Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Contents ................................................................................................................. 1
Figure Contents ....................................................................................................... 2
Table Contents ......................................................................................................... 3
Chapter I : Introduction ........................................................................................... 4
Chapter II :
2.1. Diagnosis........................................................................................................... 5
2.2. Impact in Pregnancy ......................................................................................... 5
2.2.1. Fetal Effects ............................................................................................ 6
2.2.2 Maternal Effects ....................................................................................... 14
2.3. Managemen of Diabetes Militus ....................................................................... 21
Reference ................................................................................................................. 28
1
FIGURE CONTENTS
2
TABLE CONTENTS
3
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Women with gestational diabetes can be divided into two functional classes using
fasting glucose levels. Pharmacological methods are usually recommended if diet modi cation
does not consistently maintain the fasting plasma glucose levels < 95 mg/dL or the 2-hour
postprandial plasma glucose < 120 mg/dL (American College of Obstetricians and
Gynecologists, 2013).
recommended that fasting capillary glucose levels be kept 95 mg/dL (Metzger, 2007).
4
CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
2.1 DIAGNOSIS
Women with high plasma glucose levels, glucosuria, and keto- acidosis present no
problem in diagnosis. Similarly, women with a random plasma glucose level 200 mg/dL
plus classic signs and symptoms such as polydipsia, polyuria, and unex- plained weight loss or
those with a fasting glucose level exceeding 125 mg/dL are considered by the ADA (2012) to
have overt diabetes. Women with only minimal metabolic derangement may be more di cult to
identify. To diagnose overt diabetes in pregnancy, the International Association of Diabetes
and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) Consensus Panel (2010) recommends threshold
values for fasting or random plasma glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin (A1c) levels at
prenatal care initiation (Table 57-4). There was no consensus on whether such testing should
be universal or limited to those women classi ed as high risk. Regardless, the tentative diagnosis
of overt diabetes during pregnancy based on these thresholds should be confirmed postpartum.
Risk factors for impaired carbohydrate metabolism in pregnant women include a strong
familial history of diabetes, prior delivery of a large newborn, persistent glucosuria, or
unexplained fetal losses.
5
2.2. IMPACT ON PREGNANCY
With pregestational or overt diabetes, the embryo, fetus, and mother frequently
experience serious complications directly attributable to diabetes. The likelihood of successful
outcomes with overt diabetes is related somewhat to the degree of glycemic control, but more
importantly, to the degree of underlying cardiovascular or renal disease. us, advanc- ing stages
of the White classi cation, seen in Table 57-2, are inversely related to favorable pregnancy
outcomes. As an example shown in Table 57-5, data from Yang and associates (2006)
chronicles the deleterious pregnancy outcomes of overt diabetes. These maternal and fetal
complications are described in the following sections.
TABLE 57-5. Pregnancy Outcomes of Births (Nova Scocia from 1988 to 2002)
Several studies have shown that early miscarriage is associated with poor glycemic
control. In 215 women with type 1 diabetes enrolled for prenatal care before 9 weeks gestation,
24 percent had an early pregnancy loss (Rosenn, 1994). Only those whose initial
glycohemoglobin A1c concentrations were 12 percent or whose preprandial glucose
concentrations were persistently 120 mg/dL were at increased risk. In another analysis of
127 Spanish women with pregestational diabetes, poor glycemic control, defined by
6
glycohemoglobin A1c concentrations 7 percent, was associ- ated with a threefold increase
in the spontaneous abortion rate (Galindo, 2006).
Overt diabetes is an undisputed risk factor for preterm birth. Eidem and associates
(2011) analyzed 1307 births in women with pregestational type 1 diabetes from the Norwegian
Medical Birth Registry. More than 26 percent were delivered preterm compared with 6.8
percent in the gen- eral obstetrical population. Moreover, almost 60 percent were indicated
preterm births, that is, due to obstetrical or medical complications. In the Canadian study shown
in Table 57-5, the incidence of preterm birth was 28 percent a vefold increase compared with
that of their normal population.
2.2.1.3. Malformations
The incidence of major malformations in women with type 1 diabetes is doubled and
approximates 5 percent (Eidem, 2010; She eld, 2002). ese account for almost half of perinatal
deaths in diabetic pregnancies. A twofold increased risk of major congenital defects in
Norwegian women with pregestational type 1 diabetes included cardiovascular mal- formations
that accounted for more than half of the anomalies (Table 57-6). In the National Birth Defects
Prevention Study, the risk of an isolated cardiac defect was fourfold higher in women with
pregestational diabetes compared with the twofold increased risk of noncardiac defects (Correa,
2008). The caudal regression sequence is a rare malformation frequently associated with mater-
nal diabetes (Garne, 2012).
7
Poorly controlled diabetes, both preconceptionally and early in pregnancy, is thought
to underlie this increased severe-malformation risk. As shown in Figure 57-2, Galindo and
colleagues (2006) demonstrated a clear correlation between increased maternal
glycohemoglobin A1c at rst prenatal visit and major malformations. Eriksson (2009) concluded
that the etiology was multifactorial. At least three interrelated molecular chain reactions have
been linked to maternal hyperglycemia and can potentially explain the mechanism behind poor
glycemic control and increased risk for major malformations (Reece, 2012). ese include
alterations in cellular lipid metabolism, excess production of toxic superoxide radicals, and
activation of programmed cell death. For example, Morgan and associ- ates (2008)
demonstrated that hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress inhibited migration of cardiac
neural-crest cells in embryos of diabetic mice.
8
characterizes the fetus of a diabetic woman. Such infants are described as being
anthropometrically di erent from other large-for-gestational age (LGA) infants (Durnwald,
2004; McFarland, 2000). Speci cally, those whose mothers are diabetic have excessive fat
deposition on the shoulders and trunk, which predisposes to shoulder dystocia or cesarean
delivery (Fig. 57-3).
The incidence of macrosomia rises significantly when mean maternal blood glucose
concentrations chronically exceed 130 mg/dL (Hay, 2012). Hammoud and coworkers (2013)
reported that the macrosomia rates for Nordic women with type 1, type 2, or gestational
diabetes were 35 percent, 28 percent, and 24 percent, respectively. As shown in Figure 57-4,
the birthweight distribution of neonates of diabetic mothers is skewed toward consistently
heavier birthweights compared with that of normal pregnancies.
In the study by Hammoud and colleagues (2013), fetal growth pro les from 897
sonographic examinations in 244 women with diabetes were compared with 843 examinations
in 145 control women. e abdominal circumference evolved di erently in the diabetic groups.
9
Analysis of head circumfer- ence/abdominal circumference (HC/AC) ratios shows that this
disproportionate growth occurs mainly in diabetic pregnancies that ultimately yield
macrosomic newborns (Fig. 57-5). ese ndings comport with the observation that virtually all
neo- nates of diabetic mothers are growth promoted. Ben-Haroush and associates (2007)
analyzed fetal sonographic measurements between 29 and 34 weeks gestation in 423 diabetic
pregnancies and found that accelerated fetal growth was particularly evident in women with
poor glycemic control.
The risk of fetal death is three to four times higher in women with type 1 diabetes
compared with that of the general obstetrical population (Eidem, 2011). Stillbirth without an
identi able cause is a phenomenon rela- tively limited to pregnancies complicated by overt
diabetes. these stillbirths are unexplained because common factors such as obvious placental
insu ciency, abruption, fetal-growth restriction, or oligohydramnios are not identi ed. ese
infants are typically LGA and die before labor, usually after 35 weeks gestation or later
(Garner, 1995).
These unexplained stillbirths are associated with poor glycemic control. Lauenborg and
coworkers (2003) identified suboptimal glycemic control in two thirds of unexplained
stillbirths between 1990 and 2000. Also, fetuses of diabetic mothers often have elevated lactic
acid levels. Salvesen and colleagues (1992, 1993) analyzed fetal blood samples and reported
that mean umbilical venous blood pH was lower in diabetic pregnancies and was signi cantly
related to fetal insulin levels. Such nd- ings support the hypothesis that hyperglycemia-
mediated chronic aberrations in oxygen and fetal metabolite transport may underlie these
unexplained fetal deaths (Pedersen, 1977). However, the exact mechanisms by which
uncontrolled hyperglycemia leads to elevated lactic acid levels and fetal acidosis remain
unclear.
Explicable stillbirths due to placental insu ciency also occur with increased frequency
in women with overt diabetes, usu- ally in association with severe preeclampsia. In a
retrospective analysis of more than 500,000 singleton deliveries, Yanit and associates (2012)
found that the fetal death risk was sevenfold higher in women with hypertension and
pregestational diabetes compared with the threefold increased risk associated with dia- betes
alone. Stillbirth is also increased in women with advanced diabetes and vascular complications.
10
Maternal ketoacidosis can also cause fetal death.
2.2.1.6. Hydramnions
Diabetic pregnancies are often complicated by excess amnionic uid. According to Idris
and coworkers (2010), 18 percent of 314 women with pregestational diabe- tes were identi ed
with hydramnios, de ned as an amnionic uid index (AFI) greater than 24 cm in the third
trimester. A likely albeit unproven explanation is that fetal hyperglycemia causes polyuria
(Chap. 11, p. 234). In a study from Parkland Hospital, Dashe and colleagues (2000) found that
the AFI parallels the amnionic uid glucose level among women with diabetes. is nding suggests
that the hydramnios associated with diabetes is a result of increased amnionic uid glucose
concentration. Further support for this hypothesis was provided by Vink and associates (2006),
who linked poor maternal glucose control to macrosomia and hydramnios. In their retrospective
analysis of diabetic pregnancies, Idris and coworkers (2010) also found that women with
elevated glycohemoglobin A1c values in the third trimester were more likely to have
hydramnios.
Before tests of fetal health and maturity became available, delivery before term was
deliberately selected for women with diabetes to avoid unexplained fetal death. Although this
practice has been abandoned, there is still an increased frequency of preterm delivery in women
with dia- betes. Most are due to advanced diabetes with superimposed preeclampsia. ankfully,
modern neonatal care has largely eliminated neonatal deaths due to immaturity. Conversely,
neonatal morbidity due to preterm birth continues to be a serious consequence.
11
2.2.1.8. Hypoglycemia
2.2.1.9. Hypocalcemia
12
2.2.1.11. Cardiomyopathy
The risk of developing type 1 diabetes if either parent is a ected is 3 to 4 percent. Type
2 diabetes has a much stronger genetic component. If both par- ents have type 2 diabetes, the
risk of developing it approaches 40 percent. McKinney and coworkers (1999) studied 196
children with type 1 diabetes and found that older maternal age and maternal type 1 diabetes
13
are important risk factors. Plagemann and colleagues (2002) have implicated breast feeding by
diabetic mothers in the genesis of childhood diabetes. Conversely, breast feeding has also been
associated with a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes (Owen, 2006). The Trial to Reduce Insulin-
dependent Diabetes Mellitus in the Genetically At Risk (TRIGR) was designed to analyze
hydrolyzed formula use, rather than breast milk, to reduce rates of type 1 diabetes in at-risk
children by age 10. is study will be complete in 2017 (Knip, 2011).
Diabetes and pregnancy interact significantly such that maternal welfare can be
seriously jeopardized. With the possible exception of diabetic retinopathy, however, the long-
term course of diabetes is not afected by pregnancy.
Maternal death is uncommon, but rates in women with diabetes are still increased. In
an analysis of 972 women with type 1 diabetes, Leinonen and associates (2001) reported a
maternal mortality rate of 0.5 percent. Deaths resulted from diabetic ketoacidosis,
hypoglycemia, hypertension, and infection. Especially morbid is ischemic heart disease.
Pombar and coworkers (1995) reviewed 17 women with coronary artery disease class H
diabetes and reported that only half survived pregnancy.
2.3.1. Preeclampsia
14
women with a low antioxidant status at baseline. Temple and coworkers (2006) prospectively
studied hemoglobin A1c levels at 24 weeks gestation in 290 women with type 1 diabetes and
found that preeclampsia was related to glucose control. Management of preeclampsia is
discussed in Chapter 40 (p. 749).
Diabetes is the leading cause ofen d-stage renal disease in the United States (Chap. 53,
p. 1060). Clinically detectable nephropathy begins with microalbumin- uria30 to 300 mg/24
hours. is may manifest as early as 5 years after diabetes onset. Macroalbuminuriamore than
300 mg/24 hoursdevelops in patients destined to have end- stage renal disease. Hypertension
almost invariably develops during this period, and renal failure ensues typically in the next 5
to 10 years. e incidence of overt proteinuria is nearly 30 percent in individuals with type 1
diabetes and ranges from 4 to 20 percent in those with type 2 diabetes (Reutens, 2013).
Progression from microalbuminuria is not inexorable, and regression is common. Presumably
from improved glu- cose control, the incidence of nephropathy in individuals with type 1
diabetes has declined in the past few decades. Investigators for the Diabetes Control and
Complications Trial (2002) reported that there was a 25-percent decrease in the rate of
nephropathy for each 10-percent decrease in hemoglobin A1c levels.
Approximately 5 percent of pregnant women with diabe- tes already have renal
involvement. Approximately 40 percent of these will develop preeclampsia (Vidae , 2008).
High rates are also illustrated in Figure 57-6. However, this may not be the case with
microproteinuria. In one analysis of 460 women, How and colleagues (2004) found no
association between preeclampsia and microproteinuria. Nevertheless, they found that chronic
hypertension with overt diabetic nephropathy increased the risk of preeclampsia to 60 percent.
15
2.3.3. Diabetic Retinopathy
Retinal vasculopathy is a highly speci c complication of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes.
In the United States, diabetic retinopathy is the most important cause of visual impairment in
persons younger than age 60 years (Frank, 2004). Therst and most common visible lesions are
small microaneurysms followed by blot hemorrhages that form when erythrocytes escape from
the aneurysms. ese areas leak serous uid that creates hard exudates. Such features are termed
benign or background or nonproliferative retinopathy. With increasingly severe retinopathy,
the abnormal vessels of background eye disease become occluded, leading to retinal ischemia
and infarctions that appear as cotton wool exudates. These are considered preproliferative
retinopathy. In response to ischemia, there is neovascularization on the retinal surface and out
into the vitreous cavity. Vision is obscured when there is hemorrhage. Laser photocoagulation
before hemorrhage, as shown in Figure 57-7, reduces the rate of visual loss progression and
blindness by half. The procedure is performed during pregnancy when indicated.
FIGURE 57-7. Retinal Photographs from a 30 year-old Diabetic Woman (Elman, 1990)
16
Vestgaard and coworkers (2010) reported that almost two thirds of 102 pregnant
women with type 1 diabetes examined by 8 weeks gestation had background retinal changes,
pro- liferative retinopathy, or macular edema. A fourth of these women developed progression
of retinopathy in at least one eye. e same group of investigators evaluated 80 type 2 diabetics
and identi ed retinopathy, mostly mild, in 14 percent during early pregnancy. Progression was
identi ed in only 14 percent (Rasmussen, 2010). is complication is believed to be a rare example
of a long-term adverse e ect of pregnancy. However, in a prospective postpartum 5-year
surveil- lance of 59 type 1 diabetic women, Arun and Taylor (2008) found that baseline
retinopathy was the only independent risk factor for progression.
Other risk factors that have been associated with progression of retinopathy include
hypertension, higher levels of insulin-like growth factor-I, and macular edema identi ed in early
pregnancy (Bargiota, 2011; Mathiesen, 2012; Ringholm, 2011; Vestgaard, 2010). The National
Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (2008) established guidelines recommend- ing that
pregnant women with preexisting diabetes should rou- tinely be o ered retinal assessment after
the rst prenatal visit. Currently, most agree that laser photocoagulation and good glycemic
control during pregnancy minimize the potential for deleterious efects of pregnancy.
Ironically, acute rigorous metabolic control during pregnancy has been linked to
acute worsening of retinopathy. In a study of 201 women with retinopathy, McElvy and
associates (2001) found that almost 30 percent su ered eye disease progression during
pregnancy despite intensive glucose control. That said, Wang and coworkers (1993) have
observed that retinopathy worsened during the critical months of rigorous glucose control, but
long term, deterioration of eye disease slowed. In their study mentioned above, Arun and
Taylor (2008) found that only four women required laser photocoagulation during pregnancy,
and none required laser in the next 5 years.
17
Hyperemesis gravidarum is further discussed in Chapter 54 (p. 1070).
The incidence of fetal loss can be as high as 20 percent with DKA. Noncompliance is
a prominent factor, and this and keto- acidosis were historically considered prognostically bad
signs in pregnancy (Pedersen, 1974). Pregnant women usually develop ketoacidosis at lower
blood glucose thresholds than when non- pregnant. In a study from China, the mean glucose
level for pregnant women with DKA was 293 mg/dL compared with 495 mg/dL for
nonpregnant women (Guo, 2008). Chico and associates (2008) reported ketoacidosis in a
pregnant woman whose plasma glucose was only 87 mg/dL.
18
TABLE 57-7. Protocol Recommended of Diabetic Ketoacidosis During Pregnancy
(ACOG, 2012)
2.3.6. Infections
Almost all types of infections are increased in diabetic pregnancies. Stamler and
coworkers (1990) reported that almost 80 percent of women with type 1 diabetes develop at
least one infection during pregnancy compared with only 25 percent in those without diabetes.
Common infections include Candida vulvovaginitis, urinary and respiratory tract infections,
and puerperal pelvic sepsis. In their population- based study of almost 200,000 pregnancies,
Sheiner and colleagues (2009) found a twofold increased risk of asymptomatic bacteruria in
women with diabetes. Similarly, Alvarez and associates (2010) reported positive urine cultures
in a fourth of diabetic women compared with 10 percent of nondiabetic pregnant women. In a
2-year analysis of pyelonephritis at Parkland Hospital, 5 percent of women with diabetes
developed pyelonephritis compared with 1.3 percent of the non- diabetic population (Hill,
19
2005). Fortunately, these latter infections can be minimized by screening and eradication of
asymptomatic bacteriuria (Chap. 53, p. 1053). Takoudes and colleagues (2004) found that
pregestational diabetes is associated with a two to threefold increase in wound complications
after cesarean delivery.
Preconceptional Care
The ADA has de ned optimal preconceptional glucose control using insulin to include
self-monitored preprandial glucose levels of 70 to 100 mg/dL, peak postprandial values of 100
to 129 mg/dL, and mean daily glucose concentrations < 110 mg/ dL (Kitzmiller, 2008).
Glycosylated hemoglobin measurement, which re ects an average of circulating glucose for the
past 4 to 8 weeks, is useful to assess early metabolic control. e ADA (2012) defines optimal
values to be < 7 percent. In their prospective population-based study of 933 pregnant women
with type 1 diabetes, Jensen and colleagues (2010) found the risk of congenital malformations
was not demonstrably higher with glycosylated hemoglobin levels < 6.9 percent compared with
that in more than 70,000 nondiabetic controls. ey also identified a substantial fourfold increased
risk for malformations at levels > 10 percent.
20
2.4.1. First Trimester
Careful monitoring of glucose control is essential. For this reason, many clinicians
hospitalize overtly diabetic women during early pregnancy to initiate an individualized glucose
control program and o er education. It also provides an opportunity to assess the extent of
diabetic vascular complications and precisely establish gestational age.
Insulin Treatment
The overtly diabetic pregnant woman is best treated with insulin. Although oral
hypoglycemic agents have been used successfully for gestational diabetes (p. 1141), these
agents are not currently recommended for overt diabetes except for limited and individualized
use (American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 2012). Maternal glycemic control
can usually be achieved with multiple daily insulin injections and adjustment of dietary intake.
The action proles of commonly used short- and long-term insulins are shown in Table 57-8.
TABLE 57-8. Action Profiles of Commonly Used Insulins (Modified From Powers, 2012)
21
progression (Mukhopadhyay, 2007). Notably, more women using insulin pumps developed
ketoacidosis. Roeder and colleagues (2012) noted with insulin pump use in women with type
1 diabetes that total daily doses declined in the rst trimester but later increased by more than
threefold. Postprandial glucose excursions accounted for most increases. Women who use an
insulin pump must be highly motivated and compliant to minimize the risk of nocturnal
hypoglycemia (Gabbe, 2003).
Monitoring
22
Diet
Nutritional planning includes appropriate weight gain through carbohydrate and caloric
modi cations based on height, weight, and degree of glucose intolerance (American Diabetes
Association, 2012; Bantle, 2008). e mix of car- bohydrate, protein, and fat is adjusted to meet
the metabolic goals and individual patient preferences, but a 175-g minimum of carbohydrate
per day should be provided. Carbohydrate should be distributed throughout the day in three
small- to moderate-sized meals and two to four snacks (Bantle, 2008). Weight loss is not
recommended, but modest caloric restriction may be appropriate for overweight or obese
women. An ideal dietary composition is 55 percent carbohydrate, 20 per- cent protein, and 25
percent fat, of which < 10 percent is saturated fat.
Hypoglycemia
Diabetes tends to be unstable in the rst trimester. Hellmuth and associates (2000)
reported that 37 percent of 43 women with type 1 diabetes had maternal hypoglycemia during
the rst trimester, and the average duration was more than 2 hours. Similarly, Chen and
coworkers (2007) identi ed hypoglycemic eventsblood glucose < 40 mg/dL in 37 of 60
women with type 1 diabetes. A fourth of these were considered severe because the women
were unable to treat their own symptoms. Rosenn and colleagues (1994) noted that maternal
hypoglycemia had a peak incidence between 10 and 15 weeks gestation. Caution is
recommended when attempting euglycemia in women with recurrent episodes of
hypoglycemia.
We have reported that good pregnancy outcomes can be achieved in women with mean
preprandial plasma glucose values up to 143 mg/dL (Leveno, 1979). In women with diabetes
who are not pregnant, the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group (1993)
found that similar glucose values delayed and slowed diabetic retinopa- thy, nephropathy, and
neuropathy. us, women with overt diabetes who have glucose values considerably above those
de ned as normal both during and after pregnancy can expect good outcomes.
23
in diabetic pregnancies, and interpretation is altered accordingly. Because the incidence of
congenital cardiac anomalies is ve times greater in moth- ers with diabetes, fetal
echocardiography is an important part of second-trimester sonographic evaluation (Fouda,
2013). Despite advances in ultrasound technology, however, Dashe and associates (2009)
cautioned that detection of fetal anoma- lies in obese diabetic women is more di cult than in
similarly sized women without diabetes.
During the last several decades, the threat of late-pregnancy fetal death in women with
diabetes has prompted recommendations for various fetal surveillance programs beginning in
the third trimester. Such protocols include fetal movement count- ing, periodic fetal heart rate
monitoring, intermittent biophysi- cal pro le evaluation, and contraction stress testing (Chap.
17, p. 335). None of these techniques has been subjected to prospective randomized clinical
trials, and their primary value seems related to their low false-negative rates. The American
College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (2012) suggests ini- tiating such testing at 32 to 34
weeks gestation.
Labor induction may be attempted when the fetus is not excessively large and the cervix
is considered favorable (Chap. 26, p. 523). Cesarean delivery at or near term has frequently
been used to avoid traumatic birth of a large infant in a woman with diabetes. In women with
more advanced diabetes, especially those with vascular disease, the reduced likelihood of
24
successful labor induction remote from term has also contributed to an increased cesarean
delivery rate. In a nested case-control study of 209 women with type 1 diabetes, Lepercq and
colleagues (2010) reported a 70-percent cesarean delivery rate overall. Two thirds of these were
delivered without labor. Both maternal body mass index (BMI) > 25 kg/m2 and low Bishop
score were indepen- dently associated with cesarean delivery for those in labor. In another
study, a glycohemoglobin level > 6.4 percent at delivery was independently associated with
urgent cesarean delivery. is suggests that tighter glycemic control during the third trimester
might reduce late fetal compromise and cesarean delivery for fetal indications (Miailhe, 2013).
The cesarean delivery rate for women with overt diabetes has remained at approximately 80
percent for the past 35 years at Parkland Hospital.
Reducing or withholding the dose of long-acting insulin given on the day of delivery is
recommended. Regular insulin should be used to meet most or all of the insulin needs of the
mother during this time, because insulin requirements typically drop markedly after delivery.
We have found that continuous insulin infusion by calibrated intravenous pump is most
satisfactory (Table 57-10). roughout labor and after delivery, the woman should be ade- quately
hydrated intravenously and given glucose in su cient amounts to maintain normoglycemia.
Capillary or plasma glucose levels should be checked frequently, especially during active labor,
and regular insulin should be administered accordingly.
TABLE 57-10. Insulin Management During Labor and Delivery (Coustan DR, 2012)
25
2.4.4. Puerperium
Often, women may require virtually no insulin for the first 24 hours or so postpartum.
Subsequently, insulin requirements may uctuate markedly during the next few days. Infection
must be promptly detected and treated.
26
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