,dG Vh :gh
.dc edG

qodG hOe IC He MOS J

bCG LhOe UdG GQjfGJ J a edG FGdG J
N d Ph MOS d G c C G ICs J a e d G J Y BJTs
S Y ,CMOC IC J L d a . d G U G N h S d G g O H C G
P eo C dPh ,dG LhOe ICs LdJ e HCG g ,dG
g c (N-Type Substrate) N I O e e I c Q d E G J C G j (P-Type Wells)
e cCG CMOS IC jd GN IY dEG f ,dd .3-26 dG a qeo
.NPN d G hOe IC Gh j f GJ d d E G L M

dEG aVEH ,Jh fh J Y 10 e cC LM dg ,kf

IQGa .edG GQGdG GfCG HCG d eR iNCG Y FGW e jqRO
100 e c C Gh J i e 14 J b k e I c G d H U d Gh e d G CMOS
J L d d OG e G g IC J L d J E a d P e h , F GL E G I N
d G Y j J H H d G d G h , (Discrete Devices ) d G I L C G
.dG

HGH LdJ Y qSDdG 4-26 dG a CMOS `d VdG dG j

qJ bh .3-26 dG a qdG fdG HGdG LdJ Y dG ,dG
I j T CMOS IC d G d G SQ C I c L Q O d E G d G G g J
,OCG N Hh YCG ac dG HGH LdJ aqh bh .HdGh dG
.d k H b k Ge C G b C Gh 0.18 m O d G d G L h

800
 N Ib HGH P Ib
J
Qe HGH e c C G e HGH Qe

PMOS h NMOS d G H G H H CMOS IC H j 4-26 d G

YH Se cCG
J IYb
S edG S

Y fae W N gP W

. L Q d G S Y I O L e d G F K e d G I Q G d G e G d a c 5-26 T

dG qdG AfEG
GOjGdGh MOS `dGh dG FK QjfGdG e ddG IQGdG UY Jo
ehdc dG fq dG A fEG e k eG J e dG IQG dG aGh Y
HjEGh S fqe e UY d dG GN Jh ,dGh
.IQhdG H H e J

,dG FK ee IQGO e U Ad dG VdG dG e j

. e h , h e e e e NPN Q j f G J ,6-26 d G a

801
CG Lj ,UdG dG e aGh Y Ho b L fdG EG H
Gg j .NBG dG H Y kFHc dhe edG fdG J
j d (P-Type Substrate) P f e I c Q I O e a Q d G M E G N e d G
a d (Barrier Regions) U Wc J , e d H eo N+ (Pits) n of
.fqdG
U RY U
IYb YH sodG he Y Y FHc S

QjfGJ he e

. d G F K e e I Q G O Y e e e h h e 6-26 d G

d G O M Co G Q j f G d G J
(Diffusion ) Q f G N e NPN Q j f G J J d N- f I f J
N dG eo a hQdG m F H j .N+ L M f a N f N e P
q
.Q j f G d (P-Type Base) P d G I Y b e j d (N-Type Collector Well)
.(Emitter Region) pSodG e jd N f QfG H IdG g Jo
a iNCG Ifh ,N+ edH ke SdG j ,6-26 dG a qe g ch
dG e aCG Ue Y d N+ edH e J qdG e
f d G d G (Patterning ) J N e 12 G W C G a c J h . f d G
.FdG

802
 d G O M Co G O j G d G J
qa (6-26 dG a gX Z) (Integrated Diode) ee OjGO AH j
- dEG - IYb hCG ,IYb dEG qeo HGhQ a J dG f bdG a PN Uh
.bbdG e dG dG dEG OjGdG bo c joh .NPN GQHfGd YH
Ia Y N GOjGdG AH Lj cCG YH OjGdG a eCG J GPEGh
,IYdG QfG N P f OjGdG PaCG jh .YdG QjfGdG IYb QfG
.SdG QfG Ia N N f OKdG j a

N e OjGdG (bCG) jf qJo ,QjfGdG J a eCG g ch

q jo ,QjfGd a ZdG Z YdG adh .FdG dG W J
dEG UH P f LdG d AHdG LdG odG W (Short Circuit)
I Y d G U h d E G c e d a e S G G P E G h .N f e d G Q j f G d G e
. f R O j G O f C c h j a (Diodes Emitter Base Junction ) O j G d G Y d

d G j O M Co G e h d G J
We a J dG f bdG a IC bbQo a QfH IC ehe J
S h a (Resistor ) h d G j J F G W i M E G h J .NPN Q j f G d G I Y b
,SSCG IOdG e dG qJ P dG J bGdG N dG J .6-26 dG
Resistor-) hdG jf Jh .Rc dG cCG f K j PEG
b J e E H . F d G f d G d G (Pattering ) J N e (Terminals
hdG jdG VY dEG W f J N e dG OMCG hdG ehe
hJ EG .W dG g a U N jCG GQ SG SG H hCG (Resistive Strip)
.a FdH 50 dEG 30 g kf dG jOMCG ehdG g (Tolerance)

Y IQOb ZCG hCG AZ SJ j ,dG OMCG hdG jd jch

.ITe cCd dG LQdG dG S Y ehdG

803
 dG jOMCoG qeo J
f e J .MOS fc hCG (Junction) Uc IC qeo J j
b j d G g O J h . d c d G PN U d d G d G Y J G
RhdG dd ac b gh ,100 pF dEG i dG gOh M a dG
ddG e Y dG b Jh .(Coupling) dG hCG (Bypassing)
A d G a MOS d e 6-26 d G a j . U d G f Y e d G
a j dG bdG a aGdG a edH e N W J .dG e jCG
.(Collector) qodGh (Transistor Emitter) QjfGdG YH H dG dG
N W qJh ,fOCG ehdG GP dG U b dG g Sh
fdG H dG dG Jh .FHdG RdG dG cCG fK e
A Z W N e d G d G e (Contact ) J G j h . F d G
.cCG a Te IU a N fe

Capacitive) jqS b d jdG H f dG dG jOMCG dG EG

q
M e h d G F H d G R d G Y k G O Y G ,30 pF h 3 pF H h G J (Value
a (Junction-Type ) U h f d G Y Y h . e d G F d G
.dd hCG d SM d

BiCMOS- IC J
dG FK CMOS qoS aJ LdJ QqJ keY 25 e cCG b
e d o dG dG e IO S d dPh (Bipolar CMOS BiCMOS)
j S d G F K e d G G Q G d a .MOS ` d G h d G F K G Q j f G d G
M f e . i b C G (Current Drive ) Q J S a J h ,CMOS e f Q d H d G h d G
e b C G I Q GM d J h ,b C G F H c I Q b CMOS e d G GQ G d G J i N C G
.edG dG FK GQGdG e YCG fe ad dG

hC G d G F K GQ G d G c e k G J c C G g e d G BiCOMOS GQ GO E G
d E G h (Masking ) d G G N e j e d E G L d d P h , e d G CMOS

804
 a j . (Epitaxial ) d G S d G W c S a b d G d G e j e
GQjfGdG eJ Hh edG BiCMOS IQGd q e VY e 7-26 dG
G g h .P f I O d G e I c d G Y J S J W A f E G L j , d G F K
e .a CMOS J c Y jJ dG coh BiCMOS IQhS J S g
d G a (Well Structures ) j H ( c G J ) H M E G e E H , i N C G M f
.adG dY CMOS IcGP a AkNCG J dG dCG L o d jYdG
T a qdG PMOS QjfGd N H J fadG N+ W dP Y eh
.7-26

bbQ jJ j ,CMOS IC a ECL IQGd jH qdG dG N e

g D h H j h S C G f C G M H .CMOS J d H Q e I Q G O a H BiCMOS
Gate ) H G d G a e Y e C G G g j .b C G H h J h H
. I d G RAMs I c G P S h , G c G d G d E G a V E H , (Arrays

GP (Input-Output I/O) N /NO da UN H BiCMOS SJo

H CMOS h d G F K GQ G d G U Y L j h . d G e G S G
GQGdG J a H eSG bh ,GSG e d e
GQGdGh ,jhdG ddGh ,GcGdG dch ,bdGh KdG edG

dG FK NPN PMOS NMOS

YH e Qe e
Qe
IYb HGH cCG fK HGH
u
n eo dG

N f HhCG If P f HhCG If

ba SJ W

d G F K G Q j f G J j d b a S J W d e e BiCMOS IQ G O 7-26 d G

- 805 -
 . (Gate Arrays ) H G d G a e S h , j O Y G f C G e d G

aGdG Ra
J c E G H h C G , J H (Wafer Sorting ) a G d G R a h C G A f G Y J
db hCG bbQ c je jdG g Jh ,UdG fCG ILCG L
(Vacuum Holder) jJ Se Y aGdG jo .FHdG gDhGOCG M e (Die)
IUBdG GOadG ac e UGdG (Probes) fhdEG q dG Joh
aJh .JeJhCG jJc a ILCH aGdG qJ d (Bonding Pads)
a Ff GqdG Joh ,HdG jQNG ddG FHdG IQdG QOe
ke GdG a ejoh .JeJhCG IQH aGdG Y IOLdG ILCG ac
UdG L Jh .UdG fh ,Jh ,OY e ae j e
.H qeo b e NJ hCG fSG hO

Jh .JbNEGh JMf ,ILCG ac UG e G dG

q Jo
NEG S M ubn Yf ee IQhdG Sd edG dG
kjCG dG OqJo .(Rejected) (adG) dG Me dEG dUh hCG RdG
Gqe Oq Joh .dG e a jGdG bd dG GAGLEG PJG c
dG ILCG sJoh .ddG ILCG ac (Yield) f JeJhCG dG
,MU jd JUGe Hh YS H iOGa UdG ac RJ
.d VGh M H (Rejected) IPdG ILCG qJoh .H S Mh
IPdGh HdG ILCG bGe d kjCG aGd FGN GdG H auj
.aGdG Y

jhdG aGZdG
(Patterns) fCG f a kYT cCG jdG qJ jdG aGZdG GJ
.jhdG GQGdG J Y a aGdG W e W d HdG IqdG
e edG aGZdG GQhdG e TG fC aGZdH dG qJo
. (Photography ) a G Z J d G j d G h (Printing ) Y d G Y a j W e C G

806
Y d (Microlithography) jhdG aGZdG SG Y j dch
jdG FGdG GJ h .f dG ILCG pd dG a gdG dG
:jdG GSG V hCG jdG Me a jdG aGZd eOdG dG
. (Electron Beam Lithography ) f h d E G d G a G Z d -1
. (Ion Beam Lithography ) f j C G d G a G Z d -2
.(X-Ray Lithography) X- qTCG aGZd -3

jdG aGZdG
AKCG Uh S dG (Optical Lithography) jdG aGZdG Wo J
436 nm h 428 nm H LdG GWCd UV qTCG ,MOSFET QjfGJ J Uh
(Photoresist) dG dG a Y (Masks) H N (Features) dG d
e gGS e Y jdG g q Joh .cDdG hCG odG aGdG S Y
e QqJ a ,dY bKh GPh dG de fc dEG aVEH ,fC FGdG
fCG ILCG YU a dG H e IGhdG b Y J L
.UdG

d G GZ d G d F d G UV `d G Q e UC G I N C G G d G a h
b h ,436 nm Q G e L e H G-line d q TH k GOhe kFR kMe
q
.365 nm QGe Le H UV H IQb d I-line SY hNBG jS qe

,12 dG a ,(Excimer Lasers) fG jcCG GQdG eoSG c

FdG HdGh zJGh j dG fh cG f e{`H S dG
J h . d G UV e a 308 nm Y J Q d L e G WC G Y d
d G h . d Y b H a G d G d E G (Mask Patterns ) f C G H f H S d G c
jo dG ,0.18 m dEG 0.25 m N VY e fG g dG fEd ddG
.dG GZdG IQb V fCG

Contact )
e d H d d G N (Photoresist ) d G d G V j
Sh dG e c jh .L H Oheh Teo UV Qe e (Printing

807
 NGO jdH T Sh SGH jb SHh jRGe dH dG aGdG
a dG VJ iNCG Mf e .(Stepper) QudG hCG YodG qJo ce
GPEGh .dG Y PdG e UCG hCG cCG VhdG IQdG J H aGdG
o NG{ jH VdG N kjH Jo e IOY a Ic H IQU eSG

dG Y dG J CG L jh .(Step and Repeat Process) zQq c K
.b C G hC G 1 m Oh H h , d Y b H V d G A K C G a GZ J d G

dG Y dG H dG j d bH H c J kjCG Lj
jh .k GL V t J j e V (Superimposition) d dG
QudG GSG idh .bO H dG UH dG cH dG
PdG a bO H q Jo CG ddG d dG j JGP (Stepper)
.HdG fCGh

WCG Jo 248 nm OhH UV qT Le k GWCG cCG QdG j

Jo 0.18 m Y J (Line Width) VH kWN qJ CG j dG LdG
d jc kjCG iJo dG (Phase Shifting) QdG MGREG jH jdG g
NGJ GKCJ eo f e e H Jh .UV aGZd jJ LQO
. d d G d G L Q O G P Q d G h C G , (Coherent Light ) S d G A d G

fhdG dG aGZd
e d G f h d G J (Electron Beam Lithography ) j d G g a j
j dG jdG H fCG qH J IU H jd fhdG ae
.SShCG TT Y (Waveform) Le d kSQ fhdEG dG a
fEH dGh oTh dY Yf GP H fEG kdM j jdG Hh
k e Jo b fCH kY ,UN ICs GSG d ILC eCG b

dG joh jJ IM a gGe dG NCJ .aGd dG fEd
UG J j dG g Joh . J c SG H C j hCG q jh
k jCG ,(Direct Writing) ITdG H dG j W q J j Jh (Alignment)
.bO Ff Y d

808
e hCG (Raster) qeo e SGH eEG (Resist) qdG a dG Vsjo
Y dG J (Cage Wafers) bhdG GaGdG qJh .(Vector) gJG
. x-y i H I e

FdG GKCdG hCG dG J gJ fhdEG dG f a dh

,0.25 m Q G H M S O D J C G d d G F d G e E H h .
k e Qfc
QGH M S ODJ CG dG Fe QhH j CG bdG e fCG EG
.b C G hC G 0.18 m

CG d RdG jdG edG H kf H fhdG dG jW EG

d dc ,jdG IM e hdG Y dch ,(Pattern) f c qj
. (Photoresist) FdG qdG NGO tdG dEG fhdEG

fjCG dG aGZd
fjCG Jh .FdG qdG a fCG jdG g a fjCG J
IQSG e j e fhdEG c e cCG c (S fjCG IOY gh)
GSG EG .gdG d eR a e G N jCG d d Hh q dGh
e a c H O e (Ion-Beam Lithography ) f j C G d G a G Z d
.HCG

X - qTCG aGZd
(0.5 nm dGE 0.4 nm) dG bdG GP YdG cGE qTGC qJo ,jdG g a
TCG EG .bCG hCG 0.02 m dEG J (Resolution) J IH FdG qdG a kWfCG
cd cCG kY OhqJ dHh ,FdG qdG b e k GQa qJo YdG cEG
X TCG eU CG EG .bdG ZCG a I e k LhCG I aq e ,(Focusing)
(SQEG) H QOc Jo d eRdG adH TCG g J jdG
fhJhdGh eRdG eU g TCd aCG jdG QOdGh .LfEG
j h d j e X- T C G e j C G M G h h J h S e E H h . (Synchrotrons )
eGSG j dG hJhdG f M CG EG ,GZdG fCG e OY
809
Ea ,dG Yh .QdG dG H EG j Gd ,dG dEG aVEH
,j d G X- TC G F e d H e e R d G Y SD d G X- TC G Q O e M
c Ea GPEGh ,bCG IQb J dh ,hJhdG e bCG dG ch
UY e SY dEG J eRdG fCG Ea dP Y k a .bCG S fEG
.(Optical Stepper Lenses) jdG QudG SY e fCG g k GL f

cqdG UdG fCG

J dG fedGh dG UGd He UGN UdG d
Binary ) d G F K c d G E G . (Valence Electron ) D a J f h d E G H Q C G Y
III J e d G U Y e f e U e f C G I L C G d S d G (Compounds
cdGh .DaJ fhdEG HQCG e Se Y jhdG QhdG hdG a Vh
.(Gallium Arsenide GaAs) ddG fQR g kYT cCG dG FK
N fQ dh (III IedG) DaJ fh dG K K Y d dG jh
. H Q C G h J D a J f h d E G S e GaAs a (V I e d G ) D a J f h d G

Sah ,(Gallium Phosphide GaP) ddG Sa g NBG dGh

UY a Ue f cqe OjEG jh .(Indium Phosphide InP) jfCG
b d G G a h (Carrier Mobility ) e d G c M J .VI I e d G h II I e d G
fedG a IOLdG J Y dG FK cq dG a (Energy Gaps)
.dGh

IedG UY e (Antimony) Sb fCG e V IedG UY L kjCG j

Indium Antimonide ) jfEG fCG deh ,Ue f cqe jd II
. (Gallium Antimone GaAs ) d d G f C G h , (InSb

UdH UdG d He Nh P f Ue f cqe J Y EG

UY aVEG N e III-V JedG cqe eJ Y Jh .UdG f
g h F T h , (Tellurium ) j d c (VI I e d G ) D a J f h d G S Y J
f h d E G Y j Y a V E H h C G ,N f O G e f E , (Donor Impurity )

810
 . P f e O G e f E , f d c (II I e d G ) D a J

f C G OG e H W d G f C G III-V U e f C F d G S d G e h
e Z WJ o rSGh ,Y J CG j HdG Z UdG
h O (Defect-Free Interfaces ) H e Z N G O L h C G g h , (Heterojunctions )
Y I Q O b ICs h I j L I L C G J W d G g J .I e H GhQ hC G O L E G
(LEDs ) e III-V I L C G E G K . j h d G e o dG e dG dG a dG
q
.Ie Le GWCH fJa SJ QjdG GOjGOh

J ,jQqH UdG FK S dEG ,dCc ,dK Fc Y aVEH

c J e : F H c h j H U G N G P , (Ternary Alloy ) U d G K K S
Y eh .dG FK cqdG qUGN Y dG fhdEG bdG eM o
. (Aluminum Gallium Arsenide AlGaAs ) d C G d d G f Q R F d G g
e GS He e UGN Y d OGdG J jW qJo
. (Bandgap Engineering ) e o dG IKo SH

ddG fQR
KdG YH edG GQGdG J a jo dG FK cqe g
qTCd YdG FdG pdGh GOjGdGh ,UdG fCG GQjh ,bdGh
(4 in) 100 mm QbCH GaAs ddG fQR GQqH Jh .(IREDs) AGdG a
,(Liquid Encapsulated Czochralski LEC) FdG qodG dGLhJ jH
W G S H d d G I Q G d G L Q O a Q f G e GaAs U j a h
.(1100 psi) L 75 V J L a dG iJo .B2O3 jQdG cCG e ae
d (Pyrolytically Deposited) IQGdH qSdG hQdG jf e dG Joh
.QqdG dG

ddG fQR QSfGJ J

dPh ,ddG fQR IOe e IOdG a fdG GQSfGdG sJo
FcQ gaJ dG ddG GOOdG Y Jh IFGdG YdG e IOSEd
811
 j , (Compound ) N g d d G f Q R I O e C G H h . d d G f Q R
fQR FcQ Y Sjh dG cCj ,dc W IcCG CG
`dH IqdG Jh odG FKo ddG fQR GQSfGJ d ddG
.MOSFET

g ddG fQR e dG g ejCG a kYT cCG GQSfGdG EG

Metal) f dG U dG TCG GP d dG dG GQ S fG J
eh .(MESFETs) `H j e (Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors
(MESFETs ) g (RF ) j j O G d G G O O d d G d d G f Q R G Q f G J
, (MOSFET ) e (MESFET ) H H J . (GaAs ICs ) e j d G a I O L d G h
c , J T L d G O j O j (Metal-Gate ) f e A L Y Y V e d h
.12-26 d G a g X g

Qqjoh ,ICs h dG GQSfGdG Yd bO fdG LdG W EG

j C G j h , d G GQ Sf G d G e a e h j e 1.0 M 0.5 `H d G
Qqj dW e cCG VY P LdG T CG M a .ICs `dG a ehje 0.2 dEG
. e h j e 1200 d E G 900 `H

ddG edG jh ,(Ions) fjCG QH MESFET `d ddG WdG eqJo

e .D-MESFETs h C G P d G d e h j e 0.2 M 0.1 V H (N-Doped Region )
(E-MESFET) hCG jdG dG ,iNCG ddG fQR GQfGJ G fCG
(E-MESFETs) GQ fG J J .(E-JFET ) hCG JFET`d jdG dGh
E/D ) O d G / j d G - d G d G d M G h IC ` H J (D-MESFETs ) h
. (Logic

jdG dfG fhdEG QSfGJ qoU ,13-2 dG a jh ch

IcQ Y (AlGaAs) ddG fQR dCG e W f EG .ICs a eod
bh .edG da e jj ,(Heterojunction) dG UdH jo eh ,(GaAs)
e (VLSI) h (LSI) ILCG d kN E/D `d dG UdG LdJ QuWo
.bCG H bdG ddG fQR

812
 gh , dG U dG e i NCG (GaAs) GQ fG J Qq Wo bh
(Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor) odG FK dG UdG GQSfGJ
JGDd HBT `dG q oU bh .14-2 dG fCG .(HBT) QNH kjCG q joh
U N Y j (HBTs ) h (HEMTs ) e v c EG .edG e YCG je
IYH jdG HBTs `dG J .dG UdG a IqdGh ,bdG d
.GaAs HBTs ` d j c (SiGe ) f d G f e d G I O e e L d d G Y

edG ddG fQR GQGO J

(Gallium Arsenide Integrated Circuits) edG ddG fQR GQGO sJo
.20 GHz dGE J GOOHh dY YH bdGh KdG ddG e SGh ie AGOC
G a A s e S S C G I O e a G Q j f G d G e J Y G Q G d G g So C G d h
u
jY jJ J fCG EG .ee S GQGO d QWo Hh ,dhe f
. c C Gh SC G H e e GaAs GQ GO d d Gh I j d G F Gd G e
JJ OqM e CG EG Q d H ICs GaAs LdJ q SGh
dG GQGO e SdG dG GfCG Y bJ dh JeGSGh
GQGO a dG QdG CG jh .GSG F T J H dG e dG
d G Y H J f c d G GaAs ICs A GOC G M GR b e d G d G
,(High-Speed Digitals) YdG dY bQ fCG Y qJo GaAs ICs JHh
j h d G L d G h , (High Speed Analog/ Interface ) Y d G d Y H K J h
. (Microwave )

(Analog/ Interface) dG KdG ILCGh (Digital Devices) bdG ILCG qJo

J fE ddG edG dG GQGO Jo hCG VJ dG jQdG AGLCG e
IQGM LQO a ILCG g Jh .WGdG FHdG IQdGh ddG YdG
dG GQGO e fQdH b (fhdEG jJ) AVV iHh dY
.hdG TEG J Y JQb dEG aVEH ,edG

bdG edG ddG fQR GQGO

I Q d c S G b h d d G Y H (GaAs Digital ICs ) G Q G d G g R J
. b d G d G F oK h e d G d G G Q G O J G f e f Q d H F H d G
813
dG SQEG qeo S ,iNCG e LfEG FGY ad qoU b gh
a c a e d G d G F K GQ G d G N L GJ b GaAs GQ GO C G E G . ECL
,bQ d dG - Seh - IU GaAs GQGO qoU bh .edG
. (Gate Arrays ) H G d G a d h , I c G d

edG dG/KdG ddG fQR GQGO

FK dG GQGO e edG (GaAs Analog/Interface ICs) GQGO Jo
e d G N G d G L d G GQ GOh , d G CMOS GQ GO e d c h e d G d G
fCG c ,jS jJ hCG dY fH NOEG e dEG J dG fCG a
g e qoUh .bdG fCGh (Interface Microwave) fCG a J
.(DACs) e h (ADCs) e kjCG GQGdG

edG jhdG LdG ddG fQR GQGO

I Q d G e d G GaAs G Q G O (Amplifiers ) u eoh (Oscillators) HHod
ILCG Oh M gh ,2 GHz e cCG GOOH IAH HHdGh dG Y
G a A s ) e d G d G j O Mo C G j h d G G a A s G Q G O J . i d G d G
G Q b R h J b h .16-7 d G a (Microwave Monolithic IC GaAs MMICs
e d YCG eJ ie dEG jhdG Ld GaAs GQjfGJ
G Q j f G J Y e E G j h d G d G G Q G d G h ,MMICs O O d G O h e d G
.GaAs h C G d G

i e a d G b I O d G a g j h d G L d GaAs GQ j f GJ E G
. Y C G G O O d G a H e f C G c ,1 GHz d E G 500 GHz e j h d G L d G
(Phased-Array Radars) jqQdG a dG GQGOGQ a GaAs MIMCs cqJoh
H kdM qJoh .Xh C e o dG V edG fhdEG aGdG fCGh
.(Switches) JdG dEG aVEH ,(Mixers) LReh ,HHeoh , q eo

dG SdG GQhS
GQqH e IjL W AfEG IQhS g (Epitaxial Process) dG SdG EG

814
e dG TG dh .IXe jQqH H GP aGh Y UdG fCG
(E p i t a x y ) c h . S J h C G J J h (T a x i s ) h b a h C G J J h (E p i ) J d G
.gqJ Y kYf kS qJ dG jdG MdG M Y AdG TQ d aOGe
Vapor Phase Epitaxy ) j Q d G d d G : g d G S d F d G d G d Gh
M o l e c u l a r ) F d G d G h , (L i q u i d P h a s e E p i t a x y L P E ) F d G d d G h , ( V P E
.dG d IQqe LhCG kjCG dgh ,(Beam Epitaxy MBE

hCG ,(IcdG) SSCG IOdG d QqdG cdG f dG SdG d

.ba SS dG aGdG d

jQdG ddG - dG SdG

I O e e W a V E G I Q h S g (Vapor-Phase Epitaxy VPE ) d G g
VsJo .aGdG Y J d QH H a NGO aGh dEG Ue f
ba QH a dG NGO jRZ UY e e NS Qd q e GaGh
GQGO Y S W AfE VPE `dG jo .IjL jQqH W kfe Y
QdG SdH kjCG dG g Jo .Ad YH GOjGO fEh ee
QH SJ LddG qJoh (Chemical Vapor Deposition CVD) FdG
. (Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition MOCD ) F d G d G d G

FdG ddG - dG SdG

I O e e W a V E G I Q h S g (Liquid-Phase Epitaxy LPE ) d G g
FGP e S a dj q dG aGdG j a a aGh dEG Ue f
Y jQqdG dG qf d dG IQGM LQO q Jo .SJ OGdG IOd
GO jGOh ,(LEDs) Ad Y dG GO jG dG fEG a (LPE) Jo .aGdG
. (Photodetectors ) F d G T d G h , Q d G U e f C G

jdG dH dG SdG
SSCG IOe Y ,Ie c a IMGh W ,Ue f OGe SJ IQhS g
Y (Monolayer ) I M G d G ` d G c ` S j J h , R ` d G ` N j ` J I M
o a
815
 M e j h , Y A d G Q f G f e a G d G Y f j J j h . (1 nm ) 10
Reflection ) f h d E G Q f G Y j H H d Gh j O M C G d G f
. J d G S G H d G I Q h S Y I d G J h . (Electron Diffraction RED

QqdG cdG Yd bqdG a jZ H Fn o dG hCG GQdG J

Molecular-Beam Epitaxy ) FdG dH dG SdG u
n joh .aGd
c Qe Ljoh ,IU GaCG e U Y J Fa jJ IM o a (MBE
Y a c jh ,SSCG IOdG de Y dG aGdG JH aoh a
dG ,dG hCG ddG hCG ,fQdG hCG ,dCG e OGe Y J L
NGO OGdG J GaCG g e c IQGM aQ Y . aG dG Y S S
jdG Hh .odG N QGM T H JGQPh JFL o H qSJh
aGdG dEG a AGdG GQP b e dG S bj IdG a ddG
J N e FdG cH W c H dG j .ITe dG
IOdG e adG dG J CG jh .dG HGH ZEH hCG dG IT
S J ) e O G e e h C G (Homoepitaxy , f e b a J S J ) f
d G M I M G h W A f E G j . (Heteroepitaxy f e Z h C G e b a
.1 m c H W A f E e c Y S d E G f d H h (s ) f d G
.kH k GeCG ddG cGdG AfEG e (MBE) IQhS bO L d
cS dG je J ,(IT hCG Sandwich) IqdG IQqdG cGJ
IMGh IQP e c
.e JOe H Hqeo OhM GP ,dG GQqdG
o e cGJ
.dG H a Hhqe e OGd FL
.iNCG IOd W a eeo IOd (Windows) ao

dG LM d (MBE) jH UdG fCG I LCG q oU bh

,GQjfGdG SCG d (MBE) jW eoSGh .jGhhjdG fCGh
IOqe Ic qoUh ,kjQNG eJ iL cdG fe Z RL gh
.AlGaAs hn GaAs e dG

816
 h dG h H d G dG

UdG fCG ILCG RQ

jdG

bbqd jdG jRdG eT If

(Alternative Chip Packaging)
dG RdG jhM bbqdGh ddG J
(Discrete Device Cases) (Die and Chip Preparation)
jH - hdEG ILCG jhM (Die or Chip Attach) bbodG hGC ddG HQ
(Optoelectronic Device Cases)
edG GQGdG jRJ (Wire Bonding) dH HdG
(Integrated-Circuit Packaging)
edG IQdG GQGO jRJ ndGh TCdGh jnodG
(Power-IC Packaging) (Inspection, Marking, and Testing)

eT If
edG GQGdG ILCG Y a d jh dG e j dG Qu Wo d

817
jM Y JQbh ,c :jhdG d SGdG QNG qM bh .dGh
Ia N d VJ CG j dGh ,Ib dG hdG cCG J RdG
jH RdG NGO dGdG hCG bbtdG RJ CG j PEG .VdG eGSG
, dGh dG IQG M LQOh ,GRG gGh , e dG J J
GQGdG e QNG dh .HWdG LQO a HdGh ,bGdG FdGh
dG Yh L e dG Y e YCG iMEG AHEG e e RQ dSCG
.iNCG L e jW eN Id eRdG jdG e fOCG

GdGh AdG e ah jdG eGSd jhM e NG eh

k J cCG eGSd JDdG fhdG GQGd NG Y kW j
kf dG jhdG Y gQhH g Jh .YdG eGSc
AdG e ah ,jdG eGSG ah .jOYG dG d
dGh OdG a Rdc dY jOYG GP J J G dGh
,(Small-Signal) IQTEG IU hCG Ib ILCG g fc a .(eGdG)
IQGdG LQO e ShCG AGeE VY a gZh ,FHc IQb ILCG hCG ,IC hCG
hCG jQdGh ,YdG eGSd dG ILCG e e fQ d H
fhdG Y VJ dG k GL ddG QSCG CG Y .OdG d
YCG aJ dG ddG dH IKCe jdG eGSd dG
e j edGh FKd jJ Y dGh dGh RdGh ,AfG
Jh IU jhc jOdG dG Oe e cCG ,jdG UGdG
.IQGdG LQO

hX dEG VJ bdG UdG fCG ILCG Ea iNCG Mf e

fCG EG fe hCG aN jhM a kjCG g RJo eQU YU iNCGh ,JCG
UGd J dG ILCc UdGh bGdG Yf f dEG J
k e ,MIL-STD-883Ch ,MIL-M-38510h MIL-S-19500 jdG
.

UGH ddG IQGdG LQd eh eh I U jh M k jCG Jh

,dPh . jOG dG OO dG I LCGh IQ dG U e fC ,O Y e

818
SGdG LQCdG e jM dEG aVEH kNGO IddG IQGdG a e d
Roa dG ad dG dG ILCG eCG .dG IQGM LQO a
Y kSb UdG fCG ILCG RQ Ya J d .SH jhM a
qM QjfGdG ac a FdG IOjdG C aGdG J M dG QdG
bbdh .JGdG Rd SdG J S ,RdG e I j L G fCG G NG
e je dEG J dG I/O Heh JQG GOaQ YCG adG GP IjdG
HGdGh GQjfGdG ee Ea dP dEG aVEH .fhdEG UdG
jhdG ddGh ,jdG dG (Memories) G cG H U dG (Gates)
.q GJ cCG gjJh dG IQGdG e dG ce e L b jdG

SdG RdG J J Yf X YdG a dH d eCG e

(Tabs) GhdG aqh dh .IQdG ILC UNh f dG R dG G S
Ke IQGM jJ IQb SdG RdG NGO qdG IQGd IOdG fdG
JH dG Gg iOCGh .bCG dG ILCG a edG f dG R d
e dG dh .dGh ,MdGh ,RdG J dEG SdG jhdG
SRCs `dGh GQjfGdGh ,(Rectifiers) edG RQ Y a kMVh cCG
e jdH fdG adG GSG g ,JDdGh YdG eGSG a
.WdG SdG jhdG

bqodG Z SdG jhM GSG a jGdG f iNCG Yf QJh

.(Surface Mounting) dG d eAe cCG d ICs RQ a (Leadless)
(2.5 mm) 0.10 in e jhdG g Y (Pitches Lead) UUdG M dNG dh
j d h . G Q G d G M d H d G d G j d b C G h C G (1.3 mm ) 0.05 in d E G S d G
.IQdG Lfd IjdG edG a k GQeo (DIP) `d dG bdG

SdG dG a Sh (Standardized) qYo b jhdG e EG

CG EG ,b kfh eY dSCG dgh .(JEDEC) cdG fhdG ILCd
k GeCG dG ebQCG e J dG a IOeh Ic aNG dg
Y dG a dG dG Y M HU cCG eCG H bh .kYhqe

819
NOCG a dP Y k a .H dP dEG dG Y bQ N e RdG SCG
SdG jhdG e UdG WfCG UdG fCG e e jdG
YG b GjdG g H CG dh ,IQe IjL ILCG dEG jJh ghQqWh
.Sb YU Rc kM

RdG Jh HQ Y a dhCG MdG ,fhdG ILCG RQ YG d

HdG Jo ,adG jhdG hCG QWEG dEG ddG hCG bbdG HQ a .fhdG
HdG g Joh .I/O GWCG hCG bbdG hCG ddG Y GOadG H dG
hCG d Hb J a bdG dY JDe FGH (Interconnections) NGdG
.dG SdG jhdG NGO hCG RdG RQ NGO k UCG e fC UEd
jc SdG GS dG d IOe qJ ce qM q dG Gg ah
CG bjh .dG HdGh (Aluminum Bonding Pads) dCG HQ GOad
S M eOdG GdG a SGh ie Y de IjdG dG g J
.ddGh MdG fEG Ge GSG

bbdGh ddG J
VadG jJh SdG (Dies) dGdGh (Chips) bbdG f J H
AH e dG jh , (Thinning)bJ MH kf aGdG j CG Lj e
c hCG JdG Jg iMCG Hh .dG aGdG AL Y bQ gdG e
dG j hCG a H aGdG Gg e Rjh .aGdG e bbdG hCG ddG j
bH Y hCG ,SSCG dG IOe Y IkTe n Jo d jQY ILCc NBG
.(Multichip Modules) bbdG IOe GMdG d ICe IQGO

ddG e dG AdG J
,UM QV CG d dch ,RdG S bbdG hCG ddG d aGdG bsjo
SGH eCG bdG jh .dG Y N IQdG H fL d dPh
FdG dG hCG dG SGH hCG (Mechanical Grinding) fdG dG
Mh 2.0 mm dEG UCG aGdG cS dG H Jh .(Chemical Etching)
- g d G e U C G U S G H R d H J C G b b d c G P E G h .0.5 mm
820
TdH AdG hCG dG SGH gdG e bQ S Tj a dG
.HGdG Vh d ,(Sputtering)

ddG a
zcGh fG{h (Sawing) dG jH aGdG Y bbdG hCG ddG j
e W P (Scriber) Sf NOEH INCG jdG Jh .(Scribe-and-Break)
V dH fG jh .bbdG H bdG dG ce N SdG
a dG jW eCG .dG H H Y LdG W Jo c keJ ,S
bbdG VqJ h IM cCG J aqdG C bO cCGh dG jdG
.dG Y N (Cracked) dG hCG d

fe a SJh ddG dG
Vhh a H aGdG e Jh aGdG Ra N SdG bbdG J
JDe Ze GSH hCG kjhj dG g AGLEG jh .(Carrier) edG Y
ITDdG bbdGh ddG bbdG H dG e j Jc IS J
.VadG

ddG J
e gNh IOdG adG d kjH ddG dGdG ac Jo
FK e GSH kjhj dG Gg AGLEG jh .gdGh KdG
.JdH s e QHEG f GSH hCG (Binocular Microscope)

bbdG hCG ddG HQ

f bbQ hCG db d Y g Uh hCG (Die or Chip Attach) ddG HQ EG
.J hCG U GSH SSCG eGS IOe hCG UUQ QWEG Y Ue
bbdG e IQGdG d Sc ,HKh jb J CG j dG ,HGdG g Jh
H ,RdG e k UJ eEG aJh ,RdG dEG
k RY kNGO kLh hCG kFHc

821
S GSG J dG dG FGdG e jdG dd QJ dh .dG
Ae e LR a hCG ,jb - UUQ J hCG ,e Ue e
e dG U dG q jh .(Silver-Filled Powdered Glass Frit) d H
.dG HGhQ hCG FHdG HGhdG (Polyamides) GeCG ddGh cjEG

UCG ddG HQ
dEG bbdG hCG dGdG HQ Vd FHdG Ud kYT cCG jdG EG
Au ) g d G - d G G S H H d H J f d G d G h C G a d G j h d G
f fe jhM a HGdG g Y c 1-27 dG qj .UCG ( Si
LQH dG U e 1063C LQH gh gdG e e Y .TO-39
CGh 380C LQH S jd tdH jdG CGj UCG e jd 1415C
Jeh gdH e S Y jdG J g IQhdG d FdG RdG
.dGdGh bbdG e d dG fdG Y gdG e W SJh .ddH

JQG S a S - gP e N W e e jJn Vj
.UCG dG j M ,425C dGM dEG RdG j K ,gdH dG
M FdG UCG NGO joh ddG JQG e a mFH bbdG VJ
.OGHH mFH Rd j K HGQ J

fe AZ

S HGQ

RY UCG db HGQ
LLR IYb
aN
W

. d d G b K d G G P h j d G U d G f I L C d f e e R Q :1-27 d G

822
JQbh HU H ddG bKdG GP ILCG Rd jdG g J
- UUdG pd ddG HQ jd jdG jdG Jh .IQGdG jJ Y
dG a 95 Y jhdG FdGh ,jUCG OGdG dch ,YdG j dG
.300C LQH IQe jb dG a 5h UUQ

UH ddG d
jd jdG g eCG ddG hCG cjEG e FdG UGdG GSG EG
H Y LM (Adhesive Die Attach) UGdG g J .ddG J IQhS
dEG VCG e GPEG kFHch kjQGM
k Ue L eE Hh ,R dGh d dG
HQ a eh he dH AdG cjEGh .dG hCG gdG e
d ddG eCG ddG jh .UUdG GQWEG dEG dGdG hCG bbdG
dGh jdG e S gh ,(Kovar) QadG IOe e dG UUdG QWE
.dHdGh

dH HdG
d G G O a d G e (1.0 mil - 0.7 mil ) a d G S C G J h C G d Y g
g c , e R d U U d G Q W E G e (Inner Leads ) N G d G G W C G d E G b b d H
pUeo gh dCGh gdG e SCG e J .2-27 dG a qeo
dH HdG AKCG dM j dG gdG j CG LQO dEG fpdnh GL
VdG Gd e e d .Y jh ke HdG a (Wire Bonding)
ILCG H qjh .Hd e FGW J dP Y AkHh ,JSh JM
.dY YHh kJeJhCG HdG Y Jh HdG SCG e GY GSG

gdG dG HQ
jb HGhQ kfe j fCh ,IcCG ehd Re k Ue dG HQ j
Thermocompression ) QGdG GMG a j a ,dCG GOaQ e
Thermosonic) QG dG J dG H dGh ,(Ball Bonding) I dG HQ hCG ,(TC
dEG eRdGh ddGh bbdG J QGM GMG HGQ jJ bh .(Bonding

823
 dG SG fCG e (Gold Wire) gdG dG joh 350C - 300C
T hCG FHc IQGT Jh .CG-3-27 dG a eo g c ,(Capillary)
hCG Y VJ Ic jJh dG SCGQ (U) HGPEG Y IU LhQg
IQdG IdG d SCG dEG dG fCG j mFH .JG IOaQ
.-3 -27 d G a e g c j b H GQ j J h I O a d G Y

fG b (Loop) WfCG jd dG e je mFH dG fCG aj

j .-3-27 dG a eo g c ,(Lead) dG hCG bdG GP IOadG dEG
a hjh dG j dGh IQGdG e KCHh iNCG Ie dG fCG
TdG IQGdG fL

(S) db J db

dhCG U U SSCG dG IOe

(N hCG e) SSCG IOe

. a N j h M h C G e d E G d d U C G H Q :2-27 d G

dCG e S
gdG hCG
dG

db HQ IOaQ

IdG HGQ QWEG g W ()

(CG)

SCG HGQ
()
(O)

hCG FHc IQGT

LhQg T
(`g)
. g d G d G H Q Y :3-27 d G
824
.O-3 -27 d G a e g c I H U d I O a d G hC G g d H d G d G
jd dG W Y dG hCG LhQdG T hCG FHdG IQGdG J
M j d G g Q J .`g - 3 - 27 d G a e c ,e O d G I O a d G H Gd I c
.eRdGh bbdG GWCG ac HQ j

d He IQhdG M e a jQGdG JdG bdH IdG HQ eCG

Y J .WhCG IQGM LQH J HGhdG CG EG QGdG GMH HdG
jdG N (JU a) Ja bW e f SQEH QGdG dH HdG
- gP S e HGQ jd ac LQO dEG dG IQGM LQO Ja dG
.jb dCG

dCG S HQ
S e fQe d ehe bCG fCG c WGh UH dCG S Rj
.GOadG e dqa dCG - dCG HGhQ qjh bCG c CG EG gdG

.gdG JQG LQO e bCG IQGM LQH Jj CG dCG S eEH

HQ jd keJ He (Aluminum Wire Bonding) dCG S HQ jWh
Wedge) SEH HdG J jH J fCG EG (2-27 dG fG) gdG S
HdG d kjCG He jW gh ,(JdG a) JdG LdH hCG (Bonding
.jQGdG JdG bdH

GP Ie NGO eRdG J JdG LdH dCG S HQ Y a

dG J bbdG HQ IOaQ VJh .HQ Y c Y Ve joh ,x-y OHCG
N Ja bW e f SJ K .a (J) Jh dG jdG a
dG WfCG Jh FH IdG LGJ .HGdG jd dG jdG
dG Uj k GNCGh .ddG HGd Ve IdG NCJ CG b QdG dEG
bbdG SCG HGhQ ac J M GdG g QJ .eRdG W Y d
.eRdGh

825
 dGh TCdGh jdG
dG b jdG
QWEG hCG eRdG W dEG (Wire-Bonded Chip) JdG dG bbQ HJ
,bbdG Ve qJ YdG dG Gg j .kjH jdG J K (Lead Frame)
e M UdG hCG cjEG M dP Y j c) WJQG feh
GOaQ hCG QWEG W dEG bbdG GOaQ e SCG HGhQ ac cGh (bbdG
.S KJ jCG e gNh ,eRdG

dG hCG ddG
a jo dGb a (Chip Lead Frame) QWEG W bbQ e VJ
J mFH a adG RdG eCG ,SH SOTh ,DIP RQ jd cjEG
.Nh

TCdGh ,edGh ,dG

SdG eRdG e jhdG L QN IdGh VdG GWCG J
,H Y J d GWCG jd IFdG WoCG qJo .bdG IQb d
Part) AdG bQh ,qdG eQ hCG (Logo) eH RdG e LQdG AGLCG TDJ K
o
.IdG edG e gZh ,dG dhdG SGh ,(Number

FdG dG
QJh .qHh FHc ,(Final Test) Ff UN UH RL c Qj
Burn-in) dG QNG J IOe Id ILCG H a FHdG IQdG
WCG aH kYU j e hCG IdG bNEG MG d ,(Test
ILCG Yh jdG UGdG Y IOY UdG cJ .(Infant Mortality)
dG FKh J K ,GdGh Ad gDdG ILCc ddG bKdG GP
.FdG U cCJh

826
 bbqd jdG jRdG
dG W LdJ
ddG hCG bbdG Hd jW g (Beam-Lead Technology) LddG g EG
dG qj .aGdG J AKCG RdG e hQe Ac jJ K gP H
dEG Lhh VJ hCG bbdG J .aGdG e dfG H bbdG aM a VqodG
eh ,SSCG eRdG IOe e eGe IQH IOe TCG GWCG HJ K ,SCG
.dG GWCG cd SSCG IOdG a kYae bbdG L AHEG

UdG AdH HdGh HdG bbdG

Solder-Bump) U GAH kdM UdG fCG ILCG bbQ Jo
Fe NGO W U Af c Hjh .HQ IOaQ c Y Se Yf (Bonding
d dGh IQGdG GSH bbdG b H HdG Jh .eRQ c Y d
e fJ dG (Wire Bonds) dG HGhdG Uh jdG g J .dG Af
aVEG Me dEG LdG d eRd dbT Me aJ gh ,bKh ce
ae (Flip-Chip) HdG bbdG RQ aJ dHh .dG WfCG d
HQ TJ N e bCG FHdG ddGh ,(Lower Profile) CWhCG AdG
. I/O GWCG dEG bbdG IOaQ

JDdG jdG HQ
bbdG a J dG (Chip Mounting) bbdG d jd jH jW gh
SH SSCG IOe Y (Tape Automated Bonding TAB) (kJeJhCG) kJGP
jH SJ qK bQ fe AZ W dEG bbdG GOaQ HJ .bQh fe
bH jdG Vj .SH jT S Y dG hCG (Sputtering) jPdG
HdG j .bbdG HQ GaQ e NGdG aGWCG J H bbdG a ge
d .(Thermode) OedG J IGOCG GSHh dGh IQGdG H mFH
,SdGh ,dG jOGQ a bdG jZ a GQGO J IQhdG g MJCG
.k GL IdG fhdG dG e gZh jdG JGdGh ,YdGh

827
 dG RdG jhM
UN H SdGh ,fdGh ,adG jhdG e ST rH QqW d
,(GOjGdG) FdG edG e (Discrete Device Cases) dG RdG ILC
a ,(jQjfGdG edG :Thyristores) GQSjdG hCG GQjfGdGh
IQTEG GP GOjGdG RJ .GOjGdG ae Rd iNCG jhM J
(Axial Leaded Glass) Qe W LR jhM a ,WGdG IQdGh ,IdG
Radial Leaded Molded) YT H e SH RQ a hCG ,DO-41 e
IQb eeh ,IOe GOjGO RJ dc .DO-15 jhM e (Plastic Packages
H 4-27 dG jh . jh dG g a (Low-Power Rectifiers) WGh
fch) TO-226 SdG jhdG EG .dG ILCd edG jhdG
IQTEG GQjfGJ Rd eSG ,CG-4-27 dG a dG ,(TO-92 kHS
.GQShjdGh IdG

Molded Plastic) dG SdG dG dG jhM QW c

,jOGdG OOdG GQjfGc dG ILCG g d (Flatback Cases
TO-220 jhdG deh ,k GeCG 15 `d ddG ,GQShjdGh ,IQdG GQjfGJh
dG a qdG ,(Three-Terminal, Transfer Molded Case) ddG dG KK
.k T TO-218 jhd HdGh ,-4-27

ddG hCG bbdG J .GSG HdG fdG d FGH jhdG g Jo

QGdG dG QhO e H J CG j (Tab) Sf IhY Y
e (M e t a l t o M e t a l I n t e r f a c e ) e - d E G - e N G O L c h C G , (H e a t s i n k )
. (H e at - D is s ip at in g B u s b a r ) Q G d G j d U e b h C G c C G Q G M e
ee GSH ShCG IQGd Oe S Y J CG jhd d IhdG J
.ee

Dual-in-Line Packaging ) LhOdG dG RdG J ,iNCG Mf e

bbQ RQ a IH edGh ,-27-4 dG a qdG TO-116 e ,(DIPs
fdG jhdG Jh c .OjGdG ae jRJ a ,edG GQGdG

828
,IQdG GQjfGJ dch IdG IQTEG GQ j fG J j d I H
dG IQGM LQO e SGh ie J CG e j dG SRCs dEG aVEH
,YdG dG bKh VJ dG dGh N dG aG fGh
.FdGh ,jdGh

IYdG hCG SCGdGh ,(Lid) AdG hCG IdG :jCGL a jhdG g J

Yeo (Pins) HdG e cCG hCG hR e e Ub H NCGh .(Header)
.NGdG dH ddG JG e J a ,dG dG JH kjOY
jd dG SCGdG Ub dEG dH dG dG SdG hCG AdG j
fe Sb jhM a jOGdG OOdG GQjfGJ RJh .MEH e N
OS dG g kYU IQdGh UNG adG jhdG CG EG SH hCG
.dG M NCa

(CG) ()
()

(O) (`g)
(O ,TO-116 (DIP) ( ,TO-220 ( ,TO-22 (CG ,e ILCG jhM fCG :4-27 dG
TO-204 (`g ,TO-205

(TO-39 `H kHS aYh) TO-205 KdG HdG GP fdG jhdG EG

bKh GPh dG KK e ILCG jRd Se O-4-27 dG a qdG
a qdG ,(TO-3 `H kHS aYo) TO-204 dG GP cCG jhdGh .dY
a W g H d G h . d G I Q d G G Q j f G J j R d F e , ` g27 -4 d G
Collector) keL ka W jh dG J a ,(Emitter) S eh ,(Base) IY b
.(Terminal

829
Through-Holes) K N ILCG d jc dG dH dG EG
GWCG Y jhdG dG RdG Y dG L q CG GQGdG Md Y (Mounting
eRQ 5-27 dG qj .GQGdG Md S Y ITe J hCG d j
jhdG Y jh .SOT GQjfGdG Rd Se e J S GP
kHS ch TO-261 q jo cCG dGh ,(SOT-23 k H S f ch) TO-236
.SOT-223

QjfGdG db e jhdG L
cjEG

edG W
e S

YdG dG
(SdG)

YdG dG

SOT QjfGJ jhd U e :5-27 T

Jjf J d QdG dEG jhdG d dGh IdG HdG iJ

.GQGdG Md S Y dG UdG GOaQ Y e H

jH -hdEG ILCG jhM

Ad SdG FdG dG RnQp
FdG Ad YdG GOjGdG e c jRd kYT jhdG GfCG cCG EG
(T-1) g ,(IREDs) AGdG J TCd YdG GOjGdGh ,(LED Packages)

830
 .bWEH dGh SdG e YdG ,dG YT (T-1 )h

dEG ddG HQ Hh .aGdG Vh cG b LED db a N W fe J

W H dCG hCG gdG e S rj ,(Radial Leadframe) YdG HdG QWEG
a dG S j K 5-13 dG a qeo g c ,YdG GWCG MCGh P
a e g c ,(T-1 ) hCG (T-1) UUdH T cjEG e jYo eRQ
f e h C G , I e L Y j h M , a T e R d G J b h .6-13 d G
,(Die) ddG d fG Y k GOYG NCG hCG ,FHdG UCG hCG ,MCH
SQEG jhGR SdH kSb dd QdG bdG Ojh .edG jf hCG
.LQO 110 h 30 H J dG IR dG

dGh (Flattop) dG dG fCG Y iNCG LED RQ hCG eRQ Jh

kWfCG SJo dG dG jhdG dEG aVEH (Surface Mount) dG
bKdG GPh jdG dG ah .MS jf e Iee FV
ZEG e TO-39 f fe jhM NGO IREDsh LEDs RJ ,ddG
.JGb jf a a LLdG jdG J ,dGh

AGdG a TCd YdG OjGdG RQ

Infrared Emitting Diodes (IRED) ) AGdG a TCd YdG GOjGdG RnJo
aT J SdG jhdG CG GY LED dGd He RQo a Packaging)
ZEGh dG e IREDs Hh RJh .fe hCG aT f fc e cCG
Id FdG d fe LLR SY e fdG TO-39 jhM a
.SdG dG hdG a GSd dPh

QdG GOjGO RQn

f fe jhM a IOY (Laser Diode Packaging) QdG GOjGO RnJo
Vjh .IREDsh LEDs RQ a edG d He LLR SY e TO-39
j FdG YT j d (Package Flange) eRdG e Sh a QdG db
.jdG N
831
a IOLdG (Facet) dG GAdG H N e AdG H jo bh
.eeCG dG JG Y KDJ h ddG L dEG Le J fCG EG ddG

bdG Ad OjGdG VY fe
e b S e (LED Numeric Display Modules) OjG`d bQ fe Jo
qeo SH jhH dGdG J K SSCG IOe dEG jOa dGb HQ N
dG f SdH CJ eYh .dG jd (Slots) T Y J
dG a e g c ,FV HfCc dG J ,(d hCG H ee)
dG LED dH IAdG dG SGH (Character) M c j .8-13
E. Mh A e hdG dch bQCG ac J jh .AdG fCG V
e (7 * 5 Dot Matrix)h ,ASCII hM e kaM 64 d b 16 VY jh
.128 `dG ASCII hM L J j LEDs

dG u
n odG jRJ
GP DIP RQ a k f (Optocoupler Packaging) jdG dG RJo
YdG Sd fOCG dGh .6-12 dG a e g c ,dG odG
G f C G J h .5000 VAC d G M I L C G N e h L e H F H d G d
ILCG a FdGh dG jdG odG dEG N384 Mh N254 R dG
dG dEG N334 Mh N294 J a ,FdG GQjfGdG Le
.(Photodarlington Output Devices) FdG dQGO N ILCG a jdG

edG GQGdG jRJ

kYT jhdG cCG e DIP LhOdG dG RdG UCG GS IY e
a DIP jhM aJh .(Integrated-Circuit Packaging) edG GQGdG jRJ a
iOCG iNCG Mf eh .cjEG e e hCG dG e Ye e M
GcGPh ,jhdG dd S ,bbdG M a dG SdG
LM N dEG ,dG dG JG a YdG e OJH ,UdG fCG
OHCGh ,(Lower Profile) WGdG AdG Y cCdG e I j L RQ d SC
832
UdG IjdG FGdG QJ jJ dEG dP iOCG d .HdG cGe H IdG
jQHCG a H hCG U H GQGO Md dEG jJh eRdG He H
.dY ac GP (Sockets)

LhOdG dG dG RnQp
c ,(Dual-In-Line Packages DIPs) LhOdG dG dG eRQ GJ
a jhdG W Oj IC. FbQ RQ a GSG FT ,-4-27 dG j
IdGh .eRpdG fL e fL c a jRGdG dG a eRdG HdG OH
U YJ .HdG cGe H (2.5 mm) 0.1 in g DIP `d SdG (Pitch)
.e Rd G a H d G O Y Y k GO YG f E G 0.9 h 0.6 , 0.4 , 0.3 `H H d G

H (Gap) a ad cCG fe S e YdG dG Hdh

dG H dG Y d dPh GQGdG Mdh DIP e dG AdG
.eRdG J Jo CG j dG KdG dGREh

qU H bQh N e e dG QWEG W e DIP jRJ j

W dEG bbdG HJo .ddG JG S e eRdG He ac j (Web)
Uh J c NGdG dG dEG jdG bbdG GOaQ e SCG HJh QWEG
.dG Gg e zdG HQ{h zbbdG hCG ddG HQ{ `H UdG JdG a
cjEH jh (Mold) db NGO mFH edG (Assembly) dG Vj
jdGh bbdG Y J e RGe H cjEG e b jd
Protective) jM J VdG QWEG W j .HdG GWC NGdG
M j CG b QWEG jJ N e IM HdG jf Jh ,(Plating
.SCG dEG HdG

e e kaU J dG (DIP) S GQGdG Md U d

eEG LjEG j eY ,IXdG (DIP) He e J dGh dH dG dG
Matching) fQe jQHCG GSG j ,dP e jch .kJeJhCG hCG kjhj
AfG b fe dEG LJh GJ CG j ILCG CG kbe c e GPEG (Sockets

833
e H Je fe hCG e HGb jQHCG g J .eN Ia
.L H fe a RdG J Y J

dW ke 64 Y jhdG DIPh ,krpe 64 dEG 4 Y SdG DIPs J

b W d h . (2.3 mm ) 0.9 in H d G U H a d G h (8.15 mm ) 3.2 in
hCG K Jh .DIL eRQ kjCG J gh (19.4 cm2) 3 in2 gQGe (Footprint)
.1 d G b e Y j h d G j f i M E G Y e Y

DIP e af cCG a (Skinny DIPs) AdG LhOdG dG RtdG eCG

(2.5 mm) 0.1 in hJ (Pitch) IdG bh kne 28 dEG 20 Y Jh SdG
. 0.3 in d G H U d Gh N BG d E G e c e e

(1.8 mm) 0.7 in gQGe If b d (Shrink DIPs) dG LhOdG dG RtdGh

,42h ,28 Y J d 0.75 in h 0.6 in ,0.4 in dG H UdG bh
. (12.7 mm) 0.5 in a IdG a SdG Z DIPs eCG .dGdG Y ke 64h

HdG GP adG DIPh (CERDIP) adG DIP jhM e Yf aj

eGSd kFe jhdG g J .MGh fL e SdH dG
e kST kfH J CG e eDj M ddG bKdG GP dh jdG
.IQGdG LQO

bh ,AdGh IYdG :(dCG cCG) edCG e aN GAL CERDIP `d

,IYdG a QWEG W eOCG bh .bbdG a J IK jd e c qL
cH J Sb IQhH ,gdG dG HGhQh UCG ddG pUho K
SGH IYdG dEG FH AdG j hCG j .jhdG g dEG ,bbdG
.dG e N qd V QfG LQO P LLR e

e edCG N e W K e kfL dG adG DIP qjh

ddG d jW Jh .IYdG dEG kHS J J dG (Leads) GWCG
jhM d M a c f (Wire-Bonding) dG HQh (Die-Attach)
hCG) U SGH IYdG AL dEG a a fdG ZCG J jh .CERDIP

834
dG ZCG qCG EG ,dG e N jd dPh jdG-gdG e (d
NGO dG QfG LQO P LdG e GSH IYdG dEG HQ j
.rq dG e N jd a

bbdG eM
e dG dd e dG Heh ,QGe AS GP IC eRQ g
W e hCG (Cavities) GdG Jh .HQCG adG e Iaf f e H e
W Y bbdG eM J CG j .RdG Me e NGdG dG
.SdG hCG dG e eEG J gh ,(Leadless) Y J hCG

,(Ceramic Leaded Chip Carrier CLCC) dG aN bbdG eM J

j d Gh H d G I O e e d G GQ G d G a ,C G-6 -27 d G a d G
H bdG e fC hCG dG d VY fC eEG (Socket) e dEG HQ
LGJ .GQGdG Md AH Y N d hCG J Y jCG J H
Memory) IcGdG IC hCG ,bQ IC hCG ,KJ IC jRd ke 84 dGH CLCCs
MEH N jh ,ddG bKdG GP dGh jdG eGSd (IC
.dG KdG e NGO IC bbQ jd

Y (Leadless Chip Carriers) dG ehe IdG bbdG eM J

GOadG dEG J j d jhdG J e J ,J f Ib GWCG
.GQGdG Md S Y HdG

dG a dG ,PLCC W Y jhdG Z SdG bbdG eM EG

JjhM aqJh .edG H e c bCGh k GQ fG cCG g ,-6-27
KJ f ee GQGO Rd PLCCs qJ .kaW 124h 18 H hGJ GWCH
dGh ,jhdG ddGh ,UdG fCG IcGPh ,eh
a c GQGdG f kaW 124 GP PLCC Jh .(Microcontrollers) jhdG
.kpe 24 `dG GP DIP

GWCG dEGh bbdG H U J d e b b dG e M Y f c a j

835
e f OdG Y FGMG e bCG Me J fCG c ,DIPs e bCG LQdG
.(1.3 mm hn 1.0mm) 0.050 in hn 0.040 in H IdG b hGJh .HdG

(CG) ()

()

SOIC-16 ( ,PLCC-44 ( ,CLCC-32 (CG :GfCG e ee GQGO jhM :6-27 dG

IdG adG edG GQGdG RnQp

a qdG ,Small-Outlined Integrated Circuit (SOIC) Packages)) R dG g
28 dEG 8 GP ICs RQ AGM e SH jhM g ,-27-6 dG
iJh .ke 16 Y FGM SOIC-16 hCG SOIC-16 kjCG Jo gh .ke
G P ,505 R d G g e e h . Y C G d E G j d G h I d G H d G j f
Y HJ J. dG H jhdG L J jdGh ke 28 dEG 20 `dG
DIPs `H U dG dG e GQG dG g RQ a dG HQh b b dG Uh
.dG dG LdJ a dSG dG jhdG f dch ,SdG

IodG T ae
(2.5 mm) 0.1 in e bGC AS GP e SH (Ball-Grid Array BGA) eRQ g
S Y He SGH dG dG GP ICs `d S d J kYJQG
Pin-Grid) HdG T ae eRQ BGAs eRQ Jh .GQG dG M d
(Solder Bumps) UdG HM e S Y gDhGMG M e (Arrays PGAs
UdG Gc JJ .HdG e k jH jhdG SCG a (Balls GdH dG)
Md Y (Contacts) edG f e Hj H HJh eRdH JJ d
.dG Y N GQGdG

836
 dG RdG
He Jh jhdG IYb dEG He Jh IUh N IC RQ g
He GP iNCG J a ,a jRGe L e dG RdG GfCG H
.c HQCG dG e WCG

(14 mm) 0.55 in VdG GP SdG (Flatpacks) dG RdG J

.(1mm dGE 0.7 mm) 0.039 in dGE 0.026 in `H NBG Y e c Yj e 100 dGE 44 Y

0.039 in dEG 0.028 in H (CER Packs) adG dG RdG VY hGjh

.(1.3 mm) 0.05 in aH 24 dEG 16 `dG HdG YJh (9.9 mm dEG 7.1 mm)
Je e RdG g a dG HQh (Die-Attach) ddG-d nJp HJh
.adG DIPs a

IOodG bbtdG RnQp

HGQ GOaQ GPh dG Ic ICs ed cjEH dG DIP RQ gh
.bbdG ce a

jhdG IdG T ae
d a J (Micro-Ball-Grid Array MBGA) Ie BGAe RnQp g
.dG IC bbQ

jhdG SMT RnQp

Y M jj a ,fOCG dH SH S d jhM g
EG .dY GQGO Md aH J dP eh ,eRQ OGdG dGdG hCG bbdG
OdG GP bbQ jRd SMTh DIM e c jhM e UCG g jhdG SMT
,(QCG) fCG hCG SdG MdG RdG e UCG H jh .HdG e f
.a 1 mm `H kYJQG cCG NBG Hh

837
 :j e RdG e dG Gd jdG fCG e
.(Thin Small-Outline Packages TSOPs) bQh IU ac RnQp (1
.(Ultrathin Packages UTPs) adG Fa RnQp (2
.(Thin Quad Flatpacks TQFPs) bQ HQo e RnpQ (3

HdG T ae
Pin-Grid Array) HdG e T hCG ae Y jhM He aN RnQp g
aJ .(Bed of Nails) edG IOSh H (2.5 mm) 0.10 in YJ ( PGAs
f ke 256 `dG GP PGA `dG J .256h 64 H hGj GWCG e OH PGAs
(Sockets) HGb aJ .kaW 124 `dG GP bbdG eM e GQGdG Md Me
. P GA F d j O Y K a e G P

HtdG qdG eRudG

Ie GWCG dh ,ICs bbQ Y J e cjEG e jhM g
eRdG J .(Quadrant qHQo) Quad dG AL g eh ,HQCG JL e
j e NBG f ajh .IkOY kaW 16 Y (Quad Flatpack) HdG dG
. TQFPs hCG (Thin Quad Flatpack) dG HdG dG eRdG

edG IQdG QGQO jRJ

ICs IQTEG ic jdG IC jRJ jW H edG IQdG GQGO RJo
(J u n c tio n T emp e r atu r e ) J Q G h W d G f I Q G M L Q O A H E f G h d G Y
QadG H SdG edG GQGdG qeo H j .LdG LQdG hO
feEG QqJ ,IQdG ILCG a eCG g ch .GQWEG W J a (Kovar)
(H e ats in k ) Q G M e Y J h C G J N e I Q d G e e d G
,DIPs LhOe N RnpQ H IQdG ICs Jo .adG AGdG e QH gjJh
fc GPEG SOT U ac QjfGJ jhM e ke 28 dEG 8 Y J gh
SIP I O d G d G Rd G j h M a a J k G J c C G A GL C Gh .2 W e b C G I Q d G
5 W e IQdG ICs a TO-220 SdG Jh .kaW 23 dEG 11 Y jhdGh
. PLCCs aqeo SH bbQ eM a Rj IQdG ICs H CG c . 10 W dEG
838
 h d G h e d G dG

fhdEG GQGdG Jnh RpQn

jdG

dG qS LddG
(Surface Mount Technology SMT)
(Solder Resist) dG he b
IOqdG SCG GQGO Md
(Multiple Wire Circuit Board)
qdG dG Md
(Wire Wrap Boards)
(Backplanes) dG MdG
eT If
dGh Y dG GQG dG M d
(Printed Circuit Board and Cards) fhdEG
dG GQGdG Md J
(Classification of Rigid Circuit Boards)
IQqGdG - Md J
(Circuit Board Manufacturing)
dG S GQGdG Md
(Surface Mount Circuit Boards)
YdG dG hCG dG GQhS
(Soft Soldering Processes)

eT If
b dGh GQG dG M d (Miniaturization) ( J) j J JCG d
839
High Density Integrated) adG dY ee GQGO aqJ e (Cards) fhdEG
CG ,(Surface Mount Technology SMT) dG dG LdJh ,(Circuits
OqCGh .(Electronic Packaging) fhdEG RdG e a kebo LddG J
KCdG dEG QjfGdG ac IOjR e eGdG edG GQGdG J a IOjdG
GNG iOqCG c .J YGb hCG SdG IC N VY GOGeEG J Y
jH dG dEG (Pitch hCG) HdG IYeh ,AdG GWCGh ,RdG M
.bH hCG GQGO Md d keJ cCG ILCG

Dual-in-Line Packaging ) e N a SdG FdG RdG GSG EG

b (OEMs) UCG ILCG qe C fEG a FGO QfG dM a g (DIPs
QfG g dG (Surface Mount) dG dG RQ JH jGe H GdqJ
.eH HQ hCG MdG J hO UH IQGdG HQ JH dG Y a

Y pUe OqGe e bO jH LGH g RdG FGW S iNCG Mf e

dG e M hCG AfEG iOqCG c .k GL qV ae H J GQGdG Md
cJ IOjR a YS UUQ cqe OLh dEG GQGdG Md Y prWn H
(Transformers) qdc fhdEG f q dG H CG c .IO dG g
j hCG j (Power Semiconductors) IQdG U e fCGh
.SMT RQ d

T Y aJo b (Lead-Tin Solder) UUdGh jdG pd HGhQ EG

Y kS KCJ b IOdG CG c ,dqdG Mh T NCJ H IOdG Mh
Ue fCG e dG IQGdG ODJ b dc .QdG dH J
.ah dG a dEG IQdG

fhdEG e jdG d LM hCG qe g SMT cJ Ea dP Yh

Notebook) jadG GJedG e (fhdEG e L NBG) j dG
jdG fdGh ,(Palmtop Computers) dG MGQ GJ ch (Computers
,(CD Players) W dG UG bCG u eh ,(Pagers) dBG AG dG I LCGh
nJ IqdG GQGdG MJCG d ,dP dEG aVEH .jhdG GPSpeoh
Plug-in) RdG a Te H (Computer Peripherals) adG JdG e

840
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. DVD `dG bGqSh ,CD-ROM `dGh ,(Hard Disk) dG UdGh ,(Modems)

dG e jd FGa adG dYh IdG GQGdG Md aqh dh

ILCGh ,VCRs `dGh ,jdG fqeh ,jdG GJdG e fhdEG
AGOCG YS IOjR Y IdG GQGdG Y dHh .dG ILCGh ,RdG
.ddG bKdG dEG aVEH

fhdEG bdGh YdG GQGdG Md

bdGh (Printed Circuit Boards PCBs) Y dG GQG dG M d EG
fCG Y J ,dheh IrnU ,o dG bQ Md g (Cards) fhdEG
fhdEG fq dG Uhh J M d gh (Pads) GO aQh , U e
YdG dG MH kjCG YdG MdG Jo .fehdEGh
IQGO (Master Artwork) Md 1-28 dG a .(Printed-Wiring Board PWBs)
e HqdGh FGhdGh AGOdG dG Jh ,fdG jOMoCGh H Ye
hCG Hqd jRGdG dG Jh ,GOadGh UdG de a dG
dEG fCG g jJ a PCB fU g cj .DIPs `dG d We FGhdG
.HdG bGdG a GOadGh UdG H MG e (Hardware) GhOCG
Single or Double Sided) fdG LhOe hCG jOMCG MdG Y eCG Gg j
gahCGh kYT MdG cCG Jh .dG IOe PCBs dEG aVEH (Boards
Epoxy -) cjEH qe LLR Tb e hCG dH qe GQhCG a c
.(Impregnated Glass Cloth

fC We PWB h PCB jdG c CG 1-28 dG e MdG e

e bqe fe QKBG Y bGdG a J Mda .bdG UdG Y Gj
J eY a GQGO J gh .edG GQGdG hCG SCG e k H dRY IOe
Y kf J fdG QKBG Ea dP Y k a .ddGh LdG fqdG H
e S AZ gO Y hCG ,dRdG IOdG e SdG bbQo W b hCG q M
IOc) kFc Iq e Y IOe Y ,SdG j e kdZh ,UdG IOdG
.FGdG g e N HQ hCG ,(ae
841
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,(Resist Masks) ehe H J g g LCG dG MdG zdG{ CG Y

SG a dP eh .qe jHh (Fine-Mesh Screen) dG bO TT N
a J hO dP j CG dG eh Gd PWBh PCB JQdG GSG
.FdG eGSG

be S jdG dG Md dGh jObG ugCG dEG k Gfh

MdG g Jo .J jW Y dG e AdG Gg a GQGdG Md
ie a MdG LGJh .fhdEG fqdG (d) cd Se OGH
,GJdG dEG dCGh dG GhOCG e AkG HG dG e SGh
hCG Rd fdG OSEG gaJ dEG aVEHh .jdGh dG ILCGh
dhGJ AKCG fqdG hCG RdG jM Y MdG g J ,fhdEG fdG
.f hCG

,jQGdG TCG d Ue kMS hCG kgLh kjCG MdG qJ b

e GfCG dgh .SdG fdG jd m Gh Qc hCG ,IQdG jRdh
(Multiple-Wire Board) IOdG SCG Md J dG GQGdG Md e
dhe bO SC JeJhCG HdGh (Placement) VdG jH YdG
jObG fCG dG g KCG bh .Uc J d dG dG S Y

842
Y Y Z dh ,dhqCG PdG jd hCG ,dG fEG ie Y
.dG fEG ie

j dG (Wire-Wrap Board) qdG dG Md a NBG jJ dgh

.jOY be IYCG e ae Y

Fe hCG UN jhj GhOCG SGH IYCG g M dhdG SCG q Joh

dGREG j SCG g CG e ,IYCG dEG MEH SCG HJh q J JDe
EG .dG a fqdG jJ hCG jd eCG qj eY IQGdG Y qd
dG Gq eoh JG I LCG e U N G fC Y GQG dG g
.dG gCJ IOYE jJ dG JeJhCG

dG dG M d hCG ,(Backpanels) dG GQG dG M d EG

Ye gh ,jdG PC Md cdG H a H e (Backplanes)
.(Daughterboards) jH Md a d qeo FHc (Spines) GOGeG

f e e a (Flex-Circuit) hCG (Flexible-Circuits) fpdG GQGdG eCG

e SH AH dheh dG bO fpe OGe e e dh IdG GdCG
qdGh bdG FHdG dG a Jh ,(Mylar) QjdG hCG ddG
pUe Y J bh ,e AZh NGO Y H JGQGO q pJo dGh
.(Ribbon Cable) jT c J jRGe

dG GQGdG Md J
: g U C G K K d E G j d G PC M d J j

QKBG Y Jh ,(Single-Sided Board SSB) MG dG L dG M d (1

Ye oU Qh e kf fqe gh ,IMGh L Y GOadGh UdG
.Sf AH (Laminated) seoh ddH YqdG LdG dCGh ,dH

gQKBG qJoh ,(Double-Sided Boards DSBs) dG hCG rLdG GdCG (2

843
Yqe LLR dCG hCG ddG e kdZ fqe IU Md Lh Y UdG
Y K Y DSBs H jh .dH YqdG QdG H cjCH
N dG GQL fe N e J (Plated-Through Holes PTHs)
.MdG Lh c UdG dG Hj d MdG

3 e kf fe gh ,(Multilayer Boards MLBs) IOdG dG Md (3

q
dEG 4 kdM e FdGh ,W 60 e j e Y H j bh ,W 16 dEG
Z LdG dCG e W HQ hCG H IOY MdG g nJo .W 6
Preformed Copper) qe Z Sf QKBG e Jh (Uncured Fiber) ddG
d He GQhS AGLEG H MdG J dG Y AfCG Hh (Traces
Y UdG e H d dG GQ L f e CG ,DSBs H IdG
J a ,(Power Planes) bW Uh c dG H j bh .dG
.(Ground Planes) VQCG UJ c iNCG

IQGdG - Md J
jdG dG J IQhS
Vh g (Circuit Board Manufacturing) IQGdG Md d dhCG IdG EG
dG fqdG ad (Footprints) bGe jJ hCG e qj fH SQ
qjh .MdG J OhM V bdG ceCG a MdG Y HJo hCG oS
hCG Se Qqj CG udG eEHh .MGh Lh GP Md k e 1-28 d G
FdGh d kah LdG IOe hCG ,LdG hCG ,MGdG LdG Md he
.J a gNqj dG FdG

f qd MdG N J LGdG dG a c b e S dG q j
.HQ OGdG (Hardware) fhdEG fqdGh (Leaded Components) UUdG
dYh ,MdG a YJQGh ,fqdG H kdY qdG j CG bqjoh
S SCG (Artwork) SdG g qJh .IQGd gjJ eoh ,fhdG
SQ jh .dG hCG ddG d (Design Prototype) dhqCG dG fE

844
,(kjhj) dG SGH GQGd dhCG d hCG dG IGdG Md zSdG{
efH Y JdG GSH hCG ,(Adhesive Strips) d WTCG GSH dPh
.GQGdG Md Jh Sd

f j mFY M H MGdG LdG Md zSdG{ pSQ e GPEGh

(Copper Laminated Blank) dG Sf ZQa qY dEG ITe dhqCG dG
SG jH hCG ,aG Z J a FG H hCG ,(Tracing) J W N e
x
H zSdG{ J kf jh ,(Xerographic Copying Methods) aGZhjdG
jdG H hCG dG dG d kaGZJ a s Jo K (Oversize) cCG
.(Photomask Preparation)

SqdG J VJ b dTEG jqCG q M odG Y qj ,jQJ VGZCh

T eY KCj IOe M ah .fe fEG H hCG ,e AGOCH J d
RdG a S dG jhdG hCG (Case) dG gh H gOHCGh GQGdG Md
jo jb IQGd k GjJ hCG k GjJ MdG fc GPEa .fhdEG dG hCG
GQGb dEG Qj bh .jS dG dG (Packaging) RQ H dG
,UdG QKBG YJ hCG cH J J hTh ,MdG IOe QNG e iNCG
.fEd c bCGh kJ SCG g dG LdG Md Ea ,Yh .VYh

YGd Ne YdGh jQdG GQGdG J FSh J ,kjJ

eJ TG j dd - HS ed TCG Y eY J ,Ic fH
OHCG M GQGdG J M HS eJ e gjJ hCG IjL GQGO
.ke JG b FGWh dG OqGeh

J YCG aH dG Y (Facilities) FSdG g e kdM jh

Ic e J fEa dHh ,jJc Y e a GQGdG Md
IcGP a fhe ech IgL eJ dEG a VE H IQG dG SQ U Y e
.k GQa dEG Md hCG GSG IOYE JdG

H dG e cCG SH IOY YdGh jQdG PCB zSQ{ SJh

845
jdG JdG jH dG dG dEG kM dGN dPh ,1:10 GdG
jdG PC d UCG zSqdG{ (Download) GfEG Ojh .(Photolithography) hCG
e W d (Mask) H fE ,x-y KGMEG Yh ,JdG TT Y IqdG
aqT Me Y (Master Drawing) UCG SqdG J .MdG W
hCG LdG J Mh .IadG fCGh UdG bGe jd e iNCGh
Le hCG dS IQc dG fEd jdG dG J j ,dG
.UCG Sd

dGh dG IQhS
(Photomask) jdG dG VJ dG bOh jdG dY PCBs d
FS hCG U AH e J dGh ITe SdH qdG qdG AZ Y
.(Photoresist) FdG dG g Ad heh dG a qTCd Sq M
.dSh Le FdG dG Gg e Yf dgh

qdGh dG e c Vqjoh AdH IdG qdG a jdG dG VJ

Ad he g dG FdG dG J j CG Hh .dG a TCd
FGdG AGLCG H hJ a Jh SdG AGLCG qJ Fc e a OdG
IQhd kahh ,nUodG QKBd dS hCG Le IQU dG Jh .dG a
.2-28 dG a qeo g c ,IQdG (Etch Process) dG

Fc qe g (QdG dEG) 2-28 dG a qdG ddG FdG dG EG

,dHh FdG dG e qdG AdG J bh GPEG jh dj (Resist)
Y H odG d ehe J ,dG a qTCd VqJ Yh
TCd VqdG e e fc dG dG We a GJ dG bdG a .dG
g dGh .dG dG a fHhd dG dG N dG a
.d dS IQU

We e AdG dGREGh SdG AdG Y (Etch) f GMEG mFH jh

.IdG IOdG jRCG M dG

846
 d E G) 2-28 d G a d G L d G F d G d G E a ,d P e d G Yh
dG e dG AdG J c GPEG jh dj FV qe g (dG
SdG AL j Yh .dG a qTCG e ke j dHh jdG
VdG dG We GJ a dG Y H dG d kehe Gg
f j iNCG Iqeh .dG e adG AGLCG N dG a TCd
.FdG qdG jRCG M dG We a b hCG SdG AdG

dH W IOYEG j MdG CG LdG FdG qdG GSG FGa e

Y qdG QNG qSDjh .aVEG Ue pc fK Ie jJh FdG
H Y Jh e VY GP Ue N Y dG e qe eGY
.dG J LQOh ,UdG ac Y dch ,qe aH

jH H

FV qe qe AZ FV qe
dS SdH Le

qe qe
dG H

.LdGh ddG FdG qdG GSG Ff :2-28 dG

(UfEG IQhS hCG) UdG fCG W IQhS

GQhdG e f g PC Md d kjQJ keGSG cCG dG EG
IQhS hCG zfG K WEG{ IQhH qjo e hCG (Subtractive Process) UdG
.3-28 dG a qneo g c ,(Pattern Plating Process) dG W

847
IGdG b e GSG SGh dG dG jW Y jdG g J
ah .fhdG MdG e dhqCG Pd jS fEG Vd GdG qJh
kcQJ ,qdG dG e a ZdG Z SdG (dH) j GQhdG g
dhqCG edG jQe a de jdG g CG eh - SdG d Ze kWfCG
d UUdG - jdH (Copper Pads) SdG GaQ W Lj fCG EG
H SdG e AL CG Vqj Sh .(Solder) dG hCG dG IOe e YJ
- jdH dG WdG J dHh .IcCG KC d W hO k Vq e
Lph ,iNCG Mf e .edG gY jh qe GQGdG Md e UUdG
W jW g YCG bKh GPh H Md fE jObG cCG j W
H dG IQhS N dG GN RfE SCG jdG JH dG ,fCG
.dG Y cEG H gRfEG

VJh SdH qdG ZQdG qdG e (Photoresist) FdG qdG eqjo

.CG-3-28 dG a qeo g c ,UV TCd jdG b ba jdG dG
a fCG kcQJ ,UdG f Oqj dG qdG AL hj qdG J Hh
SdG jo .-3-28 dG a qe g c ,TCd VdG SdG AdG
hCG ,UUdG - jdG pd hCG U SGH eEG .kfhdG mF H V dG
feEG dG Gg Rqjo .gdG - dH hCG ,dG - jdH hCG ,jdH
.MdG GQhdG N Sd (Solderability) dG

e HdG Z AGLCd dH d H mFH dG SdG AZ j

.-3-28 dG a qeo g c ,MdG a SdG AZ

dH kTc NBG e SGH qdG qdG Gjo ,ddG IdG a

IdGh .O-3-28 dG a qeo g c ,a ZdG Z SdG S
dG) MdG Y dH ke kFc a ZdG Z SdG b g INCG
dG IQhd gq jh dG T fhdEG dG j dHh .(`g-3-28
.INCG

848
 FV H
he
Sf AZ
Ge qe
Y IOe AdG Vd
SSCG SdG
(CG) ()

d Geo qe
dH W SdG
H jd
dG
() (O)
SdG e je
(Etched) QdG
dG UdG d
(`g)

.fhdEG AdH dG H jH Jo gh Ye GQGO Md :3-28 dG

hdG YW IQhS
MGdG LdG GP MdG d (Printed-Resist Process) jdG g J
dG IQhd jH g dGh .QdG fEG a dG L dGh
ShCG d LfEG FdG dG a Jo dG (Subtractive Process)
Sf AH qe Md Y ITe IQH ehdG dG d (Screens)
.(Copper Foil Laminated Board)

oSG fCG EG (Silk Screen) jdG e TH j SdG c HdG a

eGSG Oj CG j IOe gh CGd HdG Z jdG e SCG H
.Yhe fc dEG aVEH

SdG e AL Cjo ,(Photolithography) fhdEG dG FGW GSG idh

IdG IOdG Nd (Open Mesh) Me K e kf J Ld IOH
N IOdG bE ZOEG Y e S Jo K .(Photoresistive Ink)
.dG Z MdG We dEG dG g

849
 aVEG IQhS
IQh d c dG IQh dG g (Additive Process) a VEG IQh S EG
LQdG FHdG QdG J jH SdG SJ qj ah ,UfEG
Md Y ke Vh K (Adhesive Coating) U Z Y (Electroless)
.(Blank Board) ZQa

ah .MdG Y FfG IQH jo CG SdG dG UdG IOdG YJ

.SdG e AH dhCG SdG SGdG (cS) pK dEG jo M GN
hCG UUdG - jdG H UdG eJo ,UfEG IQhS a eCG g ch
jW Y Jo dG SdG qJh dG IAc d jdH Jo
FdG e mFH SdG LSGh SdG Y dG c naJ aVEG
J dG FdG GSG e qd he Jh .dG a IYdG
dG IaGd H dG FGdG dch UN OW FShh GhOCG dEG
.qdG e d SdG

dH qjo e jJ UfEG jW e J CG aVEG jd j

LdG Md a edGh (Plated-Through Holes PTHs) kY dG
.Oqe fe f W IQhH jdG g qJoh .LdG IOdGh

kYo dG W IQhS
jJ a e KCJ (Plated-Through Holes PTHs) IQhdG g jd c
aVEG IQha .LdG IOeh LdG GP fhdEG MdG YU
Hd MhdG dG a (Metal Eyelets) fe qY ZOEG jd k GM Vhn
.bKe b dEG aVEH bd eh e jW gh ,UdG dG

dG HQ Ue hCG NGO dc d dG dG jW Jh
(jQHCG) He dG dG a ,dG c hCG IMGh L dEG ZdG
Mh YCG dEG OdG dG j dG Y Nh .fqdG bC
.fK HGQ jd jdG IgdG H (Leads) bCG
850
Ue J H hCG b ZQdG GQGdG Md Y dG b j dd
MdG Lh H e HQ j Mh bGdG J a dG b j .IQGdG
c hCG MGh Lh H hCG ,NGdG dG e cCG hCG MGh H hCG ,LdG FK
.dG IOe MdG Lh

jH SdH K U IOH d NGdG GQdG W mFH qj

Ac IQhdG g e AfG Yh .(Electroless Deposition) fhdEG SdG
edG K SdG H fhdEG SdG jW J UfEG IQhS e
Y a aVEG jW a eCG ,dG - gdH dG hCG d qdH
.e jJ SCc SdH dG

dG IOqe MdG J
GaQ H (Multilayer Board Fabrication) dG IOqe MdG qJ
FGW e jW CH (Partially Cured Laminate) ddG FL qe Y QKBGh
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UQ mFH j .MdG a dhdG J e IOdG dG hJh Gg
ddG dEG aVEH dGh IQG dG SG H HQh (Stacking) dG
dG dC J .(Monolithic Board) qUGe jOMoCG Md jJh d H
J CG feEH ,cCG hCG W HQCG e kf dG IOe Md NGdG
dG j .NGO jQCJ hCG ,IQd Ue S hCG NGO Ue Y
, J W O Y Y d G q H , j d G h Y d G h , j Q d G PC M d S d G
dG f bdG a MdG aqM qSJ f Jh .(1.6 mm) 0.0625 in dGM
Card) bdG aqM pUe fc GPEG ,fdG GaQh UdG a J
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HGc g aqdG eGd J .GSH IOdG g (Edge Connectors
d dPh gdH e IOY J dG bQdG aM UH Jd (Plugs)
d dh .eGdG J CG hO UdG H fGh JQH J
Two-Piece) dG FK YdG GQGdG Md Ue a LM eGdG
.(Printed Circuit Board Connectors

851
 dG S GQGdG Md
k GQNG IqdGh ,(Surface-Mount Circuit Boards) MdG g dCG d
,fhdE G bdGh MdG a zdG{ kY dG dG dGE LdG ,SMT
Y jdG Z jdG J MdG g a .Y IdG LddGh
e dN Md a GadGh UdG S dEG ITe (Leadless) bCG
Surface-Mount PC) dG dG GP PC Md J (Hole-Less) dG
q
CG EG MdG jOMoCG MdG GSG e SMT IQhS nqSh dh .(Boards
AGM ,dY GQGO ach , bQ V Y N Y j e F dG
FK MdG a LdG c kHS q j c dG MGh Lh Y f fqdG
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ae Y J dG SMT fqe e (GQGdGh fhdEG fqdG OY)
adG gh ,(2.3 mm) 0.10 in e UCG H (Finer Pitch) k GL IU Ua
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YdG dG hCG dG GQhS

J FSh a MdG fqd YdG qdG hCG sd N FGW g
:gh ,jdG ,dH fEG

a (3 ,(Vapor-Phase Reflow) QdG dM QfG (2 ,(Wave) LdG (1

Hot Plate) NdG dG Ue (4 ,(Infrared Oven) AGdG J TCG
e IMGh Y dG g e jW c J .(Laser) QjdG (5h ,(Conduction
fG (2 ,(Conduction) UdH fG (1 gh ,cCG hCG IQGdG fG W
a dG UdGh .(Radiation) TEH fG (3 ,(Convection) dH
hCG ,(Sn) jb dG a 31h (Pb) UUQ dG a 63 e e GQhdG g
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(Screening) f SGH ,fK jo M ,fqdG e kf UdG ejh

Metalized) e fnreo IaQ Y e f N e (Stenciling) ShQ hCG
n

852
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.dG Y bfG fdG

LdH dG IQhS
GQGdG Md QKBG Jo (Wave-Soldering Process) IQhdG H dG bo
zkWQ{ OdG UdG j d UUdG - jdH fqdG GaQ Kh
UUdG Z fqdG ee Lj c .d dG dG ac jh
e edG j d dPh ,MdG Y J M kbDe AGdH UUdH edG hCG
Y Jh .jdG J CG hO dG ce Y Vhh jJh MdG
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fqdG d JeJhCG Y L d H dG EG .(and Place Operation
e LdH dG jh .GQGdG Md dEG UUdG hCG UUdG Z fhdEG
qJJ CG b LdG jd (Nozzle) Sqe N QdG UdG aO N
c ,Ie IQH gjhJh J Oj M hdG GqdG b dEG LGQ
Dual) LdG FK d IMd e SQ jo dG 4-28 dG a eo g
q q
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ce Jh .(6 ft/min) 20 ft/min Y jJ YH j Fe bf GMp Y
dqdG LdG Meh ,(Preheat Stage) dG b e Me Y LdH dG
LdG YS AH dG jh ,(Exit) kLe K ,(Active Wave Stage)
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LdG Y UdG e k Ge kaZ ,HdGh qdG ,dhCG LdG uSJo

J hCG UUdG fqdG - ac dH je ,PC `dG Md (Underside) NGdG
WJQG ac AfEG LdG g e jo .UUdG Z dch kbDe dG
LdG eh .MdG e dG AdG a bqDdG AGdG dGREGh ,UdH UdG
dG UdG qj (Laminar Flow Wave) dG afG fG e fdG
Y K jCG NGO Ud Se fG d dhCG LdG a qSJ
dG Fe H J .H JdG UdGh (Plated Trough Holes) AdG

853
Qe e j (Air Knife) AGdG qS qjo NSh af QJ Y LdH
Y QdG Gg j .dG afG fG Le N YVe IR pe
jh . k FS Gj UdG j M bdG Ia e k qe UdG fG
J jhdG YqodG hCG k GL H e Z HGQ jCG Y k GH UdG f Y kjCG
UdG dGREG e AGdG S J dG dG ib e UdG fG j .dG
.HGhdG e
bf GM GQGdG Md MdG JG
Fe

UdG fG
QdG

q n pe
UdG
UdG GqN
QdG
QdG

e
J

. L d H d G I Q h S :4-28 d G

jRdG ddH dG Y
IOYEH d jW g (Vapor-Phase Soldering Process) jRdG ddH dG EG
fqdG Hd J ,5-28 dG a qe g c (Reflow Soldering) adG
VJ .kFe SMT dG dG jHh ,GQGdG Md dEG fhdG
Y (Eutectic) UCG UUdG - jdG UH HbCG qZ dG fqdG
IM a (Assembly) cdG VJ K .jdG H Iq e GaQ e MdG
(215F) 419C e J JQGMh (UdG QH hCG) q RZ U Y J
qj dG (Fluorinated Hydrocarbon) QrnodG HchQdG FS QH H
QfG IQGM LQH dG qjh .MdH fqdG dGh UdG aO IOYEG
LQH kjfK k GQH fCG H j .FdG Gg Z LQO SGH bH

854
 bf

fK QH
e
48C J
[117F]
dhCG QH
IOYEG IQhS
Md aO
215C GQGdG
[419F]

eN FS
q S
e WZ

. j R Z d M a O I O Y E G - d f :5-28 d G

jdG g qJo dHh .dhqCG QdG a

q dH QdG d (117F) 48C
.zdG dM aO IOYEH dG{`H

dG S LddG
g (Surface Mount Technology SMT) dG dG Ld J EG
S Y GaQ Y UUQdG fqdG d a j YU LdJ
.6-28 dG a qeo g c ,K Y J GQGO Md

e AGHG fqdG H UdG gdG ac SMT LdJ Jh

dG Mh ,LddG d qdG fhdEG fqdG Jh dG
GqdGh GhOCG dEG aVEG K Y jhdG Z GQGdG Md dGh
Y b MdG dEG SMT fd bdG dGh ,Vhh ,d eR dG
.YdG IdGh ,QNGh ,dG J jdG Ea dP Y k a .dG

Mh ,dGh dG Jh ,fqdG ac a jGdG SMT ae J

.nJrnDeo J FGW N e dG c Jh ,GQGdG Md

.dG J a d dG dGh dG b dGREG Y gJh

855
 SH bbQ eM
UUQ -
U RQ
r en H fqe
U U bbQ

IQGdG Md

.GQGO Md Y be fqd S d :6-28 dG

ILCG hCG BG qoU Sh fqdG qoU C RdG ac OGORG d

qSh (Pin Pitch) dG IK boh ILCG RQ M e Gqb UdG f
OY Y J CG cCGh UCG MdG eEHh .SMT `H UdG J
H UCG MH dh UUdG fqdG Mc keJ f fqdG
hCG dG Y M GNH QhH Gg jh .(Lower Profiles) WGdG FS
(Stacked) qUGe Vh j bdG hCG dG GQGdG Md C jhM
Y a J dEG ODj dG eCG (Card Cages) bdG UbCG a HQeh
UGdG ILCG e UN GfCGh ,dBG AGdG ILCGh ,ddG f dG
Y jj fhdEG bdG hCG GQGdG Md Me a k GNG CG cjh .dG
.
k a J b d G a 40

f IOY a SMT fqd (Pins) HdG cGe H (Pitch) adG eCG

aVEH .jdG UUdG fqdG H adG e (2.5 mm) 0.10 in bCG hCG
G P j d G G Q G d G M d e U C G J S MT G Q G O M d E a d P d E G
dG d ae jCG Qg dEG LdG d dPh ,IMGdG dG LQO
Automatic Insertion) JeJhCG ZOEG Fe SG H dG NGO (Leads)
.(Machines

a FGMGh fqdG H HdG W e qj fqdG ac a IOjdG EG

Radio) jOGdG OOdG NGJ e c M dEG QhH Gg j .UCG fEG Yo
Electromagnetic) eh dG NG dGh (Frequency Interference RFI
.YCG GOOJ Y J CG IQGd jh ,(Interference EMI

856
b nJrnDeo fqe GSG N e edGh dG a e aJ j
Pick and) zdG a Vh - dEG{ Fe EG .JdH Y IdG J
q
aJ FSh J a e g c ,SGh fEG Y d qeo (Place
dG dEG aVEH IdG JG FSh hCG ,dG dG GP dG
.JDdG fhdEG

Oscillating Feed) Iab jOOJ NOEG FSH JDdG FdG J j

FdG e u dGh ,(Capacitors) dGh ,eh dG YRq e ,(Hoppers
bbQ a RJ dG edG GQGdG Mh ,GQjfG dGh (GO jG dG)
e Y (Grippers) HGdG Jh .dG Sb jh M a e
M bO efH d dG J dGh bdG hCG MdG a bGe a fqdG
.k GL Ic YH dP j

Hybrid Circuit) dG GQG dG L d J q f M g SMT EG

dG ddG GQGO j J e FGhCG jCG N Qq J dG (Technology
b ,ddG bKdG GP jhdG GQGdGh ,AdGh ,jdG eGSd
.(VLSI) k GL dG idG GP edG Y M

.bQ AZ H fnrneo Ue e JG CG e OqdG OjGdG HQ j

SH GaCG a Kh fe jUCG UGd e (Chip) bbdG HQ kjCG eEH
.IcCG d dPh (Protective) ae

AdG LdJ SGH ,KdGh dGh ,ehdG J jh

ehe aVEG j c ,SSCG IOdG a ITe IQHh dG hCG bdG
GQGO Md J NCj CG jh .LdG Hh bbQ H e hCG
fhdEG f qdG e d Od jQGdG e dG d H SMT
bCG C UdG a d HQe edG g J CG L q jh .MdGh
e eU S Vqe fCh MdH ITe d SMT m f qe
.fdG bCd dG KCdG hO GRGgGh

857
fhe J L bbdG jfh bCGh IC eRQh dG QjfGdG EG
q j a IQGdH OdG ee jd QdG e je NDj d eh .cdG

qJ qeo qdG qe dEG aVEH dG GOdG f OLEG

.UdG JQG a Y k a fqdG jhd Ieqe

dG he
CG b e jh PC Md qj AW g (Solder Resist) dG he EG
SSCG Xh EG .LdH dG Y hCG ,jRdG ddG d Me N U
qJ d dG PC Md e WdG g a fG hCG QdG UdG NCG jJ
Y N IOe Z U Wb qJ MG e j fCG c .UdG fH
.qdG e PC Md Ue Y ajoh LdH dG

We a bqDdG fdG jo .FGOh bDe :UdG fe e Yf dg

g Jh .UdG NCG e qe S Y ad PC Md a IQe
.dG de a H hj d WTCG hCG ,We J OGe Y fGdG
W a J FGS hCG Ad fe FGS H a FG dG fG dG eCG
.bW ZCG H dch ,TdG

IOqdG SCG GQGO Md

Md jObG FGdG g (Multiple-Wire Circuit Boards) MdG g EG
zSdG{ c aqJ fC ,
k b Y dG j eY j dG GQG dG
HJh dhdGh bdG SCG VJ .jdG dG GJh ,(Artwork)
qdG LdG dCG e Md Y (Point to Point) dG dEG dG jH
eeh y-x jQdG Y J cd kah SCG VnJh .cjEH
dG SCGh ,Ie fqdG H HdG d UN IH e d
J dG MdG g EG .IQGdH de UH qe H HJo WJ
oS j LdG FK MdG Y IOLdG d ae fqdG e ac
. (1.6 mm ) 0.0625 in

858
 qdG dG Md
qdG LLdG dCG e Md g (Wire-Wrap Boards) MdG g EG
fCH SqdG jOdG HqdG IYCG e ae Y Jh cjEH
dGh HdG SGH f dEG f HdG pd IYCG J .MdG Y e
j SCG q d Y EG .IYCGh jOdG hdG dG jf H dG
q d Fe WSH hCG jhj GhOCG SG H k jh j gDhG LEG
.JDdG SCG
Jda CG hCG ,da J j fhdEG ILCG a MdG g J
ILCG hCG ,ATE JeJhCG dG RL eCG eh .dG H d VYo
dGSG j (dG J) UCG dG c hCG AL EG .dG JG
.V IOYEG hCG dG Xh a GqJ S kfGe

dG MdG
Oc J GQGO Md gh .(Backpanel) LCG dH kjCG Jo
Md gh .qeo fhdEG f V cCG hCG (bH hCG) Md H Hd a
c ,e U H Ye GQGO Md Uh Y qKo IU GQGO
CG MdH IOY dG MdG Y q Jo .7-28 dG a q eo g
GQGdG MH H JdG GQGdG Md H qJo a (Motherboards)
J jH dG M IOY dG MdG qJo .(Daughterboards) dG
hGjh FR-4 cjEH qdG LdG dCG e Ye e dGh PCB.
Y GQGdG J eEH .(6.4 mm 1.5 mm) 0.250 in h 0.060 in H cS
dEG
k Uh dG IOe L jh ,dG MdG Lh c hCG MGh Lh
aCG FHc qUGN aqJ CG dG IOe dG MdG eEHh .W 12
.dG LdG FK MdG e

q J ,ICs ee GQGOh jS d qdG dG MdG a

dG
,(Ground Loop) VQCG dGh ,(Voltage Drop) ddG QGfGh ,(Capacitance)
e (0.8 mm) 0.030 in e J dG NGdG SdG W aqJh .fO LQO dGE
.MdG d Y QJ f IQb e Lj

859
 Ue

PC M d I O e
SSCG

. d G M d G :7-28 d G

e W T Y jdG eGSd dG MdG H qJoh Gg

V bO bGH K d We dhe fe fH - SGH dCG
e YCG RQ Ib dCG H qdG dG MdG aqJh .MdG
dG jdG eGSd dG MdG ah .jdG dG MdG
ddG Md g fdG dGh dG Md k e dCG H dG jo
aVEH HdG dG Y d MdG g J jh .(Voltage Plane)
.bdG aqM Ud b OSEG H aqJ fc Y k a bhdG qUGN dEG

IMGdG dG aqM U d k S SCG dG M dG J CG j

Two) bhdG PC Ue f e dG hCG (One-Piece Edge Connector)
IYCH hCG UdG qH UdG He Jh (Piece Box Style PC Connector
Md H UGdG UdG H adG OJh .(Wiring Posts) J
GP PC Md UH dG MdG qJo M .IQh dG GQG dG
a dG MdG Y (cdG AdG) He e UdG f jo dG
.(fCG AdG) (Sockets) HdG Y jdG PC Md a UdG f j
U Vh Y j b dG CdG V jMh kYO dG hCG adG aqJh
.U Z IQH HdG

860
 UGdG VGZC bdG hCG PC Md e dG MdG qJo
dG Y N Gd fhdEG dG VqJ GPEGh .jdGh jQdG
g Jo .(Wire Wrapped) S J dEG dG UdG jJ j
Jh .dG hCG AfEG be a qeo d kq e RdG c GPEG kjCG dG
AdG GSG d jQhV bhe UGH SCG qe dG MdG
Uh Jo .(Emitter Coupled Logic ECL) YdH HdG `d
MdG a kS Ieo K a Ue d eCG j M ,(Press-Fit)
kY e K a UdG eGd S (Press Fitting) Y qJh .dG
.(1.1 mm 1.0 mm) 0.043 in h 0.040 in H hGJ NGO QbCG GPh bH YVeh

eo (Interface) dG dG Uh hCG f q e J j dG ah
.kFHc Ieh kfe

e SdH dG dG GQL H Rd Ieo Z FHc Uh VJ

.(Contacts) eGdG Hh kY dG dG

jh fdG GQdG a gqJ qJ Hqe VY We eGd

.KqdGh ScCG NO d dG SQe AKCG SdG dG

dG a nJo eY WfG a qj jH eGdG H S Y d

NGdG dGh dG H eJ S e je ad OJ K kY dG
a he cJ VH HdG OZEG H IdG dG e cCG ,d
Oa eJ H fCG H J .UdG e j d eG dG
J ed dPh YdG IQGdG Ud kLhNh k NO (Individual Contact)
.d hCG IQGdG

861
862
 h d G h S d G d G

:qfhdEd jOqdG fqdG

Uhhn ,c ,SCG

jdG

qfhdEd Uh eT If
(Connectors for Electronics )
fhdEG fd He qfhdEd S
(Sockets for Components ) (Wire for Electronics )
cdGh dG HGbh HGdG (Cable for Electronics) qfhdE d c
(Phone and Phono Jacks and Plugs )
jdG dCG Uh fhdEG dG J
(Fiberoptic Connectors ) (Electronic Cable Manufacturing )
dG dG c J
(Fiberoptic Cable Manufacturing )

eT If
f qdG e qfh dE d (Hardware) j OqdG fq dG Q J d
863
 d G h , (Wire ) d c : J G P c G d G Y J G J h , b C G F H d G
S d G h , (Insulating Blocks ) d G c h , (Connectors ) U d G h , (Cable )
Qq Wo j OqdG f qdG e IjL GfCG dG Y R H bh .(Fastners)
GhOCGh ,(Sockets) HdGh UdG HdG Uc qfhdEd kN
pdG e f a ,Q dG FGOh e f IQh S gh .(Adapters) p U dG
, (Solid State Circuitry ) d G d d G G Q G O d E G (Electron Tube ) f h d E G
fdG FHdG GdCG GS eh GQGd dG d a NG
dEG IQb eh (Tube Sockets) HdG epU e U Y jdG
f e dG Y SGh Hh gQhH g JCG bh .dG GQGdG Md
qdGh ,IdG Ud dG Sa (Point to Point Wiring) iNCG dEG
. (Enclosures )

SCc jdG qfhdEG jOe Y dG SG jW Gdh

d G J d G M h , (Insulated Hookup Wire ) d R d G U d G S C G h C G d G
Flat ) d G j d G c h , Q d G e d G h (Flexible Telephone Cord )
e d G j e h e C G E G , (Knobs ) f h d E G J d G h (Ribbon Cable
c K C J d c (Interchangeable ) G S d H b f h d E G f e Y d d G
.edG ddG dG LM J d fqdG g Jh J Yf Y
g a ge J dEG dG bh dG fe b Y dG J OCG bh
.fhdEG LdG

dG FGO dG IaGe a fhdEG YdG e AdG Gg SGh

.K a c bCGh cJ a bO cCG d dGh

qfhdEd S
, (Hookup Wire )
UdG S ,fhdEG SC FdG TCG e
Twisted Pair ) h d G h O d G d G h , (Backplane Wire ) d G d G h
dg CH kY ,a GfCG g Y dG Gg a TdG Sh .(Wire
ddG dG SCGh ,(Antenna Wire) FGdG S e SCG e iNCG kaUCG

864
 d G e S h , (Magnet Wire ) d G S C G h , (High Voltage Leads )
. g Z h , (Test Probe Wire )

FHd UdG OGdG

: qfhdEG a edG (Conductive Materials) UdG OG dG e
F S h , (Copper Covered Steel ) j d H d G S d G h , (Copper ) S d G
dG dCGh ,dGh ,dG dG CG EG ,dCGh , j dG S dG
f qdG YU a He ZCG a g dGh ,gdGh ,S d H
YU a keGSG cCG dG SdG H dP eh .fhdEG GhOCGh
fGdh ,ddG jQGdG eheh ,FHdG Ud dPh FHdG SCG
, (Solderability ) e d d S d E G a V E H , (Malleability ) b h W h (Ductility )
d G h , (Wear ) d G h , c B d G h C G d d d G e h e h , d d G Q f G L Q O h
. f d G c G P h G g c a , H Q h , (Fatigue )

(Electrolytic Tough Pitch ETP) g qfhdEd aUdG SdG JQ EG

SdG cCG e V c Y J ,dG IjT fCG fc e ,fEG Y
.dG e jY a gOLh j dG

Ue Ph cCG e N Sf Y dG adG dH jh
(Stranding ) d G S G H S d G S C G I O U J h . (OFHC ) g d Y
d dh IOdG H kS 19 e e c ajh .fhdG e jen AVE
dG e SdG SC IOdG IT jJh .cCG hCG kS 26 dG dG
c C G d E G h (MHD ) f G d G S e d E G (Soft-Drawn (SD) Annealed ) d G Y d G
I d G Y HD h MHD e d (Tensile Strength ) j J d G I d G j J h . (HD ) I O U
. M G d G (Guage ) Q d G e (SD ) S d j J d G

dG dG QY
d G a d G (Solid Wire Gauge ) d G d G Q Y j j b
a c e C G Q d G E G . (AWG ) c e C G S C G S e a 10 b Q f h d E G

865
No. 4/0 AWG e cCG fdG dGh .No. 4/0 q j SCG M J
. 250 MCM h C G 250,000 CM b J h (CM ) F G d G mils ` d H S j

hdG dG
d G f h d G e j d L d G Y (Stranded Wire ) h d G d G U j
dG j dP Y k a .ae e Me e dG dG gaj
.j CG hO dG dG Y kSb GAfGh GRGgG e k Gje hdG
KCJ d d dhe SCG Id KOGdG YdG hCG dG QdG CG c
dG Yb hCG J e fQdH FGOCGh fhdEG dG ehe Y cj
.ehe T hCG W d dG Hb Y gKCJ C dPh dG

26 ,9 ,16 h ,10 h ,7 d f h d E G a F d G U d G G P U d G E G
q
O G Y C G a d h e c h C G S C G 7 h ,19 e e C G , d h d G S C G e c C G h C G
b a He f e) e c M a SCG OY IOjR EG K . k b cCG
UdG Rh Sj .c YCG j fCG EG fhe cCG dG dP J (dG
fe OY Y k GOYG ,hdG dG a jFGdG mil `dG Me e kjOW
Me kjJ hJ hdG d jFGdG mil `dG Me CG EG .bh dG
. d G d G a d F G d G mil `d G

dG W
g d G e a e H S d G d G J g (Wire Plating ) d G W
h C G d H d G j h , (Solderability ) d G I Q b J h c C d G d
L Uc jdH dG SdG dG j .dG d dG
d G S d G d G j j h 150C Y j J L Q H I Q G d V j C G j T
Yh .SdG Ue e bCG Ue C SdG dG ehe jdH
e jj CG dH dGh eH dG SdG dG eEH ,dG
. e h e e d P j j C G hO 200C d E G 140C gh a k eY j IQGM bCG
dM RJ ddG dG Ue C OOdG dY GQGdG a kFe j dHh

866
Operating ) dG IQGM LQO e dH dG jj iNCG Mf e .dG
U J H U j d d ,260C d E G 140C e S d G d (Temperature
hG j Q GM i e a j W I d d G Y Q O b TFE d H h e O YG
. 260C h 200C H

dGh bGdG dG
e e G f C G (Protective Insulation and Jacketing ) d G d J
Yf GPh IQGdH J JGQh ,(Thermoplastic) QGdG SdG
QO hCG ,jT hCG ,dhCG Y a UJ HGc OGdG g Jh .SH
GjQc HdG T NCJ dG dhCG dRdG IOdG Jh .c hCG ,Gh
KCG e IOe dhCG h ,(Polyvinyl Chloride PVC) dG IOe
,fHchQdGh ,(Polyolifins - Polyetylene, Polypropylene) IOdG HhdGh
. PFA ` d G h FEP ,TFE d c

OYG UdG S
j T h C G U O M C G U e (Hookup Wire ) O Y G U d G S E G
ie UGdG g Jh .dGh ,CSA ,UL UGH d uoU he
d hCG ,Y GP hCG ,e jH MdG jQdG SCG e e kST
g e dh dG a k GgL jh Sb H jo Hh .e
3 2 A W G H O Y G d G Q Y h G j h . d G L d k a h j S C G
. 12 AWG h

dG GQGdG Md UJ S
(Packplane) dG MdG S hCG (Wire-Wrap Wire) Gg UdG S j
d hO NBG dG Y dH Jd e bQ OYG UJ S gh
dH geh U dG Ggh .H e GQGO UJ a e Ojh
ndG hCG d eheh JOd dPh dRdG Kynarh Tefzel JOH hCG
j h . S G h Q G M i e J G P h e Z f d d c h , (Stripping )
867
HQ OGdG GQGdG GdCG Y SCG e OY VH dG LQdG gb
. dG H

jf c Jh jdG c a Ib ad dG j hCG jo IOdG a

130,000 lb/in2 dGE j V J Vj Ff fe NT M Jh kfe
a (Wire-Wrap ) M d f G ) . J e J h C G c e h C G U N Y h C G d G S G H
. ( z f h d E G G Q G d G e b E G h R Q { ,28 d G

hOdG hdG dG
d c b C G U d G g (Twisted Wire Pairs ) h O d G h d G d G E G
Gj gh dG OGeh dG SGh H ajh .FHdG GQTEG
e ad VJ e ZdG Y fdG fh GQTEG SQEG a j
U d G g J . (Fiber Optic ) j d G d C G h Q d G I e d G
g a FdG RdGh ,20 AWG dEG 30 AWG ,(Stranded) jT H kf
OdG KEG hCG ,Teflon FEP WG dG R dGh , dG PVC ` dGh ,PVC
. (Polyethylene )

fhdEd c
S C G e I O Y h c C G h C G U e e (Cable for Electronics ) d G G g j
dEG dG J jh . e Z a dG hCG j dG S dG
hCG dG e GfCG HQCG dgh dH ehRe hCG RGdH dhe Ue
:g
300 ohm hn ,90 ohms hn 50 ohms N dhe Ue NGO dhe Z Ue (1
.QGhO FGg ch ,LhOe
hC G d G d c ) d R d G I O d G e W H Z e d h e Z U e (2
.(dG dG dG
.(h d G d c ) H e L e hC G e e I O e d h e SC G (3
. e H f C G A Z V I Q e I O e d h e SC G (4
868
 dG dG c
Z SCG OY SH (Common-Insulation Cable) dG dG c jo
.ba ee SH AZ jd (Etruder) KH N kfBG HdG dhdG
.JdG jdG dG gh QGdG S KdG U Th M Oj
:ddG SdG N e b jJh UdG J j
.dG aM Y jdG d He
Tinned and Bare Copper) QdG SdG e iNCGh I pe U e
q
. (Conductor
.IMGh L Y IRQdG fYdG hCG aqdG

dG dG
,(Planar) me S Y FdG dH (Flat Cable) dG dG jh
.RY SGH H JdG jRGdG UdG e OY e e gh
jFGO c f e J fe GOe OLh Y dG g J
M j H fe fc dEG aVEH RdGh MdG aJ a ,kU k GeCG
qJ dc .aGZHW fc e VQCG T nd ,IOdG jGhdG M
Uc J fCG IdG JS eh .dH IQGdG SGdG VdG Me
Ue a dG jdG Y Y e J Ueh Ue H e
k G e C G (Mass-Termination Insulation Displacement Connectors MTIDCs ) M G R E G
.kjObGh
k S

e a RdG H N e dG dG e kYT cCG TCG J

e N B G d Gh . S d G hC G I d G U d G e j RG e I Q hO 64 Y j
a d d G d G e C G , (Rainbow Cable ) M b S d G d G g d G d G
(Sandwiching) ZOCG e dGh (Flat Laminated Cable) FdG dG dG
IQGdH hCG U SGH HQ qK RdG e W H jRGe e Ue
.dGh

869
IMdH NBGh Ue ce H dG dG Ue H adG SJh
a j d c , d G F d G d G a (1.3 mm ) 0.050 in g h (Pitch ) h C G f
. I f (2.53 mm ) 0.100 in O H C H c

hdG dG dG
Polyvinyl ) OdG dG jQH (Flat Cable Insulation) dG dG jo
Cross ) d d G O d G d h C G h , d d G e e h , (Chloride PVC
a PVC j . (Polyimide ) O d G e C G h , d G h , (Linked Polyolefin
aVEH IL jQGM Ue ddG e ajh .c fd jQdG dG
.FHdG dG UN GY ,OQdG fGh ,TfGh OdG Y JQb dEG
d d Y e h e h (Tensile Strength ) T I b h k jW e Y dd EG K
j150C L Q O a , I R e F H c U G N a O d G d h C G e C G . (Abrasion )
fdG e dh .NdG UdGh Fd dY ehe Y kae
Y FdG MdG e k Ge jh ,kjCG IRe fhdG UGN FEPh TFE
a a R Y g TFE E a d d . d G GO L E G e SGh A G e C d E G j J
.200C L Q O M k G e FEP j a ,j e L Q O 260C d E G J I Q GM

QdG dG dG
e j Q H Ohe e c g (Shielded Flat Cable) Q d G d G d G E G
Ge QN eGSH j e adG dG e Zh Sf jL
e jcdG AGLCG d jh .f e e fe H j c ,QdG
(D hCG D f Ue cd e Jjf kcQJ Ic fhH Mh dh dG
. Type Connector)

dG KdG dG
dG a qe g c ,(Extruder Flat Cable) dG KdG dG j
SGH dYh HQ sJ jdG SdG e kjT
k U e 28 AWG Y 1-29
9 Y dG jh .kf FGd he PVC e (Extruding Resin) KH JGQ

870
 . d G K d G d G :1-29 d G

dG H Y dhdG UdG H cdG Gg j . k U e 64 d E G

adGh dG cS a dH g dG IQhS Jh .Oa Hh
dG UGNh ,(Capacitance) dGh ,(Impedance) bhdG d b Y BG H
(1.3 mm) 0.050 in QGH SdG dG a adG YJh .dG a (Inductance)
. (Pitches ) c G d G Y

jdG dG
g (Rainbow Cable ) M b S d G d G h C G (Ribbon Cable ) j d G d G E G
`dH kHS dY sJ fe SCG e jhe GWCG HQ jH qeo e c
HGdG GfCG e NBG f CG e cCG kfRhh Me aJ dH gh ,PVC
a jh .SCd IdG GdCG J dS SSCG ae eh .dG
HGdG e dG Gg hj .dY IOH QGVEG hO dH he Ue c
(1.3 mm) 0.050 in QGH SdG dG Ue YJh 1-29 dG a c kje
.cGdG a

dG jdG c
h e h e S H (Woven Ribbon Cable ) d G j d G c j
e N B G f C G e f h e c C G d H g h (Planer ) e g d PVC ` d H
OLEG e d UCe e d dG IQhS Jh .dG HGdG
.UdG fhe c d j H
871
 QdG e dG
h C G k G U e E G j M G h N G O U e (Coaxial Cable ) Q d G e d
. (Dielectric Core ) F H c R Y e Q e a S d G e G h Z e h k he
Gdh .2-29 dG a qe g c ,jd PVC `dG IOH bGdG dG jo

e Z jT Ue
LQN Gh M HdG Qe NGO he
SSCG

. Q d G e c :2-29 d G

G g j h ,4 GHz M h 1 kHz e A G H G RF G Q T E D d G d G a K C J d G
c j J U e e d G Q d G e d G j .TV h FM b f i d G
f dG jh .(Triax) cjdH Ue KK e qdGh ,(Twinax)
G O O J f a (Metal Sheathing ) f e Z Y d G Q d G e d G
b f C RF a c M d E G J a , e j d G i N C Gh j Ghh j d G
H dG{ kjCG fG) .dG QdG e dG AfG e cCG AfG
.(zUHF `d Gh j Ghh j d G L d J { d G 7 d G a z Q d G I e

dG dG c
W T C G h C G M G h j T Y (Fiber Optic Cable ) d G d G c j
dG Vj CG hO e edH j Gh AZ NGO jH dCG e IOe
QOb SdG hCG LdG e T OMCG d Y IQY dCGh .CGd dG
Jh FdG dG WdG a ,FHc hCG bQ ,de FV GQTEG f Y
. H H c 3-29 d G j h .A G d G

ae Y jdG GQTEG f a
k J cCG SdG LLdG dG j

872
e fQdH dG hCG dG GNG Y JQd dPh (1 km) 0.6 mi Y jJ
gh ,kjH k c ,bGdG dG NGO OMCG dG jh .SdG dG
d C G h , (Single Mode Fibers ) I M G d G d G d C G : g d C G g e Y f

d b
QGO
Gh M Qe J
J

. H H d :3-29 d G

i d G d G d h C G d G j h , (Multimode Fiber ) f C G I O e
Short-Haul ) j d G d f d G d G j a , (Long-Haul Transmission )
. (1 km) 0.6 mi Y j dGh (Transmission

dG dG c a edG bGdG dG IOeh dG IOe Jh

.dGh SdG SCG a edG JOdG

fhdEG dG J
dG dG c e
R j (Common-Insulation Cable Assembly ) d G d G c e a
jh .dG Z a Zj d k GU k c CG kS cCG ,Ue c (jo)
dGh dG dP cJh f L Y c hCG S c a fdG dG
IdG RdG Jh .YCG J ah IQGdG J a k GYe fc GY k S
UdG dh .kjFGO kVY ke IOY dG dG GP dhdG Ud
.e Z ke ke J dG OGYCGh IdG QbCG GP

GPh OdG b Ue e cdG dG a (Fillers) GdG sJo

873
.LQdG dG J j b dG fG Yh dG jd Ic QbCG
GP dG N a k GL kUe k a aJh dG e e J Gda
Heavy Duty ) d G M G c a I O Sh e c J d c . d G d G
, G S G F T G d G e h . I Q e K V d V d G (Cables
OdG jdGh ,dGh ,dGh ,FHd UdG Z dG dG
. h d G h I O d G j d G e j O M C G d C G h , (Polythylene )

e IOe ee M kfhM dh e N g (Binders) HQCG EG

O j h . (Jacketing ) d G a e G S G j h S J d d h e U e
hCG ddG j a KdG edG Jh a a fdG HQCG e
e e M I O Y (Tape ) j T j . U N d G c a H h d d G
QGVCG dh fdG GSG AS V aVEG jc dhdG UdG
UdGh OZCG H jdG s a . U dG Y J CG j dG
OLh CG c dG b hCG jJ Y e jdG j dc .IQhdG
.d kYf kLQN kS j

jh .bQdG jdG dEG aVEH kYT zjdG{ OGe cCG e ddG j

.kdW hCG kfhM eEG IOY jdG

gh .(Sheath :Z L) OZCG kfMCG Jh (Jackets) LQdG ZCG EG

KCJ dEG aVEG ,fdG CGdGh dG V Y aJh UdG dG J
.eH k Ue LQdG dG jh .QdGh ,bGdG FdG
k c hCG k GMGh
0.006 in h 0.002 in H hG J d G O H C a N GO A c j d G j e Yh
hCG dG IOe e IOY LQdG AdG jh .kcS (0.15 mm dEG 0.05 mm e)
b b e dG a 10 qJ dG ,jjQddG hCG ,jHdG hCG ,ddG
e SGh H j d dG a IOY LQdG dG jo .dG
ac Ad dH eJ LQdG jHdG ZCG H CH ,kY .Yf j
fCG EG ,U Yf H dG jhH J ah dG b a IOLdG GdG
e e H NGdG a UdG Y j d e J hCG dGREG j

874
 . (Barrier ) L M h C G (Separator ) U H J h C G , S d G

a J d d h , G M Gh d I O e W a g PVC ZC G E G
Ad dG Vj M jHdG jh .edG VGZCdh dG c
he fCG c dG hO IQGM LQH dG j h .Sb hGJ hCG GSG
hCG VQCG a aJ CG jHdH dG d jh .dGh hRhCGh jd
. I Q S e h C G , e M h C G , U h C G , (Conduit ) f C G a S J

V F g e h e j h ,j H d G UG N a c (j Q J I O e ) Hypalon a j
.IQGdGh ,cCdGh ,hRhCG

HdG H c e GSG qfhdEG e e jdG jh

.GSG Ad dG Vj eYh ,J b LQdG

QdG e dG J
hCG IU SCG e kf QdG e d NGdG UdG J
bCG dG J j .dG hCG jdH eh kSb qe Sf e dhe
jh .SdG UdG e XJ fhe CG EG ,IdG UdG GSH
IdGh fdG NCG Y dh ,IRdG FHdG UGd qdG SdG dG
FH hCG SdH IdG jjdG UdG Ea QYG H fdG
OGe N VdG bdG a J .keGSG ddHh Ib cCG g SdG
KCG ddG Y SDe e HQCG ,k F H c Q dG dG b d
KdG jCG ddGh .FEP dG e e dG j a (Polyethylene)
dPh kFHc dG b d keGSG cCG g (Extended Polyethylene)
Fe Z keY dh .IL FHc UGN gaJh fdG d
K C G d d G e C G 80C Y a d G I Q GM j J d G c e C G a G S d
PVC ` d G e d G d G Z h Q d G C G E G , G M d H b a (Polyethylene )
OGdG H e YCG j FHc Y HK KCG ddh .dG Gg e j
. (2.27 ) d G d G

875
ddG IQGdG LQO a :(kdJ ,JdG) dG jEG ddG j
K C G d d G H j d G F H d G U G d G f d h ,125C d E G J d G
IOe dEG dJ dG YTEG IQhdG gQe ae fe d CG EG ,dG
jdh ,hRhCdh ,d dY ehe RdG Gd EG .IjL UGH
.2.45 F H d G d Y H K j h . O L E G H d h , d G I Q G M h

Y HGK dEG LdG J M (hZdG hCG) dG KCG ddG j

K C G d d G G d j h .b C G hC G 1.5 d E G d Y H G K J C G j h . b F H c
.fdGh IdG e je AVE kdJ Jj CG

J a e Y (Flame-Retardant ) d h d G K C G d d G j h
dEG FHdG dY HK e jJ dG g CG EG ,dG J Y JQb e
.2.5

d E G I Q G d G L Q O J M j h I R e F H c UG N FEP d h
a GSd nFe j (15-2 dGM) WG dG d Y H K CG c ,200C
.k GL IdG QdG Ie dG

dG Rh dch LQdG b QdG dG d k dG HK Ojo

bhdGh (Attenuation) dG j CG j Mh .(dG) dG
LQdG UdG H dG J hCG G NG j H K (Impedance)
. Q C G h N C G c J Y Q h H j G g h .k b b e G P E G , N G d G h
a eGSd b FHc Y HGK GP dG b OGe J CG Ujh
Mf e .LMh e GeCG RdG Jh dG dG aJ M GFdG
f (b) Qhe GSH FHdG dG HK J eEH iNCG
N G d G U d G M (Low-Loss Filament ) d G d G h P d G q jo .IU
kcQJ ddG M IOdG f e e Z j K .dG dG b e k H
.FHdG dG dEG AGdG f Y dG k b J .FGg a

S f S C G f N e Q d G d G a (Shielding ) j Q d G j

876
W H H dGh .dG hCG jdH de H k GL IU QbCG GP
.cCG jM j IMGh

FK dG UJ AVdGh fdG dG J eCG j Mh

a US.MIL-C-17 U J h . (Triaxial ) Q d G K K h , d G F K h , j Q d G
b C G hQ O g d h .Q d G I e RG d j d G f C H d h d G hQ d G
je U e ,kfhM hdG dG e qJo f bdG a k GKCJ bCGh c
jdG hQdG g Jh .FHd UdG SdGh ,dCH IdG
.fdG a VGZCh QdG Ie dG a (a) jQdG eGSd

G O L G V Q d G e d G Y (Jacket ) L Q d G d G a j
. L Q d G d G a Y a J O e PVC `d Gh K C G d d G e c j h d G
j G d h H Wd G V Y a e h e a j h d Gh d G G J h j PVC `d a
.jdG UGdG GP dG a

dG dG c J
d 18 h C G ,12 h C G ,6 h C G ,2 h C G ,1 Y S d G j d G d C G c J
dG OYG a QNd e dgh .GSG H OdG Ojh ,H
I dG e Yh ,(Jacket Component) LQdG dG i e : g dG
dG jd LQdG dG a keGSG cCG fdGh .(Strength Member)
d G G H , K G Q j d d G h , K C G d d G h ,PVC ` d G g d G h e d G V
MGREGh dG dG OSEGh jd dG NGO IdG eGY J .IO Y
, (Kevlar Yarn ) Q d G Z h , S Z d G e G d G g e h , Y G O L E G
.jdG Sh

qfhdEd Uh
(Conductors ) U e H d f e G Q G O I L C G (Connectors ) U d G E G
e a jh .(Seamless) e Zh ,b ehe P UJ ie j Jh
bj gMCG GAL IOY Ud .eh IOe TCGh M UdG
877
Power or ) IQb hCG He H e NBG AdGh
k c hCG kS (Terminates)
. (Receptacle Outlet

zfCG{ AdG jh (Plug) H d H (Male Part) zcdG{ AdG j

a GAdG Gg joh .(Jacket) QdG dG hCG (Receptacle) dH
J . f C G h C G , d G h C G , I Q G d G N G O (Conductors ) U d G H Q
:JBc fhdEG UdG

. (Card-Edge ) b d G a M U h
. (Post and Box ) d G h O d G U h
. (Rectangular Multipin ) H d G I O e d G U d G
Mass-Termination Insulation-Displacement ) E G Uh
dG MGRGEh dG Af
.(MTIDCs
. (Coaxial Radio Frequency ) Q d G I e h C G j O G d G O O d G U h
. (Circular or Cylindrical ) f G S C G h C G j F G d G U d G
IdG JG cJhd ddG hdG b a e dG O b d
b dEG ,(Bus Structure) edG UGdG Hh ,(Telecommunication)
dH dG GP UGdG dEG aVEH ,Ud ddG hd jGe
OdG Hb a aGJ d OHCG j a S ,jQdGh jdG
e c h , Y d G h j Q d G d G e d G G f C G a (Interchangeability )
.dG j

bdG aM Uh
GQGdG Md aH J IMGh b zfCG{ Uh g bdG aM Uh EG
(Contacts) SJ Uh bdG aqdh .HG dG cE (Card) b dG hCG
aM NGO SdG Uh q J hCG J L hCG IMGh L Y fe
. d N O E G j M (Edge Connector ) U d G

878
NOEG T OGeG Y H HJ gh HGH UdG SJ f RJ
SdG Uh d c J dG dG dG jh (Insertion Slot)
j M . K h H M d G a M a U d G a M H Q Y (Contact Clamps )
Hj ,MGREG hCG RGgH J SC bdG aM d c Z dG Gg
g Jh .bdG aH J (Clamping Screws) HGQ eH U dG
CG M dG H d hCG (Terminate Cables) dG A fEG Y U dG
. (Daughterboard ) d G M d G e (Motherboard )

hdGh OdG Uh
IOe Uh g (Post and Box Connector) hdGh O dG Uh EG
f e E G d (Multi-Pin Two-Piece Connector ) b e f e h H d G
dG dEG RGgG hCG FHc ed UdG VJ Y fG OGM M
bh .k G L b HQ e Y (Sockets) jQHCGh IOdG HdG aJ . fOCG
HhQhCG e d jdGh jQdG UGdG aGd UdG g U
.ceCG IdG jdGh

HdG IOe dG UdG

j f a H b Y (Rectangular Multipin Connectors ) U d G g J
d G j h . (Chassis ) f e g h C G (Panel ) M d d E G H e e h c
FH ,4-29 dG a qdG ,(D-Type Connector) D dG dGh e FdG
ke 25 e e RS-232C a dG UdG e eh .dG T
,GJdH (Printers) HdG U J a F T U dG gh .(Pin)
.gZh Tdc ,adG H dch

adG UH kjCG J dG UdG g a GjdG e OY dg

U G e C J D d H d G A d G j h . (Rack and Panel ) M d G h
g G f C G d h . H Q Y M G h N Y (Receptacle ) d G h H d G
H Q Z G H d C G c ,RFI h EMI J h C G d (Shields ) h Q O U d G
.UdG hCG JQG U AH d
879
 IQTEG e e IQTEG

Se fH Sec. .14 1. ae VRCG

DCE Xmit Sig. EI. Time .15 2. de fH
e fH AL .16 3 e fH

EL.Time ,e GQTEG .17 4. SQEH dG W

ee Z .18 5. SQEG Y aGdG

SQEH dG ,AL .19 6. IgL IdG fdG

gL fdG W .20 7. Gnd/Com Rtn IQTEG

T .Yf IQTEG .21 8. T .dG IQTEG .SG

JU c .22 9. + da

dG QNG .fH IQTEG 23 10. - da

DTE Xmitr Sig. EI. Time .24 11. ee Z

e Z .25 12. Sec. Read. Line Sig. Detected

13. SQEd gL Sec.

.k e 25 `dG GP D f RS-232 JdG Uh :4-29 dG

dG MGREGh dG AfEG Uh
U bh .bdG aM Uh e H a T IMGh b e Uh g
3 gOYh UdG g MCG SJ f J . s eo hCG jT c Ud
d .CG-5-29 dG a ,qcT SCG fCch MTIDC Uh Ia NGO ee
J Y jOa dhe SCG Y kJGP J CG d J cM jM dG
.dG dG Ue a g SdG f RJ M ,LQN V

f ZOEGh dRdG IOdG S Y cdH dG HdG aM J

g -5-29 d dG dG joh .d fdG SdG SCG a
UG Y Jh Qhe S Sf a RJ gh (SdG f) HdG
j , (Gas Tight Seal ) G R d G Y e N j d L Q d G S j a
f NOEG e keGJ (Termination) AfEG j .NGdG dEG dG NO
dG dM jJh dG MGREG j dG dG e AT e (HdG) SdG
.kJeJCG hCG kjhj eEG dG J jh .(Seal)

880
 dG aM
RY

dG jT
WdG
Y
e

Ue

MTIDC SJ Uh fe N
(CG) AGd
()

:() h Ie jOGaEG SJ Uh :(CG) : (MTDC ) RY MGREGh c AfEG Uh :5-29 dG

.SdG Ud Ff T

QdG Ie hCG jOGdG OOJ Uh

j F G O h C G f G S C G U h g (Coaxial Connector ) Q d G I e U d G E G
U h 6-29 d G a J . U f h Q d G e c (Termination ) A f E
UdG d .dG dG e dG Mh Hb e fe QdG Ie

fe AZ

jce eJ f

fe AZ
(jW) ja

Hb
FHc RY
e

(jW) ja . d G d G e Q d G e c U h :6-29 d G

881

q T h Pin e e f e ) (Bayonet Style ) F d G d G e b d B G L h O d G
.(e

dEG aVEH dGh dG V jjh JG fGSCG dG j

RF b Wh ,A G d G a d d G K d Gh ,Q d Gh , e C G V d c h ,H Wd G
QdG e UdG AfE GQN Y HGdG Jh .nnodG hCG dG
Dielectric) RdG dGh hdG LQdG UdG HQh , d NG dG
. J G P U d H , (Core

:g LfG ee HQCG dEG QdG Ie UdG J

. (C, N, twinax, trix, UHF ) S d G (1
. (BNC, TNC ) d G (2
. (SMA, SMB, SMC ) d G h O (3
Uh c g 7 h 3.5 e
k c E G . (APC-3.5, APC-7 ) k G L d G h C G b d G (4
.a Ge gQbCG
S d h ,300 MHz d E G J G O O J Y d UHF U h U d
d G S e N d G h .C h N H I O Y a J h ,500 V d E G j d a
d U , (Threaded Couplings) de Y qL JG M dh d h eh
(Matched Impedance) FGe bhe UdG d .1 GHz jd GSd
H , S b , Y H I a e a C U d G e C G .70 ohms h C G 50 ohm d
.2 GHz `d eh ,4000 V e J dY ddh ,10 Hz `d eh ,1500 V Oj da

hO d (Miniature) e qe Uh g QdG I e BNC Uh EG

,TNC U h h .11 GHz d E G J G O O J Y d e d G G M h
.de YqH IOhe ,d ehe GMh g JGP FHdG UGdH
qe ,ee fh ,bO f GMh a ,QdG Ie SMA Uh eCG
j .e d 12.4 GHz j d hC G , U f d 18 GHz d E G J GOO d
.DC H 4 GHz d E G j O O J i e Y k b UC G SMB Uh G SG
.6 GHz j d j C G V Y C G DC i e Y SMC U d j h

882
 :g QdG Ie UdG e e GfCG HQCG dg
. j O Y (Plugs ) H G b (1
. (Jacks ) U d G h C G d G I M h H e (2
. (Receptacles ) e (3
. (Adaptors ) j e (4
g d G M h d G h , (Male Connector ) z c d G { U h g H d G h
QY dG AfEG hCG jE kFe jh ,(Female Connector) zfCG{ Uh
g h C G (Panels ) M H I O Y d G J . (Unsupported Cable ) j d G
Y L e dh U dG O e j dG H Jh .(Chassis) f e
ah ,dhe VQCG Md a d dSCG kjCG dgh .e (Couplers)
. (Printed Circuit Boards ) Y d G G Q G d G M d

c H Q H f G c (Bulkhead Connector ) U d G L d G U h J
Jh .S hCG IFW a Ua hCG fe hU e He L a Ye
. (Bulkhead ) L d G U h Y A G d G h A d G V K e G O E G Y U d G g

dEG aVEH ,dG dG QdG Ie UdG OHCG jJ J bh

g h ,MIL-C-39012 S G H , Q N G h d G F G W h , I Q d G J O e Y f
UdG g jd iNCG dG UGdGh .edG KK e UGe
.MIL-C-22557 g

Diameter) UdG b N e QdG Ie d jdG OHCG OJo

G O O J h , (To Be Terminated ) F f E G d G d R d G d G h (Conductor
UGdG Ea dc .FH dG R dG UG N dEG a VE H I dG dG
QdG Ie UdG eGSGh J Y KDJ RF d FHdG
H e h U d (Inductance ) K d G , (Resistance ) e h d G : g J h
d G A f E G j RF b W G a d . (Leakage ) J h (Capacitance ) S e
jhe ddG J eY ddG g Jh .bhe UN a QdG e
Ie d a L e e g dh (Line) dG V dG L Y

883
I e U d G O H C G L j , L M G g I a G d h . (Standing Wave )
.k GL Sb QdG

e IOY edGh SdG QdG Ie UdG (ZCG) LCG J

YdG bdG LCG J M a ,dH dG UCG SdG hCG ,dG
(Subminiature) dG IjT SMA Ud fdG AGLCG Hh (Couplings Nuts)
Female) fCG edG Jh . e dG CG d h dG j dG e
. g d H d G j d G S f e (Contacts

,fdG AGLCG Hh ,YqdG JbYh ,SMCh SMB Uh LCG qJ

e f C G e d G J a (Half Hand Brass ) h d G U C G S d G e
WCG JGP qL e Hf SGH SMB Uh hGJ h .jdG Sf
. d G h d G d d (Snap Fit Coupling )

,I O Y TFE K hQ j G J d G I O e e Q d G I e U d G RG Y J
jQdG QdG Ie UdG H Jh .LdGh dG e N e hCG
edG WdG J CG j ,dP eh .UQN S e H NdG
Y J h ,RF G a J d G G A d G h C G d G d G e U Q d H
. U Y (Decoupling ) d G h C G (Coupling ) d G

a QdG e dH HJ d QdG Ie UdG J Lj

UdG HQ a e FGW Y Y j e dgh .GN S
d H hCG ,(Clamped) H HQ dG S Y a , d H
. U f c Y T h C G J h C G , e c Y H h C G , (Crimping )

AfE SGh H kdM dG b QdG Ie UdG Jh

J d G G Q T E G h j d G G Q T E G e C W h C G O O d e d G d G (Terminate )
b d G f d G d E G a V E H f h d G d G I L C G h G j d G a (Audio )
Hj a IQTEG NGdG UdG j .JEG fCGh GJdG a
hdG LQdG UdG jh ce Se VQCG a LQdG UdG

884
dG (jdG) fhdG NGdG e IQTEG Ue j d FGO QO
GP KdG fdG GQTEG YTEG Y bdG a j a ,EMI kLQN
.ddG OOdG

jFGdG IOdG UdG Uh

Circular Multiconductor) j FG dG IO dG U dG Uh J
IOY Jh ,(Cylindrical Connectors) fGSCG UdG kjCG (Connector
f U d G d h . U d G I O e j F G d G d G (Terminate ) A f E
hCG k GOe kS 128 SG feEH CG CG ,f 128 h 4 H hGJ eJ
AL g g HdGh .e aH jH dCG hCG ,QdG Ie c
dG j a .dG e cdG hCG IdG jdG dEG HdG UdG
h C G , d G h C G , (Bulkhead ) d G L H d G A d G d G (Receptacle )
Uh dGh odG Hd VJ e 7-29 dG a jh .MdG
.dG dG e ,UdG IOe jFGO
fS e

SJ SHO
eJ e

fS e dG N je

pbn M

S H N

Jh OSEG g

ehZ N jQCJ f
O RING

. d G d G e U d G I O e j F G O U d V J I Q U :7-29 d G
885
h C G (Coupling ) U h h a U G Y S j F G d G U d d G d G e
d G j h . I Y e G h O C G G S G d E G L d G h O (Uncoupling ) a
dG LQdG idGh dG V jM aVEG Y HGdGh ed fdG
JQG eGd kjCG fdG dG jh .dG UdG Y KDJ
ah ,eCGh ,HWdGh QdGh ,kFGg dG dG e (Mating Contacts)
Z d G Z L Q d G RFI hC G FMI V d G U d G j Y b d G
FGc j CG UdG d dG jQJ OGeG e jj dP Y k ah ,a
. T C G H N G d G RF b W S Q E G h (Antenna )

jdG GFdG a IH J jFGdG U dG CG h dG e

. (Modular Avionic Cases ) I F d G f h d G j h M U d f d G h

ah iNCG jdG dGh UGdGh QGdG a SG FT fCG c

jOGdG dG Ge a e jQ dG fCG Jh .I YCG L e
.IdG fCG GQhSh YdG JJHdG ah ,fjdGh

Partially ) kFL de Z H hCG ec eEG ,edG b dBG Jh

dGh Q dG H hCG ,(Breech Lock) dG b hCG (Threaded Shells
LQN hCG NGO ZGH dEG LdG hO ,JGP e JQGh RJ ad dG
jb eU J Y IQOb jFGdG UdG EG dc . U dG AG LCG H d
Joh .ddG jdGh jQdG NGdGh GFdG d VJ GRGgGh
. d G H J d G Z C G d (Knurled ) e e h C G I R h e L Q N M
U h j S U G e C d (Built-in ) V J e J d P d E G a V E H
. (Mating Contacts ) e d G d S G h C G

Y H e c H f b c (Bulkhead ) U d G L d G U h J h
Y Ad IOeh ZV fc ad dG hCG IFdG a fdG jhdG
.UdG LdG

Fb J dG jdG jFGdG UdG e GfC jQJ fCG aJ

886
(Traceablitiy Documentation) OhDdG KdG h ,dG gH COPL gDdG AGLCG

k e j b kN kJ J fEGh ,jdG UdG UGe a c

.e jdG JMh J dHh ,jQdG (AdG) FHdG id

jdG jFGdG UdG IOe UdG

Circular Multiconductor ) UdG IOe jFGdG dG Uh J
(2 ,SdG (1 qe M KK a jdG eGSd (Pin Connectors
a H j h . (Subminiature ) k G L I d G (3 h , (Miniature ) I d G h C G e d G
bh .dG eh NGdG cdG e c jdG jFGdG UdG L
fCG ah dG X Y GSd S dG U dG M N
fhdE k GL IdG UdG J a ,VQCG YGdG a fhdEG
fCG M U dEG k Gf dh .IdG eMh fRh d GFdG
qfhdEG dEG aVEH ,cdGh ,dG QX Y ddG fhdEG
.keY fCG g a k GL IdG UdG GSG qj ,VQCG YGdG

:GSG jdG UdG e FGY N eCJ j cCG dG ah

.MIL-C3899
.MIL-C26482
.MIL-C5015
.MIL-C38723
.MIL-C22992

J d h IV. ,III ,II ,I d G MIL-C-38999 ` d H Q C G G f C G J h

MCG e edG jdG GdG JLCG GjJ TDJ fe bha
.dG UdG g qn eo

GF d k G L I dG U dG IO e j FG dG U dG Jh
GFdG a HdG ddG dEG aVEH GHdGh dG HK jdG
, Q G O G d G h , j O G d (Interconnection ) H G d G U d G e C G h . I d G j Q d G

887
dEG HdG GFdG a UdG g HJh .IFdG Y ddG ILCGh
Q e j J h , (Countermeasures ) O d G G A G L E G h , Q d G W E G Y I d G I L C G
GfCG ac a J gh .HdG UdG GP fCG Hh ,hQdG
cdG e gZh HHdG ah ,UGdGh ,HdG dGh , jQG dG
.LdG a cdG fhdEG ILCGh GdG dEG aVEH ,ddG

FdG dG Y d dG jS fGSCG Uh U dh
a Hjh .bWEG id jQGdG Y FHdG IQdG ch qfhdEd
Y h , (Braided Metal Lanyard ) h e e e b M I O Y L Q d G a Z
L b QhH j dG dG Gg Y V j hQdG fG
. F d G h j d G d G d (Threaded Coupling Segments ) d e

jdG jFGdG GMdG Heh He

Pins and ) jdG eGSd jFGdG UdG Heh He qJo
e h C G ( U C G S d G ) U G d G e (Sockets For Military Circular Connectors
- jdc jjM Z OQGe e (Sockets)HdG qJoh .dG - dG
Lh Y HdG g J .dG - dG hCG ,fhdG - QdGh ,SdG
d (Flexible Inner Leaf-Spring Contact Surfaces ) f e d d G d S J
c OY J H M ,dY FHc Ue Y d ac IH HdG
H d G b G e E G . (Engagement & Disengagement ) d G h H d G Y e
a H dG Jh .7-29 dG a Ve fdG UdG a H dGh
Ch jhdG hCG dG a e dG C dP jM j M Je
.dG a j HdG

e Z kbfG kSJ aj fC SdG d dG AdG gdG qjo

WGh zadG{ GQTEG J dG KdG Hh ,IcCGh ,d keheh
.idG

, j d G U d G a (1.3 in ) 50 in QGe fOCG dG a AW jh

888
 a h ,G d G f h d G e j d G a (0.8 m 0.4 m) 30 in d E G 15 d G M h
.YdG dG

CGd HdG Z jdG hCG dCG e ZCG a HdGh HdG VJ

CG jh .Fe k GYJh SJ jRJ aj e IYe HdG K Jh
Vh Y HdG hCG g gQJ d cdG jM e AT Hd aj
Y d G O j h . (Misalighnment ) U G f G j M W N H
GQTEG OOJh ,QJh ,da SGH HdGh HdG cGe H H dG
.f hCG H OGdG

I Y h (Removable Contacts ) d e S J f d G S C G U d
IOdG HdG GWCG RsJoh .dG a IOe SCG a Ue (Crimped)
I GOC G SG H U d G A Z N GO zPoke-Home { d G S d G f GP SC G
ceCG a dG g qa (Springs) dGdG V Y IQdG d UN jhj
Y dH GJ CG HGdGh Hd j j dG Hh .A dG NGO
jh .eGOEGh dG AGLEG Y hCG ,GdG a GQGdG J Y hCG ,dG
KCdG hO dGSGh (Individual Wire Termination) kjOa SCG jf dGREG
.IQhdG UdG Y

dch HGbh HH IOhe UN QdG Ie c YG dh

d C J h . j F G d G U d (Multipin ) O e T G M C j H d C G c
dEG aVEH ,UdG g SGH dG dG jdG dCG SJ f
e (Intermixed ) J C G j d G , Q d G G e h , j d G d C G c
.WGdG OOdG SJ f

e SJ f e (Hermetically Sealed) ZEG e UdG qJo

,ce Z g SdG f EG Mh .aN hCG LLR Ye NGO IH
dG a J GMEG e QdG e H iOGa SCG HQ Lj
. M C G Y Y R d d H h (Hermetic Seal ) d G e

889
 fhdG fd He
a qfhdEG LdJ a eh IOe e (Socket) e d
h C G , (Plug ) d G h C G H d G J d G h U d G a z f C G { A L J C G j
jh fehdG hCG fhdEG IGOCG H UdG GQGdG Md fe
kjCG gh .GQGO Md a DIP M hCG AGM e He 8-29 dG a
aJh .fhdG fqdG e gZh , (Relay)M s neo hCG ,IC M Se
:ddG ILCG M Sb jQJ He
.(Dual-In-Line Package- DIP) qdG LhOe Y RQ
.(Single-In-Line Package- SIP) qdG IOe Y RQ
.(Leadless and Leaded Chip Carriers- LCCs) e G M
.(Pin-Grid Arrays- PGAs) H d G T a e
.jhdG IQdG HfCGh dG TCG e hcG HfCG
.IdG fehdGh ,dG ddG M u eo
SH L
DIP Hd He

LjEG GQGO Md He
Circuit Board Insertion

.ke 14 e fe DIP `d He :8-29 T

e dG hCG IdG edG GQGdG cd IOY HpdG J

(Microcontroller) hdG dG hCG (Microprocessor) hdG ddG
a V dG (Reflow-Solder Processes) dG Y N j jdG

890
 f dG a V J dG d d c H dG Jh .28 dG
GJ CG Ljh .dG hCG dG e N I a N G SE d (Component)
odG JGQqGO e EPROMs e GcGP e dEG eh PROM fGdG edG
I O Y E G h d G h C G d EPROMs ` d G h G S d I e PROM ` d a , (Host Circuits )
. S d G DIP M
u eo bGd kjCG HdG Jh .edG

f (Zero-Insertion Force (ZIF) Sockets) (ZIF He) qdG jEG Hd

IdG edG GQGdG dGREGh bEG Y J GQP N e J eJ
RdG Uh j dh .Hd jPDe Zh S IO dG H dG GP
(jHEG) dG a WH H RdG Hb Njo npdG GH fhdEG
(J hCG ) Ha GQdG sJo ceCG a HdG J eYh .dG
e M d E G ZIF H e a O j i N C G M f e . M E H b e a R d G
.ddG ch IdG

cdGh dG HGbh ,HGdG

e Fd keY (Plugs) HGdGh (Jacks) dG IMh HGdG J
d h C a (Phono ) h (Phone ) d G H ( d G ) j d G d G e h . e H Q
kSSCG GQW b dG Mh dGh HdG CG Jh J d QNG
H d G C G J h (Phonograph ) d Q N G a (Phono ) e C G d G I L C
. (Audio ) J d G I L C G c H d
k UCG GQW b dG Mh dGh

jdG dCG Uh
d jdG dCG c a dCG jf H Fa jH HQ J j
j H dCG Uh U bh .(Transmission) dGh dG Y dG
S D j h j d G d C G c (Splicing ) d U N (Fiberoptic Connecters )
dY Qe e dg dh .QdG e dG Uh eJ Y H
Jh .J hO jQdG FSdG e jdG fCG dh ,jdG dCG Ud
e H Hd qdG cdGh fdG edG cT e jdG
.JLCGh gOpnYo d dG e Fj

891
 :ddG ddG AGOCG dG dG Uh Y Ljh
.jdG IQd Ac f Y d JdG dCG UG J
.jdG ILCG dEG dCG L hCG HQ
.cdGh hGdG Y Nh dG e dG jM
d G e d G Q j d G (Terminate Cable Strength ) d G I b e Y A f E G
. (Tensio ) f G h
. Strain Relief d G e d G j J a I Y d G
.QdG UG a J HdG dCG Uh a SSCG dG EG
Injection ) F d G Q d G Q R e U h ,FREDs e j H h d E G I L C G R J h
U h e a (Photodiodes ) F d G F d G e d G h , (Laser Diodes
.dH HQ e d

UG e Lj e dCG H c dH dG Hd FGW IY dg
dH T jhJ NGO dG jf T FGdG g Jh .QdG
J OL dgh - IOe b SGH ke V hCG (V-Grooves) hCG V
dG d kfGe jdG dCG L H bO dh H FGW jd
dG TQh dEG SJh dG dG c e k GWCG J CG dG e a
.Ud

H G Q H U h a (Optical Power Loss ) j d G I Q d G a d G Q G e E G

e c Y k G O Y G ,2 dB h 0.5 dB H h G j (Connector-to-Connector Interface )
. (Workmanship ) d G Y G H h Y f h U d G J

892
 K d G dG

Jfeh fhdEG GQGdG jM

jdG

(Fuses) (FU) UGdG eT If

IQdG V jdG e (Circuit Protectors) IQGdG eM
(Surge Protection Assemblies)
JShdG jdG V jdG ddG a e jM ILCG
(Electrostatic-Discharge (ESD Protection)) (Overvoltage Protection Devices)

eT If
GQGdGh GQjfGdH (Receiving Tubes) SG eU GSG iOqCG
Y FHdG GQGdGh fhdEG jd IjL LM N dEG edG
IQGdG LQO a L H (Tube Circuits) edG QGdG J .AGS M
iNCG Mf e .J CG hO IQGdG e Ic c keGJ J gh ,JdG
.ddG IQGdG a d VYo Ue fCG Y jhdG ILCG L Ea
AC c , d d G d Y Q O e e j d G G Q G d G E a , d P Y I h Y
J a ,FHdG dG Le a dG MG Y IQOb J ,dG
893
Ea dP Y k a .ddG IOjH YH Ue fCG Y jhdG ILCG
ec dEG j j d (Electrostatic Discharge ESD) JShdEG jdG
.HfCG GQGdG eR a Oe

QWEG QN IQGdG jH gG e je LJ dEG FdG g Ob d

fCG ILCG SM OqCGh .jd hGe HQ hCG ,(Fuses) UH gJ
jM FSh fE IjL YU b dEG d VqJ YSh UdG
ddG GQGO SM UCGh .dG e eh ,JGeh ILCG d
fdG ac IOjH IQN cCGh CT GP kYVe (Solid State Circuits) dG
.jOdG c eJh edG GQGdG J IOjH dch ,GQGdG Md Y

.ddG ah ESD `dH dG jS fCG MOSICs H KCG dh

M d a d G U d G h , (C i r c u i t B r e a k e r s ) I Q h d G W b J h
IQOb Z fCG a q T h j T A H , f d G h , J d G h , d G a ,A C e N
IQOb Z fCG c JT IOjRh QdG a e GQGdG hCG SdG ILCG jM Y
j G g h . (T r a n s i e n t V o l t a g e S p i k e s ) d G d d G G N G h M h C G J Y
IQGdG a IQGdG eM GZj CG fhdG fCGh GQGdG e Y CG
J Y j fhdG qe H Ggh .bCG a e dH hCG JGP
e ddG IdG ehdGh Udc FShh jdG ILCG e OY
V g Zh Metal Oxide Variable-Resistors (Varistors) MOVs) ) f e S c C G
VH j kL GJdG e Ea dP Y k a .Je GQGO
JdG fe ach AC eo H (Surge Protectors) IQdG V jM FSh
.ac jdG fC VdG jdH dc jh .kFHc fdG

,dG AKCG GQGdG Mdh ICs J dG GjdGh QGVCG RaCG d

UdG eMCG e AGHG ,ESD jM Pf e e kYGfCG ,dGh ,dGh
,(Ionizers) jDdGh ,UdG VQCG dGE ,(Grounded Wrist Straps) VQDdG
edG a edG jQd ESD jM eGH Xh .HdG Mh ,jhdGh
.edG GQGdG Md e dch dG jS UdG fCG ILCG e FdG

894
 IQGdG eM
jM Y j e IQhO Ua g (Circuit Protector) IQGdG eM EG
jhM hCG hU V IQGdG eM cqJo .QdG a KCJ V fhdG IFGdG
.SdG fhdEG dG

IQhO Wb e bCG FHdG OLEG GP IdG IQhdG Wb Jh

hCG ,dG IQhO Wb e IOY (In Series) J H ,dhCG AC N
P QJ dEG SCG H J CG feEa ,dhCG ,dG hCG ,dG Z
.aCG jM aJ j dHh ,AC N IQhO Wb e bCG M

fhdEG dG a (edG) dG GQGdG e M U d

JdG YCG c ,S hCG Ib NGO fhdEG YCG YCd d
IOdG edG g EG .(Short Circuits) dG GQGO hCG He fe Y
IY fCG Y qU bh cCG IQhdG Wb e de f dG a g Qd
Thermal) jQGdG IQGdG eM hCG eR e hCG ,(Instantaneous Trip) d
.(Circuit Protectors

fBG dG IQGdG eM
Instantaneous Magnetic Circuit) fBG dG IQGdG e M U
dG OjORG Y j CG (Contacts) d J jH (Protectors IMCP
Sq M dG jg EG PEG ,(Overcurrent) QdG a Y odG dG
IQY dG IQGdG V edG dG jh .IQGdG LQd dh Qd
dG e (Armature) We Qe P (Solenoid) jdS dd e Y
OjORG a .bCG eeh OGJQd Hb (Coupling) qH He dG
dG j (ZCG a ,b IQGO d hCG fdG MCG Y H) QdG
AZ J dG dG a IOjda ,H Y dG k Ua ddG
eh dEG M o dG d H e j H dG dG
.(Electromagnetic Relay)

895
Protector)edG QdG j ,ModG e dG Yh ,iNCG Mf e
HdG e S j fEGh ITe IQH FHdG dG (Armature
dG j CG HSG jS Hd j H edG Y V fdG
a jh .(Arcing) FHc IQGT hM hCG dG d dPh IH
.(fdG e AL dCG e jCGL) ms 2 QJ YH dG

SGH kjhj JQG dM HEG j W dEG QdG a dM OJ eYh

.IU (Lever) a Y

Ya H HJ PEG ,IFdG FK fc g jdG ILCG qoU dc

a dG jh .jdG RL Yah (Toggle Switch) FHdG dG e
Vh EGh M QdG a hCG dG dM SG GPEG de jdG ILCG e
.(On Position) dG Ve a dG

INqDdG dG - dhQdG IQGdG eM

Time Delay Magnetic) INqDdG dG dhQdG IQGdG eM EG
jhM fBG e IQGO eM g (Hydraulic Circuit Protectors TDMHCP
a qeo g ch .(Hydraulic Time Delay Dashpot) dhQg eR NqDe Y
a jJ NGdG dG a J N Q dG Q dG q jo 1-30 dG
.fe e Y J ZQa fGSCG AZ dEG QdG j ehc

dG AHEG N e e dG H SG (Dashpot) fGSCG AZ jo

Nuisance) YdG YG dM d edG Z QdG IOjR Y e e
dPh kjhj fGSCG Ad edG NCdG V IO YEG eE Hh .(Tripping
NCdG jJ j dG S a .UdG IQGdG jM e d
gh .I Q d G d G a d G a 125 d E G 100 H Q d G j e Y e d G
dEG cM idh .YCG dEG aOh fGSCG b dEG dG d ac dG
dG ac IOjR ke dG IQGdG jPf dEG dG j ,YCG
.QdG L e jj dHh

896
Lhd N e ,kFL ,fGSCG b dEG dG cd RdG edG Osjo
dEG dG j ea .dG e fGSCG a OLdG dG FS
d fGSCG b dG Uh b QdG a GhR dM ah .AdG jo dG
jJ eY dh .fGSCG e dEG dG aH LQEG Hf jh ,AdG j
NCJ a bj (Q qdGh) dG qdG Ge 6 Y IC a Q dG IQ a
.k GQa H Y dG jh edG Dashpot`dG

IQGM LQO a GdG H dG - dhQdG IQGdG eM KCJ

Y b KCJ d j b dhQdG FdG Lhd a GdG CG dh ,dG
.NCdG eR

AdG
dG

eJ b
fGSCG
AdG Qe
dG

LQEG Hf

dd e e

fGSCG AZ fS FS

.ed NqDdG dG - dhQdG IQGdG eM qdBG 1-30 T

jQGdG IQGdG eM
,(Fuse) UdG (Thermal Circuit Protectors TCP) jQGdG IQGdG eM J
dG IQGdG f j dG FK f qe e fqe ,IQGd Sq M dBG a
J (e) WS WEG dEG dG Gg OqDj .Fa FHc Mp Qhe gdqj
ee a dG Y dG FK dG tJ jh .IH FHdG IFGdG b
897
He V UM e kjOW JdG IQGdG SJh ,dG Y H OdG
. I e J e h d G C G V G a H ,I 2 t Q d G G d e d G I d G h Q d G

j eh IQGdG a e SCG jd IOY jQGdG IQGdG eM cqJo

ILCG jM a eGSH Uj h ,dG a J e dP Y j CG
g H J CG jh . JGQGOh S M U e fCG Y jh dG
Power) IQb Jc dG - dhQdG edG GfCG c edG
.e Je GSG c dH Iaqe ,(Switches

hCG dG a .dG Le dGh ,SdG dG :TCP e Yf dg

dG eJ S H dG e a YCG dEG dG FK dG j
b dG Gg ah .dG H Y dG k Ua IH dG j M
V bJ H dG j CG b k GL d Y I Y dG IQG dG J
q J dEG eCG G g O j bh .e dG
dG S dG M hCG e
V a OGOj jH dG Le TCP qjo iNCG Mf e .H
j LdG dG dEG IQGdG Uh Yh .QdG a IQGM IOjR e edG
.kFJ SdG jh k Mh IH dG

ehe dG - dhQdG edG c jQGdG IQGdG eM aqJ

edG g H CG c .QdG Y IKDdG IQGdG YCG jJ a J IQGd
dG Oj M V Oj edG CG EG .kjhj (Reset) V IOYEG j
.adG IQGM LQO a dG Vh dEG gH Oj LQO dEG dG FK

edG HSG e CHCG gh keR H HSH QGdG edG Rj

cCG a dd ,edG bdG a NCd Fbh HJ CG aqj h dG
f qj b kS qdG V EG K ,(False Triggering) WdG fd VYo
.H dG hdG a qdG

ddG a e jdG ILCG

UdG fCG jd qeo dG ILCd eY UCG KK dg
898
iNCGh W SCG Y JdG (Overvoltage Protection Devices) ddG a V
:gh fEG U e
.(TVS) dG dd peo FK U (1
.(MOVs) Iqe dG cCG ehe (2
.(SVP) ddG IQd eM HfCG (3

dG ddG Gpeo
H (Transient Voltage Suppressor TVSs) dG ddG Ge J
Zener Avalanche PN Junction) dG QfG dd PN dG Se FK
jH (Reverse Bias) RfG Y N e IQGdG jd qeo ,(Diode
.(Voltage Clamping) ddG b

QfG dG Y ddG OGOJ eY bp IFGO kfqe FdG dG j

QfG ie hO (RfG Y N) ddG QJ eYh .Y dG
.OYG Ge dEG QdG Oj (Breakdown)

UdG J Y jJ IdH qJ GQb ,dG e qdG ,TVSs `dh

e J ehe b dh ,dG QfG dd IdG FdG edH
fKdH SJ HSG Ga CG c ,(Low Series Resistance Values)
d (Standard Zener Diode) SdG FdG fR U CG hdG e .(s15-10)
ddG J g LhOe dH dG feEH TVS CG EG IQGdG jd j
fCG EG DC IQGO j M TVS eE Hh .(Protective Clamping) FdG dGh
aqj iNCG Mf eh .AC IQGO jd X dEG k GX TVS e KG Vh Lj
`d gCG cCG UGdG eh .TVSs `dG S Y e hCG ,IMGh eRQ a TVSs
:j e TVS
dG dH Hhe f IQb bCG OJh ,(Pulse Power) dG IQb (1
.(Clamping Voltage)
.(Stand Off Voltage) IYdG ddG (2
. J d a b C G (3
899
Ve a MEMS IQGO J da bCG gh) IYdG ddG hGJh
da hGJh .kda 170 h 5 e ((Arcing) FHc Sb M b fG
:ddG IQqGdG FXH dG TVSs eEHh .kda 210 h 7 H dG
(Switch On) jdG a hCG ,FHdG dG Yh ,ESD e ICs jM
.FHdG
e ,ICs dEG aVEH ,(Output Transistors) GNEG GQjfGJ jM
Inductive Load) FHdG IFGd qdG dG Uh Y dG MdG dM
q
.(Switching
.JdG e GNEG Mf e (Crowbar Network) QHhc T GSG
.dG IFGO dEG dfGh qdG dG J e
.FHdG jdG N dEG dG dG e MOSFET ILCG jM
.(Signals) GQTEGh fdG N Y bdG e dY je UeG

IqdG dG cCG ehe

Ie ehe g (Metal Oxide Varistor MOV) qdG dG cCG he EG
H e H J f d AC d a J V f h d E G G Q G d G j M f e E H
qN Z ehe g MOV EG .(Back to Back Diode) X dEG k GX FdG d
L jo .(Applied Voltage) dG ddG dGO SSCG Y ehe b qJ
d G O M C G L j d a a j h f d G c C G M e I O Y MO V
.(Monolithomic Block)

(Symmetrical Bilateral Characteristics) fdG FK KdG qUGd ch

. L d G h d d G H L Q C J N AC d H d G MOV Q h H U C G
OqM H ehe J MOV ie Y edG ddG jJ eYh
jOYG dM dEG MOV Lj dG ddG WJo eYh .b IQGO Jh
MOV Rnjo .RdG eqJ CG hO dG e bdG Ue Hb L C dPh
ee dM a c hCG ,kYT UUdH IdG UGbCG RQ jW H
.Jjf e ,cjEH IdG UGbCG

900
 ddG IQa V aM
fCH (Surge Voltage Protectors SVPs) ddG IQa V adG J
TVS J e cCG da GQa J Y JQd IQGd jM Rc j RZ
q q
OGOj eY ,bdG ddG f ehdG b k GQe SVP aqj .MOV hCG
N adG fCG jCj hCG dG dG NGO RdG jqCj .a ddG bqJ
jh .UdG dM dEG UJdG dM e SVP `dG J ke ddG a
jQCJ dEG aVE H ,SVP QN IQGdG a k Gbn dG F H dG S dG
J OJh RdG jCJ Gj fG Qhe Hh .ddG GQdG ac (Grounding)
.MOV hCG TVS e c e CHCG HSG Ia j dG ,SVP

LLR fCG
(a S) eCG a
Ff fe Ib

d G S G j S b ( e ) U a 2-30 d G

(FU) UGdG
,IMGh Ie ,J FHc IGOCG (2-30 VdG dG) (Fuse) UdG EG
he jT hCG Qe S Y UdG j .FH dG IQG dG j d
j) IQGdG a dG j ,QJ d VJ Y .QfG LQO e
Y WHe J eY FHdGh fhdEG GQGdG UGdG J .(QdG
.(Power Line) IQdG Nh (Load) dG H dG

901
,(32 mm) 1 in dWh ,(6 mm) in SdG ceCG UGdG bo j
eCG 15 A dGE 1/15 A J dG QdG ieh ,250 VAC dGE 125 VAC J da ieh
. (20 mm ) 0.8 in d W h , (5 mm ) 2.0 in g a S d G H h Q h C G U G d G

g kYT gcCGh .ms fdH UGdG ac HSG eR Sb j

edG INunDeo hCG (Slow Blow) QfG H hCG ,(Fast Acting) jdG UGdG
Lj GQGdG Md Y bCG Me J dG UGdG Hh .(Time Delay)
.J eY dGSG d (Unsoldered) n Jo CG
HJ dGh (Resettable) gJ Oj dG UGdG e jL U jJ J
IOe UGdH Jh .(Disabled) gJ OGdG IQGdG e dG Y ITe
IQdG UGdG dh .(Polymer PTC Resettable Fuses) PTC H e GSG
.QdG ZEGh dG dGREG H JGP dJ IOYEG Y

IQdG V jdG e
Surge Protection) J e hCG (Surge Protector) IQdG V e dG EG
Sh AC N e dH HJo IQGdG jd fhdEG eRQ g (Assemblies
ddG oHJn e jd dPh (Line Cord) FHdG dH RdG J
Surge) IQdG jTh .(Current Surge) QdG GQah (Voltage Transient) Jfh
H j AC N e qe AC Qe S Y j YU e g (Strip
Ojo IU IQGO eM Y jdG j .(AC outlet) AC e e Hj (Plug)
ceh ,dG Rc fhdEG ILCG e OY jd dPh d J
e dG PdG aqJh .(Stand-Alone Modems) IOdG eOdGh ,cdG
.210 J d E G J b W j J f e E H h .400 V h 330 V H d d I Q d G W T C G

IQdG Hc HJh .FV qch JU Qqeo W TCG g d

J b ,YCG bW J je aqJ fCG EG IQdG WTCG (Surge Suppressor)
.GJdG jd kSSCG qe ,190 J dEG

902
 JShdEG jdG V jdG
jS jQCJ g (Electrostatic Discharge - ESD) JShdEG jdG EG
pT dJ dEG OqDJh UdG Z dG Y qJ dG fhdEG d
JdG S e S Y J CG dG g e eEH .dY dH
b pS hCG fEG c bf H dG g Jo eYh .SdGh QdGh
J b dY da ESD dqjh .WGh QJ GP c EGh ,Fe FHc Sb qj
.JGQGOh Ue fCG e ILCG J hCG ed ac

b aZ a IOdH J dG AGdG q Mn Y ESD q J eEH

dDe fCG EG N FHc H qS .fdG dG IncCG d K HWdG
gh fEG f dEG kfMCG dW j b IQGT hCG eh H L dEG J
.IcCGh UCG H aJ

J eY AdG a QT N qS ,ESD `d YdG KCdG e bqdh

dqa eGH YoNGh jM FSh QqoW ,dG a 50 hO HWdG dG IQGM
dG eh .ESD `dG jJ IQN qJ dG fe ILCG dgh .dd
SH ScCGh ,UN eMCH dGh YdG jQCJ MdG ESD e bGdG
FHd Ue GO o h (Tote Trays) fGUh FHd Ue
q S hCG o M
aVEH .UdG Z dG Y ESD J de J NqH Mh
a edG GhOCG fc e GPEG a Oqjo fhdEG ILCG QqWo dP dEG
.L H jQCJ iL b fCG qdGh dG qM

(Calibrated Electrical Discharge) k Gq eo kfhdG kjJ iNCG ILCG aqJh

q e g dc .dG QNG Y dG ESD qUGN cj
Air) AGd W
Ujh .dG qM a AGdG qJ (Ionizing Fans) jqDeo hGeh (Humidifiers
LJ Mh YOdGh fdG a ESD e bqd ee N VH
hCG ,ILCG g f j Mh ,JGQGOh ESD `d Sq dG fhdEG ILCG
aZ a ESD Y a n eo Y qM ebE J aqJh .eRQ hCG ,a
.3-30 dG a e g c ,kHn Y n reo

903
 VQqDe RL
jqnDeo
jqnDeo AGg QJ
Y jQU
FHd Ue
SMOCK S hCG
ESD e e FGg

e Ie AZ
JdG d
jQCJ S

ce jQCJ f
VQDe Sc
JdG dG J IM

ESD JShdEG jdG e e Y M :3-30 dG

q q

:JCj e fhdG ESD e jdG hd dG edG qJ

hCG ,GU hCG ,jhM dEG GQGdG Md hCG Sq dG ILCG ac f
JShc T jCG J j H FHd Ue OGe e Ye ScCG
.dqJ CG j
VQqDe S Y cdGh ,dGh ,jdGh ,RdG YCG ac AGLEG
.k GL
,VQqDe jM QhSCG SM ILCG e edG UTCG j CG j
.(Smocks) bS hCG FHd Ue jGe Gj CG eCG j Mh
. c C G hC G d G a 50 Oh H f H WQ Y d G b e a d G
dHh ,AGdG a fjCG d jqDeo QGhqO AGg Qd dG e jJ
e gZh JdG dGh ,GQdG Y IdG FHdG J jo
.dG d jPdG OGdG

904
dG K

905
906
2 Input Nand Gate NdG GP dG f HGH
32 Bit Floating Point H 32 G P d G U d G
4 Bit Serial Shift Registers 4 H HQCG hP dG MGREG e
8 Bit Word H 8 e c
8 mm Systems e fdG f
Abrasion dG
Abrasive Materials Tc OGe
Abrasive Slurry Tc ZOQ
Abrupt QdG jT
Abrupt Junction Fa Uh
Absolute ddG
Absolute Shaft Angle Optical Encoders ddG QdG jhGd jdG GedG
AC Bridges hdG QdG Wb
AC Color Plexed Video Signal fe ja IQTEG
AC Electrodynamometer Movements AC S d e j O h d G O G d G c M
AC Image Section AC I Q d G b
AC Line Power hdG QdG N IQb
AC Line Transformer hdG QdG N e
AC Measurement Bridge AC S b I b
AC Power hdG QdG IQb
AC Reference Excitation Input hdG QqqdG qe NO
AC Reversals Y he QJ
AC Scan Section AC e b
Accelerate q j ,Qj
Accelerated Drying odG dG
Accelerating Grid dG hCG jdG T
Accelerometers dG je
Acceptance Cone b b
Acceptor dG
Access Cycle NdG hCG hGdG IQhO
Access Format Code Division Multiple qeo QfG d Oe NO
Access Time NdG eR
Accessories qe qaVEG ILCG
Accumulator cGodG
Accuracy Of Location Fixes dG K bO
Accurate Digital Representation bO bQ e
Accurate Navigational Fix bO Me K
Achromatic Tone qfddG dG
Acoustic JU
Acoustic Megaphone Transmitter (AMT) S Jg Se
Acoustic Transducers AMT d G b d G e
Acronyms (FGhCG) dG GdG
Activators e
Active Component Formation dG qdG AfEG
Active Discrete Components dG edG fqdG
Active Electronic Component fhdG dG qdG
Active Matrix LCD (AMLCD) dG jJdG J
Actuator qe
Adapter Ae
Add On Accessory ae e
Added Mathematical Code dG VjdG edG

907
Adder And Subtractor Matrix Circuit eLh MQW ae IQGO
Adders YqdG
Additive Process aVEG IQhS
Address Tones GdG f
Addressing The Register dG Xh J
Adhesive Die Attach UH ddG d
Advanced Graphic Ports eqdG eSdG ae
Advanced Low Power Schottky TTL (ALSTTL) I Q d G h I Q d G d G J T TTL I L C G
Advanced Solid State Circuitry eqdG dG ddG GQGO
Aerospace (Aa - L) dG AdG
Air Gap qFGg a
Airborne Interrogator k GL e SG RL
Alford Loop Antenna WfCG OQdG FGg
Aliasing gdG
Alignment UG
Alkaline Cells jb jN
All Pass Filter edG jdG Te
Alloy S
Alphanumeric Display Module bQCGh hdG TT fe
Alphanumeric Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) j HCG h dG V d F dG Q dG T T
bQCGh
Alternative Compact Disks And Drives jdG edG UGbCGh bGdG
Alternative Land Links jdG qVQCG JG N
Altimeters JQG GOGY
AM Radio Transmitters (AMRT) kjS dG jOGdG Se
AM Receivers (AMR) q dG dG SG ILCG
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) (SBG) edG Od jeCG SdG edG
Amorphous Qe Z
Ampere Hour YS - eCG
Amplification dG
Amplifier q dG
Amplifier Bandwidth dG VY e
Amplifier Coupling GbEG e
Amplifier Frequency OOdG e
Amplifier Gain q dG c
Amplitude (LdG) S
Amplitude Modulation Detector dG dG Tc
Amplitude Attenuation dG gJ
Amplitude Modulated Signal e e IQTEG
Amplitude Modulation (AM) (AM) q dG qdG
Ampule jhM
Analog KJ
Analog Bargraph Display KdG dG dG TT
Analog Carriers KdG eGdG
Analog Computers KdG JdG
Analog Driver KJ bGS
Analog Format qKJ Ho
Analog I/O Ke N/NO
Analog Interface dG KdG
Analog Moving Bar Display KdG dG TDdG
Analog Moving Coil Meters KdG qdG - dG je

908
Analog Multiplexer KdG GQTEG qe
Analog Output Pins KJ N He
Analog Panel Meters (APMS) KdG MdG GOGY
Analog RGB Interface (RGB ) H K J U h
Analog Shifters KdG jdG
Analog Switches KdG dG
Analogy Speedometer KdG YdG OGqY
And Gate dG HGH
And Matrix V ae
And/Or Structures QNEG/V H
Anderson Bridge SQfCG Ib
Angle Sensing Transducers hGdG q d bdG qe
Angular Displacement jhGR MGREG
Angular Width hGdG VdG
Annealing dG
Anode OfCG
Antenna FGg
Antenna Beamwidth FGdG T VY
Antenna Polarization FGdG SG
Anti Aliasing Filters gd IOdG TdG
Antifuse Links d ehe HGhQ
Antilock Braking fd IOdG eGdG
Antilock Braking Systems (ABSs) dG V dG fCG
Antisubmarine Warfare (ASW) UGd IOdG dG
Any Key Answering e CH ddG HLEG Hb
Apex dG
Application Specific Control Functions YCH qd q e - Xh d eeo
Appropriate Input Pins SdG NdG HHO
Architecture (RISC) Processors b d G S d G RISC d e
Arcing (IQGT jJ) QdG hCG SqdG
Argon Ion Laser Qd
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) qdG qHdG IMdG
Armature dG cdG Qe hCG (QJeQG) cM Qe
QGhdG dG QdG hCG ,dqdG a
Armature Wound cM Qe ado
Array Antennas FGg ae
Array if Conductors Ue ae
Arrays adG
Articulated Joints IgdG UdG
ASCII Serial Interfacing SG H UGJ
Aspect Ratio gLdG f hCG qf Mf
Assembler dG
Assembly Language Or Assembler dG hCG dG d
Asynchronous Data Transmission eGdG Z fdG SQEG
Asynchronous Fast Packet Switching Technique eGdG Z jdG eRdG jJ qJ
Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing eGdG Z edG H dG
Attenuation gdG
Attenuation Distortion gdG qJ
Attenuators gdG
Audible e ,S
Audible Chatter UG U

909
Audible Elapsed Talk Timers U GP de bqDe
Audible Keypad Feedback JdG JdG IOaQ HSG
Audio JU
Audio Or Voice Transformers JdG hCG qdG dG
Audio Output Jacks qS N HGb
Audio Sine Wave dG dG LdG
Audio Speaker U e
Authentication dUCG
Automatic Adaptive Equalizers qdBG AdG Oeo
Automatic Frequency Control (AFC) OOdH dBG dG
Automatic Insertion Machines JeJhCG ZOEG Fe
Automatic Switching JeJG hCG dBG jdG
Automatic Volume Control (AVC) dBG IQdG HV
Automatic Zeroing JGP J
Automobiles cdG
Automotive JGQS ,cdG JGP
Automotive Diagnostic Functions JGdG qdG FXdG
Autopilot dBG dG
Auxiliary Offline Memory IYdG ddG IcGdG
Auxiliary Programming Device Yeo eH RL
Availability MJEG
Avalanche QJ
Avalanche Breakdown QdG QdG hCG QfG
Avalanche Photodiodes jQdG FdG edG
Average Power IQdG e
Average Rectified Forward Current qdG eeCG QdG Seo
Axial Leaded Glass Qe W LR
Axial Leaded Bead Thermistor UUdG dG hP QdG QedG
Axial Pencil Electron Beam Qe b hdEG T
Back To Back Diode X dEG X f FK U
Back Wave Crossed Field Amplifier (BWCFA) or Amplitrons heCG hCG VdG dG LdG e
Backed Up eYdG
Backfire dG fG
Background Noise VQCG AVV
Backlight dG IAVEG
Backpanels dG GQGdG Md
Backplanes dG MdG
Backup Devices OSEG ILCG
Backward Radiation dG TEG
Backward Wave Crossed Field Oscillators (BWCFO) Or Car- hJSQdG hCG VdG dG LdG He
cinotrons
Balance fRGdG
Balance Principle Or Null Detection dG dG hCG RGdG CGe
Ball Wire Bonding For Gold Wire gdG d hc S HQ
Balun ddG
Band Designation dG dO
Band Pass Filter bf QGeEG Te
Band Reject dG hCG edG aQ
Band Reject (Notch) Filter K Te
Bandgap Engineering edG IK Sg
Bandpass dG jJ

910
Bandpass Filters bdG jdG Te
Bandwidth hCG OOdG dG hCG L dG S hCG f V Y
OOdG dG VY hCG Le f VY
Bank Of Filter TdG TCe
Bar Code b eQ hCG OcQdG
Barrel Shifters eH fG
Barrel Stave edG V
Barreters Hc - QdG J eU
Barrier LM
Barrier Regions U We
Bars Ib b
Base Current Yb QJ
Base Module jYb IMh
Base Station SSCG q dG
Base Terminal Yb W
Base To Phone Jg - dEG SSCG e GOOJ
Basic Filter Types qSSCG TdG GfCG
Basic Input/Output System BIOS SSCG NdGh dG f
Basic Logic Gates SSCG dG HGdG
Basic Rate B B SSCG -qe
Bass Sounds GUCG L
Battery Powered Vacuum Tube Radio Receivers jQdH J Zqe HfCG jjOGQ e
Beam T
Beam Riding LJ TEG
Beam Type Gas Maser Oscillators YdG jRdG Qe HHe
Bearing idG hCG JG
Bearing Lines fhdG JG N
Beepers AYSG ILCG
Bias RfEG
BiCMOS Gate Array BiCMOS H G d G a e
BiCMOS Integrated Circuits e d G BiCMOS G Q G O
Biconical Antennas (LhOe b) hdG FK FGdG
Biconical Horns hdG FK GHCG
Bidirectional Couplers JG FK fodG
Bifurcated Self Wiping Tips T dEG qe JGP e jf
Binary Circuit FK IQGO
Binary Code FdG OdG hCG FK IT
Binary Digits FK Je
Binary Number FdG bdG
Binary Serial Data FdG bdG J fH
Binocular Microscope QXdG FK e
Bipassing RhdG
Bipolar dG FK
Bipolar Junction Transistor ( BJT) FK UdG GP hCG dG FK UdG QSfGJ
dG
Bisector hGdG dG
Bistable Multivibrator QGSG FK OdG RGdG
bit Rate dG e
bits qdG
Black Segment Digit AGOS SM Je
Blank Zo

911
Blank Board ZQa Md
Block Floating Point Arithmetic UdG W M
Blocking Oscillators dG HHe
Blocks ee
Blooming dG
Blurring Vh Y
Bobbin Coil IdG dG
Bolometer edH
Bondable Bare Wire d HdG QdG dG OGY
Bondable Metal Foil d Hb fe bbQ H OGY
Bondable Wire Mounted On Plastic Or Paper Base bQh hCG SH IYb Y ce S OGY
Bonding Pads IUBdG GOadG
Boolean Equations dH Oe
Boolean Operations qfdG qdG
Boolean Sum Of Product Logic NdG V UM d pdrHo e
Bow Tie Antenna TGdG HQCG FGg
Bracket eYO ,e
Braided Metal Lanyard he e e b M
Brand Name jqQdG edG
Breakdown Voltage QfG da
Breech Lock dG b
Brewsters Angle ShH jhGR
Bridges Wb
Brightness dG
Broaching Process jdG Y
Broadband jdG dG
Broadband ISDN (B ISDN) And Asynchronous Transfer Mode e G J d G S Q E G f h j d G d G ISDN
Broadside dG jY
Brush Type JTdG
Brushless Resolvers qfLdG Z dG
Buffering SdG jdG
Buffers LGM hCG NGe ,GOdG
Built In Satellite Receivers Jd V e Y J RdG e
Built In Video Lights V ja AGVCG
Buk Derived Switching Power Supply dH eh jdH IQb e
Bulk Resistor L ehe
Buncher And Catcher bdGh eGdG
Buncher Cavity eGdG Ia
Bunching eQn
Bundling dG
Bursts GJ
Bus dG hCG bdG
Bus Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) YdG SdG QdG dG
Bushing HGQ Uh L
Button Cell QdG dG
Bypass jdG dG
Byte jH
Cable dG
Cable Television AC (CATVAC) AC d G G Q T E H d G I d G
q
Cache Memory SdG IcGdG
Caching bDdG jdG

912
Cage Antennas dG FGdG
Cage Wafers bhdG GaGdG
Calibrated Electrical Discharge k Ge kfhdG kjJ
Call Control Signals AGdH dG GQTEG
Call Forwarding NBG dEG e e
Call Progress Information AGdG ejO Y ee
Call Set Up AGdG OGYEG
Camcorders jdG Gec
Capacitance (dG) dG
Capacitive jdG
Capacitive Iris jdG MdG
Capacitive Susceptance jS J
Capacitor qe
Capacitor Network dG T
Capillary dG
Capstans jNdG hCG fHdG
Carburetor HdG
Carcinotrons fhJSdG
Card Cage Mounting bH hU VJ
Cards (fhdG) bdG
Carrier edG
Carrier Charge Transit Time Effects dG eM fEG eR GKCJ
Carrier Mobility edG cM
Carry bdG
Cartridge TWN ,Ie
Catalyst RM Ye eY
Catheter Qb
Cathode OKc
Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs) TCG , dG TC U , e TCG b e
jqOKdG HfCG
Caustic YPdG
Cavitations dG IgX
Cavities GdG
Cavity Gap IdG IK
CCD Detector dH dG RL Tc
CCD Imager jJ T b RL
CD Players Conventional jdG edG UdG e
CD ROM a IAGb IcGP hP ee Ub
Cell Discharge dG jJ
Cells fN hCG jN
Center And Surround Sound Channels dG dG Gbh jqcdG GdG
Center Impedance jcdG bhdG
Centerless Grinder jce Z fMW
Central Processing Unit jqce de IMh
Centralized Concept jcdG e
Centrifugal jce IHf
Ceramic Dual In Line (DIP) Packages q dG FK aN RnQo

Cermet (aN S) eS
Channel Bandwidth IdG OOJ f VY
Channel Configuration IdG J
Channel Marking Buoys IdG TCJ aW

913
Characters Bit Cell Bounding dG H fN OhM
Characteristic Filter Curves TdH UdG dG
Characteristic Impedances HdG bhdG
Charge Balancing Circuit dG fRGd IQGO
Charge Couple Device (CCD) dG dG RL
Charged Rotating Photoconductor Drum Ad Ue IQGhO fGS e S
Check Digit jdG eQ
Chemical Etching dG
Chemical Vapor Deposition FdG QdG SdG
Chemicall Etching FdG dG
Chemically Pumped Laser kFc n odG QdG
Chip Lead Frame QWEG W bbQ
Chopping J
Chrominance Signal qdG GQTEG
Circuit Board IQGdG Md
Circuit Breakers IQGdG Wb
Circuit Mode Data Service IQGdG f GP fdG eN
Circuit Mode Speech And Voice Band Services HdGh JdG dG ed IQGO f
Circuit Protectors GQGdG eM
Circular Multiconductor Pin Connector FGdG OdG UdG e Uh
Circular Plan Position Graph FGdG bdG e
Circularly Polarized Wave kjFGO e Le
Circulating Registers IQGhqdG dG
Citizens Band Radios WGdG f GjOGQ
Clamped J ,Jo
Clamping Screws b ee
Clapp Oscillators e HHe
Cleave T
Clock Steering Network YS LJ T
Closed Circuit TV IQGdG e RdG ILCG
Closed Feedback Loop e LGQ jJ IFGO
Closed Loop (e M) dG WfCG
Closed Loop Servo Control e IFGO QRGDe J IGOCG eN
Closed Loop Servo System dG WfCG hCG dG dG aS f
IQRGDdG qdB
Cluster Controllers qdG /jOdG dG
Clutter IH ,NG ,jJ
CMOS NOT Gate d CMOS H G H
Coaxial QdG e
Coaxial or Radio Frequency QdG Ie hCG jOGdG OOdG Uh
Cobalt Alloy Coated Tape Hc e H q dG jdG
Code Conversion Circuit Card OdG jJ bH IQGO
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) OdG H OdG NdG
Code Generators Ie Gde
Code Readers dG FQb
Coded Label UdG OdG bQ
Coherent eRe ,HGe
Coil e
Coil And Capacitor Tank Circuits fRdG dG dG GQGO
Cold Cathode Discharge tube OQH OKc jJ fCG
Cold Field Emission Microscope OQdG dG GP YdG ShdG

914
Collector uodG
Collector - Base qe IYb
Collimated Light Refraction OdG AdG QfG
Collinear IMGh eSG a edG
Collinear Dipole Array dG FK edG adG
Collisions eGUG
Color Graphic Adapter (CGA) fdG SdG je
Color Sync Burst AC AC eGdG qdG QfEG
Column OY
Combinational And Sequential Logic dGh dG dG
Comblike Structure e J
Combustion GMG
Commercial Broadcasting QdG dG
Commodity Item S IMh
Common Insulation Cable dG dG c
Communication JG
Communication Ports UGdG ae
Compact Disk (CD) Players edG UdG e
Compact Disks (CD) (edG) WdG UGbCG
Comparators fQdG
Compass UH
Compass Graduations UdG GTCJ
Compatible Fax Machine FGdG cdG RL
Compatible Terminal aGdG dG
Compensate jJ
Compiler qodG hCG edG
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor CMOS Ue f hCG fe cCG e e Ue f
e fe cCGh
Complete Frame Per Second fdG a qJ QWEG
Completed Double Diffused Die edG hOdG QfG hP ddG
Complex Mathematical Algorithms IqdG qVjdG eRQGdG
Component udG
Composite cuneo
Compound Semiconductors Ue fCG ce
Computer Aided Medical Imaging JdH dG dG SdG
Computer Peripherals JdG aW
Computer Pointing Devices jJdG LdG ILCG
Computer Ports JdG ae
Computer Programming and Software eGdGh JdG eH
Computer Servers JdG eON
Computer Tomography JdG GZedG
Computer Vision Systems JdG jDhQ fCG
Computer Workstations jJdG dG e
Concave se
Concentrated Localized Heating cqdG VdG dG
Condensers dG
Condensing Lenses pnodG SdG
Conditional And Unconditional Private Whe Zh Whe UN N
Conduction UdH fG
Conductive Feed Connection Ue jJ Uh
Conductors UdG OGdG hCG ,UdG

915
Configuration dG
Confined Ie
Confining Layer ILM W
Conical Horn Whe H
Connection UdG ,HGdG ,HdG
Console fdG
Consolidation MJ
Constellations AdG a IOqe GHCG hCG JGS fCG
Contact eJ hCG JG
Contact Clamps SdG Uh dc
Contact Load Current eod dG QqJ
Contactor FJ Wb hCG edG e
Contacts SJ Uh ,edG f ,ee
Continuous Path Motion odG QdG cM
Continuous Sweeping Motions Iqeo c cM
Continuous Wave Ie Le
Continuous Wave (CW) Magnetrons IdG LdG fhe
Continuous Wave (CW) Doppler Radars jHhdG IdG LdG GQGOGQ
Continuous Wave (CW) Sonars IdG LdG GQfS
Contrast fJ
Control dG hCG dG
Control And Timing Functions bdGh qdG FXh
Control Differential Transformers (CDT) qVdG qodG Jn
Control Logic Program dG qdG efH
Control Loops IS M
Control Panels qJ GdCG
Control Receiver IS e
Control Shaft QdG dG OY
Control Transmitters And Receivers IdG eh Seo
Controller qdG
Controller Sequencer dG qdG
Controls HGdG
Controls Call Processing H dGh ddG IQhS de
Convection dH fG
Conventional Coil And Contact Relay dG edGh dG M q e
Conventional Dial Up Telephone Line OYG fdG jhdG N
Conversion jJ
Conversion Rate dG e
Conversion Section jJ b
Converters dG
Convex Hyperboloidal Subreflector e FGR b fK cY
Copper Laminated Blank dG Sf sZo
Copper Pads SdG GaQ
Copper Tabs qSf dCG hCG GhY
Cordless Telephones SdG JGdG
Core dG
Corner Reflecting Antennas jGhdG e cdG FGdG
Corner Reflector cdG cdG
Correct Time Sequence dG edG J
Corrective Action J f
Corrective Signals qJ GQTEG

916
Corresponding Busses Se He
Corrosive Chemicals dcCG FdG
Cosine dG L
Cost Effective dG qa ,ihL hP c RL
Counter OGdG
Countermeasures OdG GAGLEG
Counting Pulses dG qYn
Coupling dG Uh ,dG ,fQJ Uh ,QdG
Couplings Nuts YdG bdG
Cracked dG
Cradle edG
Critical Angle LdG jhGdG
Critically Damped dG ONEG
Cross Linked Polyolefin ddG OdG dhCG
Cross Link dJ HQ
Cross Links From Satellite To Satellite JS dEG JS e ce WJ Uh
Cross Track Error QdG a CdG
Crossed Field Tubes VdG HfCG
Crowbar Network QHhc T
Crystal Controlled Oscillator QH IS Heo
Crystal Frequency Standards
q QdG OOdG je
Crystal Growth QH f ,IQdG f
Crystal Lattice jQH T
Crystal Microphones jQdG fahdG
Crystal Oscillator QH He
Crystal Puller IQdG MS
CT Scanning jJdG aGZedG SGH dG
Cumulative cGdG
Cup Type Armatures jqhc f cM Qhe
Curie Point Qc f
Current Drive QJ S
Current Driven Resistor QdH dG hdG
Current Gain QqdG c
Current Surge QdG GQa
Current Transfer Ratio QdG fEG e
Cursor de
Curtain Control FdG a cH qdG
Custom Programs jOdG edG
Customized Legend Keys e ReQ hCG e Je
Cut Parabolic Reflector dG gEG cdG
Cutoff Frequency dG OOJ
Cutoff Wavelength dG Le W
Cycle Time IQhdG eR
Cylinder fGSCG
D Flip Flop D NCdG b
D Type Flip Flop Toggle Rate D f e b e e
Darsonoval Meter Movement afSQGO OGY cM
Daisy Chaining (jGO) gdG dG
Damped Oscillation Curve ONEG HJ e
Damping ONEG
Dampout Hunting q f d G b J

917
DAQ Software fdG PGSG qeH
Dashboard IOdG Md
Data fdG hCG dG
Data Acquisition System PGSG f ,fdG cG f ,fH p nJn f
fdG
Data Bit Information dG fH ee
Data Caches Sh fH
Data Channels fdG Gb
Data Communications Line Sharing fdG JG H cQdG
Data Entry Tablets fdG NO Md
Data PBX fdG JdG N qJ GH
Data Pipe Lines fd HfCG dG
Data Single File Oa fH r nen
Data/Fax Modem cdG /fdG Oe
Database fdG IYb
Databus fdG e
Daughter Boards Or Daughter Cards HEG FGhO hCG bH
Daughterboard dG MdG
DC Current Gain TdG QdG c
DC Magnetic Field e Te QJ M
DC Measurement Bridges TdG QdG Sb Wb
DC Moving Coil Ammeters DC d G d G G e C G
Debugged S d HG ,J
Decade Counter Yp OGY
Decay j ,J
Decibels (dG IT IMh) SO
Decimal Point IRQdG f
Decode IdG hCG edG q a
Decoder/ Driver IC e d G a IC/ b G S
Decoder/Demultiplexer q dG/dG je
Decompressing dG dGREG
Decoupling d G h C G G b G q a
Dedicated Frequencies e GOOJ
Deemphasis edG
Deemphasis Network d je QW T
Defect Free Interfaces He Z NGO LhCG
Deflection Circuits GfG GQGO
Deflection Coils GfG e
Deflection Factor GfG eY
Deflections dG ,aGfG
Defroster dG jeo
Degrees Of Freedom jdG LQO
Delay jdG
Delay Distortion NCdG qJ
Deliberate Jamming dG jdG
Delivery WEG
Delta Antenna ddG FGdG
Delta Matched Antennas HdG dO FGg
Demand Paged Memory Systems dG M dG IcGP f
Demodulation dG a ,dG dGREG
Demodulators dG je

918
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) LdG d dG dG Ye
Dents GDdG
Depletion Layer PSG W
Depletion Layer Junction Detector dG e Tc
Depletion Layer Schottky Barrier Photodiode jd JT LMh f W hP FV OjGO
dG
Depletion Layer Schottky Barrier Point Contact Detector jd JT LMh f d ee Tc
dG
Depletion Mode PSG f
Depletion Region f hCG PSG e
Depth Sounders YCG GHS
Descending dRJ
Design Prototype (dhCG PdG) dhCG dG
Design Rule dG IYpb
Designation JEG
Designation Chart dO e
Desktop e
Desktop Publication dG dG
Desktop Stands je eGM
Destination Switching Centers (DSC) dG jJ cGe
Detector Tc
Deuterium jJjdG
Developed Film s odG dG
Deviation Ratio GfG f
Diagonally Split System dG dG f
Dial Tone jhJ qfQ
Dial Up Lines dBG AGdG N
Dialing jhJ
Diameter Conductor UdG b
Diaphragm LM hCG M
Die db
Die Pick And Place fe a SJh ddG dG
Dielectric FHdG RdG
Dielectric Constant FHdG RdG HK
Dielectric Isolation (DI) FHdG dH dG
Dielectric Rod Antenna kFHc RdG dG FGg
Dielectric Sleeve FHdG RdG Z
Differential VJ
Differential Amplifier VJ e
Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) VdG ddG aGdG bdG jJ f
Differential Phase Shifts VJ jQW MGREG
Differential Reference Station VJ Le e
Differential Transformer VdG qdG
Diffractions OdG
Diffused Layers Ie W
Diffusing QfG
Diffusion Plate QfG U
Digit bQ
Digital bQ
Digital To Analog Converters (DACs) KJ dEG bdG e
Digital Gates qbdG HGdG V

919
Digital I/O and Timer pbnDeh bQ N/NO
Digital Logic Speed bdG dG YdG
Digital Loop Carrier qbdG WfCG eM
Digital Multimeters (DMMs) IOdG bdG GOGdG
Digital Or Digitalized Photos bdG hCG bdG aGZJdG QdG
Digital Packet Switching bdG RdG OJ
Digital Panel Meter bdG MdG Se
Digital Position Sensors qbdG qVdG q e
Digital Pulse bdG dG
Digital Servosystems bdG IQRGDdG dBG f
Digital Storage Medium qbQ N WSh
Digital Storage Oscilloscopes (DSO) bdG dG HSShCG
Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA) bdG jdG W
Digital TV Broadcasting Formats bdG fjdG dG J
Digital Versatile Disk eGSG OqdG bdG UdG
Digital Video Camcoders bdG jdG Gec e
Digital Video Disks DVD bdG jdG UGbCG
Digital Video Express (Divx) Players jdG bdG jdG e
Digitize Analog Radar KdG QGOGdG ee bQ
Digitized Voice bdG dG
Digitized Voice Signal bqdG hCG qbdG qJdG IQTEG
Digitized Voice Traffic bqdG dG S
Digitizer be
Digitizing bdG
Dim Sources dG QOdG
Diode Injection Lasers QdG dG eU
Diode Transistor Logic (DTL) QjfGJ ` FK U e
Diodes Emitter Base Junction OjGdG Yd IYdG HGQ
Diodes FdG edG
Dipole dG FK
Dipping Sonar dG QfdG
Direct Aperture Antenna ITdG dG FGg
Direct Contact TdG edG
Direct Coupling TdG GbG
Direct Current (DC) Te QJ
Direct FM Transmitters I T d G FM S e
Direct Interfacing TdG dG UGdG
Direct TV Broadcast Satellites ITdG RdG H JGS
Direct Waves ITdG LdG
Direct Writing ITdG HdG
Directional gJEG
Directional Antennas gJG FGdG
Directional Coupler gJG podG
Directionality gJG
Directive Antenna LJ FGg
Directivity LdG
Directors LpnodG
Discharge Capacitor GaCG e
Discharge Current QdG jJ
Discone Antenna Whe Ub FGg
Disconnect/Connect dGh HdG

920
Discrete e
Discrete Amplitudes e S
Discrete Devices dG ILCG
Discrete Small Signal Transistors dG IdG IQTEG QjfGJ
Discriminator pdG ,dG
Dish Shaped U FGg
Disk Cartidge UGbCG TWN
Disk Interface Standards UGbCd dOdG HdG je
Disk Type Armature Ub cM Qe
Disk Type DC Motors UdG TdG QdG cqe
Diskette dG UdG hCG jdG
Dispersion J
Displacement MGREG
Display VdG
Display/ Control Head VQdG dG SCGQ
Dissipation Factor jdG eY
Distributed Concept jRdG e
Distributed Queue Duel Bus (DQDB) QHdH - RqdG hOdG dG
Distributors YRqdG
Divided Graticule e Y Se
Divider q odG
Division pdG
DMA Functions IcGd ITe hGJ Xh
Document Digitizers qFKdG bdG
Dolby Coding dhO J
Dolby Digital Ac 3 Surround Sound Signals qbQ qJU dhO GQTEG
Dolby Pro Logic Ld hH dhO
Domain Transit Time bdG fG eR
Dominant Mode dG dG
Donor Impurity gh FT
Donors gGh UY
Dopant Concentration edG cJ hCG HTEG cJ
Dopant Profile edG FGT
Dope ee IOe
Doped Silicon edG dG
Doping edG hCG dG
Doping Methods edG FGW
Doppler Navigation jHhdG MdG
Doppler Radars jHhdG GQGOGdG
Doppler Shift HhdG GfG
Dot Matrix f ae hCG dG jJdG
Dot Pitch dG IK
Dots f
Double Sideband Stereo Subcarrier FdG jdG eM
Double Sided Boards (DBSs) dG hCG rLdG GdCG
Double Diffused FdG QfG hCG hOdG QfG
Double Hetero Structure LhOdG fdG Z dG
Double Layer Super Twisted Pneumatic hOdG dG hCG hOdG dG J
Double Sided Disk fdG hOe UdG
Double Stage QW Ye
Double Throw Units jdG LhOe GMh

921
Down Counter dRdG OGdG
Down Counting dRdG qdG
Downlink dG UdG hCG dG Uh
Downlink Signal S HQ IQTEG
Download GfEG
Downtime dG Y bqdG eR
Drain pndG
Drain Current dG QdG hCG dG QqJ
Drain Rates f e
Drain Region jdG e
Drift jfG ,GfG ,fEG
Drive nS
Driven Elements bdG UdG
Driven Half Wavelength Dipole LdG W H e FK b
Drivers bGS
Drivers Seat Heating And Automatic Adjustment Control dBG jdH qdGh
Drum W
Dry And Wet Chemical Etching WdGh dG
Dry Cell adG dG
Dry Reed Switch L b e
Dry Reed Switch Capsule aL
Dual Frequency Signal Generator hOe OOqJ hP IQTEG dqe
Dual In Line Packages (DIPs) dG LhOe RQ hCG q dG FK nM o
Dual Purpose VdG - LhOe
Dual Scan Liquid Crystal Flat Panel Color Display (DSLCFPCD) FK dG FdG QdG d e fe TT
dG
Dual Scan Supertwisted Nematic (DSTN) Display AGdG jdG dG hOdG dG VY
Dual Slope Integrating Converters edG dG FK dG
Dual Tone Multi Frequency Signaling (DTMF) LhOdG dG Oqe OOqdG e IQTEG
Dual Wave Unit LdG FK IMh
Dubbed HO
Ductility nfGdn
Duty Cycle dG IQhO
DVD R d Hb bQ ja Ub
DVD RAM Drives hGdG IcGP GP qbdG jdG UGbCG bGq S
FGdG
DVD ROM a IAGdG IcGd bQ ja Ub
Dynamic Drive (VFD) (VFD) ejdG rn dG
Dynamic Shift Registers MGREG ejdG dG
Dynamical Simulation ejO Ice
Dynodes GOjGdG
E Mail fhcG jdG
E Plane Horn e E f H
E/D Enhancement Depletion Mode Logic PSGh jdG d dG dG
E/D Hetero Junction E/D Technology IjdG Ud jdGh PSG
Early Operator Switched Telephone Keyboards qFGdG jdG - dG J Je GdCG
Earthed VQDe
Eddy Current Induction Loss dG eGhdG QqdG a
q
Edge Connector UdG aM
Effective Width dG VdG
Electric Gear Motor Drive FHc SJ qe bGqS

922
Electric Motor Modulation fhdG qdG e
Electric Stepping Motors qFHc QJ GQJe
Electric Vector FHc e
Electrical Conductivity FHdG UdG
Electrical Continuity FHdG jQGSG
Electrical Noise FHc AVV
Electrically Erasable kFHc dGREd HdG
Electrically Small Antennas kFHc IdG FGdG
Electroacoustic Sensor ShdG dG
Electrocardiograph fhdG dG jJ
Electrochemical qFchc
Electrocution FHc U
Electroluminescent (EL) display fhdEG dCdG ,dCJhdEG TdG
Electroluminescent Phosphor kfhdG dCe QSa
Electrolyte dhdEG hCG FHdG dG
Electrolytic Capacitors qdhdCG qdG
Electromagnetic Deflection CRTs cdG ehdG dG TCG U
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) ehdG NGdG
Electromagnetic Read/ Write Heads IAGdG /Hd ehc ShDhQ
Electromechanical Closed Loop Central System qfehdG dG dH qdG fCG
Electromechanical Components qfehdG fqdG
Electron Beam Lithography fhdG dG aGZd
Electron Tube fhdG dG
Electron Gun fhdG ae
Electron Hole Pairs hQdEG -K GhRCG
Electron Multiplication fhdEG YJ
Electron Multiplier Phototube fhdEG Yd FdG fCG
Electronic Analog Panel Meters (EAPM) KdG fhdG MdG GOGY
Electronic Chart Plotters fhdG dG SGQ
Electronic Control Unit (ECU) fhdG dG IMh
Electronic Countermeasure (ECM) IOdG fhdG GAGLEG
Electronic Ignition fhdG TG
Electronically Controlled Rapid Acting Phase Shifters fhdCG IH jS QW e
Electrooptical Playback System jHhc J IOYEG f
Electrophoritic jHhdG TdG
Electrostatic (JShdG) JShdCG
Electrostatic Deflection CRTs c d G - J S h d G CRTs H f C G
Electrostatic Capacitors JShdG dG
Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) JShdG dG jdG
Element Semiconductors jUdG UdG fCG
Elliptical gEG
Elliptical Far Field Pattern dG dG dG Pf
Elliptical Filter gEG TdG
Elliptically Polarized kjH e
Embedded Ze
Emergency Position Indication Radio Beacons (EPIRBs) jQGVG bd IOdG jjOGdG fdG
jjOGdG GOOdG /ehdG NGdG Te
EMI/RFI Filter NGdG
Emitter YdG
Emitter Follower HJ YH
Emitter Region SQEG e hCG YdG e

923
Encapsulated Module dG jRdG IMh
Encapsulated Reed Relays odG qdG M q dG
Enclosures dG
Encoder qdG hCG eodG
Encoding Logic Block dG edG e
End Stacked Modules jdH Se jOe
End Effector FdG dG
End Fed Array jdG Ff adG
End Fed Monopole Antenna jdG Ff MGdG dG FGg
End Fire (FGdG W jf e SQEG j) FdG dG
End To End Media jf dEG jf e GdG
End Use Application d FdG GSG
Energy Density bdG ac
Energy Gaps bdG Ga
Engine Idle Y Yh /qdG N
Engineering Work Stations qSdG dG TQh
Enhanced Graphic Adapter (EGA) dG SdG je
Enhanced Small Device Interface (ESDI) IRdG IdG ILCd dOdG HdG
Enhancement Mode jdG f
Envelope Delay dG NCJ
Epitaxial Base dG IYdG
Epitaxial Growth dG dG
Epitaxial Layer SJ hCG qJ W
Epitaxial N Type Layer dS J W J
Epitaxial Process dG IQhdG
Epitaxy dG IQqdG
Epoxy cjEG
Epoxy Impregnated Glass Cloth e LLR Tb e hCG dH e GQhCG
cjEH
Equivalent Resistance adG ehdG
Erasable CDs (CD-E) Y e fdG e j dG edG UGbCG
Etch f ,f
Eutectic Die Attach UCG ddG HQ
Even LhR
Excess Solder cGdG dG f
Excimer Lasers dG GQd
Excitation Frequency IQKEG OOJ
Exclusive Or (XOR) gate QdG QNG HGH
Exertion OLEG
Exist Polarizer hdG e
Expansion Cards SdG bH
Expansion Slots qSdG T
Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing (EPIC) kWT jRGdG qLdG SdG
Exponents SCG
Extanded Polyethylene KdG jCG ddG
Extended Data Out (EDO) Ie fH e
Extended Industry Standard Architechture (EISA) dG YdG SdG QdG
Extended Play (EP) e J
External Bus LQN me
External Clock Signals qLQdG YdG GQTEG
External DAQ Boxes qLQdG fdG PGSG Y

924
External Reactive Tuning Elements Ye LQN V UY
Extruded Flat KH e
Extruding Resin KH JGQ
Eyepiece Y SY
Face Plate LGdG dG
Facilities e
Facsimile (Fax) (cdG) cdG
Factors eGY
Factory Installed dG AKCG cdG
Factory Made qdG
False Echoes je jhU
False Triggering WdG fG
Fan Dipole Mhe b FK
Fan Out jdG
Faraday Rotator Phase Shifters GOGQa QGhO QW je
Fast Acting Fuses jdG UGdG
Fast Array Multiplier jdG adG Ye
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) jdG jQa fG
Fast Page Mode (FPM) jdG dG f
Fast Recovery Rectifiers jdG IOSG eqe
Fast Rising Output Pulses JQG jS N f
Fastners SdG
Fathometer edG OGY
Fathoms edG
Feature Values dG dG
Feed Horn jdG H
Feedback YLSG jJ
Feedback Loop YLSG jJ M
Female Contacts fCG edG
Ferrite jdG hCG jqdG
Ferrite Calculators jdG SdG
Ferrite Core Memories jGqdG d GcGP
Ferrod OhsdG
Ferroelectric FHchqa
Ferromagnetic e jjM IOe ,e jM
Ferromagnetic Materials dG jPfEG dY OGe
Ferromagnetic Yokes dG jdG e b Qhe
Ferroresonant Power Supplies RhjdG fdG IQb Ge
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) jdG dCG fH Qf dG LGdG
Fiber Glass d LR
Fiber Optic jdG hCG FdG dCG
Fiber Optic Connectors dG dG Ue
Field Effect Transistors (FETs) ddG dG hCG ddG KCdG GQSfGJ
Field Programmable Logic Array (FPLA) kfGe ed HdG dG adG
Field Strength dG Ib
Filament dG
Fillers GM
Film jdG jT
Film and Foil Capacitors FZ e
Filter TdG
Filter Chokes TdG fGN

925
Filter Designations TdG J
Filter Network TdG T
Filters Te
Fine Mesh Screen dG bO TT
Finer Pitch k GL IU Ua ae
Finite Resistance ge ehe
Fire Control Radars QdH dG GQGOGQ
Fired IRdG
Firewire QdG dG
Firmware HK ee
First Resonator Grid dhCG TdG fdG T
Five External Peripheral Devices dG IYdG LQdG adG ILCG
Fixed Planar Antenna Arrays HK e FGg ae
Fixed Resistive Card Attenuators ehdG bH ge
Flame Retardant dG NDe
Flap Attenuators dG gdG
Flash Coding Metal edH edG e
Flash Converters eh e
Flash Lamp Trigger Module eh e Ge fe
Flash Memory edG IcGdG
Flashtube YU fCG
Flat Cable dG dG
Flat Discharge e jJ
Flat Form Factors S T eGY
Flat Laminated Cable FdG dG dG
Flat Packs qe Y
Flat Plastic Cases q e SH Y
Flat Ripple q e qJ
Flatpack Power Device Packages e IQdG ILCG RQ
Flatpacks e RQ
Flattop dG dG
Flexible Ferrous Metal Strips RhjdG IOqe e qd qfe FGT
Flexible Inner Leaf Spring Contact Surfaces fe ddG d SJ Lh
Flicker FdG edG
Flip Chip And Solder Bump Bonding UdG AdH HdGh HdG bbdG
Flip Chips Hb bbQ
Flip Flop dG
Floating Point Devices dG UdG ILCG
Floatplan dhCG WQN
Floppy Disk dG UdG
Flourescent Backlighting dG jQdG IAVEG
Flow Fuel Plates ee U
Flow Meters jdG je
Fluorescent Screen SQa TT ,dCJ QS
Fluorinated Hydrocarbon QdG HchQdG
Fluted Pin e pe
Flux adG
Flux Gate Compasses adG HGH Uh
Flyback Converter LdG e
Flyback Period dG dEG dG Ia
Flying Erase Head QdG SdG SCGdG

926
Fm Stereo Multiplexing FM jS Ye
Focal Point IQDdG
Focusing cJ
Folded Dipole Antennas jdG dG FK FGdG
Footprint b W
Force And Pressure Transducers dG hCG adG bW qe
Forearm YdG W
Formatting UdG jJ
Forward And Backward Wave Traveling Wave Tubes dG dEGh eCG dEG JdG LdG eU
Forward Bias eeCG RfG
Forward Convertor eeCG qodG
Forward Counter eeCG OlGY
Forward Current eeCG QJ
Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) eCG dEG d AGdG J TG IMh
Forward Operating Current dG eeCG QdG
Forward Or Buck Convertor dG hCG eeCG qdG
Forward Viewing Data eeCG jDhdG fH
Forward Voltage eeCG da
Forward Wave Crossed Field Amplifiers (FWCFA) VdG eeCG LdG e
Forward-Wave Traveling-Wave Tubes eCG dEG JdG LdG HfCG
Four And Six Pin Dual In Line Package Cases YHQ hCG SGS LhOdG dG jRdG jhM
dG
Four Wire Circuits HQCG SCG GQGO
Fractional Horsepower DC Motors qFdG qfdG IQdG GP dG QdG ce
Frame QWEG
Frames Of User Data odG fH WCG
Framing dG dG
Freckles dG dG
Free Running Oscillator AGOCG M He
Free Space Antenna Pattern FGd dG dG f
Freedom From Busy Signals ddG GQTEG e QqdG
Frequency OOdG
Frequency Divider OOJ e
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) OOdG H OdG NdG
Frequency Division Multiplexer (FDM) OOqdG H dG
Frequency Domain OOdG e
Frequency Interlacing GOOdG HJ
Frequency Modulation (FM) OOdG dG
Frequency Multiplier OOdG Yeo
Frequency Resolution OOdG J
Frictionless cMG Z f
Front End Processor qeeCG - ddG IMh
Fuel Cells ObdG jN
Fuel Injection ObdG M
Full Duplex Channel edG LhOdG IdG
Full Adder Gate edG q n dG HGH
Full Adder Logic edG dG e
Full Blocking Voltage dd edG dG
Full Bridge ec Ib
Full Duplex Leased Line Transmission Low Speed Synchronous eGdG hP edG-hOdG LCodG-qdG SQEG
YdG dG

927
Full Parabolic Reflector dG gEG cdG
Full Performance Capabilities eqdG AGOCG GQb
Full Scale SdG Md
Full TV Frame ec fjJ QWEG
Full Wave Center Tapped Rectifier Circuit ec Ld AGOCG jce jJ IQGO
Full Wave Rectifier Circuit edG LdG jJ IQGO
Full Wave Three Phase Rectifier Circuit MGdG KK ec Le jJ IQGO
Function Generators UNG GddG
Fuse UdG
Fuse Links Ua HGhQ
GaAs Analog/ Interface ICs edG dG GP KdG ddG fQR GQGO
Gain dG
Gain Guided dH LdG
Gain Per Channel Ib d dG
Gallium Arsenide ddG fQR IOe
Gallium Arsenide Digital ICs edG bdG ddG fQR GQGO
Gallium Arsenide Tunnel Diodes jdG ddG fQR GOjGO
Gallium Nitride (GaN) Laser Diodes jQdG ddG jf GOjGO
Galvanometer (bO eCG Se) efZ
Gap Ia
Garnet MCG dG
Gas Filled (Transmit Receive) tubes RdH IAdG SEG - SQEG eU
Gate HGdG
Gate Biased Signal HGdG RfG IQTEG
Gate Channel Junction IdG HGH WJ
Gate Cutoff Voltage dG HGH da
Gate Source Leakage Current dG Qe HGH QJ
Gateways Qe
Gaussmeter ShZ OGY
Gear And Spring Mechanisms HdGh SdG qdBG
Gear Change SdG qJ qSM V
Gears ShdG
General Blocking dG dG
General Purpose Instrumentation Bus dG GSG ILCG e
General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB) dG GSd dOdG HdG e
Geosynchronous Communication Satellite (eGJdG) kVQCG eGdG JG JS
Geosynchronous Orbit eGJdG QGdG
Ghosting k pV

Global Positioning System (GPS) ddG aGdG bdG J f
Global System For Mobile (GSM) dqdG JGd ddG dG
Glue Applicators jqodG
Gold Flashed Alloy Lgh qgP S
Graded Index Optical Fiber edG QdG dG dG
Gradual Taper jQJ e T
Graph fH SQ
Graphic Adapter fdG SdG jeo
Graphic Cards (fH SQ) aGZ bH
Graphic Display fdG SdG VY TT
Graphic Manipulation Sd aGZ hGJ
Grasp And Release Loads dG jJh b
Graticule dG Se

928
Gray Code OedG edG
Grid Te T
Grid Reflecting Disk TdG cdG UdG
Grippers HGdG hCG HdG QPCG
Groove IK
Ground VQCG
Ground Based Phased Array Radars ddG ae VQCG GQGOGQ
Ground Based Transponder bdG VQCG (QffGJ) e
Ground Connection jQCJhCG VQCG Uh
Ground Plane Antenna dG VQCG FGdG
Ground Planes VQCG UJ S
Ground Stations VQCG dG
Ground Tracking Stations qVQCG qdG e
Grounded Delay Line VQDdG jdG N
Grounded Wrist Straps VQDdG UdG eMCG
Grounding jQCJ
Groundplane VQCG dG
Guide Rollers LdG GH
Gyroscope Mount ShdG VM
H Plane Horn H e H
Half Adder Symbol dG qdG eQ
Half Adder Truth Table dG hL
Half Bridge IdG f
Half Bridge Regulator Ib dG e
Half Duplex hOe dG
Half Hand Brass hdG UCG SdG
Half Power Points IQdG f f
Half Wave Elements Le f UY
Half Wave Open Dipole dG LdG f dG FK
Half Wave Rectifier Circuit dG LdG jJ IQGO
Half Wave Three Phase Rectifier Circuit MGdG KK LdG d jJ IQGO
Half Wavelength Radiator Le f H eo
Halide (LddG) ddG
Hall Effect g KCJ
Hall Effect Transducer (HET) g KCJ bW e
Handheld Pen Scanner dH dG dG FdG SdG
Handheld Personal Computers (HPC) jhj ddG qdG GJdG
Handshaking JG cCJ OJ CG adG
Hard Copies bQh f
Hard Disk dG UdG
Hard Disk Drives dG UdG bGS
Hard Vacuum Panel jdG jdG Md
Hardware fhdEG jqOdG fdG , GhOCG
Harmonic Generators ZdG GddG
Harmonies aGdG
Harp Antennas jQdG FGdG
Head End FdG FdG dG
Head Positioner SCGdG Ve
Head To Tape jT dEG SCGQ
Head Up Display (HUD) adG SCGdG VY
Header SCGdG ,eqe

929
Headphone PCG YS hCG JdG YqS
Headset YqdG
Heat Dissipating Bus Bar QGdG jd Ue b
Heat Seeking IQGd dG
Heat Sink QGM e
Heat Treatment jQGdG ddG
Heavily Doped edG hCG dG dH
Heavy Duty Cables dG MG c
Heavy Duty Components Systems dG dG fCGh fdG
Helical Antennas fhdG FGdG
Helical Flashlamp dd hCG fhM FV e
Helical Scanning ddG dG
Helix hM
Hermetic Seal dG e
Heteroepitaxy fe Z hCG e ba SJ
Heterojunction Ije Uh ,fe Z Uh
Heterojunctions e Z WJ
Hexa SGS
Hierarchical Parallel Networks LQdG jRGdG dG
HiFi Stereo Systems HiFi j d G f C G
High Amplitude Ripple Response Lq dG HSd ddG YJG
High Density Integrated Circuits adG dY ee GQGO
High Electron Mobility Transistors (HEMTs) fhdd jdG cdG GQSfGJ
High End Computing Applications FdG SdG d SqdG
High End Networking Equipment INCG - ddG dG Ge
High End Personal Computers qdG GJd jdG fCG
High Flux Density dY qa ac
High Frequency Switching ddG GOOdG jJ
High Pass Filters ddG GOOdG QGeEG Te
High Permeability dY jPf GP IOqe
High Pitch Tone ddG dG f
High Resistive Depletion ddG ehdG GP PSG e
High Slew Rate dY fG e
High Speed Analog/ Interface YdG dY H Lh KJ
High Speed On Chip YdG ddG ITdG IcGdG bbQ
High Speed Silicon Gate CMOS (HC/HCT CMOS) f d G H G d G h P Y d G d d G CMOS R L
High Voltage Leads ddG dG SCG
High Voltage Neon Seven Segments Displays dG dG TT a dY da f
High Volumetric Efficiency dY M IAc
Higher Junction Temperatures cCG qUh IQGM LQO
Higher Output Drive d YCG nS
Highest Frequency Deviation bCG OOdG GfEG
Highlighting AdG J
Highly Directional Covert Communication gJG dY dG JG
Hold Up Time jEG eR
Holding Capacitor dG e
Holes dG hCG ZGdG
Hollow Ironless Shell jqjM Z qaL aU
Holography dG VdG
Home CD Changers qddG edG UGbCG qe
Home Video Systems qdG jjdG odG

930
Homo Junction LED Ad YdG JGdG UdG OjGO
Homoepitaxy fe ba J SJ
Hookswitch q dG dG
Horizontal Bidirectional Antennas JG FK aCG FGg
Horizontal Sweep Generator aCG jfG de
Horizontal Transverse Mode aCG VY f
Horn Radiators bdG dG
Host Circuits e GQGO
Host Computer dG hCG dG JdG
Hot Plate Conduction NdG dG Ue
Hue dG
Hum dG
Hunting q f d G
Hybrid Circuits dG GQGdG
Hydrazine jRGQdG
Hydrodynamic Noise ejOhQdG AVdG
Hydrophone FdG dG
Hyperlinks dG c HGhQ
Hysteresis dG
I Fetch gd dG QSEG
IC Photomaste F V IC W
Iconoscope fqdG fjdG IQqdG
Illuminated Pushbutton (IPB) gdG ZdG QGQRCG
Image Orthicon Tubes Qd KQhCG eU
Image Processing Techniques IQdG - IQhS qJ
Imager AC AC Q d G
u
Imaging Ground Plane jJ e S
Immediate Traffic GFd QdG QdG
Immediate Vicinity FGd PdG QGdG
Impact Avalanche Breakdown U QJ fG
Impact Avalanche Transit Time Diode dG QJ fG eR U
IMPATT Diodes F d G IMPATT e U
Impedance bhdG
Impedance matching bhd eAGe
Impedance Termination bhe jf
Implanted QRo
Imprinted edG
Improved High Speed Silicon Gate CMOS (HCs/HCTs CMOS) ddG YdGh fdG HGdG hP CMOS RL
dG
In Quadrature Ye Ye cep ,YHQ
In Series dH
Inaccessible Y IH
Inactive Ya Z
Inbound Devices NGdG f dG ILCG
Incandescent Lamps LgdG HdG
Incoherent RdG Z ,HGdG Z
Incoming AC Line Power NGdG hdG Qd bdG q N
Incremental jGdG
Incremental Inductance jQdG KdG
Incremental Open Top Actuator
q YJ Me M qeo
Incremental Shaft Angle Optical encoders QdG jhGR S d j jG dG j dG G e dG

931
 cdG
Index Guided Lq dG edG
Index of Refraction QfG ee
Indexing SdG
Indicator Lights IAVEG c
Indicators ac
Indium Gallium Aluminum Phosphide InGaAlP Laser Diodes dZ dCG Sa e jQdG FdG edG
jfEG
Individual Cap Oe AZ
Inductance dG
Inductive KdG
Inductive Capacitance Filter M S Te
Inductive Iris KdG MdG
Inductive Reactance M Ye
Inductive Shunt Susceptance Ke jJ aGJ
Inductive Susceptance Ke J
Industrial Applications qYdG dG
Industrial Computer Aided Vision System YdG Jd - IYe jDhQ f
Industrial Control qYdG qdG
Industrial Grade Electronics qYdG JdG a fhdG
Industrial Robot System YdG HhdG f
Inefficient dqa Z
Inert Gas eN RZ
Inertia JGdG QdG hCG ddG
Inertial Guidance Systems jQdG hCG ddG LdG fCG
Infinite Resolution ge fSEG
Infra Red Oven AGdG J TCG a
Infrared AGdG J LdG
Inherent System Time Delay UCJ eR NCJ f
Injection M
Inner Coded Track NGdG edG dG
Inner Electrode NGO OhdEG
Inner Leads NGdG GWCG
Input NO
Input Command NdG eCG
Input/Output (I/O) N /NO
Inputs NodG
Insertion Loss NOEG a
Inspection Marking And Testing QNEGh ,TCdG ,jdG
Instantaneous Magnetic Circuit Protectors (IMCP) fBG dG IQGdG eM
Instantaneous Trip d IY
Instruction Decoder eCG IT a
Instruction Register eCG q e
Instrument Panel Information Control GOGdG Md H dG
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) dG FK dRdG HGdG GQjfGJ
Insulation Y
Insulation Layer dRdG dG
Integrated Circuits (IC) edG GQGdG
Integrated Circuits Photomasking edG IQGd FdG dG
Integrated Diode ee OjGO
Integrating edG

932
Integration Process eJ IQhS
Integrator ee
Intelligent Data Terminals qcdG fdG aW
Interactive Computer Communications (YdG) jqQhdG JdG JG
Interactive TV YdG RdG
Intercarrier Detection dG edG c
Interchangeability (dOdG) OdG Hb
Interconnecting Wires dG HdG SCG
Interdigital Delay bQ jJ
Interdigitated qHJ H
Interface H Uh hCG dOJ He hCG H S
Interfacing dG dG hCG dG UGdG
Interference Fringes NGJ aM
Interference Pattern NGdG Pf
Interferences NGdG
Interleaving H ebG SQG ,dG
Interline dG dG , q dG jdG
Intermediate Power Amplifier SdG IQdG e
Internal Light Multiplier Plate NGdG AdG J U
Interpreter LdG
Interrupt Bus dG e
Intrinsic Layer dG JGdG dG
Intrinsic Or Undoped edH edG Z
Ion Beam Lithography fjCG dG aGZd
Ion Implantation fjCG QR
Ionization Threshold jCJ Y
Ionizers jDdG
Iridiums Personal Communicators qdG jjjEG JGg
Iron Cord Reactors jdG JdG Ye
Iron Core jM q do
Iron Disulfide Thermal QGM jdG FK jM
Isosynchronous jhdG eGdG
Isosynchronous Data Transmission fd hdG eGdG SQEG
Jacketing dG
Jacks dG IMh HGb
Jamming jdG
Jelly Roll JL W
Jewel And Pivot System dGh IQdG f
Joint Motors cdG cdG
Joints UdG
Jumbled Ze Z
Junction Uh
Junction Temperature JQGh WdG f IQGM LQO
Keep Alive Assembly NCG edG e
Keyboard JdG Md
Keypads JdG IOaQ
Knobs odG ,fhdEG JdG
Ladder Filter LQdG TdG
Laminated neo
Laminated Core Transformers bdG FdG dG qe
Lapping Process dH dG jW

933
Large Advanced Mirror Program Lamp System dG dG IBGdG efH H jo jGe f
Large Scale Integration (LSI) idG dG edG
Large Scale Monolithic IC Receiver Transmitter Circuits (LSI Y ee dG jOMCG SQEGh SEG GQGO
ICs) c ie
Laser QdG
Laser Bar Code Reader QdG OcQdG Qb
Laser Diodes jQdG FdG edG
Laser Geodimeter jGOdG QdG
Laser Range Finders (LRF) jQdG idG J ILCG
Lasing IQdG
Latches be hCG dGe
Latching Reciprocal Phase Shifters ab OOJ dM je
Lateral Layout or Topology fL e
Lateral Movement fdG cdG
Latitude VdG q N
Lattice T
Layering H VdG hCG bdG
LCD Camera With Build In Charge Coupled Device LCD G e d G V e - T R L
LCD Monitor FdG QdG TT
Lead W
Lead Frame QWEG hCG eRdG W
Lead In Connections UdG NGe
Lead On Chip (LOC) Packages IOodG bbdG RQ
Lead Time UdG eR
Leadless Ue hCG bCG Y jdG Z
Leads GWCG hCG Uh
Leakage J
Leased Lines ILCodG dG
Leased Lines ILCdG dG
Least Significant Bit (LSB) je bCG dG
LED Alphanumeric Displays b Q C G h h d G V h d LED T T
Left Shift Register jQdG MGREG e
Lever Y
Light Emitters AV YH
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) Ad YdG (GOjGdG) FdG edG
Light Scattering AdG IQSEG
Light To Digital Convertor Circuitry bQ e - AV IQGO
Lighting IAVEG
Limit Switches qdG Je
Limited Scan Array Radars dG IOe adG GQGOGQ
Limited Sequence Machines Oqeo J BG
Limited Shelf Lives IOhe N QYCG
Limiter Stage Me HV
Line Configuration JG N J
Line Cord FHdG dH RdG J S
Line Drivers N bGS
Line Of Position be N
Line Turnaround dG b
Line Width q dG VY

Linear dG
Linear Acceleration Forces N QJ ib

934
Linear Amplifiers qdG dG
Linear Circuits dG GQGdG
Linear Core dG dG
Linear Power Supplies N IQb je
Linear Regulated DC Supplies d G d G DC G e
Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) dG Gd VdG QdG e
Linearities N
Lineplexers dG e
Link JQG
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) FdG - QdG TT
Liquid Encapsulated Czochralski dG hCG dG Fd dGLhJ jW
Lithium Solid Electrolyte (Li/I2) U dhdEc OdG - dG
Lithium Sulfur Dioxide (Li/So2) jdG cCG fK - dG
Lithium Carbon Monofluoride (Li/Cf) HdG jQa OMCG - dG
Lithium Manganese Dioxide (Li/Mno2) Cells dG cCG fK - dG jN
Lithium Primary Cells dhCG dG jN
Lithium Thionyl Chloride (Li/SOCl2) fjdG jQc dG
Load dG
Load Positioning Accuracy dG VJ bqO
Local Area Networks (LANs) qdG dG
Local Cell Site dG qdG be
Local Oscillator e He
Lock Washer MEG a
Log Periodic Antenna JQZdG MdG FGdG
Logging NO hCG eJ
Logic dG
Logic Analyzers dG dG
Logic AND Gate e V HGH
Logic Level Square Wave e ie GP He Le nNp
Logic Level Voltages e iH da
Logo eY
Long Wire Antenna Arrays jdG dG FGg ae
Longitudinal Vibration ddG GRGgG
Loss a
Low Loss Filament dG dG a
Low Internal Resistance V NGO ehe
Low Luminous Performance b dCJ AGOCG
Low Offset Drift WGdG RGdG
Low Pass AH jJ
Low RF Leakage bCG jH jOGQ OOJ
Low Series Resistance Values e J ehe b
Lower Response Curve dG HSG e
Luminance dCJ ,oS
Luminous Performance dCdG AGOCG
M Derived Filters M q dG TdG
M Type Backward Wave Oscillator M f e FGO N Le He
Machine Code Or Language dBG d hCG dBG eQ
Macintosh Operating System (Mac OS) (MAC ) T c e d G f
Macro Functions jhcdG GdG
Macrocells jhcdG jdG
Magazine Style Changers jdG OdG jhM

935
Magnetic dG
Magnetic Bias e J
Magnetic Disk Cartridge Backup Drives (MDCBD) e Ub Ob Y OSEG bGS
Magnetic Field Strength Meter dG dG Ib Se
Magnetic Hydraulic Circuit Protectors IQGd dhQdG dG edG
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) dG fdH jdG
Magnetic Vector e e
Magnetically Biased Polarized Relays ke IqdGh ndG MdG
Magnetoconstrictive e J
Magnetoconstrictive Transducer dG e bW e
Magnetoresistors dG ehe
Magnetron hdG
Magnetron Pulsing Circuit fhdG dG GQGdG
Magnitude QGe
Mainframe Computers FdG GJdG
Major Flat FdG dG
Major Lobe FQ a
Male Part zdG{ AdG
Malleability bhW
Manipulator jodG
Manipulators Actuators jdG qeo
Manual hj
Marine Electronic Technology jdG fhdG LdJ
Maser QdG
Mask Patterns dG fCG
Masking dG hCG dG
Mass Storage Controller dG jdG e
Mass Storage Devices c jfK N ILCG
Mass Termination Insulation Displacement (MTID) dG MGREGh dG AfEG Uh
Master Mask FQ H
Masts QGS
Matched Impedance FGe bhe
Matching Sockets fQe jQHCG
Matrix ae
Maximum Pickup dG bCG
Mechanical Buffing fdG dG
Mechanical Coupling fdG dG
Mechanical Grinding fdG dG
Mechanical Linkages qfdG HGhdG e Ye
Mechanical Step Sequencer fe LQJ e
Medium Scale Integration (MSI) SdG idG eJ
Megabytes jHdG
Melt dG
Memory Management Unit (MMU) IcGdG IQGOEG IMh
Mercury Wetted Reed Relays FdH dG GP dG M q eo
Mercury Wetted Reed Switch Capsule FdH Ieo qb dc
Mesa GdG
Mesh Grid Te T
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Transistors (MOSFET) Ue f cCG e GQjfGJ
Metal Eyelets fe Y
Metal Field Effect Transistors (MESFET) UdG T fdG dG KCJ QjfGJ

936
Metal Hub fe b
Metal Oxide Resistors fdG jcG ehdG
Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) dG cCG Ue f
Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV) dG cCG he
Metal Screening fe M
Metal Semi Conductor Photodiodes fdG UdG d FdG FdG edG
Metal Sheathing fe Z
Metalized Plastic Film e SH AZ
Metalized Rubber Domes fe q e e b
Meter Movement OGdG cM
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) (jdG) dHhdG T
Mica dG
Micro Ball Grid Arrays (MBGAs) jhdG IdG T ae
Micro Channel Plate jhdG GdG U
Micro SMT (MSMT) Packages j h d G SMT R Q
Microchannel Architecture (MCA) bhdG QdG dG
Microchannel Plate jhdG GdG GP dG
Microcode RROM a IAGdG IcGP hP q dG OdG
Microcomputers hdG JdG
Microlithography jhdG aGZdG
Microlumens edhdG
Microminiature Pits jhe f
Micromotion Flexible Membrane Switches jhdG cdG GP dG AdG Je
Microprocessor hdG ddG
Microprocessor Based Modems hdG ddG Y FdG eOdG
Microprocessor Bus Interfacing he dH bd dOdG HdG
Microscopic Pits jqe M
Microstrip jhdG eMG
Microstrip Transmission Line hdG jdG SQG N
Microwave Amplification By Stimulate Emission Radiation H dG jhdG LdG hCG GQ dG
(MASER) dG fCG
Microwave Beacons jhdG LdG fH
Microwave Couplers jhdG LdG fe
Microwave Detector jhdG LdG Tc
Microwave Diodes hCG jhdG Ld Y dG F dG e dG
jhdG LdG eU
Microwave Limiter jhe Le Oe
Microwave Monolithic Integrated Circuits (MMICs) edG dG jOMCG jhdG LdG GQGO
Microwave Oscillators jhdG HHdG
Microwave Oven jhhdG a
Microwave Phased Array Radar Systems QdG ae jhdG LdG QGOGQ fCG
Microwave Relay Links jhdG LdG Me Uh
Microwave Signal jhdG LdG GP jhdG GQTEG
Microwave Strip Lines IQdG jhdG LdG N
Midband Output dG dG N
Midcourse Corrections jdG e jJ
Midrange Speaker SdG idG GP JdG IdG
Mil Spec Transformers S dG e
Millicandels fc e
Millimeters Peak Detectors jdG IOdG IhQdG ac
Miniature qe

937
Miniaturization J
Minicomputer qodG JdG
Minimal Overshoot dG H e fOCG dG
Minimum Radiation fOCG TEG
Minority And Majority Carriers qbCGh jqcCG eM
Mixed Colour e d
Mixer N
Mixing Audio AdG dY dG J
Mnemonic Programming jqcqdG edG
Modal Dispersion dG dG
Mode f
Model Changeover PdG jJ
Modem OdG
Moderate Directivity de gJEG hP
Modifier Dynamic ejdG qnodG
Modifier Static dG qnodG
Modulate jo
Modulated Write Laser Beam eo Jc Qd T
Modulater Demodulator (Modem) e - e Oe
Modulating Grid dG T
Modulating Or Active Sensors ddG hCG dG dG
Modulation J
Modulator dG
Modulator's Thyratron s odG hJGK
Module jOdG ,IMdG ,PdG ,ce IQGO hCG ,LR
Mold db
Molded Plastic Flatback Cases dG SdG dG dG jhM
Molding Or Sealing dG hCG ddG
Molecular Beam (MB) jdG dG
Molecular Friction jL MG
Momentary Action dG qfBG
Monaural IMGh PCH dG SG
Monitor bdG hCG TdG
Monochrome dG OMCG hCG OMCG dG
Monocolor dG OMCG
Monocular Starlight Scope QXdG OMCG jQS Qe
Monolithic Resistor Formation dG jOMCG ehdG jJ
Monolithic Board dG jOMCG Md
Monolithic Chips dG jOMCG bbQ
Monolithomic Block dG OMCG L
Monolithomic Multilayer qedG jOMCG IOe W
Monophonic qJU jOMCG
Monopole dG jOMCG
Monopulse IMGh f
Monopulse Angle jOMCG dG jhGR
Monostable Multivibrator QGSG OMCG Oe RGqg
Monotonous Jh
Moores Law Qeo fb
Most Significant Digit Position kMe cCG bdG be
Mother Board CG MdG
Mouse IQCdG

938
Movie Type Video Cassette FdG HdG GP jqja GVe
Moving Coil Analog Panel Meters (MCAPM) dG ce KdG MdG GOGY
Moving Iron Circuit jM jJ GQGO
Moving Pits cqodG dG
Moving Vane Meter Movements dG TjQ OGY cM
Multi Pin Two Piece Connector b e feh HdG IOe Uh
Multibus IOdG HdG
Multichip Modules bbdG IOe GMh
Multideck dG IOqe
Multidigit Smart Monolithic 16 Segment LED Display b d G I O e h d G j O M C G A L 16 e LED T T
cP
Multifunction Manipulator FXdG Oqe jeo
Multihole Spacer dG Oe Ye
Multilobed Patterns UdG IOe fCG
Multiphase Modulation QGWCG OqdG dG
Multiple Wire Circuits Boards IOdG SCG GP - GQGdG Md
Multiple Access Scheme NdG Oe e
Multiple Channels IOqe Gb
Multiple Epitaxial Mesa Oqe J Ge
Multiple Gates IOqe HGH
Multiple Winding Transformer dG Oe qe
Multiplexed OnodG nn odG
Multiplexing Oe Jn
Multiplier Ypeo
Multipoint dG Oe
Multipole Soft Iron Rotor dG Oqeoh QGhqO YdG jdG e AL
Multiscanning IOe Me
Multitap Qe IqY hP RL
Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) SdG Gd bdG dOdG HdG
Muttipole High Density Relay adG dY bCG Oqe M q e
Mutual Inductance cdG KdG
Mutual Interference dG NGdG
Mylar e
N Channel JFET dS Ib Uh
N ISDN d G d G ISDN
N Type Collector dS f qdG
N Type Dopants dS ee
N Type Emitter dS f YdG
N Type Material ddG qdG e IOqe
NAND Gate dG f HGH
NAND Logic Input Circuits e NO V f JQGO
Narrow Beam dG dG
Narrowband ISDN (N ISDN) qdG dG ISDN
Natural Binary dG FdG
Nautical Chart Me hCG Yo e
Near Letter Press Quality dG hM Yf e J bGQ Yf
Negative Resists ddG ehdG
Negatively Doped N dS e e
Network Controller IC dH d edG IQGdG
Network File Servers dG GqN T
Night Vision Light Multiplier Tubes Ad YdG dG jDhdG HfCG

939
Nightscope dG QXdG
Noise AVdG
Noise Limiter AVdG qe
Nominal Voltage (J) SG da
Non Interlaced Scanning HdG Z dG
Non Linear Rectification Characteristic qN qjJ qUN
Non Radiating solt e Z T
Noncontact Measurement edG Z SdG
Nonimpact OU Z
Noninverting d Hb Z
Nonlinear Taper in Potentiometers M e Oe
Nonpolarized dG Z
Nonpolarized Electrolytic Capacitors dG Z dhdG dG
Nonpolled Network dG Z dG
Nonreciprocal dOJ
Nonreturn To Zero (NRZ) (NRZ ) d G d E G - I O d G Y
Nonreturn To Zero Inverted (NRZI) (NRZI ) S d G d G - d E G - I O d G Y
Nonservoed IQRGDdG dBH IOhqe Z
Nonsinusoidal LdG LdG
Nonvolatile Memories (TdG Z) TdG Z GcGdG
Nonvolatile RAMs (NV RAMs) TdG Z FGdG NdG GcGP
NOR Gate QNG f HGH
Normal Operation W Y
NOT Gate dG HGH
Notch K
Notebook Computers jadG GJedG
Notebook Personal Computers qdG IcqdG GJc
Nozzle dG
NPN Junction Transistors ddG ` LdG ` ddG UdG GQSfGJ
N-Type Channel dS f IdG
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging QdG dG fdH jdG
Nuisance Tripping YdG YG dM
Null Condition jdG ddG
Null Detector U Tc
Numerical jOY
Numerical Aperture (NA) jOdG dG
Numerical Keypad qbQ Je IOaQ
Nyquist Frequency jf OOJ
Nyquist Theorem jf Va
Object Program dG edG hCG efdG
Object Reflectivity dG SfG
Objective Lense (Microsope) (She) T SY
Oceanography dG Y
Octal fK
Octaves achCG
Odd jOa
Off AWEG dM a
Off Chip EPROM QN d Hb a IAGb IcGP GP e bbQ
bbdG
Off Chip Memory qdG bbdG IcGP
Off The Shelf Microprocessors jqQdG IgdG jqhdG ddG

940
Ohmic Resistance Loss ehCG hdG a
Ohmmeter (ehCG SdG) ehCG
On TEG dM a
On Hook J dM
On Chip Analog qKJ qFQ bbQ
On Chip Codec qFdG bbdG eqeo
On Chip RAM qFfG qFGY IcGP GP qFQ bbQ
On Chip ROM a IAGdG IcGd ITdG bbdG hCG jdG
One Time Events IOdG GMCG
Open Frame Assembly e QWEG e
Open Frame Structures e QWEG g
Open Mesh Me K
Open Reed Relays MdG qdG M q dG
Operand dG
Operating Speed dG YS
Operating Systems (OS) dG fCG
Operational dG
Operational Amplifier J e
Operational Amplifier Integrator J J ee
Operator J eY
Opposite Corners He cQCG
Opposite Phases ce QGWCG
Opposite Wall cdG dG
Optical Bass Speakers jdG jdG GdG
Optical Fibers jdG dCG
Optical Interrupters jdG WdG
Optical Lithography jdG aGZdG
Optical Stepper Lenses LQqe jH SY
Optimum eCG
Optocoupler Packaging dG dG jRJ
Optocouplers jdG fdG
Optoelectronic Device Cases jdG fhdG ILCG jhM
Optoelectronics jdG fhdEG
Optointerruptor dG WdG
Optoisolators FdG RdG
Optoreflector dG cdG
OR Array QNEG ae
OR Gate QNG HGH
Original Format UCG dG
Original Pseudorandom Binary Pulse Train UCG dhCG FGdG GP FdG dG J
Original Waveform LdG T
Oscillating Feed Hoppers Iab jOOJ NOEG FSh
Oscillation HdG
Oscillator HdG
Oscillator Power Amplifier Chain HdG IQb e S
Oscillator Tank Circuits HHP jJ GQGO
Oscilloscope HHdG Tc hCG SShCG
Out Of Phase Feed QdG QN e jdG
Outdoor Displays LQdG VhdG
Outgoing IQOdG fdG
Output dG

941
Output Discriminator dG qeo
Output Load dG M
Output Pin dG SHO
Output Response dG HSG
Output Terminals adG LdG
Over Heating dG dG
Over Shooting dG f H e a
Overange dG a
Overcurrent QJ a
Overdamped ONEG a
Overload dG a
Overprinting IQe YW
Overvoltage Protection Devices WdG ddG e jdG ILCG
Owen Bridge jhCG - Ib
Oxygen Free High Conductivity (OFHC) cCG e ddG ddG UdG
P Type Dopant Le f e
P Type Material/ Positively Charged Le H fe /LdG dG
P Type Silicon LdG dG dG
Pacemaker dG HV e
Package Flange eRdG e
Packet Switched Public Data Network (PSPDNs) jdG - eRQ GP edG fdG T
Packets RqdG
Packplane dG MdG S
Pads GOaQ
Pager dBG AGdG ILCG ,AGdG FSh ,dBG OdG
Paging Signal qdG IQTEG
Paired Wire Cable LhdG dG c
Palmtop Computers dG MGQ GJc
Pancake Motors q dG cdG
Panel Capacitance MdG S
Panel Or Volume Control Pot Panel IQdG hCG MdG HV OdG
Panel Or Volume Control Potentiometer IQdG HV OdG
Panels GdCG
Parabola ae b
Parabolic Navigation Systems adG dG Me fCG
Parabolic Reflectors gEG cdG
Parallel Ports jRGdG adG
Parallel To Serial Converters dG dEG ` RGdG e e
Parametric jeGQH
Parity Bit HdG bQ
Parking Guidance With A Rear End Distance Measuring System jf - Y Sb f OYH IQqdG crQn OTQEG
adG
Part Number AdG bQ
Partially Cured Laminate ddG FL e
Partially Threaded Shells kFL de Z
Passive Electronic Components ddG Z fhdG fdG
Passive Filter dG Z qTdG
Passive IR Seeking Circuits AGdG J TCG Y MH S GQGO
Passive Reflectors S cY
Passive Triangulation dG dG
Pattern dG hCG PdG hCG dG

942
Pattern Masks dG dG
Pattern Plating Process dG W IQhS hCG fG K WEG IQhS
Pattern Recognition fCG J
Patterning J
PC Board Mounting dG JdG ILCG Md Y cdG
PC Bus dG JdG e
PC Compatible FGdG qdG GJdG
Peak IhQP
Peak Hold Circuitry IhQdG J GQGO
Peak Lasing Wavelength FdG IhQdG Le W
Peak Power IQdG IhQdG hCG IQdG qb
Peak Repetitive Forward Surge Current Ifsm LdG JQG Y IQdG eeCG IhQdG da
Qqd
Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage Vrrm IQdG qSfG IhQdG da
Peak To Peak IhQd IhQP
Pellet jc
Pencil Beam dH TCG V T
Pentium Microprocessor hdG fH de
Perfect Inductor qddG KdG
Perforated Thin Metal Shadow Mask e bQ X fe b
Periodically kjqQhO
Peripheral LQN W
Peripherals adG
Permanent Magnet Hybrid dG FGdG dG
Permanent Magnet Rotor FGdG dG QGhqO
Permanent Magnet Speakers (PMS) FGdG dG GQe
Permeability (e) jPf
Personal Digital Assistant dG bdG YdG
Phase QdG
Phase Alternation Line (PAL) System QdG OJ N ee
Phase Detector QW Tc
Phase Locked Loop QdG b M
Phase Modulation (PM) QdG J
Phase Response QdG HSG
Phase Shift QdG J
Phase Shift Oscillator QdG MGREG HHe
Phase Shifter QW je
Phase Shifter QdG je
Phase Shifters QdG je
Phase Shifting QdG MGREG
Phased Array Antennas QdG ae FGdG
Phasing IQhe
Phenolic qddG OGdG
Phenolic Resin da JGQ
Phosphor Dots jQSa H
Photo Darlington Couplers FdG dQGO fe
Photo Detector FV Tc
Photo Emitter FV YH
Photo Schmitt Trigger IC Coupler T A V S G H d G IC e
Photocathode FV OKc
Photoconductive FdG UdG

943
Photodetector FdG TdG
Photodiodes FdG FdG edG
Photoetching FdG dG
Photofet Drain Current FdG dG QJ
Photographic Masks aGZJdG dG
Photolithographic FdG aGZdG
Photolithographic Photomask Preparation Process aGZdG jdG dG J IQhS
Photomask jdG dG
Photomultiplier Ad Ynn odG
Photon Resonance fJdG fdG
Photons fJdG
Photoreduced kFV Jo
Photoresist dG dG
Photoresistors jdG ehdG
Photosensetive Field Effect Transistor UdH d Ad SdG QjfGdG
Phototransistors FdG GQjfGdG
Phototriac Couplers cGJJdG fdG
Photovoltaic Fda
Pickup b
Pierce Oscillator SH GHe
Piezoelectric VhdG
Piezoelectric Accelerometers VhdG dG je
Piezoelectric Devices VhdG ILCG
Piezoelectric Sensors VhdG q dG
Pillbox Antennas dG Y FGg
Pin Qe hCG SHO hCG e
PIN Diodes KdG edG
Pin Grid Arrays (PGAs) HdG T ae
Pin Package e RQ
Pin Photodiodes KdG UdG GP FdG edG
Pin Pitch dG IK
Pin Switches KdG dG
Pin Terminations jHCG jf
Pin Wheel QdG hO
Pinch Off dG
Pinch Off Value dG dG b
Pinch Off Voltage q dG da
Pipelining fCG J
Pit Pattern dG dG
Pitch IdG IM hCG IdG
Pitches Lead UUdG M
Pitted Spiral Track Qe dd ie
Pivoting Core Relays QdG dG Me
Pixel (Picture Cell I Q d G N e I P N C e ) d G
Plan Position Indicator WQdG be Tc
Planar me
Plane Sheet Reflector dG bbdG cY
Planer qeo ,Tb
Planetary Lander FdG HhdG hCG FdG cdG
Plasma Display Panels (PDPs) eRdG VdG Md
Plastic Blisters SdG QH

944
Plastic Membrane SH AZ
Plated Through Holes (PTHs) kY dG dG
Plating dG
Plating Trimming And Marking TCdGh edGh dG
Play dG
Playback dG IOYEG
Players dG
Plotters dBG eSdG
Plug dG hCG HdG
Plug In b
Plug In DAQ Boards d HdG fdG PGSG GdCG
Plug In Daughter Card HQ IMh a H FGhO bH
PN Junction ddG ` LdG UdG
PN Junction Diode dS ` Le Uh hP FK U
PN Semiconductor Ue T dS Le Uh
PNP Junction Transistors LdG - ddG - LdG UdG GQjfGJ
Pockets jhJ ,a
Point Contact Photodiodes dG edH J FV GOjGO
Point To Point Microwave Systems f dEG f e JEd jhdG LdG fCG
Point To Point Network f - dEG - f T
Point To Point Wiring iNCG dEG f e dG
Pointing Stick LdGY
Polar Coordinate Presentation b KGMEG VY
Polar Diagram SG e
Polarity Meter b Se
Polarization SG
Polarized Antennas e FGg
Polarized Relays e Me
Polarizer e
Polishing U
Poll QNG
Poll/ Select Protocol QNG /fG cJhH
Polled Network QNG T
Polled Synchronous Terminals eGe Yeo GWCG
Polycarbonate IOe fHc
Polyester Film ddG AdG
Polyimide OdG eCG
Polymer Resettable Fuses jdG e GSG IOe UGdG
Polymer Resin jqH JGQ
Polypropylene HhdH
Polyrod OhddG
Polystyrene jdH
Polythylene OdG jdG
Polyvinyl Chloride dG IOe GjQc
Port e
Port Contention Unit dG aJ IMh
Port Selectors dG e
Port Sharing Units adH cQdG GMh
Portable Tape Recorders ddG dG SdG eo
Position Control Systems qVdH dG f
Positive Bias HjEG RfG

945
Positive Peak HjEG dG
Positive Resist Le ehe
Positive Temperature Coefficients Le jQGM ee
Positive Voltage Le da
Positively Charged Holes Le T GP K
Positively Doped P Le eo e
Positron hjRH
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) hjRdG fG GZeJ
Post And Box Connector hdGh OdG HGQ
Potentiometer OdG
Potting AYSG
Powdered Silver Palladuim q dG jOdG e e qe
Power IQdG
Power Dissipation IQdG jJ
Power Drivers IQdG bGS
Power Gain IQdG c
Power Handling Ability IQdG e WdG a Hb
Power Integrated Circuits edG IQdG GQGO
Power Limitations IQdG Ob
Power Line IQdG N
Power PC Microprocessors IQdG GJd jqhe de
Power Rating dG IQdG
Power Relays IQdG Me
Power Solid State Relays IQd dG ddG Me
Power Supplies (PS) FHdG IQdG je
Power Supply Filters IQdG jJ Te
Power Transformer IQdG e
Power Transistors IQdG GQjfGJ
Power Tube Oscillator IQb fG HHe
Power Zoom Lens OHCGh jdG IQb SY
Precharge Time d HdG edG
Precise Sharp Heterojunctions IOqMh - bO Ijeo Uh
Preemphasis dG dG
Pregrooved Tracks kS Ie GQe jONCG
Prescaler ndG RGdG
Primary Electrochemical Systems dhCG FchdG fCG
Primary Rate Interface H dhCG - qe Uh
Primary Winding P P dhCG qdG
Printed Resist Process dG YW IQhS
Printed Circuit Boards YdG GQGdG Md
Printed Wiring Board YdG dG Md
Printers HdG
Printheads HdG SDhdG
Printing YdG Y
Prism QTdG
Private Automatic Branch Exchange (PABE) UdG JeJhCG dG dGH
Private Branch Exchanges (PBX) qUdG YdG GdG
Private Versus Switched Access (PVSA) sdG NdG q He UdG NdG e
Probe Qe ,e
Process Control IdG Y hCG qdG IQhS
Process Holders IQhdG be

946
Processing de Y
Processor/Controller e /de
Producing Drive Pulses bGS f fEG
Profile AdG
Program Counter efdG OGqY
Programming And Software edGh edG
Propagation QfG
Propagation Constant QfG HK
Propagation Delay QfEG NCJ
Proportional Electrical Output SJ FHc eo
Proprietary J
Protective ae
Protective Clamping FdG dG
Protective Insulation FM Y
Protective Plating jM J
Protector Armature edG QdG
Protocols cJhdG
Provider qdG
Public Utility Carrier Circuits dG GSG J GQGO
Pull Down dG
Pull Up OdG OH
Pullers MS UY
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) dG Oc J
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) dG S J
Pulse Carrier Waveform Le T Y dG eM
Pulse Compression Technique dG V J
Pulse Doppler Radars (PDR) dG HhdG GQGOGQ
Pulse Forming Modulator dG jJ eo
Pulse Modulated CW Carrier f e CW L e e M
Pulse Modulation dG dG
Pulse Modulator f qe
Pulse Power Magnetron dG IQdG he
Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) dG QGJ OOJ
Pulse Train HdG dG
Pulse Transformers qdG qdG
Pulse Width Modulator (PWM) dG VY e
Pulsed Magnetron HdG hdG
Pump
q e
Pumping dG
Punched Coil Process qdG dG IQhS
Pure Capacitor f qe
Push Button V QR
Push Pull Amplifier S aO e
Push Pull Regulator ce QGWCG e
Pyramidal Horn eg H
Pyrolytically Deposited IQGdH SdG
Pyrotechinic Squib JhdG QfG
Pyrotechnic jQf QOe
Q Factors Q eGY
Quad YHQ
Quad Flatpack HdG dG eRdG

947
Quality IOL ,qYf
Quantized seo
Quarter Wave Plates Le HQ FU
Quarter Wave Stubs Le HdG ehQCG
Quartz JQGdG
Quick Connect jdG UdG
Quiescent cS
Quiescent Point cS f
R 2r Ladder Network DAC R 2r d H d G DAC T
Rack And Panel MdGh adG
Radar QGOGQ
Radar Clutter jQGOGdG dG
Radar Displays QGOGdG TT
Radar Frequency Bands QGOGdG GOOJ fCG
Radar Return Analysis QGOGdG OGJQG J
Radar Returns IJdG jQGOGdG LdG be
Radial Leaded Assembly YT Uh J
Radial Leadframe YdG HdG QWEG
Radial Scanning YT e
Radial Temperature YdG IQGdG LQO
Radial Velocities YdG YdG
Radially YT T Y
Radiant Sensors TEG e
Radiated Power qdG IQdG
Radiated Pulse Width dG dG VY
Radiation TEG
Radiation Efficiency TEG da
Radiation Pattern YTEG SQEG f
Radiation Resistance YTEG ehdG
Radiator dG
Radio Beacon System (RBS) jOGdG dG f
Radio Detection And Ranging Radar idG jJh jOGdG dG
Radio Direction Finders (RDFs) jjOGdG JG GOeo
Radio Frequency Bands OOdG fCG
Radio Frequency Transponders jOGdG OOdG (GQffGJ) e
Radio Horizon jOGdG aCG
Radio Noise jOGdG TdG
Radio Receivers jOGdG e
Radiogram TCG QU
Radiology TCG Y
Rainbow Cable Mb SdG dG
Ramp QdG S Le e JdG AdG
Random Access Memories (RAMs) FGdG NdG GcGP
Random Access Versus Serial Access dG NdG He FGdG NdG
Range Counter ie OGY
Range Setting idG J
Rasma Display Panels (PDP) eRdG VdG TT
Raster SGdG
Raster Scan ,dG N f Se ,k d e dG e
dG N
Raster Scanning J e

948
Rate Turn Signal GQhO e IQTEG
Rated Optical Power dG jdG IQdG
Raw DC Output DC Q d G N S S
q
Reactance Loss YdG a
Read Only Memories (ROMs) a IAGdG GcGP
Read/ Write Heads HdG /IAGdG ShDhQ
Read/Write Memories HdG /IAGdG GcGP
Ready Availability jQdG qMJEG
Real Inductor dG KdG
Receivers e
Receiving Tubes SG eU
Receptacle dG
Receptor e
Rechargable T Oj
Reciprocal dOJ
Reciprocal Action dOdG dG
Reciprocal Device dOdG RdG
Recombination OJG IOYEG
Reconaissance UdG
Record Players dG qeo
Recordable CDs (CD-Rs) edG UGbCG
Recorder e
Recovery Current IOSG QqJ
Recovery Time IOSG eR
Rectangular Molded Cases bdG VG fRGdG jhdG
Rectangular Multipin HdG IOe dG UdG
Rectangular Trimmer Potentiometer dG qdG OdG
Rectangular Vanes e (TjQ) Y
Rectified AC qdG hdG QqdG
Rectifier jdG RL hCG qe
Rectifier Bridges eqdG WdG
Rectifier Circuits udG GQGO
Rectifier Diodes eqdG GOjGdG
Reductions Feature Size dG M qJ
Reed Switch dG dG
Reentrant Cavity Vanes IdG Ne TjQCG
Reference Le
Reference Coordinates LdG KGMEG
Reference Diode LdG OjGdG
Reference Voltage Le da
Reflected Wave dG LdG
Reflectors cdG
Reflow Solder Processes dG Y
Reflow Soldering adG IOYEH d
Refractive Effect QfG KCJ
Refresh Amplifier TfEG e
Refresh Rate jdG e
Regenerate jJ IOYEG
Regenerative Repeaters IddG GQdG
Register dG
Regulator dG

949
Reject Box adG Y
Rejected IPdG
Relative Altitude dG JQG
Relay M q dG
Relay Back LdG M u odG
Reliability bKh
Remote Controller Ho Y qdG
Remote Data Concentrator dG fdG cseo
Remote Shaft Angle dG OdG jhGR
Reradiate TEG IOYEG
Reset Functions FXdG V IOYEG
Reset Set (RS) Flip Flop Rs d G I O Y E G d G b
Resin JGQ
Resistance ehdG
Resistance Temperature Detectors (TRDs) IQGdG LQO - ehdG TGc
Resistor FHc he
Resolution qdG
Resolution Bandwidth dG f VY
Resolvers dG hCG dG
Resonance fdG
Resonant Antennas ffe FGg
Resonate qJ
Resonator fe
Resonator Gap fdG IK
Response HSG
Retarding Phase jdG Me
Reticules dG
Retrieval Time GSG eR
Reverberation OGJQG ,OGOJ ,AGUCG ,LJ
Reverse Bias dG RfG
Reverse Saturation Current dG TEG QJ
Reverse Torque Of The Motor dG qd GQhdG Y
Reverse Voltage SfEG ddG
Revolving Carousel Drawer jQGL e IQGhO fGN
Rhombic Antenna dG dG FGdG
Ribbon jT
Ribbon Cable jdG dG
Rigid Spacer U Ye
Ring Nut M bY
Ring Signal qf IQTEG
Ripple tdG
Robotics qdBG YGdG Y /HhdG Y
Root Mean Square QdG Se He
Rotary Dials QGhqdG jhdG
Rotor QGhqO
Route e ,jW
Routers Le
Routing Techniques LJ J
Ruby bdG
Sampled Data fdG fdG
Sampling Order YG JJ

950
Sandwiches qH W
Sapphire (f e) -adG
Satellite JdG
Saturation TEG
Saw Filter dG qJdG LdG Te
Sawtooth Waveform QdG SC He Le T
Scanners SdG
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) SdG fhdG ShdG
Schemes e
Schottky Clamped Transistors edG JT GQjfGJ
Scrambled Signals MGdG GQTEG
Screening M
Scriber e ,TN cT
Sealed ZEG e
Seamless Te Z , q e Z
Secondary Emission fdG fEG
Sectors Yb
Securities Offices jdGh eCG Je
Segment a ,b
Segmented Memory Systems ICGdG IcGdG f
Selection dG
Selective Filters FfEG Te
Self Diagnostics JGdG dG
Self Generating JGdG ddG
Self Healing kJGP qJo
Self Inductance JGdG KdG
Self Isolation JGdG dG
Semiconductor Ue f
Semipassive S f
Sender/Receivers dG /SdG
Sensing Device QSG RL
Sensor e
Separator Ua
Sequence Data dG fdG
Sequential Color With Memory (SECAM) System IcGdG e bdG qdG f
Serial Access Memory dG NOEG IcGP
Serial Ports dG adG
Series Pass Regulator J jJ e
Serpentine fGaCG f
Service Networks dG eN
Servo IQRGDdG dBG
Servosystem IQRGDdG qdBG f
Set And Forget JGh VCG
Set Reset Trigger (SRT) Flip Flop dG IOYEGh dG b b
Settling Time QGSG eR
Shading dG
Shaft Angle Enconder cdG QdG jhGR Gee
Shaft Angle Optical Encoders (SAOE) cdG QdG jhGR d jdG GedG
Shaper eo
Shared Inbound Channel cdG OQGdG Ib
Sharp Reverse Knees IOqM qY cQ

951
Sheath Z ,Z
Shell Type DC Motors adG TdG QdG cqeo
Shielding jQdG
Shift Register MGRG hCG GfG e
Short Circuits b GQGO
Short Travel eCG Ib
Shortcuts qYa GQNG
Shot Travel AC Full Size Keyboards edG dGh dG idG Je GdCG
Shunt RmGJ IQGO ,jJ
Shunt Resonant Tank jJ fQ GN
Shutters jQe
Shuttle Movement ce cM
Side Lobe Level (fdG dG) SQEG Ic L ie
Signal Noise IQTG V
Signal Pitch IQTEG S
Signals Information Content IQTEd JedG idG
Signaling GQTEG OJ
Silica dG
Silicon dG
Silver Filled Powdered Glass Frit dH Ae e LR a
Simple Relay Ladder Diagram sdoG dG MdG e
Simplex Mode dG dG
Simulators cdG
Simultaneous eGdG
Simultaneous Transmission eGdG SQEG
Sine L
Sine Wave dG LdG
Sine Waves L Le
Single Conductor Oa Ue
Single Diffused Hometaxial fdG OdG QfEG
Single Hetero Structure OMCG fdG Z cdG
Single In Line Package (SIP) UGdG jOMCG eRQ
Single Instruction Cycle IMdG dG IQhO
Single Mode OdG dG
Single Stage Image Intensifier MdG OMCG IQU e
Single Stage Image Tube MdG OMG J fCG
Single Transistor Emitter Follower Circuit HdG YdG OdG QSfGdG IQGO
Single Vertical Trace IOe jOY KCG IQTEG
Single Wire Antenna dG OMCG FGg
Sinusoidally L
Skidding fG
Slight Under damping dG ONEG J
Slope dG ,dG
Slot dG
Slot Cut nT QN
Slot Radiators qndG dG
Slotted Laminations qe FU
Slow Release AdG YEG
Slow Speed Lines dG YdG N
Small Outlined Sore Integrated Circuit (SOIC) Packages IdG adG edG GQGdG RQo
Smearing dG

952
Smocks bS
Smoke Detectors NdG QSG ILCG
Snap Fit Coupling WCG jS qL
Snap In Bezels dG WCG
Snap In Clip bWCG J
Snap On Terminals LQN WCG aW
Sniperscope UdG QXf
Snooperscope dG QXdG
Sockets He hCG jQHCG
Soft Drawn Annealed dG YdG dG
Software edG
Solar Array Panels dG adG GdCG
Solar Cells qdG jdG
Solder dG
Solder Bumps UdG HM
Solder Resist UdG fe
Solderability dG feEG
Solenoid dd e ,jddG
Solid State Circuitry dG ddG GQGO
Solid State dG ddG
Solid State Microwave Sources dG dd jhdG LdG QOe
Solid State Ring Laser Gyros U dM OGe e jQd M ShL
Sonar (JU Qe) QfdG
Sort Rj
Source dG
Source Contact dG eJ
Spacer Ye
Spatial Charge Distribution dG jRJ M
Spatial Separation FdG YdG
Speaker QdG
Speaker Crossover YjdG QdG
Special Interface Circuits UN H GQGO
Spectral Response dG HSEG
Spectrum Analysis dG dG
Speech Recognition And Compression dGh dG J
Spin Stabilized Satellites fRGdG JGdG jhJ
Spindle QGhqO OY ,pdG
Splicing pL
n
Spot f hCG H
Spring Loaded M Hf
Spring Loaded Shutter HH e dZ
Spring Wound Mechanical Players fdG dG HdG qeo
Sputtering jPdG hCG TTdG
Square Mils fEG e dCG
Square Wave Comparator HdG LdG Qe
Stability Reference Line LdG dG QGSG
Stabilization Image IQdG RGe
Stable Voltage References qdd Iqeo qLe
Stacked cGe ,Sqe ,UGe
Stacking dG UQ
Stainless Steel AhUdG PdG

953
Stamping dG hCG dG
Stand Alone Modems IOdG eOdG
Stand Alone LCD Monitors N d G LCD T d G
Stand Off Voltage IYdG ddG
Standard Qe ,LPf ,Sb
Standard Bus Structures SdG HdG qg
Standard Logic Families LPdG dG UCG
Standard Tree Terminal Sb dG jT RQ
Standardized se ,qYo
Standby gCdG hCG OGSG
Standing Waves e hCG bGh Le
Starlight Scope dG AV QXf
Start Bit jGdG H
Starved Electrolyte FU dhdG hCG JL dhdEG
Static Ie
Statistical Multiplexes qFMEG dG
Stator cdG
Status Register dG dM
Stealth dG dGh GFdG
Steepness QGfG IqT
Steerable Ld Hb
Step Down Transformer aN qe
Step Up Transformer aGQ qe
Step Command Response LQdG eCG HSG
Step Function qLQdG dGdG
Step Index dG ddG
Step Pulse (jN) LQqe f
Stepped Core N b
Stepper Motor (jN) LQdG cqdG
Stepping Switch LQqJ e
Stereo jdG hCG dG dG
Stereophonic d q dG
Stimulated Emission dG fEG
Stop Bits jf H
Store Signal jJ IQTEG
Strain Guges OLEG GOGY
Stranded Wire hdG dG
Strap W ,M
Streamline Domes HfG b
Strength Member IdG eY
Stretched njo
Stripline Module dW b IMh
Stripping pndG hCG dG
Structure dG ,dG
Stubs ehQCG ,MdG jdG
Stylus bO IHG ,b
Submarine Decoys UGdG T
Subnote Computers (k GL IM) qHc hO GJc
Subnotebook Size dG M
Subroutine FdG hCG jqfdG FJdG
Subscribers Receivers pnodG e

954
Substrate IcQ
Subtractive Process UfG IQhS
Summing Amplifier eL e
Summing Point dG f
Super Twisted fdG hCG AGdG e
Super Video Graphics Adapter (SVGA) SdG jdG a SdG je
Superheterodyne Receiver bdG jdG e
Superimposed cGe ,e
Support Beam YT e
Surface Mount dG dEG be
Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) dG qJdG LdG
Surface Mount dG cdG ,dG (dG) dG
Surge Current (QsdG) IQdG QJ
Surge Protector IQdG V eM
Surge Suppressor IQdG Hc
Sweep Circuit c IQGO
Sweep Feature (dG) MjfG dG
Sweep Generator (c) jfG de hCG McG IQTEG
Switch Mode MdG hCG dGHCG dG
Switch Off AWG
Switch On J
Switches jdG hCG jdG ILCG ,JdG
Switching jdG ,jdG hCG dG
Switching Power Supplies jdG IQb Gde hCG bd jdG jdG
Switching Regulated jdH e e
Switching Regulator Topologies jdH dG jJ
Switching Section jJ AL
Symmetrical XJ
Symmetrical Structure IXe H
Synch To Digital Converters bQ dEG eGe e
Synchro ,SQEG eGJ hCG eG dG Y a dG R L
eGdG
Synchro Control Transmitter eGdG IdG Se
Synchro Systems eGe fCG
Synchronous Counter eGe OGY
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy eGdG bdG JGdG
Synchronous DRAMs (SDRAMs) eGdGh cdG FGdG NdG IcGP
Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory ejO eGH a IAGb IcGP
Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing edG H eGdG dG
Synchronous/ Isosynchronous Encoding eGdG dG
Synchrosystems bdG hCG eGdG dG fCG
Synchrotrons fhJhdG
Synthesized Speech Warnings YUG JdG jdG
System Integration dG ee
System Troubleshooting qMh YCG jJ f
T Antennas (T ) F d G F G d G
T Flip Flop T b
T1 Carrier T1 e M
T1 Signal T1 I Q T E G
Tabs GhdG
Tachometer GQhdG OGqY

955
Tactile dH UN ,d
Tape jT
Tape Automated Bonding (TAB) JDdG jdG HQ
Tapered He
Tapers bSG
Tapped Coil e e
Technically Obsolete kJ e ,jb qdG jb
Telegraph GdG
Telemetry jdG
Television Broadcasting And Receiving Technology dG LdJh fjdG dG
Temperature Sensors jQGdG dG
Templates dGdG
Tensile Strength dG Ib hCG jJdG IdG
Terminal Apex FdG dG
Terminals adG
Terminals Form GWCG T
Ternary Alloy UdG KK S
Terrestrial VQCG
The Bow Tie Dipole dG FK TGdG HQCG
The Talking Dash Board qdG IOdG Md
Thermal QGM
Thermal Runaway QGM L
Thermal Sensors jQGM e
Thermal Time Constant QGdG edG HK
Thermally Sensitive Resistor IQGd SdG hdG
Thermistor (QedG) QGdG hdG
Thermocline (QGM Qe) jceK
Thermocouple Sensor QGdG dG e
Thermocouples jQGdG LhOdG
Thermode OedG
Thermomagnetic jQGdG - dG
Thermoplastic QGdG SdG
Thermosetting QGdG dG
Thermosonic jQGdG JdG bdG
Thermosonic Bonding QGdG JdG HdG
Thermostat SedG
Thermoswitches jqQGdG JdG
Thick Films Printing S ZG W
Thin Quad Flatpack dG HdG dG eRdG
Thinning bJ
Threaded de
j p
Threaded Bushing
n e hCG qdd L
Threaded Coupling Segments de L b
Threaded Couplings de YqL
Threshold dG
Threshold Level dG ie
Throttle Control ObdG SGhO V
Through Holes Mounting K N d
Throughput LfEG
Thumb Actuated Wheel HEH se QWEG
Thumbwheel Switch HEH QGj e

956
Thyristor QjdG
Tick Ua IQTEG
Tight Seal e N
Time Delay Magnetic Hydraulic Circuit Protectors (TDMHCP) INDdG dG dhQdG IQGdG eM
Time Division Multiplexers (TDMs) edG H e
Time Phase Synchronized QdG - bdG eGe
Time Shared Transmission dG edG SQEG
Time Sharing edG UdG
Timing bdG
Tip dG
Toggle Flip Flop dG b
Toggle Switch dG e ,OO dG e , dG dG
FHdG
Tolerance hJ ,J
Toll Calling Model YadG ddG Pf
Tone dG
Tone Control IC ee dH J GQGO
Top Loaded Short Monopole Antennas dG e IdG dG jOMCG FGg
Topologies Ho
Torodial Doughnut Shaped Pattern dG H T M f
Torodial Permanent Magnet dG FGO e
Toroid M
Toroidal Bobbins M GH
Toroidal Phase Shifters M QW jeo
Toroidal Transformers qdG qdG
Torque GQhdG Y
Touch Screen dG TT
Touchpad d IOaQ
TR Switches SEG SQEG Je
Tracer Bullets dG bWG
Tracing J
Track S ,S ,e ,ie
Track And Hold Amplifier Jh J e
Tracking Radars dG GQGOGQ
Traction dG
Tradeoff dOdG
Traffic GQTEG MORG ,QhdG cM
Traids GOjGJ
Transaction Bus eJ npe
Transceivers SEGh SQEG ILCG
Transducer bdG e
Transfer SQEG
Transfer Focal Point (e f) IQDdG fG
Transferred Electron Diode dG fhdEG OjGO
Transferred Electron Oscillator (TEO) dG hdEG He
Transformer qdG
Transformer Coupling dG b
Transient IHY
Transient Voltage Spikes dG ddG GNGh
Transient Voltage Suppressors (TVSs) IHdG qddG Hc
Transistor jfGJ

957
Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL) QjfGdG QjfGdG e
Transit Time GQTEG fG eR
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) bdG fhdG ShdG
Transmission Line SQEG N
Transmit Only Terminal a SQEG W
Transmitters Se
Transparent Latches adG bdG
Transponders dG e
Transposing b ,GHEG
Transverse VdG
Trapped Plasma Avalanche Transit Time (TRAPATT) IdG eRdG QJ fG eR
Trapped Space Charge Plasma RMG Aa a eRH T
Traveling Wave Tube Amplifiers (TWTAs) JdG LdG fCG e
Triacs jdG
Triads GOjdG hCG KdG hCG dG
Trial Program jJ efH
Triangle Wave dG LdG
Triaxial QdG KK
Trigger b hCG W
Trigger Circuit b GQGO
Trigger Signal b IQTEG
Trigonometric Function e dGO
Trimmer qodG
Triode Vacuum Tube GWCG KK dG dG
Triple Diffused Mesa And Planar eh Ge KdG QfEG
Truncated Versions dG dG
Trunk Line FdG JG q N
Truth Table dG hL
Tube Circuits HfCG GQGdG
Tube Sockets HfCG He
Tubular HfCG
Tunable Filter Channel d Hb Te Ib
Tuning ddG V
Tunnel Diodes dG FdG dG
Tunneling Current dG QdG
Turbulences eqGhO
Turnaround Line JG q N b
Turnstile Antennas IedG QPCG YHQ FGdG
Tweeter jdG
Twisted Nematic Field Effect (TNFF) FdG Qd dG dG dG KCJ
Twisted Pair hdG hdG
Two Cavity Klystron JdG hc
Two Conductor Transmission Line Ue hP SQEG N
Two Half Adders qL n f
Two Operands Required He ee
Two Stage Multivibrator Circuit Me e RGg He IQGO
UHF Technology dG FdG GOOdG LdJ
Ultra Short Pulses dG Fa f
Ultrafast Or Superfast Recovery Rectifiers k GL jdG hCG YdG We IOSG eqe
Ultrasonic dG a
Unattended Operation He Z dBG Je

958
Uncontrolled Y e hCG H qe Z
Uncorrected odG Z
Uncoupling (dG) GbG a
Uncured ddG Z
Undefined Logic Arrays (ULAs) aqdG Z dG adG
Underdamped ONG J
Undershoot dG f hO
Underwater Communicator H J UGe
Undesirable Fringing Effects a Ze Z aM GKCJ
Unidirectional JG OMCG
Unipolar dG q OMCG
Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitters dG eGdG Z dG SdG
Universal Product Code (UPC) ddG dG Oc
Unrestricted Ie Z
Unsoldered seo Z
Unsupported Ye Z
Unwanted IqLe Z
Up Counter YJ OlGY
Up Down Counter dRdG ` YdG OGdG
Up Link Signals OdG Uh GQTEG
Update qj
Uplink dG UdG
Upper Underdamped Response jqdG ONEG J HSG
Vacant Sites ZQa bGe
Vacuum Fluorescent Displays jdG IQdG TT
Vacuum Tubes jJ eU
Valance Band DadG eM
Valence Electron DaJ fhdG
Valley QZ
Vane fYR ,Y ,TjdG
Vapor Phase Epitaxy (VPE) - dG SdG hCG dG IQdGh jQdG IQdG
jQdG ddG
Variable Frequency Oscillator (VFO) dG GOOdG GP HHe
Variable Attenuator e ge
Variable Resistive Card Attenuator bdH j Iqe ehe ge
Various Control Lines Yqe hCG e V N
Varistors ddG e IdG ehdG
Vector e
Vectorially gJG H
Velocity Profile YdG AS
Venetian Blind fdG IQdG
Vernier Dials fQh UGbCG
Vertex Angle dG jhGR
Vertical Dropoff HdG dbdG AdG
Vertical End Fed Antenna SCGQ Ff jJ FGg
Vertical Geometries dbT Sg TCG
Vertical Slope dbT e
Vertical Topology dbT H
Very High Flux Density k GqL dY qa ac
Very High Frequency (VOR) Omnidirection Range gJG OdGh k GL ddG OOdG ie
Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) Circuit k GL c i k H edG IQGdG

959
Very Low Inertia V JGP Qb
Vibration RGgG
Video (jjdG) FdG IQdG
Video Bandwidth jjdG LdG VY
Video Graphics Cards aGdG jdG bH
Video Tube ja (U) fCG
Videotape jdG jdG SdG
Vidicon Tubes (VT) (cjdG) fjdG jdG eU
View Finder QU MH
Viewing Angle dG jhGR
Virtual Channel Identifier Codes VGaG IdG qe GOc
Virtual Image VGaG IQU
Visual Null Indicator U Fe TDe
Visual Processing Steps qLQdG jdG ddG
Voice Data Private Branch Exchanges (PBX) qUdG qJdG fdG OJ a
Voice Frequency Channels JdG OOqdG Gb
Voice Grade Channel U QY Ib
Voice Grade Lines dG QY N
Voice Links JdG HGhdG
Voice Mail JdG jdG
Volatile Memories IjdG hCG TdG GcGdG
Voltage Clamping ddG b
Voltage Controlled Oscillators ddH edG HHdG
Voltage Discharge ddG jJ
Voltage Divider ddG e
Voltage Drop ddG QGfG ,Hg da
Voltage Multiplier Circuit da Ye IQGO
Voltage Operated qddG Y j
Voltage Plane ddG Md
Voltage Variable Capacitors Iqe da qe
Voltmeter (ddG Se) ddG
Volume Clutter M H hCG jT
Volume Controls dH qdG
Volumetric Efficiency qM IAc
Vref pLdG NpndG IQTEG
Wafer aGdG
Wand MdG Y ,dU
Watt GdG
Watt Hours YS Gh
Wattmeter GdG Se
Wave LdG
Wave Soldering Process LdH dG IQhS
Wave Guide LdG ddG
Wave Soldering LdG dG
Waveform LdG dG ,LdG T
q
Waveforms LdG TCG
Waveguide Delay Line Le dO NCJ N
Waveguide Tuning Screws LdG dO J ee
Wavetraps LdCG Fe
Weapon Aiming And Fire Control QdH dGh jdG
Wear cBJ ,J ,dG

960
Wedge Bonding SEH HdG
Welding dG
Welding Rod Holders dG b eM
Welding Torches dG Ye
Well Structures jH cGJ H
Wet Anode Tantalum Capacitors WdG ddG OfCG e
Wheatstone Bridge jh Ib
Wide Angle View jhGdG jY e
Wide Area Networks (WANs) IdG dG
Wind Tunnels AGdG fCG
Window Layer IadG W
Windows aGf ,GK hCG a
Windshields eeCG LdG Md
Wiper Mq dG
Wire Bonds dG HGhdG
Wire Loop S WfCG
Wire Radiator dG dG
Wire Wrap Boards dG dG Md
Wireless Base Stations SdG SSCG e
Wirewound Resistors k adG qdG ehdG
Wiring FHdG SCG jJ hCG dG
Wiring Posts J IYCG
Wobble fJ
Word Processing dG de
Workmanship dG a YGH ,U
World Wide Web (www) ddG JdG dG
Worldwide Telephone Network qddG JdG T
Wound Field Stators adG GP cGd M
Wound Stator e cS
Woven Copper Wire Braid hdG SdG jL
Woven Ribbon Cable dG jdG c
X Band Frequencies X GOOdG eM
X25 Packet Network Service X25 e R d G T e N
o
x-axis dG Qe
Xerographic Copying Methods aGZhjdG SG jW
X-Ray dG TCG
X-Ray Lithography dG TCG aGZd
X-Ray Plotter dG TCG SGQ
y-axis GOdG Qe
Yield Jf ,AY
Ytterbium Iron Garent (YIG) fQdGh ` jdG ` jjEG
z-axis z - Qe
Zener Diode FdG fR U
Zener Diodes fR GOjGO
Zero Crossing GfG f WJ
Zero Level dG ie
Zero Reference dG LdG
Zigzag e T
Zoom In jdG dBG
Zoom Lenses J - jJ SY
Zoom Out dG dBG

961
 SdG
` 291 ` 241 ` 197 ` 196 `183 a d G Q dG jhG d j dG G e dG
.632 ` 302 ` 293 .545 ` 15 d d G
.481 ` 480 d G .627 ` 161 Y h e Q J
.607 e G d G Z f d G S Q E G .399 b b
eGdG Z edG H dG .305 N d G hC G hG d G I Q hO
.615 .600 ` 309 ` 300 N d G e R
` 245 ` 220 ` 217 ` 70 ` 69 ` 68 g d G .449 ` 439 ` 437 cGodG
.400 ` 398 ` 370 ` 246 .421 d G j J d G J
.599 gdG qJ .489 ` 488 j e
.599 g d G .293 ` 287 YqdG
708 ` 635 ` 623 ` 541 ` 497 ` 494 J U .676 ` 329 ` 328 qdG
.902 ` 733 ` ` 680 ` 679 ` 677 d G VY e
.377 j Q d G F d G e d G .683 ` 682 ` 681
hCG VdG dG LdG e .537 O O d G e
.225 h e C G .682 ` 680 ` 679 qdG c
hCG VdG dG LdG He .244 K d G j d G
.225 h J S Q d G .272 d G H G H
.356 d G j J .307 ` 291 ` 290 V a e
dG hCG LdG S hCG f VY .290 Q N E G / V H
hCG Le f VY hCG OOdG .714 F G d G T V Y
` 146 ` 140 OO d G d G VY .640 f d I O d G e G d G
` 350 ` 304 ` 303 ` 253 ` 182 ` 181 ` 443 b d G S d G RISC d e
` 599 ` 598 ` 597 ` 588 ` 586 ` 490 .456
.619 ` 612 ` 611 ` 607 ` 601 .438 qdG qHdG IMdG

963
` 443 ` 305 ` 304 ` 303 S d G I c G d G .875 ` 823 ` 802 ` 377 ` 95 ` 80 L M
.475 ` 460 ` 459 ` 449 .380 Y b Q J
.303 b D d G j d G .477 S S C G N d G h d G f
.195 d G F G d G .503 ` 500 ` 497 ` 488 T
` 516 ` 222 ` 155 ` 150 ` 70 ` 37 j d G .290 ` 287 BiCMOS H G d G a e
.529 .805 ` 804 e d G BiCMOS G Q G O
58 ` 56 ` 55 ` 54 ` 52 ` 51 ` 49 ` 47 qe b) h dG F K FG dG
233 ` 92 ` 84 ` 81 ` 80 ` 72 ` 60 ` 59 ` .207 ` 206 ` 192 ` 182 ( L h O e
` 302 ` 263 ` 262 ` 261 ` 258 ` 255 ` .207 ` 184 h d G F K G H C G
.361 ` 360 ` 353 ` 331 .595 ` 272 F K I Q G O
.233 d G T .257 ` 121 F d G O d G h C G F K I T
.277 f h J S d G .462 F K J e
.821 ` 810 ` 141 ` 80 e d G 610 ` 595 ` 586 ` 438 ` 259 F d G b d G
.781 Q b .618 `
226 ` 225 ` 106 ` 77 ` 76 ` 58 ` 55 O K c GP hCG dG FK UdG QSfGJ
` 320 ` 319 ` 318 ` 233 ` 231 ` 228 ` .281 d G F K U d G
` 374 ` 373 ` 372 ` 336 ` 336 ` 326 .220 Q f G d a
` 428 ` 426 ` 408 ` 403 ` 402 ` 388 .388 S h H j h G R
.803 ` 751 ` 575 ` 488 .614 ` 613 ` 209 j d G d G
TC U , e TCG b e SQEG fh jdG dG ISDN
jqOKdG HfCG TCG , dG .614 e G J d G
.716 .305 d G h C G b d G
.644 d H d G R L T c .496 ` 493 ` 303 ` 295 j H
.497 a I A G b I c G P h P e e U b 870 ` 869 ` 868 ` 866 ` 762 ` 760 d G
` 281 ` 173 ` 165 ` 102 f N hC G j N ` 876 ` 875 ` 874 ` 873 ` 872 ` 871 `
` 295 ` 294 ` 293 ` 292 ` 291 ` 286 .892 ` 891 ` 886 ` 883 ` 880 ` 877
` 306 ` 305 ` 302 ` 301 ` 300 ` 298 AC dG GQTEH dG IdG
q
.316 ` 315 ` 314 ` 306 .586 ` 585 ` 550

964
 .100 ` 99 ` 86 uodG 467 ` 360 ` 358 ` 153 ` 135 ` 91 b h d G
.183 I M G h e S G a e d G .876 ` 871 ` 860 ` 537 `
.488 ` 487 f d G S d G j e .457 jqce de IMh
.499 ` 435 e d G U d G e .450 q dG FK aN RnQo
` 297 (edG) WdG UGbCG .598 I d G O O J f V Y
. .840 ` 539 ` 396 ` 394 .644 d G d G R L
.438 ` 293 ` 254 f Q d G .815 F d G Q d G S d G
.478 qodG hCG edG .792 ` 99 F d G d G
hCG fe cCG e e Ue f .826 Q W E G W b b Q
e fe cCGh Ue f 125 ` 119 ` 41 ` 40 ` 31 ` 30 I Q G d G M d
.254 ` 433 ` 310 ` 308 ` 290 ` 288 ` 280 `
606 ` 604 ` 595 ` 297 J d G a W .844 ` 436 ` 434
.659 ` .895 G Q G d G e M
.628 J d G e O N .429 e L G Q j J I F G O
.865 U d G O G d G h C G , U d G .127 ( e M ) d G W f C G
.38 I L M W e I FGO QRGD e J IGOCG e N
Uh ,e dG f , e e .494
.878 S J hCG dG dG a S f
.387 ` 386 ` 235 ` 216 I e L e IQRGDdG qdB dG WfCG
.227 I d G L d G f h e .131
jHhdG I dG L dG GQGOGQ ` 196 ` 192 ` 190 ` 187 Q d G e
.726 ` 224 ` 218 ` 217 ` 216 ` 209 ` 207
.737 I d G L d G G Q f S ` 596 ` 593 ` 586 ` 240 ` 227 ` 225
.685 qVdG qodG Jn ` 864 ` 659 ` 658 ` 629 ` 622 ` 602
.531 ` 126 ` 62 ` 31 d G ` 883 ` 882 ` 881 ` 877 ` 875 ` 872
Uh ,dG ,fQJ Uh ,QdG .891 ` 884
.350 d G ` 618 OdG H OdG NdG
.553 ` 413 L d G j h G d G .625

965
LMh f W hP F V O jGO .876 d J H Q
` 238 ` 80 dG jd JT .791 Q H f , I Q d G f
.377 .804 Q J S
.94 ` 93 ` 91 P S G f .902 Q d G G Q a
.163 ` 89 f h C G P S G e .262 ` 219 ` 70 ` 67 d G O O J
.716 T c .222 d G L e W
.806 d b .673 fdG PGSG qeH
.57 F H d G R d G H K ` 609 ` 607 ` 603 f d G hC G d G
.266 F H d G d H d G .761 ` 731 ` 688 ` 628 ` 616 ` 613
.144 V J e ,fdG cG f ,fH p nJn f
ddG aGdG bdG jJ f .671 f d G P G S G f
.767 ` 764 ` 746 V d G .442 S h f H
.423 Q f G U .434 f d G I Y b
.345 I O d G b d G G O G d G .442 ` 440 f d G e
.351 b d G d G H S S h C G .879 d G M d G
` 471 ` 469 ` 461 b d G j d G UGb C G .373 T d G Q d G c
.651 ` 650 ` 639 ` 500 ` 499 .217 ` 70 ( d G I T I M h ) S O
.605 ` 516 b e .441 I d G h C G e d G q a
.618 ` 516 ` 500 ` 348 b d G .280 q dG/dG je
.384 Q d G d G e U . 4 9 d G h C G G b G q a
` 372 ` 371 ` 370 ` 366 F d G e d G 273 ` 231 ` 230 ` 229 ` 228 ` 218 j d G
` 388 ` 384 ` 382 ` 380 ` 378 ` 377 .293 ` 279 `
` 799 ` 396 ` 395 ` 394 ` 393 ` 391 .195 d d G F G d G
.899 ` 828 .265 d G a , d G d G R E G
134 ` 99 ` 98 ` 96 ` 85 ` 84 d G F K LdG d dG dG Ye
.814 ` 805 ` 804 ` 801 ` 380 ` 312 ` .397
.184 I T d G d G F G g .80 P S G W
.544 T d G e d G .377 ` 376 d G e T c

966
.55 d h d E G h C G F H d G d G .315 ` 314 T e Q J
.55 ` 54 ` 47 qdhdCG qdG .551 I T d G L d G
.856 e h d G N G d G .183 g J G F G d G
` 807 fhdG dG aGZ d .240 gJG podG
.808 .315 Q d G j J
/ eh dG NG dG T e ` 492 ` 475 d G U d G hC G j d G
60 ` 50 N G d G j j OGd G GOO d G .495
` 199 ` 144 ` 141 ` 140 ` 66 ` 61 ` .629 ` 288 ` 100 ` 81 j d G e Y
.779 QHdH - Rq dG hO dG dG
.197 j d G F f a d G .629
j f e SQEG j) F dG dG .355 q odG
.198 ` 183 ( F G d G W .534 e e I O e
.795 dG IQqdG .726 j H h d G G Q G O G d G
826 ` 823 ` 822 ` 415 ` 59 ` 54 c j E G .843 dG hCG rLdG GdCG
` 841 ` 838 ` 837 ` 833 ` 832 ` 831 ` ` 633 d G U d G hC G d G Uh
.900 ` 859 ` 858 .635
.272 Q d G Q N G H G H .730 S H Q I Q T E G
.356 j d G j Q a f G .798 pndG
.677 Y L S G j J M ` 92 ` 89 dG QdG hCG dG QqJ
dCG fH Qf dG LGdG .94
.405 j d G .238 j f G , G f G , f E G
.592 j d G h C G F d G d C G .264 nS
dG hCG ddG KCdG GQSfGJ LdG W H e FK b
` 91 ` 90 ` 89 ` 88 ` 85 ` 84 d d G .199
.812 ` 798 ` 101 ` 98 ` 95 .123 L b e
ed HdG dG a dG dG LhOe RQ hCG q dG FK nM o
.289 kfGe .450
.272 d G .278 M G R E G e j d G d G

967
 .883 ` 338 ` 218 ` 155 ` 61 K d G .237 e e C G Q J
.681 J G d G Q d G h C G d d G .371 e e C G d a
.752 j Q d G h C G d d G L d G f C G VdG eeCG L dG e
.163 ` 92 d R d G d G .225
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