CONTENT

21. CONSTRUCTIVISM - DISCOVERY INQUIRY

1. Introduction. 2

2. Definition of Learning. 3

3. Definition of Constructivism Theory. 4

4. Definition of discovery inquiry method. 5

5. Constructivism Learning Theory.

5.1 Constructivism learning principles 6

5.2 Approach to learning constructivism 7

5.3 The role of teachers and students in learning Constructivism

5.3.1 Role of teachers. 8
5.3.2 Role of students. 9

6. Learning method of discovery inquiry. 10

7. Application of constructivism theory and discovery

inquiry method in teaching and learning process.
7.1 Local study subject 11
7.2 Science subject 12

8. The importance of constructivism theory knowledge

and discovery method in the process of P&P. 14

9. Conclusion 16

11. Bibliography. 19

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1. Introduction

Integrated Curriculum for Primary Schools (KBSR) was introduced in 1993 in all primary
schools in Malaysia. The integrated concept has become the main focus in the formulation of the
KBSR. The elements of knowledge, skills and values in the content of KBSR combined to ensure
the creation of integration in the aspect of intellectual, spiritual, emotional and physical. The
integration in the subjects has includes the theoretical and practical aspects and values in line
with the KBSR principles. The aim of this is to produce balanced and harmonious human being
as stated in the National Educational Philosophy.

In the current education today, making plans has become very critical because the nation
gives too much of importance in building the human potential in all aspects such as spiritual,
cognitive, affective and physical. According to the Integrated Global Perspective, the basic goal
of education in schools is to civilize and humanizing mankind.

To achieve this goal, teachers need to be very careful in choosing the teaching and
learning methods because the methods chosen must be suitable to all kinds of students who have
different abilities and interests. There are various types of learning theories in the field of
pedagogy that can be applied in the process of teaching and learning. The various learning
theories influence the formation of teaching models that the teachers use during the process of
teaching. One of the learning techniques to be practiced is through the constructivism learning
approach.

The application of this theory must be relevant to the needs and the suitability of the
usage. However, the teachers roles still remain but the teaching process should be improved in
order to face the globalisation era. Therefore, various teaching and learning methods must be
adopted by the educators. The context aspect need to be emphasize in order to improve the
understanding of the new concepts and enhance the learning in the context which can also be use
to teach relevant knowledge and skills.

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2. Definition of Learning

Learning is a process of acquiring information and knowledge, mastery the skills and habits, and
about formation attitudes and beliefs. Learning is a lifetime process which takes place anywhere
and at anytime. In the education context, teachers usually try their best to teach the students to
master the content of the lesson so that, the specified objective of the lesson can be achieved.

Learning will lead to changes in a person either towards the good or bad. These changes
occur due to the interaction between a persons experience and surroundings. However, changes
caused by maturity such as walking, eating, hunger and disease are not considered as learning.

Dictionary defines learning as a learning process. Study is described as an effort to

acquire knowledge and training. This way of defining is not sufficient in terms of psychological
education. The flow of current thinking about learning focuses on behavioural change and
experience.

Learning theory explains the way a person study. Approach to theories of teaching and
learning plays an important role in determining the effectiveness of teaching and learning in
education field. Gagne (1985) defines the purpose of theory in software building is to establish a
balanced relationship between procedural instructions with impact on learning process and
learning expectations that can be generated through these processes.

Bruner (1960) has emphasized that learning is a process in which the students construct
new ideas or concepts based on their current knowledge. The students will select and interpret
information, build hypothesis and make decisions which involves mental thinking (cognitive
structures such as scheme and mental model) provide meaning, experience and enable a person
skip over the information given (Beyond the information given). As a result of this approach,
Bruner has introduced discovery learning.

Briner (1999) feels that students construct their knowledge by testing ideas and
approaches based on the existing knowledge and experience. Students too apply the knowledge

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to the new situation and integrate the new knowledge that gained with the existing intellectual
construction.

Brooks & Brooks (1993) state that students will construct meaning about the world by
synthesizes their new experience with their previous understandings. They too form rules
through reflection about the interaction between them with objects and ideas.

When the students meet the objects, ideas or relevance which does not give meaning to
them, they will interpret what they see with the rules that they have formed or modify the rules in
order to explain the new information better.

According to cognitive psychologists, learning can be defined as an internal process that

produces a relatively permanent change in behavior. On the other hand, behaviorists feel that
learning is the changes in behavior which is the way an individual acts in a situation. Learning
includes features such as desire, belief and thoughts. Hence, learning can be considered as a
process which helps a person to achieve self perfection and individual values.

3. Definition of Constructivism Theory

Constructivism is not a new theory in the field of education. The influence of constructivism in
the information technology and communication era is increasingly strong. This theory is opposite
from the view of behaviourism which study the change in behaviour and cognitivism which
study the way human learn and acquire knowledge that emphasize on mental representation.

Constructivism theoretical approach is a learning process that explains the way

knowledge compiled in the mind of students. Knowledge should expand actively by the students
themselves and not by the environment. This means that learning is the result of the students
own effort and not transferred from the teachers to the students. The teaching and learning
process is not like those days where the teachers will spoon feed and provide everything for the
students.

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 The teacher must take into consideration the cognitive structure in students in order to
help the students to construct concept or new knowledge. The new form of knowledge can be
build when the new information hs been adapted and absorbed to be a strong part of the students.
This process is called constructivism. Some of the constructivists feel that constructivism
learning is a process which begins with knowledge or existing experience in students.

Rutherford and Algren think that students have their own ideas about almost everything whether
right or wrong. If the students understanding is not resolved then the understanding will
fossilize even in exam and they will only give the answers as required by their teacher.

The constructivism theory is strengthened by John Dewey as he says that educators

should implement effective teaching and learning as a process of organizing or building
experience continuously. He also stressed the importance of student participation in the activities
of teaching and learning.

Knowledge is actively constructed by an individual who can reflect on existing knowledge and
experience. During this process, the students will modify the knowledge they received with their
existing knowledge in order to develop a new knowledge in their mind.

Briefly, Constructivism learning theory is an understanding that knowledge, new ideas,

concept that actively constructed based on past experience and existing knowledge with
information, ideas or concepts which received in form of social interaction or surroundings are
coordinated through the metacognition process.

4. Definition of discovery inquiry method

Discovery inquiry method is a learning method which combines both the discovery and inquiry
methods. The discovery method is a process of finding out something existing. In learning
situation, discovery method usually encourages students to use their own mind and effort to do
an activity so that we can see the students aspect of knowledge in a particular field. In contrast,
inquiry method includes all the investigation process and the activity of obtaining a discovery.

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Inquiry approach can strengthen the discovery ability and understanding of the relationship in a
problem. This process requires the students to submit a problem, create a hypothesis, design
experiments, and carry out investigation, form formulas and scientific attitude.

Discovery inquiry method is a series of teaching and learning process that planned by the
teachers. During the use of this method, the teacher will give a problem and requires the students
to carry out activities to solve the problem. The students will carry out the activities by
observation, investigate, analyse and test on their own under the teachers observation. After
found the facts, the students will make their own conclusion.

Discovery method can be done in two forms such as creative discovery or guided
discovery (Sobel & Maletsky, 1972). This study gives more attention to the guided discovery,
because the primary school students are still at the beginning stage with lack of skills so they
unable to perform the creative discoveries.
Generally, discovery inquiry method means finding information, question and investigate a
phenomenon that occurs around. It is an approach that emphasizes on activity to foster scientific
and thinking skills among the students.

5. Constructivism Learning Theory

5.1 Principles of constructivism learning

Knowledge in constructivism learning is not passively received but actively constructed by the
students. The learning function is more to adaptation and responsible in organizing the world of
experience instead of finding the world of reality. According to Curriculum Development Centre
(1991), one of the main constructivism approach implication is that the learning and teaching is
more to student centred.

Therefore, student centred teaching and learning is the first principle in the
constructivism learning. The knowledge in student is the result of the activities performed by the
students and not from the teaching that they received passively. It emphasizes on the students

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action and thoughts. The principles of student-centred learning consists of a feature that learning
is an active process. At this stage, the teacher needs to accept the students autonomy and it
emphasize more on learning rather than teaching. Students are given the opportunity to choose
their goal, strategy and evaluation of their studies.

The second principle of the constructivism learning is motivation. Motivation is the key
to learning as it encourage the inquiries discovery, curiosity and initiative of the students.
Besides, experience in terms of beliefs, behaviour, and existing knowledge plays a crucial role in
learning process. Information will be selected and modified because the human have the
cognitive predisposition. Moreover, students will construct their knowledge through their
involvement in projects and activities. For instance, testing the hypothesis and making choices.
At this point, teaching must be designed to facilitate extrapolation and go beyond the information
given.

The third principle in constructivism learning is the form of contextual. It is related to a

persons life and closely related to his or her prejudice. Learning is also a social activity that
supports cooperative learning and involves the use of language. It involves the students with real
world situation and encourages discussion among students or with their teachers.

The fourth principle in constructivism learning is the time factor. Students should be
given adequate time to complete the task given to them. It emphasizes on reflection thinking and
on the process of maturity. Constructivism learning focuses more on students understanding and
progress. According to Alessi & Trollip (2001), constructivism learning has it basis in cognitive
and relevance to focus teaching.

5.2 Constructivism learning approach

Constructivism leaning approach can be divided into five formats. The first is the
involvement which is the simulation of curiosity in students through the provision of task, topic
or concept, foster interest and raising questions.

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 The second constructivism learning approach is exploration. This is to satisfy the
curiosity of the students through inquiry approach and foster to explore and investigate through
experiment and encourage the students to collaborate and ask questions frequently.

Description is the third approach in constructivism learning and it involves definition of

the concept and expression. Questioning about the description of others, making consideration
and explanation is very common at this stage.

The fourth constructivism learning approach is explanation which the concept needs to be
deeper and engage it to the other corner of the content. Students will see the relationship of a
concept or topic in content and make it relate with their own concept and situation.

Assessment is the fifth constructivism learning approach. This is the stage where the
students understanding is evaluated through demonstration and understanding of the concept of
knowledge or skills. For example, set up an open question such as what are you thinking?.

There are several constructivism teaching approaches such as reasoning activities

involving critical thinking, creative and critical thinking skills (KBKK), and problem solving
activities. Students should also be able to get information, understand and use the information.
Teachers should emphasize on cognitive flexibility, reflective thinking and students ability with
other students, teachers or expert through teaching.

5.3 Roles of Teachers and Students in Constructivism learning.

5.3.1 Teachers role

In constructivism learning, teachers need to change their roles in the classroom. They
need to be a facilitator who design and emphasize on student-centred activities. Teachers need to
guide and help the students to realise the relevance of curriculum to their life. They too will

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identify the students existing knowledge and plan their lesson according to the students. Teachers
are also designers of the teaching material which provide opportunity for the students to build
new knowledge.

Constructivists assume that the teachers role in classroom is just as a manager or

facilitator who deal discipline problems. Students are usually not same as they have different
characteristics and abilities so, they should be treated individually and give proper attention.
They are given opportunity to make decision on their own about the things that they learned.
Students will be more responsible and engage themselves in learning activities through this
process. In contrast, according to a member of objectivist teachers should only play their role as
classroom guard. Students have no choice but to follow the rules and laws that have been set for
them. Punishment and fine will be given to those who break and not obey the rules.

Therefore, teachers should always be open minded and encourage the students to explain
their ideas and appreciate their ideas. Teacher will structure the lesson in order to challenge the
students perceptions, encourage them to do the task which involves solution, analyzing,
prediction, exploration and creating hypothesis. Students should be encouraged to explain their
answers in detail. They are also encouraged to make discovery through inquiries and discuss with
one another. Students must be given sufficient time so that they can relate the ideas that have
been generated. Finally, the teacher must know the way to implement cooperative learning
during the assignments and guide the students to get the correct answers for questions.

5.3.2 Students role

Based on the constructivist view, each student has a role in determining what is to be
learned in class. This means that the students are not empty vessels. Students are given emphasis
so that they have the opportunity to develop their skills and knowledge by relating to past
experience and future use. Students are not only given facts but also emphasis on thinking and
communication skill process.

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 Therefore, the change in the role of students in constructivism learning involves
responsible attitude towards their own learning and able to solve problems. The students too
should have the initiative to submit questions and issues. Then, students will analyse and give
answers to the questions given. Moreover, discussions are important in helping the students to
change or strengthen their ideas, express their opinion, criticize, listen to others ideas and build a
knowledge base according to their understanding.

Besides, students should challenge the hypothesis they have made and are encouraged to
make predictions. Students also need to have information and technology skills, which they can
use data and physical materials, manipulative or interactive such as access to the internet in order
to help the students to generate new ideas and knowledge.

6. Discovery Inquiries Learning Method

Discovery inquiry method is an approach to solve problems which specially designed for
students and challenge them to do investigation and examine everything in depth. This means the
usage of discovery inquiry in teaching will allow the students to take part in implementing
teaching strategies that they practice. This shows that the teacher will always provide strategic
teaching and learning activities to enable the students find and discover facts on their own
through scientific method. Students should develop a hypothesis regarding the matter that they
want to experiment then; they may test the hypothesis to show the truth. The scientists are able to
obtain new knowledge and reject the scientific facts found previously in this step.

Generally, there are five stages in the teaching and learning process of discovery inquiry
method and the students are actively involved at each level. At the first stage, students will
identify the things that they are going to study through a discussion session with their teacher. In
the second stage, students will determine the ways to solve the identified problem by discussion.
At the third stage, the students will gather information through various ways such as discussion,
observation, experiment and investigation on the problem that they going to solve. In the fourth

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stage, the students will study the collected information by classify, compare and analyse to solve
the problem faced. Last but not least, in the fifth stage, the students will do a conclusion in the
form of generalization based on the collected and analyzed information.

Therefore, it is expected that through discovery inquiry method approach, the students
will be able to use their mind to do any activities and know the aspects of knowledge in a
specific field.

7. Constructivism Theory Application and Discovery Inquiry Method in Teaching and

Learning Process.

7.1 Application of Constructivism Theory and Discovery Inquiry Method in Local Study
subject.

There are various learning theories and methods can be used in the Local study subject.
One of the methods that can be used is discovery inquiry method. This method is very
appropriate as the students can acquire knowledge and master the skills with their own effort.
Students usually find and gather information through various activities and this make the
knowledge and skills that they gained are very meaningful and effective. This method can also
develop students thinking skills and curiosity.

Students will be more sensitive towards the society and surroundings during the
discovery inquiry process. The discovery inquiry method is just as same as the constructivism
learning theory because the teaching and learning method focuses on student-centred learning.
Students play an important role in planning and conducting learning activities. They are actively
involved in information finding and gathering through various activities such as observing,
listening, questioning, discussing, making reference, revision and survey. These activities can be
done in individual and also in group. These activities are important as it enhance skills for bigger
task such as project work, case studies, simulation, study tour, role playing and quizzes.
According to this method, teacher will act as counsellor, guide and a person who encourages and

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stimulate students to become confident and have interest in learning activities. Discovery inquiry
is a student-centred method so teachers just need to guide and encourage students in identifying
problems. During the activity, teacher will not provide answers and will ensure that the students
involve in the process of discovery inquiry. Teachers should always construct questions that
stimulate the students to find answers. Teachers too must be very patient and give enough time to
the students to carry out related learning activities.

Students play an important role in finding information to solve a problem or issue

during teaching and learning through discovery inquiry method. The local communities are the
main source to get information for Local Study subject and students can interact closely with the
community in an effort to obtain information. Students can collect various materials and cultural
equipment with educational values from the community and participate in the activities around.
Students will get useful learning experience by observe and take part in the activities.

Besides, members of the community itself can be used as a reference and source of
information. They too can be visited or invited to give talk. Teachers need to make the students
aware of the communities potential as information provider for learning process. Students need
to master the skills such as observe, collect, test and interview in order to get information.

7.2 Application of constructivism theory and discovery inquiry method in science subject.

Teachers are required to submit a problem and students are required to carry out activities
to solve the problem during the usage of discovery inquiry method in science subject. For
example, students should be given opportunity to study the world while admiring the nature and
environment around. Students will get a chance to have a real and authentic experience when
they are directly involved in the investigation of a phenomenon. Science is a field to study about
environment systematically and to explain every phenomenon that occurs around. Students can
search about the environment in depth as they themselves will search for information and
scientifically give the meaning after they learned science through discovery inquiry method.

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 Therefore, the Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education Malaysia (2001)
has chosen discovery inquiry approach as the main approach of the primary and secondary
school science curriculum. Discovery inquiry approach emphasizes on learning through
experience. Discovery inquiry means finding information, questioning, and investigating about a
phenomenon that occurs. Discovery is a result of discovery inquiry. The discovery inquiry
learning process occurs when the students investigate and discover the concept and principles of
science. Students will learn science process skills such as observation, create inference, and do
experiments. The teacher must engage the students in discovery inquiry by providing to them
opportunities to ask questions, explain incidents, test ideas, and communicate of what they have
learned.

Generally, discovery inquiry is a process that actively engaged in scientific thinking,

investigation and knowledge building. Most of the educators believe that the students scientific
attitude and skill can be developed when students are involved in discovery inquiries. Besides,
learning science through discovery inquiry allows the students to master the science concepts
effectively. Bruner (1961) says that students who follow learning discovery will be able to master
the skills such as data processing, and solve problems by using information effectively. Suchman
(1966) has introduced Inquiry Development program that allows the students to test their own
theory and aware of self-learning process that occurs. Students who follow this way will enhance
their curiosity skill, build self-confident and make them master the concept of science.

Due to this, the students are required to find and collect information through various
activities planned by the teacher at the early stages. After the students identify the problems, the
students need to plan the ways to solve problems including designing, predicting and making
hypothesis. The next step in the process of discovering inquiry for science subject is information
or data collection through experiment, discussion, questions and answers and surveys by the
students. The students can get good grades based on the information collected through classify,
compare and contrast and analyse after completed their experiment or research.

The final step that the students need to fulfil during discovery inquiry is make a
conclusion or generalization. Discovery inquiry method is just the same as constructivism

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learning theory because discovery inquiry is a a student-centred teaching and learning method.
Students play an important role in planning and carrying out learning activities.

The students will actively involve in finding and gathering information through various
activities such as observing, listening, questioning, discussing, referring, and doing revision and
surveys. The teacher will act as a guide and encourager to stimulate the student to become more
confident and interested in learning activities through this method.

The teacher need to guide and encourage the students to identify the problems as
discovery inquiry is a student-centred method. During the process of finding formula through
activities, teacher will not give answers before the students involve in the discovery inquiry
process. Teacher should give questions that stimulate the students to find answers. Teacher
should also be patient and give enough time for the students to conduct experiments. Students
play an important role in finding information and carry out the necessary steps to resolve
questions, problems and experiments.

Therefore, teaching through discovery has made the science one of the joyful subjects as
the students will actively involve in the process of investigation and searching of information.
However, the implementation of this strategy requires skill and ability of the teacher. Teachers
job is to be a facilitator of learning, questioner, opponent of students answers and resource for
students. Science teacher should be seen as a person who questions, give problems to be solve,
act as stimulator to form ideas, test the ideas, and construct concepts and use questions as a
mechanism to achieve goals.

8. The importance of constructivism knowledge theory and discovery inquiry method in the
teaching and learning process.

According to Curriculum Development Centre (1991), learning through constructivism

encourages creative and critical thinking skills. This encourages the students to think solution for
problems, generate ideas and make wise decisions in facing various challenges and possibilities
such as research activities, investigation and hypothesis testing.

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 Teaching and learning which are based on constructivism learning principles enable the
students learn through hands-on and minds-on. Apart from the pencils, exercise books and
text, the computer allows the students to exchange information immediately via the internet, e-
mail, tutorial either between individual and classes which is far and near. It allows the students to
access the database, direct line information services, and multimedia resources. Besides, other
media and materials such as hands-on modules, books, magazines, journals, and other
publications will complete the implementation of learning and teaching process.

Learning is a process of transmission and acquisition of structure knowledge which is

influenced by behaviourism and cognitivism approach. Constructivism had introduced an
epistemology which has radical differences where learning is more important rather than
teaching (Boyle, 1997:71). In discovery inquiry learning, the students will do the discovery by
form the mental relation while the teachers ill just act as a mediator, facilitator or learning
facilitator.

Furthermore, learning of constructivism and discovery inquiry method enable the

students understand a concepts or ideas and engage them directly in building new knowledge and
apply it in a new situation. As a result of concept understanding, students will be able to build
long-term memory about a concept through active involvement in received knowledge with
existing knowledge to build new ideas and knowledge.

The students confidence can be nurtured through learning and prepares them to face the
challenges and solve the problems. Besides, students will also be able to improve their social
skill such as cooperate with other in facing challenges and solving a problems. Social skill can be
obtained when the students interact with their friends and teachers.

Finally, as a result of learning through constructivism and discovery method inquiry, the
students will be able to build knowledge, concepts, and new ideas actively. Moreover, students

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too will enhance their understanding, feel more confident, enjoy and eager to learn throughout
life despite having various challenges.

9. Conclusion

Traditional teaching and learning process emphasizes on systematic approach which is based on
a set of teaching design principles. The integrity in the subjects have included the aspects of
theoretical, practical and values in order to be equivalent to the KBSR principles. According to
the KBSR content, integration can be create through intellectual, spiritual, emotional, physical
and with the combination of elements such as knowledge, skills and values. The aim is to
produce a balanced and harmonious human being as intended in the National Educational
Philosophy. The teachers need to choose teaching and learning method that can be suitable for
the students who have different abilities and interests.

Accordingly, there are various types of learning theory in pedagogy field which can be
applied in the teaching and learning process. The learning theories influence the formation of
teaching models design used by teachers during the teaching process. Constructivism learning
theory approach is an idea that learning involves the construction of individual knowledge which
can be achieved through the process of equilibrium (Reiber, 1994).

The constructivism theory has become one of the most influential in the implementation
of teaching and learning process. The previous approach which is in the objective form is no
longer appropriate as in the modern psychology; learning is seen as a dynamic process in which
people will build new knowledge in the reality world. The role of teaching is not to create
structured knowledge but to form a constructive learning process which is more to student-
centred. This equilibrium can be achieved through the accommodation and assimilation process.
This is where the scheme of the new knowledge is formed through the restructuring of the new
knowledge scheme with the existing knowledge scheme.

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 This approach encourages inductive learning which is based on findings that involves
exploration of content in detail, test ideas, and build and test the hypothesis. Constructivism
theory is a dominant paradigm, as it has a strong base in the field of learning psychology and
cognitive development. This approach too emphasizes on provision of sources for the students to
build their own knowledge. According to Beyond the Information Given (BIG) approach,
students will be given instructional information for knowledge creation.

The combination of the constructivism learning and discovery inquiry theory is a perfect
combination for a learning process and suitable to carry out an effective teaching and learning
process. Constructivism learning theory approach is a learning process that explains on how the
knowledge is compiled and arranged in the students mind. Knowledge is actively developed by
the students themselves and not passively received from the surroundings. This means that
learning is a result of the students hard work and not transferred from the teacher to students.
The teachers need to take into consideration the students cognitive structure in order to help
them to construct new knowledge or concept. The new form of knowledge can be build after the
new information has been adapted and absorbed to be part of the students base or holdings. This
is the learning process that begins with knowledge or existing experience of a person.

The combination of discovery inquiry method and constructivism learning theory in the
process of teaching and learning is an approach and method for learning. This is suitable for the
students as they acquire knowledge and master skills with their own efforts. Students who have
knowledge or experience will search and collect through various activities. Therefore, the
knowledge and skills acquired by the students during the process teaching and learning is more
meaningful and effective. In addition, indirectly the learning theory approach and method can
develop the thinking skill and instinct among the students.

As a conclusion, the constructivism learning theory and discovery inquiry method is a

student-centred approach. In the process of teaching and studying, students will an important role
in planning and conducting their learning activities. Students who have knowledge and
experience will actively involve in finding and gathering information through various activities
such as observation, listening, questioning, discussing, making reference, revision and make a

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survey. Teachers only can act as a facilitator, and as a guide who encourage the students to be
confident and interest in carrying out the learning activity.

The discovery inquiry is student-centred method so the teachers need to guide and
encourage the students to identify problems they faced. During the carry out of activities to get
conclusion, teacher do not give the answers before the students engage in the discovery inquiry
process. The teacher should always give questions that stimulate the students to find answers.
Teachers too have to be patience and are given time for the students to carry out the related
learning activities.

Although the inquiry discovery method is being emphasized, teachers still can use other
method which is suitable to convey message or idea to the students. However, the teacher should
always actively involve the students in the learning process. The students multiple abilities and
interest should be taken into account in order to strengthen and enrich the learning experience in
the classroom.

In conclusion, the teaching and learning which are based on constructivism theory and
discovery inquiry method will give chances to teachers to choose suitable teaching and learning
method and make sure the students make decision on the amount of time that they need to spend
to achieve a concept or knowledge. In addition, teachers can perform self-assessment and
evaluate their understanding about a knowledge field and improve on it. Besides that, if the
teacher acts as a facilitator, he or she can reduce the burden as a teacher and only need to guide
the students throughout the activity or self-learning process.

10. Bibliography

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Boyle, Tom. 1997. Design for Multimedia Learning. Great Britian: Prentice Hall.

Bruner, J. 1973. Going Beyond the Information Given. New York: Norton.

Cunningham. D. J. 1991. Assessing constructions and constructing assessments: a dialouge,

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Lee Shok Mee, 1998. Psikology Pendidikan 1: Teori dan Aplikasi Psikologi Dalam Pengajaran
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