52tries PDF

Algorithms R OBERT S EDGEWICK | K EVIN W AYNE
5.2 T RIES
R-way tries
ternary search tries
character-based operations
Algorithms F O U R T H E D I T I O N
R OBERT S EDGEWICK | K EVIN W AYNE
http://algs4.cs.princeton.edu
Summary of the performance of symbol-table implementations
Order of growth of the frequency of operations.
typical case
ordered operations
implementation
operations on keys
search insert delete
red-black BST log N log N log N compareTo()
equals()
hash table 1 1 1
hashCode()
under uniform hashing assumption
use array accesses to make R-way decisions

(instead of binary decisions)
Q. Can we do better?
A. Yes, if we can avoid examining the entire key, as with string sorting.
2
String symbol table basic API
String symbol table. Symbol table specialized to string keys.
public class StringST<Value>
StringST() create an empty symbol table
void put(String key, Value val) put key-value pair into the symbol table
Value get(String key) return value paired with given key
void delete(String key) delete key and corresponding value
Goal. Faster than hashing, more flexible than BSTs.
3
String symbol table implementations cost summary
character accesses (typical case) dedup
search search space

implementation insert moby.txt actors.txt
hit miss (references)
red-black BST L + c lg 2 N c lg 2 N c lg 2 N 4N 1.40 97.4
hashing
L L L 4N to 16N 0.76 40.6
(linear probing)
Parameters file size words distinct

N = number of strings
moby.txt 1.2 MB 210 K 32 K
L = length of string
R = radix actors.txt 82 MB 11.4 M 900 K
Challenge. Efficient performance for string keys.
4
5.2 T RIES
R-way tries
Algorithms
Tries
6
Tries
Tries. [from retrieval, but pronounced "try"]

Store characters in nodes (not keys).
Each node has R children, one for each possible character.
(for now, we do not draw null links)
link to trie for all keys
root that start with s
link to trie for all keys
that start with she
b s t
y 4 e h h
key value
by 4 a 6 l e 0 o e 5
sea 6
value for she in node
sells 1 l l r corresponding to last
she 0 key character
shells 3 s 1 l e 7
shore 7
the 5 s 3
7
Search in a trie
Follow links corresponding to each character in the key.

Search hit: node where search ends has a non-null value.
Search miss: reach null link or node where search ends has null value.
get("shells")
b s t
y 4 e h h
a 6 l e 0 o e 5
l l r
s 1 l e 7
return value associated

s 3 with last key character
(return 3) 8
Search in a trie

get("she")
b s t
y 4 e h h
a 6 l e 0 o e 5
search may terminated

l l r
at an intermediate node
(return 0)
s 1 l e 7
s 3
9
Search in a trie

get("shell")
b s t
y 4 e h h
a 6 l e 0 o e 5
l l r
s 1 l e 7
no value associated
with last key character
s 3
(return null)
10
Search in a trie

get("shelter")
b s t
y 4 e h h
a 6 l e 0 o e 5
l l r
s 1 l e 7
no link to t
s 3
(return null)
11
Insertion into a trie

Encounter a null link: create new node.
Encounter the last character of the key: set value in that node.
put("shore", 7)
b s t
y 4 e h h
a 6 l e 0 o e 5
l l r
s 1 l e 7
s 3
12
Trie construction demo
trie
Trie construction demo
trie
b s t
y 4 e h h
a 6 l e 0 o e 5
l l r
s 1 l e 7
s 3
Trie representation: Java implementation
Node. A value, plus references to R nodes.
private static class Node

{
use Object instead of Value since
private Object value; no generic array creation in Java
private Node[] next = new Node[R];
}
characters are implicitly neither keys nor

defined by link index s
s characters are
explicitly stored
e h
e h
a l e
a 2 l e 0 2 0
l
l each node has
an array of links
s and a value
s 1 1
Trie representation
15
R-way trie: Java implementation
public class TrieST<Value>

{
private static final int R = 256; extended ASCII
private Node root = new Node();
private static class Node

{ /* see previous slide */ }
public void put(String key, Value val)

{ root = put(root, key, val, 0); }
private Node put(Node x, String key, Value val, int d)

{
if (x == null) x = new Node();
if (d == key.length()) { x.val = val; return x; }
char c = key.charAt(d);
x.next[c] = put(x.next[c], key, val, d+1);
return x;
}

16
R-way trie: Java implementation (continued)

public boolean contains(String key)
{ return get(key) != null; }
public Value get(String key)

{
Node x = get(root, key, 0);
if (x == null) return null;
return (Value) x.val; cast needed
}
private Node get(Node x, String key, int d)

{
if (d == key.length()) return x;
return get(x.next[c], key, d+1);
}
}
17
Trie performance
Search hit. Need to examine all L characters for equality.
Search miss.
Could have mismatch on first character.
Typical case: examine only a few characters (sublinear).
Space. R null links at each leaf.
(but sublinear space possible if many short strings share common prefixes)
characters are implicitly

defined by link index s
s
e h
e h
a l e
a 2 l e 0 2 0
l
l each node has
an array of links
s and a value
s 1 1
Trie representation
Bottom line. Fast search hit and even faster search miss, but wastes space.
18
Deletion in an R-way trie
To delete a key-value pair:

Find the node corresponding to key and set value to null.
If node has null value and all null links, remove that node (and recur).
delete("shells")
b s t
y 4 e h h
a 6 l e 0 o e 5
l l r
s 1 l e 7
s 3 set value to null

19
Deletion in an R-way trie
To delete a key-value pair:

Find the node corresponding to key and set value to null.
If node has null value and all null links, remove that node (and recur).
delete("shells")
b s t
y 4 e h h
a 6 l e 0 o e 5
l l r
s 1 l e 7
null value and links s

(delete node) 20
String symbol table implementations cost summary
search search space

hashing
L L L 4N to 16N 0.76 40.6
(linear probing)
R-way trie L log R N L (R+1) N 1.12 out of

memory
R-way trie.
Method of choice for small R.
Too much memory for large R.
Challenge. Use less memory, e.g., 65,536-way trie for Unicode!
21
5.2 T RIES
R-way tries
Algorithms
Ternary search tries
Store characters and values in nodes (not keys).

Each node has 3 children: smaller (left), equal (middle), larger (right).
Fast Algorithms for Sorting and Searching Strings
Jon L. Bentley* Robert Sedgewick#
Abstract that is competitive with the most efficient string sorting

We present theoretical algorithms for sorting and programs known. The second program is a symbol table
searching multikey data, and derive from them practical C implementation that is faster than hashing, which is com-
implementations for applications in which keys are charac- monly regarded as the fastest symbol table implementa-
ter strings. The sorting algorithm blends Quicksort and tion. The symbol table implementation is much more
radix sort; it is competitive with the best known C sort space-efficient than multiway trees, and supports more
codes. The searching algorithm blends tries and binary advanced searches.
search trees; it is faster than hashing and other commonly In many application programs, sorts use a Quicksort
used search methods. The basic ideas behind the algo- implementation based on an abstract compare operation,
rithms date back at least to the 1960s but their practical and searches use hashing or binary search trees. These do
utility has been overlooked. We also present extensions to not take advantage of the properties of string keys, which
more complex string problems, such as partial-match are widely used in practice. Our algorithms provide a nat-
searching. ural and elegant way to adapt classical algorithms to this
important class of applications.
1. Introduction Section 6 turns to more difficult string-searching prob-
Section 2 briefly reviews Hoares [9] Quicksort and lems. Partial-match queries allow dont care characters
binary search trees. We emphasize a well-known isomor- (the pattern so.a, for instance, matches soda and sofa).
phism relating the two, and summarize other basic facts. The primary result in this section is a ternary search tree
The multikey algorithms and data structures are pre- implementation of Rivests partial-match searching algo-
sented in Section 3. Multikey Quicksort orders a set of II rithm, and experiments on its performance. Near neigh-
vectors with k components each. Like regular Quicksort, it bor queries locate all words within a given Hamming dis-
tance of a query word (for instance, code is distance 2 23
partitions its input into sets less than and greater than a
Ternary search tries
Store characters and values in nodes (not keys).

Each node has 3 children: smaller (left), equal (middle), larger (right).
link to TST for all keys link to TST for all keys
that start with that start with s
a letter before s
s
b t
a b s t a
r y 4 e h u h r y 4 h h
e u
e 12 a 14 l e 10 o r 0 e 8 e 12 14 l e 10 r 0 e 8
a o
l l r e each node has l l r e

three links
s 11 l e 7 l s 11 l e 7 l
s 15 y 13 s 15 y 13
TST representation of a trie
24
Search hit in a TST
get("sea")
b t
y 4 h h
l e 0 e 5
6 a o
l l r
return value associated
with last key character
s 1 l e 7
s 3
25
Search miss in a TST
get("shelter")
b t
y 4 h h
l e 0 e 5
6 a o
l l r
s 1 l e 7
s 3 no link to t
(return null)
26
Ternary search trie construction demo
ternary search trie
27
Ternary search trie construction demo
ternary search trie
b t
y 4 h h
l e 0 e 5
6 a o
l l r
s 1 l e 7
s 3
28
Search in a TST

If less, take left link; if greater, take right link.
If equal, take the middle link and move to the next key character.
Search hit. Node where search ends has a non-null value.
Search miss. Reach a null link or node where search ends has null value.
get("sea") match: take middle link,

move to next char
mismatch: take left or right link,
do not move to next char
s
b t
a
r y 4 h h
e u
e 12 l e 10 r e 8
14 a o
l l r e
return value s 11 l e 7 l
associated with
last key character
s 15 y 13
TST search example

29
26-way trie vs. TST
now
26-way trie. 26 null links in each leaf. for
tip
ilk
dim
tag
jot
sob
nob
sky
hut
ace
bet
26-way trie (1035 null links, not shown)
men
egg
few
jay
TST. 3 null links in each leaf. owl
joy
rap
gig
wee
was
cab
wad
caw
cue
fee
tap
ago
tar
jam
dug
TST (155 null links) and
30
TST representation in Java
A TST node is five fields:

A value. private class Node
A character c.
{
private Value val;
A reference to a left TST. private char c;
A reference to a middle TST.

private Node left, mid, right;
}
A reference to a right TST.
standard array of links (R = 26) ternary search tree (TST)
link for keys s

s that start with s
h
e u
e h u
link for keys
that start with su
Trie node representations
31
TST: Java implementation
public class TST<Value>

{
private Node root;
private class Node

{ /* see previous slide */ }
public void put(String key, Value val)

{ root = put(root, key, val, 0); }
private Node put(Node x, String key, Value val, int d)

{
if (x == null) { x = new Node(); x.c = c; }
if (c < x.c) x.left = put(x.left, key, val, d);
else if (c > x.c) x.right = put(x.right, key, val, d);
else if (d < key.length() - 1) x.mid = put(x.mid, key, val, d+1);
else x.val = val;
return x;
}
32
TST: Java implementation (continued)

public boolean contains(String key)
{ return get(key) != null; }
public Value get(String key)

{
Node x = get(root, key, 0);
return x.val;
}
private Node get(Node x, String key, int d)

{
if (c < x.c) return get(x.left, key, d);
else if (c > x.c) return get(x.right, key, d);
else if (d < key.length() - 1) return get(x.mid, key, d+1);
else return x;
}
}
33
String symbol table implementation cost summary
search search space

hashing
L L L 4N to 16N 0.76 40.6
(linear probing)

memory
TST L + ln N ln N L + ln N 4N 0.72 38.7
Remark. Can build balanced TSTs via rotations to achieve L + log N

worst-case guarantees.
Bottom line. TST is as fast as hashing (for string keys), space efficient.
34
TST with R2 branching at root
Hybrid of R-way trie and TST.

Do R 2-way branching at root.
Each of R 2 root nodes points to a TST.
array of 262 roots
aa ab ac zy zz
TST TST TST

TST TST
Q. What about one- and two-letter words?

35
String symbol table implementation cost summary
search search space

hashing
L L L 4N to 16N 0.76 40.6
(linear probing)

memory
TST L + ln N ln N L + ln N 4N 0.72 38.7
TST with R2 L + ln N ln N L + ln N 4 N + R2 0.51 32.7
Bottom line. Faster than hashing for our benchmark client.

36
TST vs. hashing
Hashing.
Need to examine entire key.
Search hits and misses cost about the same.
Performance relies on hash function.
Does not support ordered symbol table operations.
TSTs.
Works only for string (or digital) keys.
Only examines just enough key characters.
Search miss may involve only a few characters.
Supports ordered symbol table operations (plus extras!).
Bottom line. TSTs are:
Faster than hashing (especially for search misses).
More flexible than red-black BSTs. [stay tuned]
37
5.2 T RIES
R-way tries
Algorithms
String symbol table API
Character-based operations. The string symbol table API supports several

useful character-based operations.
key value
by 4
sea 6
sells 1
she 0
shells 3
shore 7
the 5
Prefix match. Keys with prefix sh: she, shells, and shore.
Wildcard match. Keys that match .he: she and the.
Longest prefix. Key that is the longest prefix of shellsort: shells.
39
String symbol table API
public class StringST<Value>
StringST() create a symbol table with string keys
void put(String key, Value val) put key-value pair into the symbol table
Value get(String key) value paired with key
void delete(String key) delete key and corresponding value

Iterable<String> keys() all keys
Iterable<String> keysWithPrefix(String s) keys having s as a prefix
Iterable<String> keysThatMatch(String s) keys that match s (where . is a wildcard)
String longestPrefixOf(String s) longest key that is a prefix of s
Remark. Can also add other ordered ST methods, e.g., floor() and rank().
40
Warmup: ordered iteration
To iterate through all keys in sorted order:

Do inorder traversal of trie; add keys encountered to a queue.
Maintain sequence of characters on path from root to node.
keysWithPrefix("");
keys()
key q
b b s t
by by
s y 4 e h h
se
sea by sea a 6 l e 0 o e 5
sel
sell l l r
sells by sea sells
sh s 1 l e 7
she by sea sells she
shell s 3
shells by sea sells she shells
sho
shor
shore by sea sells she shells shore
t
th
the by sea sells she shells shore the
Collecting the keys in a trie (trace)

41
Ordered iteration: Java implementation
To iterate through all keys in sorted order:

Do inorder traversal of trie; add keys encountered to a queue.
Maintain sequence of characters on path from root to node.
public Iterable<String> keys()

{
Queue<String> queue = new Queue<String>();
collect(root, "", queue);
return queue; sequence of characters
} on path from root to x
private void collect(Node x, String prefix, Queue<String> q)

{
if (x == null) return;
if (x.val != null) q.enqueue(prefix);
for (char c = 0; c < R; c++)
collect(x.next[c], prefix + c, q);
} or use StringBuilder
42
Prefix matches
Find all keys in a symbol table starting with a given prefix.
Ex. Autocomplete in a cell phone, search bar, text editor, or shell.

User types characters one at a time.
System reports all matching strings.
43
Prefix matches in an R-way trie
Find all keys in a symbol table starting with a given prefix.
keysWithPrefix("sh");
key qkey q
sh sh
b b s s t t b b s s t t she she she
shel shel
y 4 ye 4 eh h h h y 4 ye 4 eh h h h shell shell
shellsshells
she shells
she sh
a 6 l a 6 el0 o e 0e o5 e 5 a 6 la 6 el0 o e 0e o5 e 5 sho sho
find subtrie
find for
subtrie
all for all shor shor
keys beginning with "sh"
keys beginning l
with "sh" ll r l r l ll rl r shore shore
she shells
she shs
s 1 ls 1 e l7 e 7 s 1 ls 1 e l7 e 7collect keys
collect keys
s 3 s 3 s 3 s 3
in that subtrie
in that subtrie
Prefix match
Prefix in
match
a triein a trie
public Iterable<String> keysWithPrefix(String prefix) key
key queue
q
{ sh
b s t b s t she she
Queue<String> queue = new Queue<String>();
shel
Node x =y get(root,
4 e h 0); y 4
h prefix, e h h shell
shells she shells
collect(x, aprefix, 6 l e queue);
0 o e 5 a 6 l e 0 o e 5 sho
find subtrie for
return all
queue; root of subtrie for all strings shor
keys beginning with "sh" l l r l with
beginning l given
r prefix shore she shells shore
}
s 1 l e 7 s 1 l e 7 collect keys
s 3 s 3
in that subtrie 44
Longest prefix
Find longest key in symbol table that is a prefix of query string.
Ex. To send packet toward destination IP address, router chooses IP

address in routing table that is longest prefix match.
represented as 32-bit
"128"
binary number for IPv4
"128.112" (instead of string)
"128.112.055"
"128.112.055.15"
"128.112.136" longestPrefixOf("128.112.136.11") = "128.112.136"
longestPrefixOf("128.112.100.16") = "128.112"
"128.112.155.11"
longestPrefixOf("128.166.123.45") = "128"
"128.112.155.13"
"128.222"
"128.222.136"
Note. Not the same as floor: floor("128.112.100.16") = "128.112.055.15"
45
Longest prefix in an R-way trie

Search for query string.
Keep track of longest key encountered.
"she"
"she"
"she" "shell"
"shell"
"shell" "shellsort"
"shellsort"
"shellsort"
s s s s s s
s s s
e e e h h h e e e h h h
e e e h h h
a a a l2 le e
2 2l 0 0e 0 a a a l2 le e
2 2l 0 0e 0search ends
search
search atends
ends at at
endend
ofend
string
of string
of string a a a l2 le e
value is
value null
is null
value is null 2 2l 0 0e 0
l l ll l l l l ll l l return she
return sheshe
return
search
searchends
search atends
ends at at (last key
(last onkey
key
(last path)
on path)
on path) l l ll l l
s s
1 1s
l 1l l endend ofend
string
of string
of string s s1 1s
l 1l l
value is
value not null
is not
value nullnull
is not s s
1 1s
l 1l l
s s3 3s 3return
return shesheshe
return s s
3 3s 3
search ends
search
search atends
ends at at
s s
3 3s 3 null link
null linklink
null
return
return shells
shells
return shells
(last key
(last onkey
key
(last path)
on path)
on path
Possibilities
Possibilities forfor
Possibilities
Possibilities for
for longestPrefixOf()
longestPrefixOf()
longestPrefixOf()
longestPrefixOf()
46
Longest prefix in an R-way trie: Java implementation

Search for query string.
Keep track of longest key encountered.
public String longestPrefixOf(String query)

{
int length = search(root, query, 0, 0);
return query.substring(0, length);
}
private int search(Node x, String query, int d, int length)

{
if (x == null) return length;
if (x.val != null) length = d;
if (d == query.length()) return length;
char c = query.charAt(d);
return search(x.next[c], query, d+1, length);
}
47
T9 texting
Goal. Type text messages on a phone keypad.
Multi-tap input. Enter a letter by repeatedly pressing a key.

Ex. hello: 4 4 3 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6
"a much faster and more fun way to enter text"
T9 text input.
Find all words that correspond to given sequence of numbers.
Press 0 to see all completion options.
Ex. hello: 4 3 5 5 6
Q. How to implement? www.t9.com

48
Patricia trie
Patricia trie. [Practical Algorithm to Retrieve Information Coded in Alphanumeric]

Remove one-way branching.
Each node represents a sequence of characters.
Implementation: one step beyond this course.
put("shells", 1);
put("shellfish", 2);
standard no one-way
trie branching
shell
Applications. s s 1 fish 2
Database search. h
P2P network search. e internal
IP routing tables: find longest prefix match.

one-way
branching
l
Compressed quad-tree for N-body simulation. l
Efficiently storing and querying XML documents. s 1 f
i external
one-way
branching
s
h 2
Also known as: crit-bit tree, radix tree.

Removing one-way branching in a trie
51
Suffix tree
Suffix tree.
Patricia trie of suffixes of a string.
Linear-time construction: well beyond scope of this course.
suffix tree for BANANAS
BANANAS A NA S
NA S S NAS
NAS S
Applications.
Linear-time: longest repeated substring, longest common substring,
longest palindromic substring, substring search, tandem repeats, .
Computational biology databases (BLAST, FASTA).
52
String symbol tables summary
A success story in algorithm design and analysis.
Red-black BST.
Performance guarantee: log N key compares.
Supports ordered symbol table API.
Hash tables.
Performance guarantee: constant number of probes.
Requires good hash function for key type.
Tries. R-way, TST.
Performance guarantee: log N characters accessed.
Supports character-based operations.
Bottom line. You can get at anything by examining 50-100 bits (!!!)
53

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Algorithms R OBERT S EDGEWICK | K EVIN W AYNE

R OBERT S EDGEWICK | K EVIN W AYNE

Order of growth of the frequency of operations.

red-black BST log N log N log N compareTo()

under uniform hashing assumption

use array accesses to make R-way decisions

String symbol table. Symbol table specialized to string keys.

public class StringST<Value>

StringST() create an empty symbol table

Value get(String key) return value paired with given key

void delete(String key) delete key and corresponding value

Goal. Faster than hashing, more flexible than BSTs.

character accesses (typical case) dedup

search search space

red-black BST L + c lg 2 N c lg 2 N c lg 2 N 4N 1.40 97.4

Parameters file size words distinct

Challenge. Efficient performance for string keys.

Tries. [from retrieval, but pronounced "try"]

Follow links corresponding to each character in the key.

return value associated

Follow links corresponding to each character in the key.

search may terminated

Follow links corresponding to each character in the key.

Follow links corresponding to each character in the key.

Follow links corresponding to each character in the key.

Node. A value, plus references to R nodes.

private static class Node

characters are implicitly neither keys nor

public class TrieST<Value>

private static class Node

public void put(String key, Value val)

private Node put(Node x, String key, Value val, int d)

public Value get(String key)

private Node get(Node x, String key, int d)

Search hit. Need to examine all L characters for equality.

characters are implicitly

To delete a key-value pair:

s 3 set value to null

To delete a key-value pair:

null value and links s

character accesses (typical case) dedup

search search space

red-black BST L + c lg 2 N c lg 2 N c lg 2 N 4N 1.40 97.4

R-way trie L log R N L (R+1) N 1.12 out of

Store characters and values in nodes (not keys).

Fast Algorithms for Sorting and Searching Strings

Jon L. Bentley* Robert Sedgewick#

Abstract that is competitive with the most efficient string sorting

Store characters and values in nodes (not keys).

l l r e each node has l l r e

TST representation of a trie

ternary search trie

ternary search trie

Follow links corresponding to each character in the key.

get("sea") match: take middle link,

TST search example

A TST node is five fields:

A reference to a left TST. private char c;

A reference to a middle TST.

A reference to a right TST.

standard array of links (R = 26) ternary search tree (TST)

link for keys s

public class TST<Value>