i i | ‘Chapter 5: Function and their Properties 51 Defiritions sr»... 52 Graphical Transformation .... 5.3 Some Important Functions and their Graphs... 5A Classification of Functions ....... 55 ‘Limit of a Function 5.5.1 General Principle for Existence of Limit (GPEL) .. $52 Second Definitio 583 One Side Limit .. 5.5.4 Theorems on Limits $8.5 Some Important Limits. __ 5.6.4 Infinite Limits and Limits at Infinity | Chapter 6: Continuity 61 6.1.1 Second Definition of Continuity 6.1.2 Third Definition of Continuity ......... 6.2 ‘Types of Discontinuity .... 63 Algebra of Continuity 64 — Some Important Theorems on Continuous Functions 6S ‘Culform continuity. 65.1 Non-Uniform Continuity Criterion ..... 65.2 Uniform Continuity Theorem 65.3 Lipschitz Function es 65.4 Continuous Extension Theorem 6.5.5 Some Important Sufficient Conditions for Uniform Continuity 68.6 Algebra of Uni irmly Continuous Functions . ‘Chapter 7; Differentiability 7A 72 73 Definition .. Geometrical Meaning of the Derivative Algebra of Differentiabitity ...7.3.1 Darboux’s Theorem ssesoremssssesense 74° Local Maxima & Local Mimima ssa Ss Mean Value Theorems ....scssssserssrseeessnn | 7.6. Higher Order Derivatives. 7.7 Indeterminate FOrmS wn IB Convex Set ssevveosese 781 Convex Function: 78.2 Concave Function -: Chapter 8: Riemann Integral 81 Definition ... — 82 Quick Review for Riemann Integrability ‘83 Improper Integral Chapter 9: Uniform Convergence 9.1 Definition 9.2 Quick Review for Uniform Convergence ... Chapter 10: Function of Several Variables 10.1 Definition of n-tuples .arvnnnn 10.2 Real valued function on 7» Variables «~~. 10.3 Limit and Continuity of Vectors and Real Valued Functions 10.4 Maxima and Minima of Functions of Two Variables. 10.5 Compactness of Cannectedness. Assignment Sheet - 5 Assignment Sheet ~ 6... Assignment Sheet — 7 sens Assignment Sheet - 8 Assignment Sheet ~ 9... Assignment Sheet ~ 10CHAPTER 5 FUNCTION ANI (D THEIR PROPERTIES $.1. Definitions _ Function: Let 4,2 < R be two subsets of R. A function from 4 to # denoted by f:4->B is a rule which assign every element of 4 to unique element of B. 4 is defined as a:domain of f & B is defined as co-domain of f and /() is defined eeCL “f, where (LAS la)eBixed}- 2 1. Equality of two functions: Two functions f; cae to be equal if and only if () & f; hove same domain D (say) @) AG 2. Composition of functions: Let f:i>Y"and g:y-+Z be two functions such that /(x)=y and g(y)=2, wliére xe X, yeY, eZ Then the function hz 3-2. “Migh~ that (x)= =e(y) =e(f(2)) ¥xeX is known as the coimposition of / and g and is denoted by gof. ~ ee 3. Inverse function: Let f:X — Y be a one-one onto function, Then the function g:¥ > X which associates to each element y<¥ the unique element xeX stich that (x)= is known as inverse function of n(x) VxeD ‘The inverse function g.of f is denoted by f-'. Then, we have | - f7¥ >X such that f"(y)=x, where f(x) =¥ 4, Domain of Definition: let y= (x) be a rule, ScR on which f ’ becomes real valued function i.e, if S bea subset of R & f:5>R be real valued function then S is called domain of definition. We 3 sometimes denote domain of definition as * Dod” Examples: (@) F(x)=sinz, x41, Dod =R- {1} Blog. x, Dad =(I, =) loge lg, log, x, Dod =(eF, 2) 2841, (Fst Pow) Ha Sara Hut Khas, Neat LE, New Dai 11006, Ph @)-2687807, Email iaftalaeundemcom: Webue: mvdoaneaden SOIR & HIRING, RSET amzi ‘Rntso 9008 2008 mutate ‘Some well known functions 1,” Yentity Funetion: The function defined by (x)= for ali xeRR is called the identity function on R. Clearly, the domain and range of the identity function are both equal to R. The graph of the lentity function is a straight line passing through the origin and inclined at an angle of 45°to x axis. 2 Polynomial —Funetion: A function, * Sof the form, ‘fe iy +44x-+4327 +...4a,x", where neN, whee dy ER. Then, f is called a polynomial function Example: f(x)=2 +2249 QW 3. Modulus Function: The function. 7? SK defined by ref, 2 phe set of all non-negative eal numbers y, Properties: ( b]sasasx 5-0 of x20; (a20) Gil) p=

R defined by S(x)=[x]=0 VnsxR defined as f(x)=[]= the integral part of x which is nearestand greatest integer to x.. It is also known as ceiling of x. [HOOF For ar as Ks, Near LT, New DANG Ps (i) STE, Cas PPLE PRION, RBA E-mail: ifetdtraaden.com: Webs: wrredinnsndeny 0mTy ny Example: [2.3023] =3,[-8.0725]=-8 Properties: : @ [x]=x, if xeZ. Vo @i) [eed] =[x]+rsif rez 1. Exponential Function: Let « be positive real number. Then the function f:R->R defined as f(x)=a" is called the exponential function. The range is the set of all positive real numbers. year yas yeahart 7 Ocact t (0.1) eu ah \* i: 8. Logarithmic Funetion: Let ‘a’ be a se Sar humber, then the function f:R* +R defined as Ve fog, Sg called the logarithmic |) function, The range is the set R of all ran Se Wot itive real numbers yn je Gi) og, a” = miog,a meR 2 (iv) log, asl > ©) beg, bel &meR . 1 : (i) es abel 4 vil) log, a = 2E=4 abel & m> (i) ons 2 = ES bal & m>0 (Vii) alt= = m m>0 &ael (ix) alte? = pte calTy 9. Rational Function: Let p(x), (x) be two polynomials. Then a rational function, is a function f:D->R defined as (2) ae where a?) D=R~{reRla(x)=0} Example: @) Let sm fo} oR defined ae (x)=! (b) Let f:R~ {0} +R defined as f(x) 10, Signum Function: Let f= — {-1,0,1} defined as 1 ifx>0 £9 it x<0 0 ifx=0 is called signum function. xaxis 11. Trigonometric Functions: (@ Sine Function: The function whith"associates each real number x to sinx is called the sine function. Here x is the radian measure of the angle. The domain of the sine function is R and the range is Ful] ii) Cosine Funetion: The function that associates each real number x 10 cosx is called the cosine function. Here x is the radian measure of the angle. The domain of the cosine function is R and the range is [11]. en) SoNLEDE EVTGITN, SSEEITOD1} Rasa soo" 2008 Certihed instore ii) Tangent Function: The function that associates each real numbers to tanx is called the tangent function. Clearly, the tangent Function is not defined at odd multiple of x/2, i. #n/2,x3n/2 ett. So, the domain of the tangent function is R-{(2n+1)x/2|ne 7}. Since, it s takes every value between - and «, So, the range is R Ne (iv) Cosecant Funetion: The finciion that assoctateS,cazh real number x to cosecx is called the cosecant fuyétion Clearly, cosecx is not defined at x=nn, neZ ie, 0,¢n, ¢2n%43n MB, So its domain is. R-{nx|n€Z}. Since cosecx 21 oA Beng SCT: Therefore, range is (#,-1Ufo) (v) Secant Function: The function that associates each real number x to seex is called the secant function. Clearly set is not defined at odd multiples of x/2 ie. (2n+1)x/2, nZ. So, its domain is R-{(2n+1)x/2|meZ} . Since jsecx|>1, therefore its range is(vi) Cotangent Function: The function that associates a real number x to cotz is called the cotangent function. Clearly, cotx is not defined at x=n,neZ ive, at m= 2x etc. So domain of cotx is R-{nx|neZ). The range of f(x)=cotx is R as is evident from its graph in figure. 12, inverse Trigonometric Function: The =e function sin“'x,cos"'x, tan“x etc. are det ie inverse of the coresponding trigonometric functions, or Ship sin"! is defined as the angle whose sine is x. But since ee of sin! x, there are unlimited number of values of tie ‘ani Tes-whose sine is x and for values of x for which | |>1, six + Yags not exist. Thus, we cannot define the inverse function of sis uals we modify the definition of sin: in such a way that it becomes Wijection. If we consider sinx as @ function from [-n/2,x/2] to [-1, 1], then itis a bijection. Consequently sin” “exists and it is a function from [-1, 1] to [-r/2,x/2] Similarly, the other inverse trigonometric functions can be defined, ‘The domain and range of the inverse trigonometric functions are stated below: Function | Domain Range Fu | 12,212] yes reox=siny costs | fbi} [o.8] yreos xeo.x=cusy tants | (Com) or) (22212) | yatan tees eetany cot"tx | (2.2%) oF | (0,n) yeoot! x2 xecotp coseete | R-(-41) | [ | “() 12812) | ywcosecty cox coveey [sects R-(-L1) | [On]-{2/2} | yoseetx es xesecy ‘AAI, (Fa Flor Sa Sa Haus Kis, Near LL T, New Dalit 11016, Ph (OI) 26507817, Cate SOTO DORIGITIR, SMART Els infodlavacadem com: Webel: Wo dneeadny.cnTy | Kmigo soot 2008 Corded institute "5.2. - Graphical Transformation 1. ‘When f(x), transforins to f(x)+a. (where a is +ve) ie, f(2) > f(s)+e shift the given graph of f(x) upward through ‘a’ units again, S(x)> f(2)-2 shift the given graph of f(x) downward through ‘a’ units Example: $Gc)03 f@) f(x) transforms tof (x4) ie, f(x) > £(x-a); a is positive. Shift the Bry RFs (x) through ‘a "wait towards right f(x) wansformations to 0% ayy ie, f(x) > s(x+a); @ is positive. Shi egion of f(x) through * a” unit towards left ce Example: . ’ Flat) fen ent eat sate Td shiby yw 2 by SQdext f(x) transforms to af (x) ies s(x)» af(2)s a>1 Stretch the graph of f(x) ‘a’ times along rans Ha) oA sah, a>1. Shrink the graph of f(x) ‘a? times along paris. &4. ‘Example: Plot'y=sinx and y=2sinx Solution: We know; y=sinx and f(x) a f(x) = Stretch the graph of f(x) ‘a’ times along y-axis. y=2sinx = stretch the graph of sinx *2" times along y-axis. “ y | yet aN 7 Ua fobs = Re, ee = a F(x) transforms to. 7( ie, f(x) s(ax): a>1 Example: Plot y=sin"'x and y =sin“!(2z) Solution: Were; y =sin' (2x), i to shrink (or contract} the graph of sin x 2 times along x-axis. i) 2 A TTBais caduny Seopa 5. f(x) transforms to f(-x) ies #(2)> F(-x) To draw y= f(-x), take the image of the curve y= f(x) in y-axis as | plane mirror. or “Tum the graph of f(x) by 180° about y-axis.” OR y y e 20 re yeh — yaa Le Example: Plot y=e* Ny Solution: As y=." is known; they yee plane mirror for y= e*; shownas; * ‘ 6. f(x) transforms to - (x) be, f(x) > F(x); To draw y=-f(x), take image of y= /(x) in the y-axis as plane mirror, OR “Tum the graph of f(x) by 180° about x-axis.” ai Sara Hs Khar Nour LET, New DOBFAT0OLG, Ph (UYAESSG7, Cli 99918B4R4 & SRRI6TT, SRSOATEO| mail nfooacndem com: Webnte:ww alpneedeny emFunction and their Properties Example: Pict the curve y=~e'. - Solution: As. y= e* is known; <=. y=~e take image of y =e* in the x-axis as plane mirror. V7, g(x) transforms ta — s(x) es F)>-F EH i To draw y=—(-x) take image of 7(1) about y-axis to obtain f(-x) \ and then take image of f(~x) about x-axis to obtain ~/(-x). “S@)> SC) @ Image about y-axis (ii) Image about x-axis Example: Plot the curve Solution: As y=logx is known; (Take image about y-axis, for, (Gi) Teke image of y= tog(-x) about x3 8 f(x) transforms to |/(x)) Le, SE) Here; y=|7(x} is drawn in two steps. 2 (i In the first step, leave the positive part of f(s), fie, the part of f(x) above x-axis) as itis. (i) In the second step, take the mirror image of negative part of (+) fie, the part of f(x) beiow x-axis) in the x-axis as plane mirror. \ OR Take the mirror image (in x-axis) of the portion of the graph of (x) Which lies below x-axis, OR ' ‘HAI, es Fo) Se Sara Hoar Kins, Near LET, Now Del-11016, Ph (11) 07S, Cas 999UAR K PDGTTIG, SHOTS small Ifodalorende.com: Weble: wr lnaeadeRY om‘Tum the portion of the graph of (x) lying below x-axis by 180° about x-axis. Graph of f(2): Gragh for] f2)1: Example: Sketch the graph for y = Soluti lere;_y=sinx is known, a To draw y-=|sinx|, we take the mirror image (ii~x. axis) of the i =a portion of the graph of sinx which lies beloWx~axis= 9% F(x) transforms to (|x|) ~ ie, FQ) > F() If we know y= /(x), then to plot y= /(|x), we should follow two steps: (Leave the graph lying right side of the y-axis as itis, (i) Take the image of f(x) in the right of »-axis as the plane mirror and the graph of f(x) lying leftward of the y-axis (if it exists) is omitted. OR Neglect the curve for <0 and take the images of curve for x20 about yeaxis. lyst =) BIRR BRA 1617, SHEET‘| i ‘Anise seo} {2000 cerified inetute Example: Sketch the graph for y = og Solution: As we know, the curve y=log ‘y= logis} coukd be draw in two steps: (@) Leave the graph lying right side of the y-axis as itis. (Gi) Take the image of r(x) inthe right of y-axis as the plane mirror. 10. Sketching A(x)=Minimum { Went h(x) =Minimam { ¢(x),2(x)} : (A(x) = Maximum {7 (2), (2)} So yu {ZC)s when F)> ge I" Le(ah wten fa) >F) } Sketch f(x) when its graph WS~above the graph of g(x) and i sketch g(x) when its graph is above the of (x). (i) (x)= Minimum {f(2),8(2)} owes 8 +. Sketch. f(x) when its graph is lower and otherwise sketch (x) OR “To draw the graph of functions of the form y=max{f(x),¢(x)} or y=min{f(x),2(x)}-” first draw the graphs of beth the functions /(x) and g(x) and their | We first draw the graphs of both the f F (2) and g(x) and thei [ye points of intersections. Then we find any two consecutive points of } | intersection, In between these points either f(x)> g(x) or f(x) < #(x) » then, in order to max{/(x),(x)} we take those segments of (x) for which /(x)> g(x), between any two consecutive points of intersection Y of s(x) and g(x) Siwnilarly, in order to min { f(x),4(x)}, We take those segments of (x) for which f(x)< g(x), between any two consecutive points of intersection of f(x) and g(x) { ‘RST, (ist lr) i Sera, Hour Khas, Near JLT New Deh-11016 Ph (01) 2659997, CO 999834 A 99PIGI73,#SSS4K7ID fi | t mall lfoscndemy com: Webel: Wir dinseedem coeExample: Sketch the graphof Solution: First plot both y=sinx and y=cosx by a dotted curvé'as Gan be seen from the‘graph in the interval (~%) and then dass those ted lines for which f(x) ¢(x) oF e(x}> F(x). wl From adjacent figure the point of intersetioniare 43B:C. +. Graph of max{sin x,cos.x} eR Solution: First plot the graph for: ve|z].y=l1~2), y=[x+1] by a dotted curve as can be seen from the graph and then darken those dotted lines for which lek (le-Ihle+ay} [x-tj<{lxhlz+i} and |red}< {xh fe-t} Graph for y=|x|,y=|¥-Ihy=[x+1]. Pr 1 28015, et ow) Sak Haas Khas, Rear LET New Dai 4 PomLy 53. | 6 Phu (OI) 26507807, Cee SPOUNASG DILITSG, BSI Website: we bnendemy cat5.4, Classification of Functions ©.) 1. Algebraic Function: A’ function y= f (s)'is said to be an algebraic function and set Sc R, if it is a root of the equation of the form Bo (2) 9" +i (x) yt tat Py (x) =O ae Where p,(x) are polynomial in xes oR xeQ xe? Then f(x+a)= f(x) VreR, VacQ Set of periods is Q (set of rationals) ref) But fundamental period does not exist. : respectively and L.C.M. of ,2...T, exist. Then their linear combination of f'sis periodic function and their L.C.M. decide the period of fs i | © If f,frosfy are periodic functions with periods %).7,,...T, ECM {Po PavonPa} ' , () toms Pi,Pe, Pe Sarre ACF {91.4209} \ Pig laa @ UE @,03,.00, are irrational numbers, obtained by multiplying same irrational number by different rational (non zero) then LCM (24,0,..,¢)= LCM (Rational multiplied by that irrational) (a) L.C-M of rational and irrational numbers is not defined. "AIT, Prat or lia Sera Maus Kies, Near TILT, New DOB-IIOON Ph (OH) 2655697, Clk 99PIRDIM & 9SH161794, BSEESETID Ea inflncadencom: Website: mdangcadecom1 EE Examples of Periodic Functions: @ 1e)=s0(2) is a periodic function with period én. i Reason: Since period of sinx = 2 , «period of w=] = x3-= 68 (b) f(x)=sin® x has period . Reason: Since sin? x=!—S08 8 cos2xhas period = «sin? (x) has period (©) f(2)=sin? x hasa period 2 3,at Sa Reason: sin’ x=1(3sin x—sii32) 3, 1 . Sanna ; a genx join ~ N since 2sinx has period 2x — 4 . Se AN to “S tes 2x 3 inde has period 2 = and LcatLon 28} _ ECM (2,2) “ACF (L3} = sin? x has period 2. (@ f(2)=sinx+x-[:]is periodic function with period 2. Reason: Since sin nx) has period 2 =2 and x~{x] has period 1. also LCM {2,1} is 2. =. £ (2) is periodic function with period 2. Notes: (a) Sum or difference of two periodic function may not be periodic Example: Take (x)= sin x, ¢(x)=x-[x] ‘Then f and gare periodic function with period 2eand 1 resp. But f(x) g (x)is not periodic. G BRAS, Pra wr a Sra Hz Khas, Neat LL, New DAR-LIOOLG, Ps (O11)6897527, Call 9991834 & 989TOITI4, BARBED ml: node com: Website: wn dinseaden.com| | | ! Pipscaleny \ ‘An 150 9001 : 2008 Certified instinate (@) Sum of two non periodic function may be periodic function, Example: {(x)=22, g(x)=-x vxeR ‘\ Then f and g oth are non periodic functions . But (F+¢)(x)=s(x)+g(s)=0 VxeR is a periodic function. (©) Sum of two periodic functions (having their fundamental periods) may be periodic but fundamental pesiod may nat exist Example: f(x)=sin® x, g{x)=s0s? x both are ‘periodic, functions ‘with fundamental period x. But £(x)+ 2(x) eRe not have fundamental period. SS eee, ‘gis petiodic. (@ If f and gare two functions a on ‘Then fogis periodic on RB.» Reason: Since = Fe) =(foe\x) xe Dod, x+0e Dod (© Algebraic functions cannot be periodic. unless they are constant function. Bounded Function: Let $c and f:5—>Rbe a function. Then fis bounded if and only if /(s) is bounded in R ie, 3 a,BeR such that asf(x)cB VreS Notes: {@) {f Sis finite = Range is finite = fis bounded. (b} For a function to be unbounded, range must be infinite set. (©) Fis unbounded on $<2VneN 3 x, e5 such that \Gal>» tex (f(y) is unbounded. (@) Sum, difference and composition of two bounded functions is bounded function. HAM, ist Fen. t Ps OBESE, Ca, O9OTGIN & SODTOL TD, SREB+ = Onbounded set contained in /([0,t)) Then f is unbounded. Reason: For all n<, + efo,t} such that s(E}-e (if is said to be monotonically ineasg FPO Xzis monotonic on X and f:X>>.¥5 is atonotonic on Xz then fof: +X; is monotonic on X, (©) Sum of two monotonically increasing (decreasing) function is ‘monotonically increasing (decreasing), @ Difference of two monotonically increasing (decreasing) function ‘may not be monotonically increasing (decreasing), & FEA, Fs Flour Seral Haz Kas, Neat ELE, New Dobi-y5 Pa OF -ISSS757, Cat 979150434 & POPVTOTT3G SSIRAIS t Ema ifesdeen dem co: Webte: W dipacadeny 2ox Example: rfpg]oR g ee f@)=sins, — g(s)ex vee[og| Then f and g are monotonically increasing functions but A(s)=sins—x is not monotonically increasing function. (©) Product of two monotonically increasing (decreasing) functions may not be monotonically increasing (decreasing). Example: f:R—® defined by 0 x<0 reef} 20 and g:R>R 7 x<0 wea t oo. But seals)-{ a \ is not monotonically increasing. Ss Exampies of some well non monotonic. 000 (8). S:R>R defined by SY ‘s(a)=e" VxeR, a> is monotonically increasing function, (0) f:(0,0)> R defined by— fAx)=log, x ¥ x €{0,«) is monotonically increasing function. (© F:R>R defined by ‘J(2)=-x ¥.xelR is monotonically decreasing function. 6. Even Function and Odd Function: A function f:S +R is said to be ‘an even function if /(-x)= f(x) xe and fis called an odd function if f(-x)=-s(2)v res. Examples of even functions: @ s(x)=¥onR (b) F(x)=cosx on {© s{z)=1x| on'R are even functions Examples of odd functions: (@) s(x)=sinx On ) s(s)=¥ on B (© F(x)==%sin(2) on all are odd functions. [EAT et Foo a Sarl Haar Ks, Noor LUT, New Deb 10016 Ps (11) 24507597, Ces DODTE & HODIOTTN, ESBS Emule ifiovsende com: Web: wwe dbiendean. ctZ) ec cimi ‘Remark: (@) The graph of an even function is always symmetrical about y -2xis. iz, the curve left hand side of y-axis is the mirror image of the i curve on its right hand side. (b) The graph of an odd function is always symmetric in opposite + quadrant. ie, the curve in the first quadrant is identical to the curve in third quadrant and the curve in second quadrant is identical to the curve in fourth quadrant. (©) If f is a even and differentiable function on R. Then f*(x)is an odd function. (© If 7(2)is an odd diferentiable fonction on R, then /*(x) i an even function. \ 5.5. Limit ofa Funetion $5.1 “General Principle For Existence of Limit oPEL Let ScR be a subset of Rand x= be member of 5) Let f:59R We say /€R is the limit of / >for any co ye Such that = NO a yy € (x:0<|x-01<8} >| /(x))- Foam ‘Note: This method is rather usefil to dsciatin at imit doesnot exist Examples: — 1. ‘im sin does not exist. ‘Solution: For any 6>0 3neWsuch that 1 -80, 3% €Q and x, eQ° and 4.%) € (a—8,a-+8) such that [F0i)-s (a) +2 emai dltdosenden | =Drips.acadany ae | —— 3. Prove that lim Jx~Va for a>0 ‘Solution: The function S(x)=ve is defined for all non-negative real it 4 numbers, Since we consider the interval (a-5,a+5), we can choose } 1 0<8Ja [ Now |Ve—Va]=|2-| 0 be given; we want tind 38> 0 such that ey j |F(z)-11]0 be given, Then we want to find a 5 > 0 such that [r(2)-20| 0 such that Is(x)-o|R SS We say 1eR is the limit of f'c> for any*sequshie (o,), such that (a,) > a=> f(a,)+1.(a,€5 VneN) Not (a) If we can find two sequences (a;),ands(o,) in $ converging to o. but ‘F(a,) and /(s,) converging to-differeat limit. Then we say the function has no limit at x= or limit does-not exist at x=n. (b) We can say limit does not exist at x=a. if we can find a sequence (a,) in S such that (a,) >a and /(a,) does not converge at all, @ s:R-(0} +8 defined by (1 F(x)=sin 7) ¥ eR -(0} Then limit of / does not exist at x=0. Reason: (an)=(2) is sequence in 5 = R ~ {0} such that : {a,) 0 but #(a,)= | 1(4)- sin 1a n) does not converge anywhere. (©) f:R->R defined by fej-fo Xo JH x<0 ‘Then limit of / does not exist at x=0 ‘AAA, tw) Di ara Ha Kas Newt ELT, New DAREIIOONG Ph: (11) 26SSS97, Cl O918S4 & 9916174, SRSSATES ul vc: Web Ww raendm. com553 Ty ‘An tb0 9008 £2000 carted inti no (t toe ( 4 Then a, >0 and b, +0 But f(a,)>1 and f(4,)->-1 "(© f:R~{o}oR defined by vreR-{0} Reason: Take (1)=(2), then lim, (2) does not exist, Then (2,)-»6 but £(a,)=(+ }=(n) which is not 1 T m One Side Limit = Sa Definition 1: A function /(x) is said to a eas. x a from the right or from above if given ©>0, there exists a\9 > 0 Sich that Ipla)-2] s ” ‘The number Z is called the right hand ‘Yignit OKY-at a. We write this a8 lim, f(2)=1. Note that for the exitenct ofthe right hand limit /(=) should be defined in (2,24). — Definition 2: A finction /(x) is said to approach M as x approaches from the left or from below if given #>0, there exists 5>0 such that \/(2)-m| both left hand limit lim_f(x) and right limit tim_ f(x) exist and are equal to 1. 4. Algebra of limits Let tim f(x)=1 and tim g(x) =m Then tim ( (#)#.6()) = lim f(x) tim o (x) =1 tm Gin (F (2).8(2))= Jim (F (2) tim (90) ‘HAA, rat lor) Seal Haus Ks, Near LT, New DalbFI1006, Ph: (11}2459757, Cel S99TRD4 & 999161736, SHREAATE Email infladnrecadencom: Webae: we dipiandten com \ I1) Ble) aT Gio wa Examples: (x4 2\Gx— f Sg ree (6) tim 2 oo (©) tim Se ante de ‘ Solutions: r (x+2)(x=1) _ Sin (+3), lin, Ox-IS Yebe2 tim (2? 43x-2), V¥rx-2 BONS * REAL Fee Ss ) i t ale © nS [ a2) on | | Example: Evaluate lim —<— 0 a Solution: Now when x-0°,1/x> ae" 0 and when xO 1x28 40 es so that the left hand limit is not equal to the right hand \imit. Mx Hence lim 7 does not e ers not exist, Example: Find tim e*sgo(x+[x]), where the signum fonction is defined pe x20 as sen(x)={0if, x =0 and [+] means the greatest integer , for this will imply y, > y2 contraditting Su\assumption. Hence the only akernative is % 0, there exists}: | positive number & such that | ¢()~r|i Also then we write lim f(z)=! or f(x)! asx—><0 Gi) A function f is said to tend to Fas x-» ~» if given ¢>0, there exists a positive number k such that | f(x)-Ij/asx-—« Gi) A function f is said to tend to % as x tends to aaail however large, there exists a positive murmber aaugnany(s)> é ‘whenever 0<|x-a|<8 SN —~ (iv) A function fi sai to tend to 0 a tendons, if given 4>0, | however large, there exists a postive nurnBer 5 Stich that (1) <-k : whenever 0<|s-a|<3 - Also then we write tim #(s] Also then we write tim f(x)=-s0 ot Sea lS asx a 4} A function f is said to tend to <0, a8 xe. if given #> 0, however. large, there exists a positive number Ksych that f(x)># whenever xoK S Also then we write lim f(x)=s0 oF f(x) 0 asx—r a, (vi) A function fis said 10 tend to -2 as x if given k>0, however large, thete exists a positive number Ksuch that /(x)<-k whenever ek Also then we waite jim f(x)=-w or f(x)» ~0 as x->, 1 {vii} A function f is said to tend to © as x -o, if given k > 0, however i large, there exists a positive number K such that f(x)>& whenever a 4 x<-K. | Also then we write tim f(x)=« or — f(s)-+wasx-p-s0, : (viii) A function is said to tend t0 <0 as x-» ~~, if given k > 0, however j large, there exists a positive number K such that /(x)<~k whenever | 7 | : xe-k, = Example: Show that im + a Solution: Let ¢> 0be given. Choose M =1/e. Then \ wom = |i] vea|Ftlce "SN ie nt) Fs Sra, Hou Khas Near ELT, New Dt-016, Ph 1) 2650897, Cel 99918864 & LGN, BUGIS a iofrdtnacadancom: Website wnat.Examples: Show that . 7 ® ae tim 1-2 ah Gi eee Gi) tim, Solutions: SN RN Hence im 4 ~ 1 e (i) Again 8 “pi = WSS Se : CY Hence lim +=-, aan abs \ fl an 7 Note : lim — does not exist. dx Gii)Now -8<2<8 = 1 Hence tim J 40, 2 ‘Example: Find tim —7—* sm PTD viding numerator and denominator by x7, we get irae Meee arene Al tim pealzal cae soa Tx 12 x90 14 Tx 412/37 147 im (1/x) +12 im (1/2?) 2 EO) 100 ny Example: Evaluate tim 5 eae +1 2 Solution: We know ef =1+045 Function and their Properties ‘HAI, at ler a Sra Haus Klas, Nar LL, New Del-110006, Ps (01) 26507517, Cn SPPINS34 & SESITE, SAHRA Hema leftednuenden cm: We x0It follows that eas > +00 By previous example, x 0+=>1/xt0 => e!* + 40, by (I) 1 oor 30 3 eM 50 Again x+0- = -L440 6 +40, by (I) slo. Hence x-+0+ > eM +0 andx0- > el 50, (A) ett . We have lim atti fn F101 using (A) ‘ fn 1 sotto Us Example: Show thas Yin site POs Solution: We know that x0 =e" and x-+0- = e"* +0. Webave lin 22 = 00 Bh i0 wt xo lim ——— = lim ———. oo and ede bea Dal i. tim 2 Hence eee Example: Prove that jim ——=0 ert Solution: Let (x)= 1/(x+1) and let e> 0 be given, Then 1 Is)-= k = tim Example: Evaluate tim + hl Solution: Let f(x)=1i x}. Let €>0 be given and let § =1/k. Then O<[-0]<8 afs]<5 > hs]<1/# > Lok Thus, f(x)> & whenever O<|s—0}<8 = lim 7 Function and their Properties ‘Elif nendencom: Website: ww dipsendemy.coa [EAI at lou) Sia Sral ous Kis, Near LUT, New Da-0016, Ph (1) 2653727, Ca OOTESSN A POTING,SSHBATED‘Example: Find Ly than x. Solution: Right-hand limit = tim [x] . Since righthand limit » left-hand limit, stim [x]does not exist aim [T= ig [0+ ]=0 and Left-hand limit = im [x]= im, (0—A]=-1 where [x] denotes the greatest integer not greater RRC mer aad {HAM et Fee ia Sarl Ha Kas, Near LET, New D100, al laffdasarate con: Website: wo (I) 26SS77, Cok 999134 & HIRIGTTEG, BET dlsesdemcom61, : CHAPTER 6 . , : ; | CONTINUITY Definitions: Let SCR be a subset of R and f:5—>R be a real valued function. Then we say fis continuous ata ¢ 5 if any of the following condition is satisfied: {) ae5-5" (Lea is an isolated point of 5) . (i ces" and tim /(2)=/(a) (ie. limit of exist & xedbani equal to the value ofthe function) KS Remarks: wey (a) Ifany of the condition fails at « pointapen the agen is said to be iscontinuous at that point and the point\ig. called -a point of discontinuity of f° YN (b) If limit point of 5 is not member ofS. THeH-y is assumed to be iscontinuous at that point, YY Example: Let f:R-{I} > R be defitied as f(x) =sinx. Then at x is discontinuous function. SS (© Atisotated points, f(x) is said to Bcontinious if itis defined there at ig Example: Let f:[0l]U(3}-+R defined by f(x)=sinx, Then f is comimaous st x=3 al ‘Example: The function f:R—>R defined sop 740 ig 0 x0 continuous atx = 0 Solution: We know, lia, (x)= issn 0. Also, f(0)=0 So lim #(2) = (0). Hence, fis continuous at x= 0. Example: The function f:R +R defined by f(x) continuous at x=0. Solution: We have lim Ja) = in 2 a =0 tim £2) =£(0) (+ £(0)=0) Hence, f is continuous at v= 0. "HAI it Few) Sia Sora Has Kha, Caml: noioanende.com: Webi: wen dite com LET. New Deli 10016 Ph (11) 085757, Cor SEDER & 959161734, SSATPCHAPTER 6 ; ‘ \ CONTINUITY 6.1. — Definitions: ! Let SCR be a subset of R and f:S~»+R be a real valued function. Then we say fis continuous ata e 5 if any of the following condition is satisfied: ' (@ aeS-s" (ie.a is an isolated point of $) GW) wes" and tim f(x)= f(a) (ie. limit of f exist at = 2 the value of the function) — Remarks: : ‘ | (@) If any of the condition fails at point then se sigipny i is said to be discontinuous at that point and the “points galled -a point of discontinuity of f. \ (&) If limit point of 5 is not member of'sTHei-y is assumed to be discontinuous at that point, ca \~ Example: Let f:R—(}—+B bedeed 3) sinx. Then at x=1, f is discontinuous function, aid to Scoala i (@) At isolated points, f(x) Example: Let :[0,JU(3}>R defined by f(x)=sinx. Then f is continuous at x=3. 1 ‘Example: The function f:R->R defined by f(x)= fo eed 0 x0 ‘continuous at x = 0. Solution: We kaow, tim f(x) = tin xn Also, /(0)=0. I So lim f (x)= £(0). : Hence, f is continuous at Example: The function f:R—rR defined by /( continuous at x=0. ve Solution: We have tim f(x) = tim ie z ee \ lim, (x)= (0) (= F(0)=0) Hence, f is continuous at | {___ Be rare Ri Ry Da TURE, CT a OT TO | LA “Femll: infoitdionncadens.com: Wadshe: Ww dipaacadieny.com61.1. Example: The function f:R->R defined by f(x) danimost x0, o se Solution: We have, im f(s)= lim > TOF is (= time =0) im &Y <0) lim F(0)= lim ae (: slim e-Y* <0) Also, f(0)=0. Hence / is continuous at x =0 Example: Let f be the function defined on R by f(x)=[x], for all xeR where [x] denote the greatest integer not exceeding x . Then f is discontinuous at the points x =0,+1,42,43,... and is continivous at every other point. Example: Let f be the function deft on. Ras 7(x)=| | +[x] x€R Determine the points of discontinuity of f - » for all ‘Solution: We bave, S(x)=x+0=8, for 0s ret f(x 1 for isx<2s f(x)=x42, for 2sx<3f(x)=x+3, for'3sx<4; SL(x)=-2-1, for -1<.x<0;f(x)=-x-2, for -2Sx<-1; and so on. We have = fe -t lim /(2)= fia x=; S (x)= Him x=, tim f(x) = im(x+1) = 2; slag £4)= fig ort) =3, Ban (2) = ti (42) lim f()= fim (-x=2)=-3, tim f(x) = fim + and so on. Thus lim f(x)# lim f(s) Vnez. Hence the points of discontinuity of fare 0,21,42,+3, ‘Second Definition of Continuity ; Let SCR and f:5 +R be a function then we say f is continuous at the 4 point aeS<> for every sequence (x,) in 5 such that (4) a= S(%) > (2) (Bt ei ra she ar LER Dal OG us QUST, Ca Pn HG AIP E-mail ifoaainencnden com: Webs: wor dpsneaden.cotRemarks: @ AE we can find two sequences (a,),(6,) in S suck that (a,),(0,) converges to & but /(a,),f(b,) converges to different limits. Then f \ is not continuous at r= 0, + (ii) Ifwe can find a sequence (a,) which converges to a but /(a,) does not converges at all. Then f is not continuous at x= a. Examples related to above definitions: (a) Let :[0,1] + be defined by } 1 sors 0 otherwise 2 : Zefa pez Pelaih na ‘Then f is continuous at every irrational umber discontinuous stall rationals except 0. (b) Let f:[-1,1]-+ R be defined as Then limit does not exist on [-1,0), so itot continuous on [-1,0) Hence, f is continuous on (0,1) \@ aithat.x=0,1 (©) Let f:RR defined by ™ - [1 xeQ f(s)= Oy peor ‘Then, f is not continuous at any real number. | (@) Let f:(0,1]-» 0,1] defined by 1 P os psin( + in (0,1). .9 €2 rool) Eaton x 520 or refoijag ~ y : Thien f is continuous at all irrational in [0,1] & 0 and not continuous at all rationals except 0. : Note: Let f:R > R bea function defined by a(x), res S(Q)= Je) ie x85 | Where (x),¢2(x) are continuous function on their domain and s is any dense subset of R Then roots of the equation 4, (x)~4,(x)=0are only point of continuity \ of f. Also if the roots are repeated then is differentiable at that point also, ‘BRA, at Porn Sarl Hanz Ks, Ne ELT Now DM-IOOLG Ph; (OH) 2ESSTG7, Cel 999183494 & 9E1GI734, ASESATID Boma: fflceder-o Webale wn dlosacadem.com+ Then f is continuous only at x =0. 62. .. Third Definition of Continuity i go08 cored iettate Example: (a) Let f:R—R defined by EEN ror aa 7 Then fis contimons at x=1,-Lonly, Reason: The equation («°-1)-(1~3")=0 givess# Which have only two distinct real roots viz. 1 and -1 (b) Let £:R—R defined by _ {LM NS A function #:5-+R is continuow.it ¥ point Se NANO given any e— neighbourhood ¥,(/(c)) of f(c) there exist'a, 3 nalghbourhood ¥%(c) of 6 such that / (SNF, (€)) Me (F(e)}ie it x : F(x) belongs to ¥,(/(c)). : Types of Discontinuity 1, Removable discontinuity (sinipié~distontinuity): Let ScR and F:S-R be a function. If lim F(x) éxist but either f(x) is not aliy:point of SAY; (c), then defined atx=c or it is defined and lim f(x)# f(a) Then we say that the function has removable discontinuity at x= a Example: (a) Let f:R>R defined by sinx Fea) x 0 x=0 x40 Then / has removable type discontinuity at x= 0. Reason: 4m #(2)=tn( 822) tan £(0)=0. (b) Let £:(0,1) +R defined by S@)=x vxe(0,)) Then / is discontinuous at x = 0and 1. ‘Note: This type of discontinuity can be removed by defining a new function g as (2) when x# a {ie 9 when x= Then g is continuous at ‘ALE, Gis oe) la Sara Ha O01HREEA & HOITOTTIG, BRBdT) SRniso soot | oon Corned insets Continuity 2. Discontinuity of first kind or (ump discontimity): A function f:S9R is said: to have discontinuity of first kind (or Jump discontinuity) at x=a. i€ at this point teft hand limit (LHL. and sight had limit (RLELL.) both exist but not equal furthermore. {® A function f is said to have a discontinuity of the first kind from the left to a if LHLL exist but it is not equal to f(a). Gi) A function / is said to have a discontinuity of first kind from the right to a. if RIHLL. exist but itis not equal to f(a) Note: Jump at (x= a) = Example: . (a) Let £:R->R defined by /(x)=[x] VreR SQ ODS. SS - ‘Then f has jump kind crn 1 ~ () Let f:R>R defined by f(x)= {3} 0 ) is SS fractional part of x eo ‘Then at x=1 f has jump kind of (© Let f:R-> R defined by ee Ww S(x)=40 x=0 Yo More NY Then atx=0, f has jump king yatinuity. = 3. Discontinuity of second kind (Mixed discontinuity): A function f(x) is said to have a discontinuity of second kind (or mixed discontinuity) at yea, if any of Right hand limit or Left hand limit or both does not eae Examples: (a) Let f:R->R defined by fl xeQ 100) { ane Then for any eR. 380 and HeQn(aats), eG r(aats) such that Wla)-sl)l=2- => RELL, does not exist => f has discontinuity of second kind at every a ¢R . (&) Let f:[0,1] +R defined by fl vo) 0 x0 Then at x=0 LHL, and RL. both does not exist = f has a discontinuity of second kind at x=0 {AAI a Fn) a Sarl Ha Kha, Nea LT, Now DOG-/1006, Ps (0) BASIS, Cale 999165454 & SDLGI34, OSORIO BB Ema 1 nffomcade.cen: Wat: mw oeaeadcay ote63. (o) Let /:R +R defined by el sin(I/ 4 nef 8e veo | lo x=0 Then f has discontinuity of second kind at x = Reason: We know that xo 0a elt in sin) ae. 0 and x30+ se 0, which does not exist 7 Hence, f has a discontinuity of the second kiiid front the right at xe0. ~ ‘Algebra of Continuity Let SCR and f &g real valued be functions ons ¢Nbet a BeR suppose that ac and /&garecontinuous a ‘Than, ©) max{f.g) (ayelins| is also continuous at x=0. (Ureyiss| is also continuotis at #= (vi) max{f,g} Remark: (a) Converse of the above results may not be true. fi xe Example: Let f,g:R-+R be functions defined as f(2)= ie : i reQ xeQ Clearly both f and g are discontinuous at each real number. “and so)-{" But(f+g)()=0 VxeR is continuous function * (Fa) £ (}e9 =-1 VxeR is continuous function, & 1 VxeR is continuous function (b) If f is continuous function at x=a and gis discontinuous fiznction at x=a then fg cannot be continuous finetion at «=a { © If f and gare two continuous funetions at x=a stich that gof and Jog is defined. Then fog and gof both are continuous at x=a . Converse need not be true, Ci 2284/1, (Fst Floor) Ja Sarai, Hauz Khas, Near LLT, New Delhi-110016, Ph: (11)-26507527, Ce; 9999153434 & 9899161734, 8555840789 Emil inffaeianeadomv com: Webse: wo doses cuExample: Consider to functions f and ¢ defined as s(x)={" ee { xeQ rT anie(=} ve + Then f and g are nowhere continuous but fog and gof both are continuous on R. 64. Some Important Theorems on Continuous Functions 1. Boundeduess Theorem: Let I ={2,b}and f:!+R be a continuous function, then f is bounded on ‘can construct examples which show that the conclusion imay-fails ifany one of the hypothesis is relaxed, So (a) The interval must be bounded: The furiction Files for xin the ‘unbounded interval 4 =[0,co) is contin unt bounded on 4 ~~ (b) The interval must be closed: The ‘funetion- g(x) = A for x in the : half-open interval 8 =(0,1] is coptintdug bit Bo hounded onB. (c) The function must be continusus; The funstion (x) defined on the Cs closed interval C=[0,1] by Abe? * For x(0,i] and 4(0)=1 is 7 discontinuous and unbounded onc. (@) Converse of the theorem need not be true. fl xe@a[o,l] amples Let 7[0l]-rR defined by £6) =] f ' : t i E Remark: Each hypothesis of the Boundedness Theorem is needed, we } | 1 xeQ® ofo,i]” i Then fis bounded but not continavas. I | Definitions: ( Absolute Maximum: Let ACR and /:4—> be a function, then wwe say that f has an Absolute Maximumt on 4 if there is a point } xte A such that /(2*)2 f(x) for alle 4 Gi) Absolute Minimum: Let 4GR and f: 4 be a function, then wwe say that has an Absolute Minimum on 4 if there is a point . we such that f(x.) f(s) forallxe 4. We say that x* is an absolute maximum point for f on A and that x, is an absolute minimum point for / on 4 .if they exist 2. The Maximum-Minimum Theorem: Let =[4,6] and f:1+® be continuous on /, then f has an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum on I ‘HADI, rt low) Ss Sarl ows Khas, Nene ILE, New Dai1016, is i) BOSSE, Cle VDIRSUA EDTA LG SERTED Ema infanenem com: Webs: wr sadamégelzeome © Remark: (a) If 1 is not closed interval then result may not hold. \ Example: Let f :(0,1)->R defined by f(a) =4 is continuous on (0.1), but does not have absolute maximum on 7 (©) If 1 is not bounded interval then result may not hold. Example: Let f [0,c0) > defined by f(x)=x V xe[00) Then f is continuous on =[0,00) but does not have absolute ‘maximum on 1. Ms : __ (©) Condition of continuity of f on closed and bovinded ner cannot |) ON fe be relaxed. me — Example: Let f [0,1] R defined by SN ~ eS ref S Then f is discontinuous and unbot stew: 7 mT 1] 3. The Location of Roots Theorem Let ¥=[a,6] and f:1>R be continuous on 7 and if Fearon f(a)>0> f(b) ie. F(@).f (b)< then there exist a number. ¢ 2 6) such that f(c)=0. Remark: . (a) The condition f(a). f(b) <0 cannot be relaxed. Example: Let f :{1,2]>B defined by f(x)=x Then f is continuous on [1,2] but there docs not exist any ce(1,2) such that /(c)=0 () The condition of continuity of f cannot be relaxed. Example: Let f:{-1,l]>R defined by a f()= fi Then f(-1),f(1)<0, but f does not vanish anywhere in [-1,1] xs0 x0 (© If 1=[a,b] and f:1R be such that /(a)./(b)<0 and there exist c¢(a,b) such that f(c)=0. Then f may not be continuous. Example: Let f:[-1,1]-> defined by 4 -Asx<0 ror x=0 1 Oexst Lg ‘AA/A, est lor)aSeral Huuz Khas, Net LUT, New Dei-110016, Ph (126507507, Cl 999183434 & 899161734, SUSHI Em: llotnvacaden.coa: Webs: wv dlustadear.comRigo son ose Cocttat nations (@ The converse of the above theorem need not be true ie. Let 1[a,6) and f:2—R is continuous on / and if 3 ce (a,b) such that /(c)=0 then /(a).f (6) need not be negative. \ Exareple: Let f:[-1,1]>R defined by f(x)=x? Vxe[-Ll]. © If f:[a,6]-+B is continuous on [a,b] and there exist o,8¢[2,5] such that f(a) f(B)<0 then there exist ¢¢(a,p) such that f(c)=0 4, Bolzano’s Intermediate Value Theorem (1.V.P.): Let J be an interval and /:1> be continuous on J and if these exist abet and ke satisfying /(a) B be defined as QR ™ —_ XS xe (01) \ F(2)= i 0 xsl . ‘Then f is continuous on (0.1ybut ads goat juous at O and 1. Lt NT Also, sE)-$R be continuous on 1. Then the set f(t)is an interval. Remark: ~ (2) Condition of closeness of 1 cannot be relaxed. Example: Let f :(0,1)->R be defined as . S(2)=4 Vxe(6.1) & —— Then f is continuous on (0,i) SS But $={F(x):x (0,1) (0), ulin ter bounded nor closed. 7 oo (b) Condition of boundedness cannot be relaxed Example: Let f :[0,0]+® vee rojas Vref) SN a ‘Thea f is continuous oO he) but S=(s(x):xe/} is [0,~0), which is unbounded. — (© Image of closed and bounded interval under continuous map f is closed and bounded interval and the interval is [m, 44], where maint {f(2):xe 1), M=sp{ f(z): 7} ‘Sign Retainméat Property of a Continuous function If a function f is continuous at an interior point ¢ of an interval [a,b] and /(c)#0 then 3 @3>0 such that f(x) has the same sign as f(c), for every x¢(c-8c+8) Rema (@) If F is continous at the end point & of [4,5] and f(4)«0 then there exist an interval (-8,b) such that f(x) has the sign of f(6) forall xin (6-35) (0) A similar result hold for continuity and point a (©) This result can be extended for any subset of R. ie, If SCR, and f:$>R is continuous function at =a and F(a)#0 Then there exist §>0 such that f(x) has the sign of f(a) for all xin (a-8,0+8)05 (5g BARE ee Sr eri Nae Re DING Ps UDRP, Ca JHU IGT HT { Eval: ifodloaendemr cou: Welle: wr diecadeny om. |(First Foriny Let f be a continuous function on an interval 7 and F(x) 20 VxeIn, Then f(x}=0 Vxer (Second Form) If f(z) and g(x) are continuous on an interval 7 and )=2(s)VxeZ0@.Then f(x)=2(x)vxel Generalized for Let f and g are two continuous functions on Sem and f(x)=g(x) Veet (where 7 is a dense subset of S ), Then S(a)=ala) Vaes . Remarks: ne (@) If f is monotonic on 7. Then im 7) wissen) oo i say not be equal. RE? ie, A monotonic function can hay, onium Fito iscontinity {b) if f is monotonic and satisfy LV.P, omen it is continuous function. NON Y (© The set of point of discontinuity Gate ie kind of real valued function is countable. (@ There is no. real valued’ function with-in continuous on every rational point and discontinuous at eyery irrational point. Some Important Examples: 5. 1, Let j be @ function defined Sn~R_which satisfy the condition [F(slzt vreR Then / is continuous at x=9 Reason: Since 0<|/(0)|<|o| =f (0)= Let ¢20 be given. Consider, Ve) Fhe OY Shiba Geometric Mean Bee ly : = xta2, x+4isinx2 2-sinx21 a = xtlisineeo ve i = xttesing Vx Thus f has ao fixed point. ml lfodinacadeoy.com: Webtke: w¥dipnaatea cme (aa, wr) in Surah Hine Ks, Near LUT, New DeF-I06, Ph (1) 26597507, Clr PPOIRM & PORTTIG, RSRBATID+sinx (b) Let /:R—>R defined by /( Let d= {re /f(x) <3}. Then card (4) is countably infinite Reason: Let us define a function as {x)= F(x)-x ssinzta—x =sinx Then h(x)=0 Vx=nn where ne Thus, card 4 is countably infinite. SN (©) Let f:R bea fiction defined as /(x)= ews eR>Then has no fixed point, Sees Reason: Sine the tine yax and y= POQ@DE OL intersect anywhere, < ~ SS @ Let f:R~{}>R be defined as £(x)=[log, (x|| VxeR~{0}. Then f has 1 fixed point. Reason: Since the line y=x andhy= (x) intersect at exactly 1 points. SS v ~ . Fixed Point Existence Theorem If f:[a,6]=>{a,6] is 2 continuous function. Then f has a fixed point. fe 3 x9 ¢ [4,8] such that / (x) =x Remark: (@) Condition of closeness cannot be relaxed. Example: Let f :(0,1)-+(0,1) be a function defined by f(x)= Then f is continuous on (0,1), but it does not have any fixed point. () Condition of boundedness of the interval cannot be relaxed. Example: Let f:R-» R be a function defined by f(x)=e*. Then J is continuous on R but f does not have any fixed point. (© If domain and range are not equal then function may not have fixed oint ‘ 1 Example: Let f (0,1) -» (0,20) be a function defined by f(x)=—. Then f is continuous on (0,1) but does not have any fixed point. © Hf F:fa,8]>{c,d] is @ continuous function where [e.d}< [0.0] Then / must have a fixed point, Reasom Take the restriction of f on [c,4]. "HAAN, Fora Sera nua Kis, Near LUE, New DanFLIOUIG, Ps (H1)AUES7S7, Ca 9991884 & PATON, IVT. mall ifiinocademy somes Webi wom dloncademy com i< 3Ty) Rago sunt 2000 certs nstute (© This theorem gives only the existence of a fixed point. i« ‘f:[a,6]>[2,6] isa continuous function then f may have ‘countably infinite, finite uncountable numbers of fixed point. @ Let f:[-11]>[-11] be a function defined as [>sio(2) ifx#0 St \x, has countably infinite fixed points. {| 0 itx=0 Gi Let f:[-1,1]+[-1,1] be a fimetion defined as f(x two fixed point. Gii)Let f:[-11]+[-4,1] be a function defined as _f(x)=x has uncountable numbers of fixed point. + Result: If f is differentiable on R & |/"(2)sa%t. (iene £@) 2 has denote the derivative of f), Then either / has nixed LBoint or unique. fixed point, oS 6.5. Uniform Continuity . oS cee A function f defined on ax interval 1 is said:tq be ni ‘uniformly continuous on J iffor each e>0 there exists a 5>0 suchthat “\S. | |r(22)-F(x1}|@ be given. Taking 8 = c, we get \f(x)-F (0) , but not uniformly continuous on JO,z{ . Example: The function f(x) = sin.x? is not uniformly continuous on [0,[ - Example: The function f(x)= 06.5.1. 65.2. 653. Ty Non-Uniform Continuity Criterion Let JR and let £:14 R. Then the following statements are equivalent: @ fF isnot uniformly continuous on J Gi) There exists an ey >0 such that for every 8>0 there are points 5.45 in J such that |x5 -us|<8 and |fls)- Fs) 28). ii) There exists an _ >0 and two sequences (x,) and (u,) in 7 such that Tim(x%y~u,)=0 and |/(%,)~ f (uy) 26 forall ne Application: We can apply this result to claim that f(x)=1/x is not uniformly continuous on /= (0,0). For, if x, =1/n and.u, =1/(n-+1), then wehave tim(x,—4,)=0, but [e(x,)~# (ty)=1 forall ne Ns. Result: A function which is uniformly continuous. continuous on that interval, Note: Converse of the result need not the true. re Example: Let f:{0,1)-+8 be a furiction dined \ continuous but not uniformly continuous on, (0,1). Uniform Continuity Theorem oN Let 1 be a closed and bounded interval'id gro R be continuous on 1. Then f is uniformly continuous on 1. x Alternative solution: ‘The functt We = i(x+1) is uniformly continuous for x ¢[0,2] ee Here f(x) is a rational function and so. it is continuous for every real number other than zeros of the denominator of polynomial function x-+1. But :+1=0-> 2-1, which does not belong to [0,2]. Hence f(x) is contimaoys on the closed interval [0,2] Since every function which is continuous in a closed interval is also uniformly continuous in that interval, it follows that f(x) =2/(x+1) is uniformly continuous in [0,2] Lipschitz Function Let ACR and let f:4>R be a function if there exists a constant K> 0 such that |/(x)-f(w)|sK[x-u| for all xwe4. Then f is said to be a Lipschitz function (or to satisfy a Lipschitz condition) on 4. Result: If f:/> 2 isa Lipschitz function, then f is uniformly continuous on 7 Remark: Converse of the above result need not be true. ie, A uniformly continuous function on the interval 1 may not be Lipschitz function on 1. Example: Let g{x)=Vx for x in the closed and bounded interval = [0,2] Since g is continuous on J. Then g is uniformly continuous on J However, g isnota Lipschitz function on / ‘af interval is A, ow) Si Sarl Haz Khas Nene LET, New Dab O16, Ps UD 2GRTER, Cee TENG & SOP1OTT, ABBOGTIS 4 fe Simub ome ma oie a]Dripsaadeny Reso S00t a00e Cartiied nateete * 654. 65.5. Continuous Extension Theorem Let 1 =(a,b) be an interval. Then, f:1 > is uniformly continuous on 1 if and only if it can be defined at the point a and b such that the extended {| function is continuous on [a,6] / Application: The function defined by s(s)=asia(4) is uniformly continuous on (0,1) ‘Reason: Since the extension function g:[0,1]->R defined by a(s)= ssa(}) 7H O. continuous on [0,1] oO a0 Some important Sufcient Conditions For Uniform a nity ~ cl. If f is continuous on R then it is stent ti son eveiys | interval of finite length. But not conversely. Example: A function 10) 220 uieh Fn jus on every interval of finite length but not uniformly contintiays.on 2, IE / is differentiable on (a,8) and derivative of Nx bounded. Then / is uniformly continuous on (a,b) but rae! (we will prove this by LV. Example; A function f :(0,1)>R & eats) ee Ae vx is uniformly continuous on (01) but derivative sno Bi Doitide 3. If f is periodic on m and continiious on R. Thea it is uniformly continuous on R. 4. Graph of a funetion is parallel to x-axis then f must’ be uniformly continuous on its given domain, S. Graph of f is parallel to x-axis (or fluctuate) then f cannot be ‘miformly continuous on its given domain. 6. If f is continuous on [a,«), (aeR) and limit at co exist finitely. Then f is uniformly continuous on [a,°0) 7. If f is uniformly continuous on (a,b) & (b,c) and continuous at x=b ‘Then f is uniformly continuous on (a,c) Result: Let f:/> R be a uniformly continuous function on 7 and (x,) be a Cauchy sequence in s . Then (f(x,)) is also Cauchy Sequence, Remark: (@) This result tells us that image of a Cauchy Sequence under uniformly continuous map is Cauchy sequence. (b) Uniform continuity ¢> boundedness ie, A uniformly continuous function may not be bounded. Example: A function f:R->R defined by f(x)==. (©) Continuity + boundedness $> Uniform continuity i bounded function may not be uniform continuous. . A continuous Example: A function f:R +R defined by f(x)=sin(x*) {8401 et Flr) a Sera, Houz Ka, Near ELE, New DelBP-L1O016, Pb (O11) 20457527, Cal OTARG A SBPIOTTS4,SSURGNTED E-mail iafodedianeaden com: Webs rm ainacdeny.comBipscademy ‘ ‘Aniso S001! 2008 Cerined intite 65.6. Algebra of Uniformly Continuous Functions (@ of +g is uniformly continuous on /, Va,peR (i If Ff and g both are bounded functions. Then f.g is uniformly | Let f and g are uniformly continuous functions on the interval 7 . Then : continuous function. (DIE f(x)2k>0 W xe / where keR. Then is uniformly continuous on f | : 1 k Remark: ' (@ Condition of boundedness of f and g cannot be relaxed in) Example: Let us consider functions f.g: aR 5 S(x)=g(2)=2 VxeR SS is not uniformly continuous on 8. \ (&) The condition f(x}2 £50 Se : Example: Let ws consider a funn NGi)+R defined as t f(Qx)=x Vxe(01) . Then f js~ ‘nfectly continuous, But Fide which is seoap-2p ]e)=2 is not uniformly continmous oe com: Welle: wee dlnactdemcom 81, (et Fer a Sart Hatz Ks, Neat LT, New Debt TOOL6, Ph: (01) 2697527, Ca 9018334 a 959173, ASERSUTOS| ny ema alentCHAPTER 7 { DIFFERENTIABILITY 7A. Definition Let f be a real valued function defined on an interval [a,b] i., S:fad]>R. Let aceR as f(x), fe Then f is 2x-1 xe Qe differentiable at x=1. (b) Let = f:R>R be «function defined as * sin( 1 >0, x fee) ae 7% x4 ° then 7 is differentiable at °, x=0 xs0ca>l. (©) Let /:RR be a function defined as f(x)=|x|+|z-1| VxeR. Then / is not differentiable at x =0,1. 3 @ The function f(x)= |x| is derivable at the origin. Reason: We have 17 (0)= ig SOLO. AB 1. y@=r@-o Hence "(0)=0 fA et Pan) SiS Hae Rear LE Nox DOBEOG Ps 1) 47S, Cae PURSE TCI AEST { i lafoaainncnge. com? Website: wr pacar{ | 1a ‘Anis0 90082008 Dri i + 8x+a, ifxsl . The x) =. . (© The function f defined by f(x) { eon tao 8 Ben to be derivable for every x.Find a and 5. Solution: Since f is derivable for every x, f must be derivable at x= and hence, f must be continuous at x=1. Let h>0. Then f is continuous at x=1. 2 S(I)=/(1+0)= f(1-0) 44a im (L+H) = im f(-) Asa fim (0(14+h)+2}= fim {(1-A)+3(1-A)+4}, _ 2 RA fi Lm Again, 7 is differentiable at x=1 = 110=OL oo in UDF) py FM) SS dtanb+2=440 = a i Ah mS a SS b(L+k)4+2-(44a) (I-A) sa@D Wee) ss i i Th ii b-a+bh-2 BP -Sh ~ fig P82 py SH SB b-(b-2)+bh-2 . a 2m A negating bes SW Since b=5, 50 (1) gives a=b-2=5- Thus, a=3,5=5. Geometrical Meaning of the Derivative Let f:[a,6]+R be derivable at ce}a,b{ . Let RQ be the graphical representation of the function y= f(x). We take two neighboring points Ple,f(c)] and Ofe+h f{c+h)}. On the curve such that a 0, the point Q approaches the point P ‘along the graph of / and, hence, the chord PQ approaches the tangent line PY as its limiting position. Thus, as h-> 0,0 y. tan = fim tan = fin £E* =F (0) oe fe) ‘Showing that f'(c) is the slope of the tangent to the curve y= f(x) at the point (c,f(c)) Note: If there is a sharp edge in the curve then at that fis 7 SN Bemark: SSN — ion forthe existence 1. Continuity is a necessary but not a sufficient a finite derivative. ie., every differentiable functior is aa Nen need not be true, ; CN Proof: Let f be derivable at the point ewaah oc A = lim[7@)-s(@)] aS = fim f(2)-F(0)= FCC) We have /(x)-/(c)=| > lims)=s(0) S => Ff iscontinuous at ¢ ‘Thus, continuity is a necessary condition for differentiability but it is not a sufficient condition for the existence of a finite detivative as shown in the following example. Thus, the converse may not be true. %_ 20 5c x<0) 5 Example: Let f be defined by f(x) Then f is continuous at 0,, but itis not derivable st 0. Sian * 2. Ifat x=c,f has Left Hand Derivative and Right Hand Derivative both (may or may not be equal) ‘Then f is continuous at x= 3. If f:[a.b]>R such chat f is differentiable on (a,b) and Right Hand _ Limit of eee) exist finitely at x=b and Left Hand Limit of \ ~ ese) exist finitely at x=a.Then fis differentiable on [a,b] (BARE Ren era a RL Ne DELO Ts UAT, Ca RIT A TG ATS B73. Algebra of Differentiabitity Let / and g are two differentiable functions at ceS¢R, Then he () of +Be is differentiable atc VafeR and Vag Bay (e)0/'(e)+B8'(e) Gi) (/.8) is diteremible a © end (sey (c)= s(c)e'(e)+F (e(0) (itt g()eo0 . Then £ js differentiable at c and £ (L)o= (OF ()- £68") le) (ey Remark: we (a) Converse of the above result need not be True. SS Example: Lat $R+R,and g:R2R be defined ae~ 1 xeQ 7 f reed, 2egec{) Clearly, f and g are not itferetigble We DO But f+eseZ al 8 are dferentisble at x=0 ws (b) Above results can be extended for fiite-pumbers of differentiable functions (By induction). Se (© If f is differentiable on SCR ad g is not differentiable on S. Then ‘f£g cannot be differentiable on S. Also if f(x)#0 Vxes, then ‘£8 is not differentiable on S.. Result: Let f [2s] >R be a differentiable function. If.c.is an interior point of [a6] and fY(c)>0 then 368>0 such that F(x)>S(e) Vxelee+8), f(2)0 such that f(x)< f(c) Vxelec+8] 7 Also, it may be shown that ©) s'(2)>0=4(3)> F(a) Vxe[a,a+5] : ©) f(a) <0 f(2)< f(a) Vee laat5] © S0)>0> (2) f(x)> Fb) ¥ xe[~8,5] 7.3.1 Darboux’s Theorem - If a function is derivable in a closed interval [a,b] and s"(a),/"(b) are of \ opposite signs, then there exist at least one point © in the open interval (2,0) such that "(c)=0. 7 {BAI Rt) Sr sr K, Near TT Nor BEDS ONG PO AGN, Cal MTOM A ATTN SRD k arRemark: 1. If fis derivable in [a,6] and f"(a)# s"(b), then for each number & lying between f’(a) and '(8), 3 some point ce(a,6) such that F(oj=k Reason: We are given that f(a) ~A(a) Sf $'(b) are of the same sign, then f must ania Reason: We are given that f(a) = FOE Since /"(a) and f(b) are ofthe sai Bighkwe may take \ S'(a)>0 and f'(6)>0 : SS Now /(e)>0=3 soms 8,>0 eusthat S(x)>f(a)=0 Vxe]ea+6]- Again f'(b)>0=>3 some 8; >0 such that S(x)> f(0)=0 Vxe [6-620 Thus f(a+8,)>0 and f(6-8)<0 () Obviously, [2+8,,6-82]<[4,6] (2) Since f is derivable in [a,b] , f is continuous in [a,b] and consequently by (2), / is continuous in [a+8,,6~8,], where f(a+8,) and f(b-8,) are of opposite signs, by (1). Thus, there exists some ce]a+8,,b-8[<]a,b[ such that f(c)=0. Hence f must vanish at least once in Ja,6{ 3. If f is derivable on [a,b], f(a)=f(b)=0 and f(x)#0 for any’ x in (2,6) then f(a) and f"(b) must have opposite signs. Reason: Let , if possible, /‘(a) and '(b) be of the same sign. Also F(a)=F(6)=0. Then, there exists some ce]a,6{ such that f(c)=0 ‘This contradicts the given hypothesis that f(x) +0 for all x in Ja,0[. Hence f"(a) and f'(8) must be of opposite signs. 28411, (Ft Hoo Si Sara Haz Khas Near LLT, Now De ‘Enal: nffadienendem14. ey erred te 4, If f is derivable at a point c, then || is also derivable at c, provided f(c)#0. However result may not hold when f(c)=0. 5. Let f:[-1.1] 7 be defined by reef Then there does not exist a e'(s)=s(2) vee[-u). Reason: Let, if possible, there exist a function g-[-1,1]->® such that FOO geet g such that It follows that gis derivable on [-11} ~ Se ase) [-e'(-)=0.anag'()=1). ~ = g' mst assume every value SS and 1 [ee'C)=ome(Qet] SSS But this is impossible, since g'(x} Hace there does not exist 44S #'(x)=s(2) V¥e[-L] oN Local Maxima & Local Minima’. SS Let f:1-9R and c bean interior vote interval 7. Then such that 1. f(0) is said to be a local maximum value of the function , if there exist some neighbourhood (c~8,c+8) of ¢ , such that f(c)> (8) Ve"(e~8,c+8) other than © and c is called point of local maxitha. 2. (c) is ssid to be a minimum value of the function /, if there exists some neighbourhood Je-3c+8[ of ¢ , such that Sle)< s(x), Vxe]e-8.c48[ other than ¢ and e is called’ point of Jocal minima. 3. f(c) is said to be an extreme value of /, if its either a maximum or a minimum value. 4, Point of inflexion: An inflection point, point of inflection is a point on a curve at which the curve changes from being concave (concave downward) to convex (concave upward), or vice versa. Example: Let (x)=x° . Then (0,0) is point of inflexion of f Note: For f(c) to be an extreme value, f(c)- f(x} must keep the same. sign for every point x other than ¢ in some neighbourhood of ¢. Interior Extremum Theorem: Let ¢ be an interior point of the interval 7 at which f:7>R has an extremum. If the derivative of at c exist then S(e)=o TATE, First Fao) a Sara Ha Kay, ear LT, Row Dei email nfecnee dom am 6, Ph (OI) S375, Cal EDEN & 999161794, SERBBivscdimy viantso 9008 2006 Cartinea nett Remark: (a) This theorem is applicabie only on interior points of the domain, Reason: Let f[0,1]+R be defined as f(x)=x.Thenat x=0, f has A minimum value | and at x=1, f has maximum value but neither point + is a zero of the derivative of f. (b) Converse of the theorem need not be true ic. if f"(c)=0, then f may have neither a maximum value nor a minimum value. Example: Let f :[0,1]>R defined as {(x)=x°. Such that f"(x)=3x Then /"(0)=0 — _, But has nether a maximum value nor a nent {9 A fiston may bave maxim of sini values int wou jing derivable at that point. Sw Example: Let us define a function L(x) AS Then f is not derivable at x=0 but f agthea at x=0. (@) Let f:1>R be continuous on an intezval Aand Suppose that f has a relative extremum at an interior point ee en cither the derivative af f at © does not exist, ori i eq Results: . SS 1. Ifa function f is continuous in eather @ F(x)>0vxe]a,d[, then f is inseasing in [0,0], Gi) f"(x)<0V-xe ]a,b[, then / is decreasing in [a,b]. Further if f is defined in [4,6] and a 0= f is increasing in Je-6,,c+8,[ for some 5, >0 (iv) #'(c)<0= f is decreasing in Je—8,,¢+8y{ for some 8, >0 2, First derivative test for extreme values Leta function f be derivable in a neighbourhood of c, where f has an ‘extreme value at ¢. Then f(c) is a maximum value if the sign of f* + changes from pivs to minus and f(¢) is a minimum value ifthe sign of J” changes from minus to plus as x passes through e. Applications: Example: Examine the function x°~6x"+9x-4 for maximum and ‘minimum values. Solution: Let f (x)= x° ~6x° +9x—4, Then J'(x)=32 -12x49=3(x7 -4x43) {oF F(x) =3(e-1)e-3) S'(x)=0forx=13 ">, 28AT, a oa) i Sarl Hana Khu, Near LT Ne DeM-110016, Ps (1) 2650707, Clk 999143434 & DEOTGITSG SSISTETSD 4 E-mllfodinacdea com: Webae:w-dineacelea omeDeipsscademy Sealgeeme Now for x<1, /"(x)= Ve)? 0, and = forx>1, ("(x)=(+).(-)<0. Thus /"(x) changes sign from plus to mimes in going through x=1. Hence the function has & maximum at x=1 and f(1)= value of f isa maximum Now for x<3,5"(s)= Me)<0 and for x>3,f"(x)=(+).(+)>0. Thus f'(x) changes sign from minus to plus in going through x=3 ‘Hence the function has minimum at x=3 and (3) ya inirsum (3) ee value of SOQ 3. Second derivative est for extremevaies Ss ) Let be derivable on an interval Jo~asz Ten et) 0 @ IE (0 and /*(c)<0, then f tas value at x wan (i Hf 7"(e)=0 and f"(c)>0, then f hae PmGNewem value at x =e Example: Find the maximum and imi ‘values of the function J (x)= 128 ~45x4 +4027 +6xeR So SONS Solution: We have — f(z) =60x4 = 1802) +120%7 = 60x? (x?-3x42)= 603" (x-1)(x~2). ‘The extreme values of the function f are given by f"(x)=0 te, x=01,2. Now f"(x)=240x° ~$40x? +240x of "(x)= 60(4x° ~9x? 44x) 1. f"(2)=240> 0 f has a minimum at x=2. and f*(1)=-60<0= f basa maximum at x=1 Since §"(0)=0, we find out the third derivative, We have I” (x)= 72022 -1080x+240 => f*(0)=24080, So f has neither a maximum nor a minimum at x =0. Minimum value = f(2)=~10. Maximum value = f (I) =12-45+40+6=13 ‘HAs Fa Fae) Sa Sarl Haus Kha, Net LET, New DeGOUIG Ph: (1) 2657527, Crs OTR BDOOIGTTD, SHARES Ell lefdiloneatemy om: Weite wwm dipnendemy. com‘Remark: (@ Let_f(x)=PVxeR. Then f"(0)=0 and /*(0)=0, but the function f has neither a maximum nor a minimum at x=0. (b) Let f(x)=x* VxeR. Then f"(0)=0 and f*(0)=0. Clearly, the ’ curve y=x" is symmetrical about the y-axis, passes through the origin and lies above the x-axis only. Hence the function f has a 2 minimum at x=0. (© Let f(x)=-x4 ¥xeR. Then f'(0) maximum at r=0 SS, 4. Let f be a function defined on an interval [a,b},andhaze Q. \_ 7.5. Mean Value Theorems 1. Rolle’s Theore NN Let f bea function defined on [4;5} such that (Ff iscontinuous on [a6] Gi : Git) F(a) = (0) : i Then 3 ce(a,b) such that f'(c)=0. s J is differentiable on (4,5) Geometrical interpretation of Rolle’s Theorem: Let 4 and B be the points on the graph 4R%A2 of the function y=f(x) comesponding to x=a and x=6 respectively. Then, ‘geometrically, Rolle’s theorem asserts that there is at least one point between x=a and x=6, at which the tangent to the curve of the 5 function, is parallel to x -axis. In the figure, we have shown the Es | possibility of three points R,?, and ® where the tangent is parallel to : j x-axis, | oO x BRA, i Pt a Sar Hass Ks, Ney LT, em DORLI.OI6, Ph (13ND Cae OTN 9TH SRRGTIO b nul iatiaipnerdomcomt Web: wnt com IRemark: (@) This theorem is useful to produce the zero: of derivative of the funetion. (®) A non constant function satisfy the conditions of Rolle’s theorem cannot be monotonic. (©) This theorem tells us that between two distinct zeros of a differentiable function f there lies a zero of f" (@ Third condition of Rolle’s theorem cannot be relaxed, Example: Let f[2,3]+B be defined 98. f(x) = Thea f is continyous on [2,3] and differentiable Xce(2,3) such that f’(c)=0. ° SO Tnfact Ralle’s theorem fails to hold good fora wa dogs not satisfy any condition of the theorem. \— (@) This theorem only gives the existence of asdoeete aca derivative of the fimedon ie it may be pestbosta ee “of function has finitely many or infinite zeroes, |S ~ (f) The condition of Rolie’s theorem ae only \sufficient but not necessary for f(x) to vanish at soe ein .2] {0° when 00 in Ja,b[, then f is strictly increasing in [a,b]. (9) If f is continuous on [4,5] and f"(x)<0 in Ja,b[, then fis decreasing in [4,] i (Wilf F is continuous on [4,6] and f'(x)<0 in Jab, then f is strictly decreasing in (2,6). ([ Bt Pe rag Nae LE Ne DEINE Ts UST Co. HTN ALT TT | «| 5 ‘Ei fiaisncadencom: Webs wn tendoI 1.6. Example: Let function f be defined on R_ such- that |F@)-4()|<(z-y)? for all x and y . Then f must be constant function Solution: Given |f(x)-f(y)|<(x-yY VuyeR 0) Let ¢ be any real number. Then, for x#c, (3) gives LO a @ Let ¢>0 be given. Then, we choose 5=¢ and so (2)'gives \. Hence, f- must be constant function 4. Cauchy Mean Value Theorem: | > Let f and g be two functions defined’n [a,6] such that @ sand g woconiasanin fei} Gf and g are derivable in (a,b) Gili) g'(z) #0 foreach xe (a,b) and g(a)*g(b) Then there exist at least one point ce(a,b) such that LO)-F(a) _ £*) 8()-8(a)_ ee) Higher Order Derivatives ‘We know that the existence of the derivative /* of a funetion f at a point ¢ implies the existence and continuity of the function in a neighbourhood of ¢. The derivative of the function J” at c (in case it exists), is called the second derivative of f at c and denoted by f"(c). Bvidently, the existence of /"(c) implies the existence and continuity of f" in a neighbourhood of e. Higher order derivatives can be similarly defined. The derivative of f°! at € (incase it exists) is called the mh derivative of f at ¢ and is denoted by S*(c).Ty Rngoteor ies cour metas 1. Taylor’s Theorem with Lagrange’s Remainder If'a function f defined on [a,a+/] is such that | gh © The (n-1)th derivative f* is continuous in [a,a +A] , { VG) The (n-t)eh derivative is derivable in Ja +i, then there exists some 0,0<@.<1, such that R we e S(a+h)=S(a)+As (Qe FF (a)+ ‘Gay aay (+R where R= pasa) . Lagrange’ s Remainder f 2. Taylor’s Theorem with Cauchy's Remainder, “> . i ,a+h] is such b Ifa function f defined on [a,a+A] is suck ero 7 : | @ The (n-1)th derivative "is continuous: ale mith], ‘ ' Gi) The (n-1)th derivative f° is dein POOH, I then there exists some’ 8,0.<0<1 such that f I (a)+R, , Where I i [Cauchy’s Remainder] } 3. Maclaurin’s Theorem (With Lagrange’s Reminder) ; (On taking a=0 in Tayior ‘Theorem, we get Maclaurin’s Theorem, I which may be stated as follows: | Ifa function f defined on [0,4] is such that @_f* is continuous in [0,4] , | (i) 7°" is derivable in Jo,Af, i ; } > then for each x in [0,A], there exists a real number 0 between 0 and 1 such that - t x i x Bl 5 fA)=SO)+7'O)+TI0)+-- 1°"(0)+= 1" (8) ee | ‘Lagrange’s remainder) i 2 LE)= FO) +xF'()+FS"(0)+- ; 1-0)" 7" (ax) i (Cauchy's remainder) "GRWI1, Fs Hors Sara Hat Kiar, Neat LET, New DaRe110016, Ph 11} 2659507, Ca 99THDG4 & 989161754, SSRIS rma lfefadiseademn com: Webs WW dinncaden ome FIndeterminate Forms ‘We shall now discuss-the evaluation of limits of functions generally known as Indeterminate forms. They are not indeterminate but have acquired this, rrame by usage of the word. 99), v@) functions exist, is equal to the limit of the numerator divided by the limit of the denominator. But what happens when both these limits are zero? The In general, the limit of * when xa, in case the limits of both the division 3 then becomes meaningless. A case like is known as Indeterminate form. Other such forms are =, 0xs0,20-20°,I", and =”, ‘Ordinary methods of evaluating the limits are of litie“help: Particular methods are required to evaluate these limits, We shall'now discuss these particular methods, generally called L’Hospital muley dye Wrthe French ‘mathematician L’Hospital. It should, however, be clearly understood, that in Thad follows, we do not find the value of © or of any ofthe wher ‘aetna Sem. We only find the limits of combinations of functions which esi ae forms when the limits of functions are taken separately. S. L’Hospital’s Rule for © 4 Form . If f and g be two functions such that © im #(+)= lim a(s)=0, Gi) F(@)9'(x) exist. and g(x) #0, 9'(2)40 Vre]a-,a48[,5>0 , except possibly at a, (i) tim 2) tn) Then tn Remark: It may happen that in : 5 extend the L’Hospital’s rule as follows: LO) fim £0) 5 tim LE) sim £02 jim 2D. tim 2, dm) eG) ere) where ? and g' satisfy the conditions of L'Hospital’s rule. a is 5 form. im this case, we can This rule can be generalized as follows: If f(x) and g(x) axe functions such that lim Pe gl indeterminate form 2 and the functions f‘°)(x) and g(")(x) satisfy the conditions of L’Hospital’s rule, then mb) ot LC - = tg SOU) ei xoagi(x) re glx)” “SADA, st eB Saa Manz Ks Near HE New Da-10016, Ph i) 207597, Cal 991804 KAP OATIA RATED mal fafotdacades.cm: Webste: Ww dipneadeu comA 1-cosx? ¥ sing Solution: We have Since tim; =1, es Solution: We have tim “2 SOX=* since im——=1 SP Bene eax Oo loga 3. tim ae where b #1 20 a1 ogb ‘Solution: The given limit is 0/0 form and so i tim #284 _ toga ORF 1 905F logo logd ve eg te mlm tte 0 xe ory Solution: Since Jim (1+2)"* , the given limit is 0/0 form. Before we evaluate the limit, we find the expansion of (i+ x}! is 142)", so that, logy = Hiog(+s) (O11) 267, Ca 991K a VOLT STOO ‘wm dlsaendewy.com5. tim “> does not exist. 90+ ings ce Solution: Toe given limit is «@/oo form, Be form, we have ~coses*x/ & cot: x(e ~ X= tim eases x ssorlogsing x90, eotx lo Solution: jim ( m is) is o2~co form. Sueh a form can be reduced to x sinx, 0/0 of co/e form. Now tim ( a) ele sink, sinx=x(O0) (4. ox “(Cm .. cosx—1/ 0 " a i 3, eam, 7. tim (seex~tanz)=0. 5 ‘Solution: The given limit is «20 form. We have sinx) ‘HA(L, et Flees Sora Haas Kos Non LLT, New DeBPIIOUI6 Ph (O1)-265027, Cal OPTED & DOIGITIG, BSBA ‘Pena afelsncagrm cunt W bul: ww lotendeny. cot‘The Indeterminate Forms of the type 0°,1° and” To evaluate lim[ f(x), s where lim (3) =0,1 ofc and lim g(x)=020 oF 0. SS. / ee e = loay=e(2)I08,f(2) * WS = = lim og y= tim [g().togf()]- Wewrte y=[/(x)° oF & The RHS, can be reduced to the fom, 0/0\GF 0/0, which can be 2 crt. Sopore Hn e).5/(. Nt No Then Hm logy =, 1 => log lim y= 1= lim y=e. Hence tim[ f(x) 8 =e. 9. i (cots) ‘Solution: The given limit is «=* form. Let y=(cotx)*™*, so that log y = sin xlogeotx. ‘ . = tim WoBeotx(e serpy ME) sng “20872 (1/0t2) 2 250+ cote coseex ” ee 90+ got x 90 cost x lim logy =0= log lim y=0=> lim y= 0? gy =0=9 log lim y=0=> lim y= i Hence lim (cotx)*** mabe (pA it er Neg Re DEG Fas HTTP ATG ATS i ema: lfotovacndenscoas Webs wrdiosacntean cow }10. sal ‘Solution: The given limit is 1° form. 1 joo tan Joe SE . ~ pg itlent(2) og df it Let ye} 80 that log y =o = =lim 290 Dian x-+ 800" x sat) 028007 xtsec™ r+ Coe : oli ou ae lim togy= = lim y=e' WS wea? AS Hence tin ( S22) =? Py e i tim (14 3)"* = ~S a Solution: Les y=(1+x)! , so that. logy=-log(+s . iyi (0) tim #04) a x lo} e0 =F 1 Ws lin logy =log tim y=1 Hence, tim(1+2) lim log y =log lim y=1 Hen (1+) (35) 2 lin(2 2, where aeR. Solution: The given limit is 1 form. Let (2-2) tog(2-2) fim —\_4//2 oe aero) logy= lim log y= 2 2 Nog fim y=, ee Hence lim y=e?* 2AM, (Ps Flour) His Sarl Haar Khas, Newt LET, New De-116016, Ph (OD) SISSY, Car SPOMSOK & OHPTOIT34 BSSIBLTOD . Intoddaracndoucom: Weise: wort iomegdem.ca ‘Eal py S284 Bese? ans —seck extn 4D ee sees 2eelecx Jinn ——2 SSE ve —(n/2a)eoses®(rx/2a) TE LN SN x3oar i 13. tim (1+sinx)*™ =e ‘Solution: The given limit is 1" form. Lety=(I+sinaJ®* , so \\ log y = cot slog(1+sinx). 5 gern (8) leat jim y =e! =e or lim(I+sinx)™ Hence lim y or lim (1+ sinx} 7.8 Convex Set A set $ of real numbers is said to be convex if x,y&§, 78(0)1) implies x+(I-A)yes. <— a SS 7.8.1. Convex Function S— Let SR bea subset of R. Then a function /: SAR i aid to be convex function. If for any x,x,¢5 , f(2x +(1- Beebo) (1-2/0) : where 2 ¢[0,1] ic., Image of convex combination of points of $< Convex combination of images of corresponding polnts. ~~, \_ — No Example: Let f:R—R be a function degned SS F(x)=2. Then f isa ‘convex function. SS Reason: As (x-x)'20=9 f+abeonx > dd+282 (+m)? Abe = 28.02) = Mrederondes(Larn)) 7.8.2. Concave Function Let SCR be a subset of R. Then a function f:5—>R is said to be a concave function ==sif,=Ssfor,«= any, eS, f(x +(I-Axe)EAL(m)H(I-AVF(m), where 2e[0] ie, Image of convex combination of points of $2 Convex combination of images of __ corresponding points. Note: (a) The condition of convexity is equivalent to the geometric condition that the curve is below (may be identical in special case) the segment joining any two points of the graph of the convex function. (b) For a concave function the chord should lie below the graph. (©) Convexity and concavity are geometric characters of a function. (@ It is not always easy to determine whether a function is convex or concave. But for differentiable function we shall derive a simple { criterion to determine this. But clearly if the tangents at every point of a curve lies below curve, the curve is convex and if the tangents lie above, the curve is concave. ‘RAIL, et lw) a Sra Hoar Klas, Neat LLT, New Deli 110016, Ph 11) 26507817, Col 999918436 & DHDP1GIT, SUGDAATOD Eval: ifoaoraenten.com: Weta: wwrdosteadtor em 681, = A] || | tape (©) A function may be convex on one part of its domain while it is concave or linear on other parts. () If / isa convex function then —/ is concave function and conversely. i (g) Constant function is concave as well as convex infact (any straight line , is convex as well as concave function) Result: A differentiable function {:S—>R is convex function on S$ | 2/"(x)20 Vxes - Result: A differentieble function /:S—>R is concave function on 5 @s"(x)s0 Vres ‘Note: Differentiability is not a necessary condition. ie, anon differentiable | function may convex roe * — Bxample: Let 7: +R be @ function defined as, FRCP, Then f (2x +(1-A)m) (Paes QS ~ NY Ud :. [ ‘RRATIA, First Foor) Sin Sara, Haya Kis, Neat LLT. New Delhi-110016, Ph (@11)-26837S27, Cal: 9990183434 & 9499161734, S8BS447H9, mai tfealosen den rom: Weble: wendyTUR CHAPTER 8 RIEMANN INTEGRAL 8.1, Definition is concemed with the problem of finding the area of a region Let us start with a simple problem: Find the area 4 of the region enclosed bya circle of radius For an arbitrary n, consider the n equal inscribed, aid suerseribed triangles as shown in Figure 1. le) triangles, we have wou 2) 4m 2) By sandwich theorem, 4272. We will use this idea to define and evaluate the area of the region under a graph of a function Suppose f is a non-negative function defined on the interval [4,6]. We first subdivide the interval into a finite number of subintervals. Then we squeeze the area of the region under the graph of f between the areas of the inscribed and super-scribed rectangles constructed over the subintervals as shown in Figure 2. If the total areas of the inscribed and super-scribed rectangles converge to the same limit as we make the partition of [4,5] finer and finer then the area of the region under the graph of f can be defined as this limit and / is said to be integrable. Y > Let us define whatever bas been explained above formally. Definition: Let [2,6] be a given interval. A partition P of [4,6] is a finite J Set of points 9,21.) 4%, Such that a= ay Jn this case the common value of (1) and @2) ate ‘Riemann integral of f andis denoted by fre or iM (8) de. Example 1: Consider the function :[ lle By / s(B}o1 ana 1 nea ee Then f is integrable, We show this using the definition 2s follows. For any partition P of 0,1], L(P,f) is always 0 and hence the lower integral is 0. Let us evaluate the upper integral, Let P={x,x3,...%,} be any partition of {of and $.efsiraa] for some i. Then U(P, £)< 2max.2, Since we can always choose a partition P such that max Ax, is as small as possible, the upper integral, which is the infimum of U(P,f)'s, is 0. Hence, f is fl integrable and [ f(x) dx=0. a ) : Example 2: Not every bounded function is integrable. For example the function . ‘J(z)=1 if x is rational and 0 otherwise Is not integrable over any interval [2,5] (check this). In general, determining whether a bounded function on [a,8] is integrable, using the definition, is difficult. For the purpose of checking the | integrability, we give a criterion for integrability, called Riemann criterion, \ which is analogous to the Cauchy criterion for the convergence of a . sequence. \ Let us define some concepts and results before presenting the criterion. Throughout, we will assume that is a bounded real function on [a,5]. J) pe Ba rir eT Ne pening a URN Gp AT HTH BB ‘aul nlainaceee com Wee: wmaf 4 Definition: A partition P, of [2,6] is said to be finer than a partition F if Py>R. In this case we say that P, is a refinement of R. Given two partition A and 2, the partition RUA =P is called their common refinement, The following theorem illustrates that refining partition increases lower terms and decreases upper terms. Theorem 1: Let P, be a refinement of R then L(R,f); and w,>m, where L (Pa )-L(ByS)= 04 (281) +2 (8-4) nS If P, contains k more points then we repeat ‘this process k -times. The other inequality is analogously proved. ( 0 ~ ‘The geometric interpretation suggests that teow ‘equal to the upper integral, So the next re8 Tntegral is less than or ‘niticipated. Corollary 2: : feet f de Proof: Lot R,P, be two partitions and let P. be their common refinement. ‘Then LR A)SLPS)SU(PSS(EaS)- ‘Thus for any two partitions R and P, , we have L(R,/) for every ©> 0 there exists a partition P such that U(P,A)-L(P,A)0. Then there exist partitions A and ». Then U(P,A)-L(P,f)0, then f is integrable Problem: Let /:[0,1]->R such that f(x) integrable and find f f(x)d. ‘Solution: We will use the Riemann criterion sQoweT is integrable on [0.1], Let >0 be given. We will chéage ‘aspatition P such that U(P,f)-L(P, f)N. So only finite number of fy Sey [e.1]- Cover these ao finite number of 1 Fs by the intervals Desi: «[q-i%n] Such that »¢{e\1] for all sau, m and the sum of the length of these m intervals is less than ©, Consider the partition P={x,.%.0%,}. It is clear that U(P,f)-L(P,f)<26. Hence by the Reimann criterion the function is integrable. Since the lower integral is 0 and the function is integrable, fe(oia We will apply the Riemann criterion for integrability to prove the following two existence theorems. Theorem 4: If f is continuous on [a,6] then f is integrable. Proof: Let ¢>0. Since f is uniformly continuous, choose 8>0 such that [s-t]<8 > IF(s)—s()I, Therefore, infeore=z Quick Review for Riemann Integrability 1. If a bounded function f is Riemann integrable on [a,5) then ‘ [rae 4 8 eae 2, Every bounded function need not be Riemann integrable, 3. If Mym are bounds of a bounded function f over [2,5] , then m(b~a) Others exists 520 such that NS @ URN [Face Leb : LN J For all partitions P of [4,6] with norm,u(P) <5 11. If fis continuous and integrable on [2,6], then there exists a number lying between a and b such that f° f ds=(b-a) /(c). 12, 1f f is bounded and integrable on [4,6] such that|/(x)| 0 13. Necessary and sufficient condition for the Integrability of a bounded function f is that to every £ >, there corresponds 5 >0such that for every partition P of [a,b] with norm y(P)<6, U(P,f)-L(P,f) Osuch that |f,(x)]>A for all x¥ifasé], then a is bounded and f integrable on [a,b] 26. If f is bounded and integrable on [a,b], then |f|is also bounded and ‘integrable on [a,b] and [[. ral flslae 27. If | is integrable, then f need not be integrable. 28. A function f is bounded and’integrable on [a,b] and there exists a function F such that F'= f on[a,b], and [? fdée=F(s)-F(a). 29. If f and g are integrable on [a,b] and g keeps the same sign over [ab] then there exists a number lying between the bounds of f such that |" fgde= uf! gar. 30.1F [gar and fi gaz both exists and ¢ is positive and monotonically decreasing on [a,b] , then there exists a point £e[a,0] such that [[ear=o(a)f' eae 31. If f'fdcand [gdxboth exist and f is monotonic on [2,6], then there exists some ¢ ¢[a,b] such that [° fed = f(a)[' gax+ f(b) [ede THAI, eat lr Da Sra Haat Kos, Near LUT, New Dai-0016, Ph (112657507, Cos 99189404 & 49U161734,SRNAATDD Eval: ffodavecten cou: Webs: worm divtndea. coneosor:tooecettedimetete 83. ips reared inate 32. If F is a non-negative continuous function on [a,b] such that {° fdx=0. then f(2)=0,¥xe[a,6}. 33, Let f be bounded integrable on [4,5] then [’[(x)]'ade=0e2 f(c)=0 at every point ¢ of continuity of f 34. If the function f and gare bounded and integrable in {a,b} then Ir F(x)6(=)ae] (a58) is comfinaows on (@ Aang If Aci, Sina on [o, 2) then F'=f. Ymproper Integral Integral Definite integral ‘definite integral (Pree) fs @)as) Proper Integral Improper Integral J. (2)eis said to be proper integrals iffa,b}if either of a or bis « oF 0 but /(x)is bounded Finite & /(x)is bounded on [a,0] such type of integral or a & b are finite but f(x) is unbounded is always convergent, Introduction Jn the chapter of Riemann Integral the theory of integration was developed under two assumptions _ (i) The interval of integration was required to be a closed & bounded interval. (ii) The integrand was required to be bounded on the interval. ‘+ The scope of the theory of integration may be widened by relaxing these restrictions. If these restrictions are relaxed we have the following two type of integrals, called improper integrals or infinite integrals. BN, et wt Se Sara as iat LCE New DARG UW, PRs (11 SOSUSDY, Ca HBPLBDS & 999161754, GRATIS rani inftairacndetyay Website wn liucndcomiy (a) Improper integrals on a finite interval where the integrand is unbounded. (6, linproper integrals on an unbounded interval. Now we define convergence of improper integrals & discuss the properties of each type separately Improper integrals on # closed & bounded interval, the integrand having infinite discontinuities: Point of infinite discontinuity A point x=a is called point of infinite discontinuity (PLD) if , f(2)=+0 08 -0 Convergence at the left end point ~ (@ Let the left end point ‘a’ of the closed & bounding a,b] be the only point of infinite discontinuity of a faldion Le wict is bounded and integrable on [a-+<,6] for vey Eating O0*,e'>0" independently. But wel fe j roy *,- (loge-loge)=0 Therefore, the integral /()dsis divergent but pf /(x)ar=0 ‘HAL (et For) ia Suri Ha Khan Nea LLT, New Daic0016 Ph (11) 2680757, Cell OVR34 905 eal inftainoen den com: Webnte: wr dipscaden cota| ———— | i Ty ‘Bnis0 S008 2908 Certted nates B. Amproper Integrals On An Unbounded Intervs 1. Theimproper integral [ f(x)dx; where f is integrable on [a,t};¢>a and at J. £(x)dx ; provided that limit exists . If fimit exist finitely then the improper integral ( f(x)db is said to be convergent. If limit does not exist finitely then the improper integral J7(@)de is said to be divergent. Example: | (3) efevasot [t-e)s Therefore , [dx is convergent & fe ‘mileriy tL - Similarly , i* is divergent. 2. The improper integral [ f(x)de; where cise ible on [1,6]; Hs ates, rd ‘bebaves a like } is convergent for p-1p<2 = fetta Convergent if p<2. 4, Lis divergent for p-I21=p22 =f SE a Divergent if p22 xP ° Absolutely convergent: The improper integral [ /(x)dx is said to be absolutely convergent if the integral fI/(x}}deis convergent Definition is same if a—>~v0 mil aflainacaden cam: Web: Wr domcadOWA {284/15 (Ft Poo) Ia Sarl Haus Khas, Near LUT, New DUM-ASOO16, Pu (O11)- 26537527, Celi 99183434 & 9999161734, BSHRSAATES | ss |Ty [Antto poor 2008 Certtied nett tty SURO ‘© The improper integral which is convergent but not absolutely convergent in called conditionally convergent. F(2) is defined on [1.0] Vela =I. [f(x)dxis AC. i [f(x)dx convergent fl |/(2)ax convergent Test for Convergence of the Integrals of a Product: i ae ; "1, Let afunetion / be integrable on [2,X}¥x>a 8 the neal [7(x)de See SN is absolutely convergent & a function § Brkgaived ‘on [a,x) & integrable on [a,X}¥ioa, SNS 2. Abel’s Test: > o ‘a function gbe monotonic & rae (ii) The integral i [f(x)dx be convergent ‘Then the integral i £(2).0(x)ds is convergent. 3. Dirichlet’s test: Let (ia function dbe monotonic & bd on [4,0] & ™_9(x)dx=0 (ii) The integral i [f(x)dx be bd on [a,X}Vx>a Then the integral { /(x}9(x)dxin convergent. Here , [ssa mii =] then fsi’= is convergent THAD, rat lor a Sari aus Kaa, Near TA, Rew Delb11006, Ps (11) GYTSR, Cas POND & PPTGTT, SHOOT ‘Email: lfoadionnende.com: Webie: were dloseadem comSS ST Tr ‘Antbo 2004 2000 Certified ineiute Cauchy ~ Maclaurin Integral Test: If f in a monotonic diseasing function on [1] & f(x)>0 Vxe[lo], then the improper integral [/(x)ae ‘& the infinite series >) f(x) converge on diverge together. >0,n>0 is called the Beta Beta Funetion: The integral [x""(x-x)"! function & it is denoted by B(m,n). Thus, B(mn)=[x""'(I-x)""dgm>0n>0 . ' a Ses ‘The imptoper integral Je “(I-x) a eomee erate Ba Gamma Function: The integrah, festa im al Naaea the gamma function & it is denoted by [(x) Q aN i Thus, [(x}=fe7sden>0 cS The improper integral [e"'x"'dx is convergent n>0 2 Se Result: [22% ax(m>0,n>0) is convergent if On<2 & absolutely convergent if I1 ©The improper integral frais ‘convergent absolutely if p>t © The improper integral [ea ‘convergent if n+m>1 Test: Let abe the only point of infinite discontinuity of a function f which is integrable on [a+eb] for 00; Vxe(a,b] FS /Iora)" Note: 16 %,. (x)(0- a + (¢0) then f f(x)dx in convergent iff 4<1 3 Where ¢ is a finite non ~zero no, then [/(e)deis convergent iff <1. E-mail afeacadncom: Wet wor dignaeaden coe "HUT, i in) Sara Har Ks Nea TT New DOM DOG, Ph (OH) REAR, Coe SDN ITN AHRRAT | ss |or cara , Riso por eos crate ineteute CHAPTER 9 UNIFORM CONVERGENCE 9.4. Definition Previously, we have studied sequences of real riumbers. Now we discuss the = topic of sequence of real valued functions. A sequence of functions {f,} is a list of functions (f;, f;,...) such that each f, maps a given subset D of R. into . 7 1. Pointwise convergence . Definition, Let D be a subset of Rand tet {)s)-be a Séquence of functions defined on D. We say that {/,} convetges pointivise on D if im f(x) exists foreach poionerid SA fion defined by If {f,} is pointwise convergent thea the oe limit of the I= i Lu), for every x in D,igeade sequence {f): ee Example 1: Let {f,} be the sequen | finctions on R defined by fu(2)= nx. This ‘sequence does sgt Vom ae ‘pointwise on R because slim J, (x)= 9° for any x>0 on Example 2:'Let {/,} be the sequénce of fungtions on R defined by 7 J,(x)=x/n. This sequence converges pointwise to the zero function on R Example 3: Consider the sequence {/,) of functions defined by Sale) aya 2 forall x in R ‘Show that a {fy} converges pointwise. Solution: For every real number x, we have : xt 1 eed =+( tint} ( ‘Thus, {f,} converges pointwise to the zero function on R. ie Example 4: Consider the sequence {f,} of functions defined by forall x in R, Show that {f,} converges pointwise. ' Solution: For every x in R, we have { i 7 3 OSIRIS 959161736 ASRSHh. Applying the squeeze theorem for sequences, we obtain that Jim f(s)=0 forall xin, Therefore, {f,} converges pointwise to the function f =0 on Ik. Example 5: Consider the sequence {f,} of functions defined by Sa(®)=n2x" for O<, Therefore, f,(x for all n>N. Hence, sim f,(x)=1, foratlx For Formal Definition of Pointwise Convergente~. ~~~ Let D bea subset of R and let {/,} nee f ifgiven any x in D and given any, 20, there\ ‘RQ sgtur number N=N(x,) such that ~S 2 Ee | la()-s(2)l N. Ss A 4 Note: The notation N=N(x,e) means that\the natural number N depends on the choice of x and. “” S~ oe er Definition: Let D be a subset oes {ia} be a sequence of real valued functions defined on D. Then {f,} converges uniformly to f if givenany ¢>0, there exists a natural number 1V= N(e) such that Uie(2)-S(2)IN_and for every x in D, Note: In the above definition the natural number N depends only . ‘Therefore, uniform convergence implies pointwise convergence. But the converse is false as we can see from the following counter-example. Example 9: Let {f,} be the sequence of functions on (0, 0) defined by b= 5 T+ntx This function converges pointwise to zero. Indeed, (I+n?x?)~ n2x? as nn gets larger and larger. So, jim f,(2) = fim me na? But for any e 6 2 "HAD, et Fowl Sra Haus Kas, Near LT, Now Dai 0016; Ps 1) 265757, Cn AGE SEOTOTTIG ARRAS E-mall:f@dencndeny com: Website: wn sac. comTheoreni: Let D be a subset of R and tet {f,} be a sequence of continuous function on D which converges uniformly to f on D. Then f is continuous on D Problem 1: Let {/} be the sequence of functions on [0,1] defined by falx)=ux(l-xt)". Show that {f,} converges pointwise. Find its pointwise limit. Problem 2: Is the sequence of functions on (0,1) defined by Salt)=(1-x)s. pointwise convergent? Justify your answer. Problem 3: Consider the sequence {/,} of functions defined by Oo, Jule) sled forall x in R. eae Show that {/,} is pointwise convergent. Find. int en Problem 4: Consider the sequence (7}-of fungtions dined on [0, x] by fa(x)=sine(x). Show that {/,} esky ie Find its pointwise limit. Using the above theneen ho? that {f,} is not uniformly convergent. N — Quick Review for Uniform Convebgensdy 2 L 7A, (Ft Far Se Sra Hn Kay, New LT. New Da ‘The sequence of function x" conyerae 2 itomly © 0 on [0.2] where 0. A sequence of functions ,(x). defined as a set S' converges uniformly on = S—iff’ to each e> 0 SmeN — such that Vaso (=)-Sn(x)|<¢ ¥n2m,pz0and xeS. The sequence x" converges on [0,1] to 0 if O0 such that|/, (x)| f(x) uniformly on E If f,(2) converges uniformly to a function f{x)on S, and x be @ limit point of 5 , and lim f,(‘)=a, , then a, converges and tien £(0)= lim ay. nO aml: iaftactcaeny cots Website: ww aigeead my 201 RSC Pa 11 SETETT, Cah WHBTASENE SNORT SRASATDPipsccadeny Kniso S008 2000 caramred insulate 8. If f,(x) converges uniformly to a function f(x) on a set $ and if 4 each f,(x) is continuous at ceS then f(x) is continuous at con S \ om (tant xz) is uniformly convergent on [a,5],a>0, but it is only point- \ wise convergent on (0,5). "10. If f,(x) is monotonically non-decreasing sequence of continuous functions on [4,6] and point-wise converges, then the convergence is uniform on [4,8] 11. If f,(x) is monotonically non-decreasing sequence of continuous fanctions on [2,5] and the sum function” f,(x)-is continuous on i : i [2.6], then f, (x) is uniformly convergent on [432]. = 12. If f(x) is continuous on [a,b], then there, & polynomials F(x) such that P,(x) conver; to f(x) on | [a]. 13. If f,(x) is a sequence of integrable seo grfo.b] such that it converges uniformly to a function f(: one jsMthen f(x) is also integrable on [a,b] and al Lae J (x)dx. Moreover, Jf fa (#)de converges to i S(t)dt, anit on m [a,b]. \ 14. If f(x) converges for a peal and f(x) converges uniformly on [a,b], then f,(x) converges uniformly to a function ek H(s) 00 [a8], and f(s) lim f(x) Vxe[a2]. a I 15. If f,(z), g4() converge uniformly to f(x),2(2) respectively on a set S then f,(x)+g,(x) converge uniformly to f(x)+2(x) respectively fon 5. Also kf,(x) converges uniformly to kf(x) on 5, where keR. 16.1 f,(x).gq(x) converges uniformly on a set S then the product sequence f,(x)2,(x) may, or may not converge uniformly on 5. 17. If the sequence of monotonically non-decreasing continuous functions ) J(x) converges point-wise to a continuous function f(x) on [a,b], then the convergence is uniform on [a,5] $18 IE f,(2)-¥/(2) uniformly on [2,0], where each f,(x) and g(x) are : ‘ I continuous on fa,b], then ay | sim [fn (2) (2) = [2 $02) 2) de 19. If each f,(x) is integrable on [a,b] and f,(x)—> f(x) uniformly on [4,8] thenv /(x) is integrable on [2,6] and fim, [5 fa(x) a exists, and isequal to [? f(x) de "HAD, at lor a Sara ous Khas, Near LE, Rew Dei 11016 Ph (1) 2659507, Cl DOLE 95916734, SSSRATED id Q Teall lffaaienendencoms Webute: wm dlonsendea coeos Corned metas 20. If f, -» 7 tniformly on a set g and xe 5° $0 a8 each jim f, 85 ¢-> x exists “on S, then limf as tx exists. on Sand lim f(2)= lim lim f,(2) on S 2A IF f,(x) converges for a point in [a,b] and /,'(x) converges uniformly on [4,5], then /,(x) converges uniformly to a function F(z) 0m [2,8] and f"(s)= lim fy (x) Vxe[2,b] 22. ¥ fy(s) converges uniformly on S iff for every ©>0 3meN such atl fale) fa ls) + yop (<2 V n2m, p> 0-and xeS. 23, 1f Dfa(2) > (2) uniformly on a set Sand ate rien 5 and lim f,(2)=4,, then Sa, converges and ind e()= S " Ae 24,16 f,{2) are continous at 8S a BLELS (x) uniformly on S, then f(x) is continuous at ces. \ Nw 25.1f cach f,(x)eR[a,b] and Y/,(s) nee mony on [a,b], then sn (edde= Ef ee TO IGE fy(x)eR[ab]vm and D7,(%) Simydrges uniformly to f(x) on fast} thon Sf f(a) de converges ulrmly to (x) on [ab saan 21. 1F f,(x)eR[a,b] vn and Sf,(x) converges uniformly to f(x) on fob] and g(2)< R[a,8], then 5° (g(x) fa(x)de converges uniformly = to fel) Sa on [2,0] 28. If each f,(x) is differentiable on [a,5] and Sf;(x) converges uniformly on [2,6] and > f,(x) converges for some point cefa,b} , then °f,(x) converges uniformly on [a,b] and s'(x)=3°f, (x) on [a,b], where s(z)=f, (x) 29. If f,(x) has continuous derivatives on fa,b} and >, (3). f(s) converge uniformly to. f(x) and g(x) respectively on [2,6], then f(x) is differentiable and f"(x)=g(x) on [4,6]. 30. 1f |,(x))SM, VxeSand ne, thea Sf,(x} converges uniformly (and absolutely) on S if 7M, converges. 31. The series 573" sin-Lx converges absolutely and uniformly on (a,:0), 7 where a>0 ‘HAI iat wr ia Sarak Haz Kis, Near ILE, New DABE-10016, PO) 2659197, Cab IAD A EDIT, BSUS B Emil: ffoinnd dey com: Website: ww dines 08.| ( Daiposacodeny one ores 32, The fiction (x)= 3'0"cos(a"ax) where Ois3n, is everywhere continuous but it has no derivative for any x eR. 33. If 4,(2) converges uniformly on a set S, then f(x) converge uniformly to 0 on S 34. 1f Yf,(2), Lea (2) converge uniformly to f(x),e(2) respestively onaset $, then 5'(/,(x)+gq(x)) converge uniformly to f(x)+(x) respectively on Salso Yk f,(x) will converge uniformly to f(x) on ‘S, where & is any constant real number. ~ 35. Sox" converges uniformly on (~8,8) , where ied (uy. 36. If Sf, (x) converges uniformly to_f(x) on. fa.) Rand each Salx)eR * ‘N [a.0},then f(s) [a8] and f(x) dre hee 37. If each fi (x) is continuous on [a,5] ad BEONS fi (x) converge uniformly to s(x) and g(x) respecti ely ami, then, s‘(x) exists and s'(x)=g(x) on [a]. er 38. If Df, (x) converges uniformly ong 38S~and g, (x) is monotonic and uniformly bounded on S. there gsbties Tf (8) (8) converges uniformly on S. 39. If SO f,(x) is uniformly bounded on $ and. g,(x) is monotonic and converges uniformly to zero on S, then ¥f,(x) g,(x) converges uniformly on S. 40.1f DF,(2) converges uniformly to f(s) on a set S and Yo, converges to a, then '(y,(z)+a,) converges uniformly to f(x)+a os orem ech "BAI, st Fe) ia Sara How Kas, New mall iteL__— 10.1. CHAPTER 10 \puNCTION OF SEVERAL VARIABLES Definition of n-tuples ‘The Euclidean n-space R" is the set of all tuples (31%) of real numbers x,,/=1,..n (called vectors of points) on which the two operations of vector addition and scaler multiplication are defined as follows: @ For any two points (x,..,%,) and (¥},.5¥,) in ee ee (veete)*Oreate)a Crt nents) SOL (i For any aR and (x,,...x,)€R" 4s) =(@iprnty) > Tk we can Write a-(x,.0%4)=a(s0%4)- xe then x= (21.05%) fOr some real mumbers 5,-.3,, and 3 is calledhe Y4 Somponéat of =. ame Neighbourhood: Let SR" and a =(a,,%,...4) €R". Then we say Sis neighbourhood = of gf SQuae>0 such that B(0,8)= [01 52 nted eR" Yl a) NQSEI +a) Ris called real valued function on « variables x,x,,..%- Provided no two different images are mapped under same point in Sie. for x,yeS,fQ)* fO)>xey Limit of a keal valued function on- n variables: Let ScR" be a subset of R” and f:SR be a function. Let 4 =(a,,02,..dy) be limit point of Sand /eR. Then we say limit of f as = (5geoky) P(Midarty) iB 1 and we write Tim f(s x2.) =L, if for each ¢>0,38>0 such that |f(x,,x),..x,)-/)0 there exists some SSe>O such that \F(aies2e sig) =F (thot oy} <> ~ when iy] <6 Partial Derivatives: If f is a function of n variables, then its partial derivatives are the doting f,'s defined by Salat) = fin Bier tbs PH tar) for al Isis. a) tat (ty 14. Let f and g are functions of m variables. ASO if fysJsj.85 8, exist. Then @ (f48),, =f, 285 GD (Fa), = yetent Shy ~f:3 Gi (4 : El), @ Differentiability at a Point: Let f:D->R be a real-valued function efined on an open set DCR? . Then f is said to be digferentiable at a : point (a,b)eD , if f(athb+k)~ f(a,b)= Ah+ Bk +h? +k? g(h,k) Where Aand B are seal numbers independent of & and k, and g is a real-valued function such that lim | g(h.k)=0. (1a}400) Equivalently, f is differentiable at (a,b), if, flat h.b+k)-f(ab)=Ah+ Bk +hb,(h,k)+kb2 (hk) where 4 i and B are real numbers independent of k and k and $(h,k), (4.8) and Gp (yk) converges to 0 as (*,) (0,0). BA Ht) Sra es Khas, Nea FL, Now Dob OUI Pas (ID RGD, Cal PPI PAIGE SURAT Esai infiisencrdew cout Web: Wo ditendemr co“(), Tmay be noted that the constants 4, 8 appearing in the definition of differentiability of fare given by : A= f,(a,6), B= f, (a6) u (ii) If either of f,,f, does not exist at (a,b), then f is not a differentiable at (a,b). 15. If a function f:D—R is differentiable 2t (a,6)eD, then f has partial derivatives f, and f, at (a,b). 16, Ifa function f:D->R is differentiable at a point (a,8)€ D , then f is continuous at (a,b) . ™ Remark: The converse of the above theorem} may a A | function may be continuous at a point ee at that point. 1, If (a,b) be a point of the domin of inn Y fimetion f such that Yo \ (@ f, is continuous at (a,b) (ii) Jf, exists at (a8), © Then / is differentiable at (a,b) ‘Note: In a similar way it can be showb'that. f is differentiable at (a,6) + if f, exists and f, is continuous at (a,b). In fact, one of the partial _ derivatives is to be continuous and the other merely to exist at the point. Remark: (® If a function f is not differentiable at (a,b), then f, and f, cannot be continuous at (2,5) il) The conditions of the above theorem are sufficient, but are not necessary: {f a function f is differentiable at a point (a,b), then : Sufy Tay not be continuous at (4,5). Chain Rule 1: Suppose that z= f(x,y) is a differentiable function of : x&y, where x= g(t) and y=A(t) are both differentiable functions of «Thon z is a differentiable function of « and © xe a Chain Rule 2: Suppose that 2= f(x,y) is a differentiable function of xand y, and where x= ¢(s.t), Sxrioh, and A, exist, Then (s.t) and the partial derivatives a _deae body & war wy a5” ae as "By os aaa aya ‘AAI, Feet Foe) Sin Sarl Hz Khas, Near ELE New Den-AT0016 Ph (OH) AASVE0T, Ce 99S1RDGA & 99916174, SHITE ‘alr noaaanendomvcam’ Website: ww douendemtcomDirectional Derivatives: Let f be a function of n variables defined ona disk D centered at (x,2),..%4) and let w=(a,42,..,2,) be a unit vector. Then the directional derivative of f at (x,x,,..%,) in the \\ direction of u , denoted D,f(%.%)..2%) is defined by "1g lac rte) (ex 18. A Sufficfent Condition for Continuity: A sufficient condition for a function f to be continuous at (a,b) is that ‘one of the partial derivatives exists and is bounded in a neighbourhood of (a,b) and that the other exists at (a,b) + 19. If f is a differentiable function of x and y then tes e *iectional + derivative in the direction of any” uni axis. then we can write, DuS (0:90) = Fe (0599) C08 0+ fy eames uN Function from R" to R™ : A. map\ F (2022595) = (Grebe Ym) 8 cal nstion in variables to m= LAgnrycR" —oR is a real valued . variables, where for each i function in n -variables. —— 10.3, Limit and Continuity of Vectors and Real Valued Functions () Definition (Limit): Let f:4—>R",4cR" and c is a cluster point of A, Then f is said to have a limit / in R™ at the point c in R" if for every =~ > 0,38 >0 such that, «= VreA OR",A CR" is said to be continuous at a point aeA if a is not a cluster point of 4 or sim (2) = (2). y (ii) Definition (Uniform continuity): Given a function f:4—>R",/ is said to be uniformly continuous on 4 iff Ve>0,36>0 such that Va,ye A:lx-y]<3=>|f(x)- f(y) <2. (iv)Definition (Diffrentiability): Let 4 be an open set in R* and S:A—>R™, then f is said to be differentiable at ae if and only if there is a linear transformation 4:R"—>R" such that S(a)-2(0)) WW A, then f is said to be a differentiable function ae =Olf f is differentiable at every point of [HAI et ra Sra Hous Kia, Near LL New Dei 1016, Pk: QOH) 265757, Ca 934 A 999161734, HSREATHD ‘Ema infeaibsacademy.com: Web: wr doseaten’ emerent 20, Let f/4-R", where AcR* and c. is cluster point of 4 then sim f(x) =! iff img, (x)= {4 2. Suppose f:4—>R,AcR” and c is a cluster point of 4. If im f(s) + exists, then 3M >0,8>0 such that Vie 4 0<|x~c<8=9l f(x) R",ACR" and ¢ is a cluster point of 4 such that lim f(x) exists then tim|/(s)| exists and further more tim| (== jim r(x) 23. Let f:A>R" ACR" and aed , then f is continuous at a iff ji = 1.0m is continuous at @ SOS Let fig:A->R",ACR" and 9: AR. IE f, ane ona, | at acd, then f+g,f-g and g-f areall contis Se" 25, 1f T:R" +R" is a linear instomasod eT ‘is continuous function. NS 26. Let f :IR" > R" bea linear transformai Deg t's dierent 27, Let f:d>R" and g:B->R', ACR and BER such that BD ge range f . If lim (2) ben aadde 8 continuous at 6 then Sune be Lin (go(2)=8(2)- Qe og 28. Let f:A—-R" , g:B—>R',ACR™ ‘and such that range fc B . Suppose f is continuous at ae A, and g is continuous at f(a)eB. ‘Then. gof is continuous at a 29, Let f:4->R",4cR", then f is continuous on A iff for every open set UCR" there is an open set CR" such that f-"(U)=Vn.4 30, Let :4-+R",ACR", then f is continuous on 4’ iff for every closed set FcR" thereisa closed set HR" such that f"(F)=HOA. 31. Let m and n be positive integers then the limit lim y Exists, ‘roy ifand only if m+n>2. 32, Let ACR" be a subset and f:4—+R" be a function differentiable at ac, then f is continuous at a . 33. Let 4c R" be open set and f:4—>R™ be a function defined as 2) =($.b2-0bm) » Where @,:R"—>R be real valued 2,..m.Then f is differentiable at ae Ac> each 4, is differentiable at a and its derivative is given by S'(a)= (44 (@),65(@) sm (@))- 2861, (Fs Fear) Sia Sera Haat Khas, Neat LL, New Dab 10016, Pu (11) 26807597, Cal OV1E94 9B GIT, SHOTS mal afiedmecnden ct: Webale: Wr liosaaden om1 ‘Bntso o00T! 2008 carted meters Jacobian Matrix: Let f:DcR">R" defined by S(Hp%20-0%q)= (deem) Whete 4:2" is a real valued function, where 1 f(ab)V(a+hb+k) ae (iil) function f(x,y) is said to have. So at a point: (a,b) if iw has either a maximum or minimum abaya) The set N-((a,6)} is called a deleted nei (iv) A point (2,6) is said to be a critical point for a function f(x,y) if /, and f, both exist at (4,6) and f, (a,6)=0 and f, =(a,b)=0 (a) If a function (x,y) has an extremum at any point-(a,b) of the domain of f if f admits partial derivatives f, and f, at (a,b). then f-(a,b)=0 and f, =(a,6)=0 Remark: The conditions of the above theorem are only necessary ‘but are not sufficient. (b) Let f:R? +R be a real valued function in two variables which Posses continuous second order partial derivatives and Soa( 08) = A, fuy(s0)= B. fy (yb) =C then (i) fhas maximum at (4,8) if 4C-B? >0,4>0. Gi) fhas maximum at (a,b) if AC-B? >0,4<0. (ii) f has neither maximum value nor minimum value at (a,b) if ACB <0 (iv) £ may of may not have an extremum at (4,6) if 4C-B? =0 (This case is often called the doubtful case, which needs further investigation)Zoo ered iste ‘Compactness of Connectedness 1. Acollection of open sets is an open cover of 4 ifevery point x in 4 is in some open set in the collection 0. 2, Asset ACR" is called compact if every open cover O of 4 hasa finite sub cover of 4 3. (Hleine-Borel Theorem): AR" is compact iff 4 is closed and bounded. - 4. If BCR" is compact and xe" then {x}xB is compact in R™™ 5. If ACR" and BCR" are compact then 4x2 < Rt" is compact. 6 If ACRY,i=L.0k are compact then 4; 4; x ges 1 is compact. wo. In particular any closed rectangle Wc Rk — 7. Golzano-Weierstrass Theorem):~Every Doladed Vifinite subset of "has acluster point, - SS 8. (Cantor Intersection Theorem): smb ‘a.nonempty, closed and bounded subset of R*, and moraken ‘Sequence of nonempty ‘closed sets in IR* such that 5, A age » Then () #6 9. Aset Ack" eee PERL IF 4 is dese in R" it is simply called a dense set. ~~~ 10-If {E,:neN} is a collection of dense open set, then [)E, is ste nonempty. 11. The set Q of rational numbers is not the intersection of a countable collection of open sets. 12. The set of all irrational numbers Q° is not the union of a countable collection of closed sets in R. 13. If f:4->R",ACR" is continuous and 4 is compact then (4) is ‘compact. - 14. Extremum Value Theorem: Let 4c" be compact. If F:4—R is continuous then f takes on a maximum and minimum value on 4 15. Let AR" be compact and if f: A» R™ is continuous and one to one then the inverse function is continuous. 16. Let ACR” be compact and if f:4-»R™ is continuous then f is uniformly continuous, 17, Let ACR" be compact and & be closed subset of 4 then 2 be closed and compact subset of 4 18. Let C be closed and K be compact in R” then K+C is closed. a19, Let 4,B be compact subsets of R" then their sum +B is compact. 20. Let AGR" and U,V open subsets of R" then U&V are said to be a separation of 4 if @ unaee (i) Vasey Gi) Unayn(vnd)=6 @) Unauyna)=4 21. A subset 4 of R" is said to be a disconnected set if it has a separation U and V . Ais called connected if it is not a 22, A set CCR is connected iff it is an interval. we 23, Let ACR" be a connected sot and if f ws gag kins thal F(A) is connected. 24, In R", sont on ae fand Let{4:ie 1}, where ris index set . SN collettion of connected ae of a(metric) space X with the, Hat forall i,j¢7 we have 4, nA, #9, then A=|J 4, << ta Y 7 ee 6, Let A bea countable subset of R74, then R"—A is connected. 27. Let X and Y be connected (aetby-spaces then the product space XxY isconnected “RAM, rat lor Dia Saas Hous Ks, Near LL New DaB110016, Ph: (1)-26557527, Ca 9991834344 8900734, SHINTO Pama ifoadoseatenycom: Webat: Wr dintcadey.cond their Prop ASSIGNMENT SHEET - 5 Lo sG)ail(-).e@)=s[70)] om Pay 6. What is the value of lim As)=s[e(2)]. > then what is » \\ pean equal to? ° ' l+Iny ” of rer -y (b.)0 1 ()2 tg itl 2. Whatis the value of tim 2 +3 noe 243" (a) 13 .) 1 “ a o) S Assertion (A): lim =~ - 93 mes oo Reason (R): lim =lim sin xlim + an Bay ne ey 3. What isthe value of lim “3? =~ SO gyBoth A and R are individusily true and R wR is the correct explanation of A Co (b.) Both A and R are individually true but R by12 is not the correct explanation of A ©)2 (c.) Ais true but Ris false @e (4) Ais false but R is true 4. If Dis the set of all real x such that © & © What is-_—sthe_ = value of ah lim {sin(1/x)+ cos(1/x)} =? S(x)=1-e%? is positive, then what is = D equal to? @)o (a) (-,0)U(,20) (b) 4 b) -#,0) VI1,~) : je 4) (1,0) 5 £5 (1,2) gsi () (1) 9. Which ore of the following functions is not : well defined? i (x+3sinx-x?-ksinhx) im. exists Taga a ae (a) @Fsina) then what isthe value of &? cman pa — ‘oy? (¢.) ¥G cos? x) ij 3 ‘# @ (#024) ws 100) ALI et Pwr) Sra Haut Kar LET, Nw Dei-I006 PRs (1) 269757, Co 99910034 & SGTTN ASEBATID Erm nelle con: Wash ww eae 5s IfWhich one of the following graphs is the 13, correct graph of the function p(x) = x.In(x) ©) What are the value of a & b respectively, it tin SO (e*cosx) 1 =0 xsinbe 2 16. @i) 1 Ls ()-d i @-45 . 17. Assertion (A): e* caunot be expressed as sum of even and odd functions ‘Reason (R): €* is neither even nor odd. function (2. Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A (b.) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A. (c) Ais true but R is false (d.) A is false but R is true Pree a ee egy Given the following limits: 1. tim S82 =) ma ox os tim(ist}a1 3. tig EHD me Which ofthese are correct? (51,2 and3 (9) and2 sit 70-2805 then the domain of x tQ), is @R @) R-() ©) 2D (4) 0) 1 lim (4*+5*)* equats to (a4 (5 we (@)5e is equal to @-12 Consider a mapping f from the set of natural numbers N to the set of integers Z defined by [A= when mis oda fo: F> when m is even Then f:N > Z is: (@) One ~one but not onto (b,) Onto but not one — one (c.) Both one-one and onto {@)) Neither one-one nor onto aA rt Fw) Sart Haas Khas, Near LT. New Deh 10016 Pas (11> ROSS, Cas DOIRSOM BATT SNATED ms]18. ae TE ‘Aniso s00t 2008 cortiies neue If af are the roots of the equation ax’ +bx¥o=0 . then is equal to Wf tim 21=0088)-ar" sox exists and is =o finite, then the value of a must be @)1 1 > 1 Os 1 (a) — @7 If f(x)=2x+1, then (os x 1 © ol 2x+1 b) et : @ 241 it f= 2 toy FQ) (a) has the value 1/2 (b.) has the value 1 (c.) has the value 2 (4.) does not exist 2. 28. 26. i tim Si 28+ asin.x dD sin2x-+asinx as of @ and b respectively will be @)2-1 (b)21 ()-2,1 @)2,-1 1 tin xsin( "equ a0 x, Consider the following statements: x OSx~thes the refleetibn of 7 in the line » and XY and g:¥->X. ate ypappings “Niven by the graph of g(x) where such that go f:X—X is a surjective (j.e.,, aw onto) map, then NY (a) f must be one-to-one cn - XS y me (b.) f must be onto (©) g must be one-to-one (d) Xand ¥ must have the same eX Ans, -Isxs0 slements. SS ee ES Let P(x) be a non-constant polynomial such that P(n)=P(-n) forall neN. Then P'(0) @) a(x) ee ~isxs0 ea HI-x, oszst (,) Equals 0 35. Let a,b,c,d be rational number with (c) Equals —1 ad~be#0. then the function f:R\O—>R (@)Can not be determined from the given arth : defined by f(x)= Tg 8 (@) onto but not one-one, (b.) one-one but not onto. (c.) neither one-one nor onto. (4, both one-one and onto. 36. Let (0,0) & be the function defined by Let fed) and define . (= s (xs s(x). Then, a8 xen, the F (2) =. Then the tim s(x) ben g(x) converges to eee 1 (b.) exists and is © je (©) exists and is 1 we (A enists andise "AIT ie Far) Se Sra Hur Kas, Nea LT, New Bc B11006, Ph (OI) 26S7E, Ce 99RD & 9PLOTTI, SHRETIS Email infodoecr dey cm West Wwrdiomscademcom2. 3. 4 5 ‘Antso b008 2000 Cortes \ ASSIGNMENT SHEET - 6 Let f:X->X such that f(f(x))=2 for all 6 Let oR for nzt, and x,:R-+(0, 1} be peeaees 0 ifxed, SS the function xtef) trea ot (b.) f is one-to-one but not onto. g(x) limsup 7, (x) and (c.) f isonto but not one-to-one, ‘(= limint.z, (x) (@) JF need not be either one-to-one or onto, (@)If gG)=A(x)=1,, then there exists m such that for all n2m we have xe 4, NE g(x)=1 and h(x)=0, then there exist SS tosh that foal n>m wehave re 4, A polynomial of odd degree with real coefficients must have (a) at least one real root. (b.) no real root. (c.) only real roots. (4. at least one root which is not real. Consider the following sets of fundtions 6: on R, W =The set of constant functions on R , (@)If g(x)=h(x)=0 then there exists m X =The set of polynomial functions on, such that for all n2m we have x¢4,. Y = The set of continuous functions on RR, ~~ Z = The set of all functions on R- Which- ae these sets has the same cardinality as thatof and. (x) =0 then there exists 8 sequence -r,,7,,... of distinct integers such that xe 4, forall £21 “7, Let be amonotonicly non-decreasing real- ~ valued function on R. Then a Ss (a) lim:/ (2) exists at each point (a) Only W . : (6) Only Wand X (i) ab, then fim (0) lim (2) (c.) Only W, X and Z (c) f isan unbounded function = — ony (4) The funetion -g(s)=e% ig a bounded If f:{0, 1] +(0,1) is a continuous mapping pion then which of the following is NOT true? 7 8. Which of the following statement is true? (a) Fc[0,1] is a closed set implies /(F) is closed in R. 18 = 0-and tim 28 (jIf s(o< fC) then f([o,1]) must be ; a equal to [/(0), (0)} (b.) im: ee and Tim ae (©) There must exist x¢(0,1) such that (6) tim 9 aa BE SQax. ee aes (4) £:((,1) #0.) (4) tim!28* —0 but tim 28* does not In which of the following cases, there is no * oe continuous function f from the set S onto % Let f: RR be defined by f(x)=[x* the set 7? ‘The points of discontinuity of f are (@) S=[0, 1, 7-8 (a.) Only the integral points (b) S=(0,1),7=R (b.) All rational numbers (c) S=(0,1),7=@ (c.) {Vm is a non-negative integer} @) S=R7=@, D (d.) All real numbers ‘ATi, ia Fae) Ha Sra Hnuz Kins, Neat LT, ew Delsv110016 Ph: (11}20507827, Ces 9991KS44 & 96916174 ASEH ‘EanA monotonic function 14. (2) Is always continuous (b.)Is continuous only if it intermediate value property (c,) Can be nowhere continuous (6) Can be discontimous at finitely many points Which one of the following functions has exactly two points of discontinuity? ifx>a if0sxst otherwise \ 3) rine{t f0sxs1 ©) sf) -§ i: if xis ational if xis irrational NY oe Let f:[a, 3) R de a continuous Fanctidn, and let f(a)< f(b). Then by intermediat~ value theorem (@) F(a, 6))=[/(a), £)] sore ft 17. ) F((alr@, s)] (©) S(fa2)) s[/@), £(8)] @) F((a5)) #[F(@). £0)] Consider the function {:R—R defined ig refs, be the set of points where fis continuous. Then @) S=} ) S=f} (©) S=4} )S=¢ if xis rational, » Let S if xisimmationsl eh Sr as Ne LL Neu eG Ph HASSE Cal APL ERAT nl iffainanenden cot: Website: ww di Let f:[01J>R be the continuous f- 1(x-2) x-3)(x-4) ‘Then the maximal subset ‘ R on which ‘f has a continuous extension is (a) (-~,3) (6) (00,3) U(4,20) function defined by f(x) () R\{3,4} Za.) Onto but not one-one (b.) One-one but not onto {e) Both one-one and onto, (d.) Neither one-one nor onto Let f:R—R be a continuous function. If ASN, then @) f®=N (&) f(R)EN bit feed not be constant (c) f is unbounded (d.) f is aconstant function Let f [a,b] > be a monotonic fanction. Then (a) f is continuous (b) fis discontinuous at at most two points (c) f is discontinuous at at finitely many points (@) Ff is discontinuous at at most countable points: Let f:[0,10)->[0,10] be a continuous amapping. Then, (a) Ff need not have any fixed point (b.) fas atleast 10 fixed points (c.) f has at least 9 fixed points (4) f{ has at least one fixed pointi 19, Let S=[0,1]U[2,3) and let f:5+R be 2. 2x if xe[01}, 8-2r fF xe[2,3). {\ ra{f(x):xeS}, then the inverse function 1 furss (a) does NOT exist (b. exists and is continuous (c.) exists and is NOT continuous defined by reef (4) exists and is monotonic 20. Let f be a continuous function from [6,4] to + (3,9). Then (a) There must be an xsuch that f(x)= (>) There must be an x woe 3f()=2x+6 ‘ (c) There mst be an x 2f (x)=3x+6 such that (d.) There must be an x such that f(x) 21. Let f and f, be two real vahied functions. defined on the real line. Define two factions 25, g and h by g(x)=max{f(x),f,)Nand__ h(x) = min f(x), f,(x)} Then gla?) + AC} +3g(2) A(x) =f +A GF 43h, (2) 4 (3). holds for all xeR (a) Always (©) Only if f= f,(0) for all x in R (©) Only f and f, are both positive 26. functions or both negative functions (A) Only if at least one of the functions and fis identically zero. 22, If X and Y are two non-empty finite sets 3 and f:X+Y¥ and g:¥—>X are mappings such that go f:X—>X is a surjective (ie., onto) map, then 27. (a.) f must be one-to-one (b.) f must be onto ¢ (©) g must be one-to-one (@) X and Ymust have the same number of elements. Let X and ¥ be two non-empty sets and let S:X OY, g:Y-+X be two mappings. If both £ and g are injective (i.c., one-to-one) ‘then (a) X and ¥ must be infinite sets () g=f" always. (c) One of fog:¥>X and gof:X>¥ is always bijective (one-to-one and onto). (a) There exists a bijective mapping XY -.Défine a function f on the real line by yea (al-} if xis not an integer, yy 09 ON itis aninteger hich of the follwing is true: (a) fis periodic with period 1, ic, fet = f(x) forall x (b) Fis continuous (©) fis one-to-one (4) tim f(a) exists forall eR Let f:R-+R be @ function such that Flxty)=f(x) f(y) for all x,yeR and £6) =14 36 (2) where lim g(x)=1. Then the function f(x) is @er (b.) 2° (©) A non-constant polynomial (4) Equal to | for all xeR. Let f:R->R be a continuous function satisfying f 0 f= f. Then (a) f must be constant (b) f(x)=x forall x in the range of f (©) f must be 2 non-constant polynomial (4) There is no such function Let f:[0,1}->[0,1] be continuous and 4(0)=0, f()=1 . Then, f is necessarily (a) injective, but not surjective. (©. surjective, but not injective. (©) bijective, 7BAII, est Foe a29. 30. ‘Rniso S00tt 200m cereed Insutate (A) surjective. Let p be a polynomial of degree 2n+1 with real coefficients. We say that @ reat mumber a is a fixed point of p if p(a)=a. Then, p bas (@.) exactly 2n+1 fixed points (b.)at least one fixed point (c.) at most one fixed point (A) n fixed points Define the function f:R+R by _farsb, frst ree (eeee yan WE Want to find appropriate values of a,b and ¢ such that 1. f is increasing in the interval (0,00); 2. f* is continuous on R Which of the following is the correct statement about the values of (a,b,c) which both conditions (1) and (@)\-are Ss” satisfied? 4) is one of the values (d) There are infinitely many values of (a,8,¢) ©) we, (3) 2 @F “The equation x7 =xsinx-+cos x is true for (a) no real value of x (b.) exactly one real value of x (c.) exactly two real values of x (4) infinitely many real values of x 32. 35. 36. Let f:R>R be continuous with S()=f()=0. Which of the following is not possible? @ s([ 1)= (>) F({0. 11)=[0, 1) ©) slo I)=fo, @) s((0 1) Colisider the function f:R>R defined by SS YO fx is rational itis rational yoy ig ~eontimsons, (@) only atx=1 (b) only atx =2. (6) only at x=0. (4) at no point of R. Let f:R>R be defined by £(3)=)x+)|-[x, then the range of fis (a) The whole of B. (b) The elosed interval [—1,1] (©) The unbounded subset of &.. (d.) None of the above How many zeroes are there for the function sh +6? (a)3 4 6 (4)None of these Let f(x)=cosx. Then f is one-one and onto if the domain and range are specified respectively as (a.) [-1,1] and (0,00) (b) 1.1] and (0,2) (©) [4.1] and (0.2/2) (@) (111 and [0,2] ‘RAD, iat iw) Hla Sara Hs Kaas Near LL, Now DORE1IOO6 Ps (OUD)SESVSGY, Cl, 999180434 & 09161794, RRORTIO Era infeddlosendem com: Webate: we liomendomyom,Dy A bijection is a map that is both one-one and onto, It is given that f:R—R is not a bijection. Which of the following must be true? (a) Iffis not one-one, thea fis not onto. (b) If fis not onto, then fis not one-one. (c) fis neither one-one nor onto. (A) Iffis one-one, then fis not onto. f:ROR 1, ifxis rational L(x) =) sinx Define as follows: Then if xis irrational (a.) fis continuous everywhere (b) fis continuous only at x= 0. (c.) fis continuous all rational points. (d) fis continuous at all irrational points. \ Let f,g:R—>R be continuous functions Las. Ww whose graphs do not intersect. for which function below the graph lies entirely. * ‘on one side of the X-axis, SN ws SS be) ges ©) e-f @ ef See - (a) Both f and g are even functions *\g(x)=e +e" . Then (b) Both f and g are odd functions (©) f is odd, g is even (@) f iseven, g is odd Let X be a set and f.g:X>X be functions. We can say that fog is bijective if (@.)at least one of f', g is bijective (b)both f and g are bijective (©) f is -Land g is onto (4) f is ofto and gis 1-1 Let f.g:R—R be functions. We can conclude that h(x) /(x)vxe Rif we define Ww mB) F209} Gis . ) min (f(x), F(x) + 8 (x) 2 } } ~(e) max{e).F(2)+2(3) (4) max{ f(x), £(x)+8(x)} Let X be a non-empty set, f:X > X bea function and let A,B CX . Then the identity HANB)= fA FB) is (a) Always holds (b.)holds if f is 1-1 (c.) holds if f is onto (d) holds if AUB=X The range of the function .xeR is @ EL EL 1) ©) GL 1 (G.) None of these ‘BAA, rt lr) in Sora Maus Khas, Near LT, New DeBFT10016 Ph (11) 6807527, Celi 9ODIED434& 99916173, SHRBATED| E-mail lfoasovaraen com: Website: wn dinenden comASSIGNMENT SHEET - 7 5 1. Thevalue of tim tin’ FoF + (a) does not exist. (bis infinite (©) exists and equals 1. (4, exists and equals 0, 2. Let f be a bounded function on m and If [0,1] (0,1) is a continuous mapping then which of the following is NOT ture? {@) F[0,1] is a closed set implies s(F) is closed in R (b)If s(oy< FG) then f([0,1]) must be equal to [f (0), f(D]. ~(€)There must exist xe(0,1) such that ack. For 8>0, let 7 + @fa8)=suplf(x)- f(a, x€[a-,045] — “Aas * Then Sw i (ei, (4) 0(08)S (0) if 51 58,. SES The function f:R4R is given by (©) tims, 0(a,6)=0 forall aeR. ANE =e" +17—1] Which of the following (€) lims 49, o(a,8) need not exist. = is true about the function f ? SN (4) tia, 6.8) =0 if and only if Li continuous at N aS 3. Let f be a continuously differentiable function on Nhat! which of the following statements is/are correct? (a. If tim, ,., f(xy exists, then it is 0 k (©) If lim,,, f(x) exists itis £ jit lim...) exists then Tim, .. f(x) =0 @)IF tim. f(@) exists. then fim, fx)=b 4. Let ACR and f:AR be given by +f (x)=x°. Then f is uniformly continuous if (a) A is a bounded subset of R (b) A is a dense subset of R (©) A is an unbounded and connected subset of R \ @)A is an unbounded and open subset of R (a) It is not differentiable exactly at three points of R. (b.) It is not differentiable at x=0 (c) It is differentiable at x=2 (4)It is not differentiable at x=1 and rel ‘The function f(x) =a, +4[x1+4, [x1 +a,lat is differentiable at x=0 (@) For no values of 4,,4,, 4,54, (b. For any value of 4,41, 0, (©) Onlyif a, = (4) Only if both a, =0 and a, =0 Suppose /:R->R is a function that satisfies {£G)-F()s|x-y)",B>0. Which of the following is correct? (@) If B=ithen f is differentiable (b)If £>0 then f is uniformly continuous (©) If f>ithen § is a constant function (@.) f must be a polynomial TAA, it Poor a Sta Haar Khas, Near LT, Now DBPL ‘Eomlflieseedem cm