Nuclear and Particle PhysicsG Chapter-I: Nuclear Structure and General Properties of Nuclei © Constituents of na + Atomic nuclei are composed of two different types of elementary particles-protons and neutrons. Collectively, the neutrons and protons are referred to as nucleons. + The proton is identified as the nucleus of the lightest and the commonest isotope of hydrogen. It carries one electronic charge, +¢ and has mass about 1836 times the electronic mass, m,. + The neutron, on the other hand, possesses no charge-electrically neutral. Its mass is almost equal to, but slightly more than, the mass of the proton. + The electronic mass is negligibly small. + According to Coulomb's law, the positively charged protons, closely spaced within the nucleus, should repel each other strongly and they should fly apart. Nucleons (protons ard neutrons) are held together under the influence of very strong short range attractive force. This force is different from ‘commonly known forces like gravitational or electrical and is classified as strong interactions. * The number of protons in the nucleus determines the atomic number of the nuclide. + The sum of the numbers of protons (Z:) and neutrons (N) inside the nucleus is mass numbes A ie A=N+Z + The neutron number N is therefore given by N = A-Z + Anucleus of an atom X of atomic number Z and a mass number A, that is, a nuclide is symbolically represented by 4X. @ Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones and Mirror nuclei: + Nuclei with same atomic number Z, but different mass number A are called isotopes. Example: and ",Li, ®, Ne and”, Ne. + Nuclei with the same mass number A but different atomic number Z are called isobars. Example: 160 and !°N.. + Nuclei with the same number of neutrons, that is having the same N, are known as isotone. Example: ??Na and /{Mg + The pairs of isobaric nuclei such as ((}C and 'B), (Nand °C) are known as mirror nuclei in which the proton number Z and the neutron number N are interchanged and differ by one unit. @ Nuclear mass and binding energy: + ‘The nuclear mass M,__is obtained from the atomic mass M(A, Z) by subtracting the masses of Z orbital electrons ic. May. =M(A,Z)-Zm, + The above expression however isnot exact in that the binding energies of the electrons have not been taken into consideration, In forming a nucleus out of the constituent particle, a fraction of the total mass of the constituents disappears and the evaluation of energy equal to E, takes place. If AM be the amount of mass disappeared, then binding energy, Eq =AMc? + If My,M, be the masses of hydrogen atom and the neutron respectively, then AM = ZM, +NM,—M(A,Z) where M(A, Z) is the mass of the atom of mass number A and atomic number Z. ‘Therefore, Ep =[ZMy+NM,-M(A,Z)]o? =[ZM, +NM, +Zm, ~Maye—Zm, Jo? =[zM, 4NM,—Mouc |e?@ © Unit of atomic mass: + The unit of atomic mass is presently defined to be one-twelfth of the mass of the atom of carbon isotope "C taken to be exactly 12 units, and is symbolised by u, being the abbreviation for ‘unified atomic mass unit”. + Lamu. = 1.660566 * 1077 kg + Energy equivalent of 1 a.m.u. = 931.501 MeV + The energy equivalent of the rest mass of electron, proton and neutron are as =9.10953%10" "kg = 5.48580x10a.mu Proton (m, ) =1.677265%10"" kg = 1.0072765 amu Neutron (m, ) = 1.67495 x10” kg = 1.008650 amu. Electron (m, © Binding energy and stability of nucleus: If Eg >0, ic. positive, the nucleus is stable and energy from outside is to be supplied to disrupt the nucleus into its constituents separately. If however, Ey <0, i.e. negative, the nucleus is unstable and will disintegrate of itself. The E,-value is a measure of the stability of the nucleus. More the E,, more isthe stability. ‘@ Mass defect and packing fraction: + Mass defect: The difference between the measured atomic mass M(A, Z), expressed in u, and the mass number A of a nuclide is called the mass defect, AM'ic. AM'=M (a, Z)-A ‘The mass defect of “He = (4.002603 —4)a.m. +¥0.002603 a.m.u. and that of ’O = (15.994915— 16) a.m.u. = -0,005085 a.m.u. The mass defect can therefore be both positive and negative. It is found that the mass defect is positive for very ight and very heavy atoms, and it is negative in the region between the two. + Packing fraction: It is defined as the mass defect per nucleon in the nucleus. 4M’ _ M(A,Z)~A__M(A,Z) A A A ‘The binding energy per nucleon Ey /A or f, (binding fraction) is given by Ey _ ZMy+NM,~M(A,Z) f= Eee (4,2) A A @ Binding fraction vs mass number curve: =] => M(A,Z)=A(I+f) Ea/A (MeV por rucieen) 0816-2530" 600 150 160 180 10 240 s— Figure: Binding fraction curve Ce 1.0: 2A in Sra, Near 11T, New Dei 16, Ph OV-26451008, 20861009 wow carcerendeavourcom BESS 8.0.:45, First Floor, Mal Road, GTB, Nagar (Metro Gate No.3), Delh-09, Ph: O11-65462244, 95402929913 +, isvery small for very light nuclei and goes on increasing rapidly with increasing A and reaches a value ~ 8 MeV/nucleon for the mass number A~ 20. Thereafter the rise of the curve is much slower, reaching a maximum value of 8.7 MeV per nucleon for A = 56. IfA is increased still further, the curve decreases slowly. + “The variation in f, is very slight in the mass number range 20 < A < 180 and in this région f, may be considered to be tally constant with a mean value ~ 8.5 MeV/nucleon. + ForA> 180, that is, for heavy nuclei, the f;-value decreases monotonically with increasing A and it is~ 7.5 MeV/nucleon for the heaviest nuclei. + A rapid Huctuation in f, is noted for very light nuclei with peaks in the curve of this region, corresponding to even-even nuclei, such as “He, *Be, C, "60 ie., with mass number A= 4n, where n= 1, 2, 3, w= Peaks in the curve are also seen at Z or N equal to 20, 28, 50, 82, 126. These are called magic numbers. @ Nuclear size: + Experiments indicate that the majority of atomic nuckii are spherical or nearly so in shape. The radius R of various nuclei is approximately given by R = 1A", where A is the mass number and r,,a constant called nuclear radius parameter. The value of r, ranges from (1.1-1.5)*10"* m, ie. (1. 1.5)F. + Since nuclear charge parameter 7 cc A and the nuclear charge density p, is nearly the same throughout the nuclear volume, the distribution of nuclear charge +-Ze follows the pattern of nuclear mass distribution. Hence charge ss radius, of the nucleus. + The size of the nucleus was first estimated from Rutherford’s ct ~ ray scattering by various atoms. ‘The larger the angle of scattering of a ~ particle closer is its approach to the nucleus. If the kinetic energy of «particles be equal to the repulsive coulomb energy between o.— particle (of chirge 2c, mass ‘m’ and velocity ‘V’) and the nucleus (of charge Ze), it would momentarily come to rest such that the distance of closest approach R is given by ; 2 1 iv? = 20xZe. => R=—Ze 2 Ane R me) mv? + The mean squared radius (?) of nuclear charge distribution is given by (e) fPanp(r)ar [ior 3. Fanro(yar far 5 for a uniformly charged sphere of radius R, P = constant and p=0 forr>R. @ Nuclear density: nuclear mass ‘The nuclear density, py can be estimated from the relation, PX ~ > sctear volume © Nuclear magnetic moment: Nuclear magneton: Am electran possesses a magnetic moment, associated with it due to its angular momentum in =9.2x10 J/tesla 7 woe . “h discrete orbits and is given by 1 Bohr magneton, Hy i.e. Bp = z In analogy, there is associated with a nucleon, a nuclear magneton given by ch nm, 05x10" J/tesla By BATH, Sia Sarai, Near INT; New Dubi-¥6, Ph: O11-26851008, 26861009 wowcarecrendcavourcom “5, First Floor, Mall Road, GTB. Nagar (Metro Gate No. 3), Dethi09, Ph; OT-G5462244, 95402929914 + The nuclear magneton is thus 1836 times smaller than the Bohr magneton and is also called Rabi ‘magneton, + The magnetic moment of a proton is not 1 nuclear magneton; it has instead a moment +2.79}ty . ‘The positive sign indicates that the direction of the magnetic moment vector, ji, coincides with that (ofthe angular momentum vector 7. + The neutron has no net electric charge. But ithas also a magn moment equal to ~1.91p1.. The negative sign points out that the direction of angular momentum vector T is opposite to that of the ‘magnetic moment vector ji. + Thenet magnetic moment ji of a nucleus depends onthe resultant total angular momentum of the rucleus, { and is given by ji= 7] =guy1-, where y is the product of the gyromagnetic ratio “g” and the maclear magneton Uy. ‘@ Electric quadrupole moment: Ifa nucleus is not spherically symmetric in shape, its deviation fiom spherically can be expressed by what is called electric quadrupole moment Q. Let a nucleus of charge number Z. be deformed fiom a spheroid to an ellipsoid shape with the major axis 2a perpendicular to the symmetry axis and minor axis 2b along the axis of symmetry. The quadrupole moment Q of such deformed nucleus is Q=2z(s?-v") IFR be the average nuclear radius, AR the deviation of R from the direction of symmetry axis then 8 7p2( SR o~Szn'() If p(x, y,z) be the volume density of charge of the nucleus with its centre of mass at the origin, so that ;? =x? + y? +2”, the quadrupole moment Q is defined from the electrostatic energy from interaction of electric potential and charge density as, Q -t J(a2?-P)pae ‘here the integration is carried out over the entire volume of the nucleus, and “e” is the charge of the proton; the nucleus is assumed to have a symmetry axis along z 5 é ® Figure: Electric quadrapute moment (a) spherical charge distribution (Q = 0) (©) Prolate spheroid (Q> 0) {©} Oblate spheroid (QO) for a spherically symmetric nucleus. + For anucleus in the shape of a prolate spheroid (the charge distribution stretched in the 2~ ‘irection) a> b and the quadrupole moment Q > O(positive). * Fora nucleus in the shape of an oblate spheroid, however, the charge distribution is perpendicular to z-direction and b> a. This makes Q <0 (negative) for such nucl + Qis usually measured in barns i.e. 1 barn = 10" m*. stretched5 > The magnitude of Q mostly les in the range 10 to 10™ m? and depends on the radius and charge of the nucleus and its deviation from spherical symmetry. Spin angular momentum: Both the proton and the neutron, like the electron, have an intrinsic spin, ‘The spin angular momentum is computed by Z, fig me where the quantum number 1 is 5 called the spin which is equal to 1/2. Hence spin angular momentum has a value L, = Sh i @ Nuclear spin: (Total angular momentum) ‘The spin of a nucleus is the resultant of the spins ofits constituent nucleus-protons and neutrons. Ittums out that the spins of protons and neutrons can be represented, like that of an electron, by the same quantum number 1/2. The total angular momentum J of'a nucleus is also loosely called the ‘spin’ of the nucleus, but itis different from the spin angular quantum number. The total angular momentum of a nucleus can bbe computed from the multiplicity and relative spacings of spectral lines in an applied magnetic fill. Ifa nucleus with total angular momentum T be placed in an externally applied magnetic field, the ‘magnetic quantum number m, have values ranging from +1 to—I and thus split the energy levels into 21+ sub-levels. The transitions between these sub-states may be used to estimate I from the multiplicity of the spectral lines. A Se i a ‘Total angular momentum , [i,, (i, +1).—-+ This is called nuclear spin. ily De © Parity of nuclei A particle mo 1g with a large velocity can be quantum mechanically associated with a wave and the wave motion can be described by a wave function y(x, y,z) which depends on the space coordinates (x,y,z). w(-x,-y,—z) = +w(x,y,2)...even (+)parity w(-x,-y, -z) =-w(x,y,z)...odd (-) parity ‘The parity 1 is determined by the orbital quantum number ¢ = the parity is even and for / = odd, the parity is odd. =(-1)', so that for ¢ =0 or even, © Rutherford’s ray scattering: Figure: Path of a-particles during scattering by a nuclues “b’ iscalled the collision (or impact) parameter which is defined as the minimum distance to which the «particle would approach the nucleus if there were no force between them. L080 _ sind 6 q=b beotS, b= ktanO= kot 6/2 TO. 28-A/I1, Jia Sarai, Near-i1T, New Delbi-16, Ph: O11-26851008, 26861009 www.careerendeavoursom 48, First Floor, Mall Road, GIB. Nagar (Metro Gate No.3), Delhi-09, Ph: O11-65462244, 9540252991where k = ZeE /4ne,Mv?, E = charge of o.— particles and the angle of scattering 4 2 + Probability of deviation of «— particlesper unit solid angle, OT ae sin Solved Examples Example-1: Calculate the binding energy in MeV of ‘He from the following data: Mass of “He = 4.003875 a.m.u; Mass of !H = 1.008145 a.m.u and mass of a neutron = 1.008986 a.m.u. Soln. ‘He nucleus contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons. So, mass of the constituents, = 2(1.008145 + 1.008986)a.m.u, = 4.034262 a.m.n. But mass of He nucleus = 4.003875 a.m.u. (4.034262 - 4.003875) = 0.030387 amu. Binding energy, Ey = 0.030387 x931 MeV = 28.29 MeV Example-2: The mass of the hydrogen atom and of neutron are 1.008142 and 1.008982 a.m.u. respectively. Calculate the packing fraction and the binding energy per nucleon of “O nucleus. Soln. ™O nucleus consists of 8 protons and 8 neutrons. Mass of constituents = 8(1.008142 + 1.008882)a.m.u. Mass of "0 nucleus = 15,994915 ama, Mass difference (loss) = 0.142077 a.m.u. Binding energy, E, = (0.142077*931) a.m.u. = 132.27 MeV Mass defect, AM =M(A,Z)~A =(15.994915 ~16)am.u,= 0.005085 amu, 6.136992. amu, =0,005085/16 =3.178%10+ Example-3: The radius of $Cw nucleus is measured to be 4.8 x 10cm. Find the radius of a 7? 4g nucleus. Packing fraction = AM/A Soln, We know that, R= RA"? Now, R, = RA,", 4.8 x 10" = R64)" So, R= A810" 1 2.19 4 Again, R= RA? = 1.2% 10Y 27)" = 3.6 x10" cm Example-4: Since 7/Si and 7] A] are mirror nuclei, their ground states are identical except for charge. If there ‘mass difference is 6 Mev, estimate their radius (neglect the proton-neutron mass difference) Soln. The mass-difference between mirror nuclei can be attributed to the difference in electrostatic energy. Now, the electrostatic energy of a charge Q distributed uniformly throughout a sphere of radius R'is W=3Q/5R Bente Be? 2 yan) __3he (e? aw==(2-Z3) = R= (14-13*)= S21 < ko So, 3a (2 2) saw! ) Saw (he) where ¢” /he= the fine structure constant = 1/137 x1.9710" 1 5x6 137 88x10" cm =388 fm7 Example: An c.— particle of energy 5 MeV is scattered through 180° by a fixed uranium nucleus. Calculate the distance of closest approach, Soin. The distance of closest approach is: ze 92x(1.6x10-) m megMy? —3.14x8.85x10? x2 5x1.6x10° 3x10 m Example-6: Calculate the binding energies of the following Isobars and their B.E/nucleon: Given agN™ = 63.9280 am.u, 95Cu = 63.9298 amu., My = 1.008665 a.m.u. and M,, = 1.007825 amu. Soin. Hence for »,Ni6: NMy + ZMyy = [36 * 1.008665 + 28 x 1.007825] a.m. a= 64.531 ~ 63.98 = 0.603 a.m.u. Hence, BE = 561.4 MeV and B.E / nucleon = 8.77 MeV. For yg Cu: NMy + ZM,=[35x1.008665 +29.1.007825]amu AM= 64.5272 - 63.9298 = 0.5974amu => BE. MeV Example-7: Find the energy release iftwo, ,H? nuclei can fuse together to form ,He* nucleus. The B.E/nucleon of ,EP and ,He! is 1.1 MeV and 7.0 MeV respectively. 64.531 amu 56.18 MeV and B.E/nucleon= 8.7 Sol. Number of nucleon in He! is 4, hence B.E for He* = 28.0 MeV Similarly BLE for ,H? = 2.2 MeV Energy equivalent of mass of ,He* nucleus = [{2M, +2M,}c? -28.0] Mev = E( He") Energy equivalent of mass of ,H? nucleus = [{M, +M, }e 22] MeV = E( ,}1*) AE 1E(,H?)~E(,He") = 23.6 MeV ‘Example-8: Find the binding energy of a nucleus consisting of equal no’s of protons and neutrons and having, the radius one and a half times smaller than that of AP” nucleus. Soln. Mass number of given nucleus = 8; Nucleus is Be a7 (3/2)° .E.= {(4x1.00867) + (4x 1.00783) ~ 8} x931.5 MeV =61.48 MeV (approx.) Example-9: The atomic mass of ,C!? is 12.00 amu and that of ,C? 13.00354 amu, find the energy required to remove a neutron from ¢C '3 in MeV. The mass of neutron is 1.008665 a.m.u. Sotn. The nuclear equation is gC'? > gC’? + on! The mass of 6C'? + gn! is 12.00 + 1.008665 = 13.008665 am Mass defect = 13.008665 ~ 13.003354 = 0.005311 amu Its energy equivalent = AE = 0.005311 931.5 = 4.95 MeV ‘Example-10: Calculate the binding energy of the last neutron in !SN7 and of the last proton in "S08, and contrast with the last neutron in !®N7 and in "608, ‘Soln. “From the CRC handbook, we know that MCH')=1.0078amu, m, =1.0087amu, M("'N")=14.003}amu, M('N7)=15.0001amu, M("N")=16.006]amu, M('* O*) =15.0030amu,3) M(%O")=15.9949amu, Using these values and the conversion between “amu” and “MeV” units, we can calculate the binding energy of the last neutron in !5N7_ BE. =-(M("N7)+ m, -M(°N"))c? = (14.0031 + 1.0087 -15.0001)amu x = -0.0117%931.SMeV /c? xc? = -10.8985MeV Similarly, the binding energy of the last proton in '50* is BE. =-(M(“N1)+M(H')-M(PO')c* =~(14,0031+1.0078~15.0030)amu xc” =-0,0079x931.5MeV xc? =-7.3588MeV Furthermore, the binding energy for the last neutron in ¥®N7is given by BE. =-(M(N")+m,-MCN"))c? ~(15.0001 +1.0087-16,0061)amu xc? =0,0027931.5MeV /c? xc? = ~2.5150MeV Finally the binding energy of the last neutron in '608 is BE. =-(M("0*)+m,-M(SO"))c* =+(15.0030+1.0087—15.9949)amu xc? 15.6492MeV 0.0168 931.SMeV/c? x0? = ‘Example-11: Chlorine-33 decays by positron emission with a maximum energy of 4.3 MeV. Calculate the Soln. radius of the nucleus from this. ‘The decay scheme is ,CI° ,, S? + ye"+v4 By When the positron emits with a maximum energy, the neutrino energy willbe 2er0 and the daughter nucleus S*3 will be formed in the ground state. 3 Same, R, -1.80MeV 5 ee Soule or Ry Se x6 lx oxlO™ 41x10" meter =4.54x10'm Jia Sarai Near Floor, Mall Road, GT.B. Nagar (Met ‘New Dethi-16, Ph 011-26851008, 26861009 wp.careerendeavourcom Gate No.3), Delhv09, Phe D1-65462244, 9540292991Chapter-2: Nuclear Models @ Liquid drop model: The liquid drop model of the nucleus was first proposed by Niels Bohr and FKalcar in the year 1937. They observed that there exists many similarities between the drop of a liquid and a nucleus. For instance, (i) both the liquid drop and the nucleus possess constant densi, (i) The constant binding energy per nucleon ofa nucleus is similar to the latent heat of vaporization ofa liquid, (Gil) The evaporation of a drop corresponds to the radioactive properties of the nucleus, and (jv) The condensation of drops bears resemblance with the formation of compound nucleus, etc. + According to this model, the nucleus is supposed to be spherical in shape in the stable state with radius R = mA", just asa liquid drop is spherical due to symmetrical surface tension forces. The surface tension effects are analogous to the potential barrier effects on the surface of the nucleus. + The density ofa liquid drop is independent ofthe volume, ass the case with the nucleus. But does depend + Like the nucleons inside the nucleus, the molecules in the liquid drop interact only with their immediate neighbours. + The non- independence of the binding energy per nucleon on the number of nucleons in the nucleus is analogous to the non-independence of the heat of vaporization of liquid drop on the size of the drop. + Molecules in aliquid drop evaporate from the liquid surface in raising the temperature of the liquid due to their increased energy of thermal agitation. Analogously, ifhigh energy nuclear projectiles bombard the nucleus, a compound nucleus is formed in which the nucleons quickly share the incident ‘energy and the emission of nucleons occurs. + The phenomenon of nuclear fission is easily explained asthe spliting ofthe liquid drop into two more or less equals parts if set into vibration with sufficient energy. ‘© Semi-empirical binding energy or mass formula: CY. Weizsacker, a German physicist, proposed the following semi-empirical formula for the nuclear binding energy B.E. (in MeV) for the nucleus (Z, A) (a2)? (An2zy 8 A at 7.80, a, = 0.71,a, =22.7 and =33.6 are in with the constants having the value, a, = 15.75, a, MeV. (Volume energy: ‘The first term, Ey =a,A, is the volume effect representing the volume energy of all nucleous. The more the total number of nucleons A, more difficult it becomes to remove an individual nucleon from. the nucleus. Since the nuclear density is nearly constant, the nuclear mass is proportional to the nuclear volume, which again is proportional to R?. But Rc A'? => R? cc A. So, the volume energy E,cA.=> Ey=a\A “This energy conesponds to the amount of heat energy the heat of vaporisation) required to transform a liquid to its vapour state being proportional to the mass of the liquid. ican IVT, New Da ‘Road, (6, Ph 011-26851008, 26861009 wvwearcerendeavourcom 1B, Nagar (Metro Gate No.3), Delb-O9, Ph: 011-65462244, 9540202G® Gi) Surface energy: ‘The second term, E, =a,A, is the surface effect being similar to the surface tension in liquids, like the molecules on the surface of liquid, the nucleons at the surface of the nucleus are not completely surrounded by other nucleons. It results in reducing the total binding energy due to ‘nucleons on the surface, This correction due to surface energy E,, which is proportional to the surface area of the nucleus i.e. to 42R? ie. B, & R? > Beak = ii) Coulomb energy: The third term, E,, is the Coulomb electrostatic repulsion between the ‘charged particles in the nucleus. Since each charged particle repulses all the other charged particles, this term would be directly proportional to the possible number of combinations for a given proton number Z, which is Z(Z-1)/2. The energy of interaction between protons is again inversely proportional to the distance of separation R, so the energy associated with Coulomb repulsion is: ZY _, 22-1) (2) ( * R HAs A (ve quantity) iv) Asymmetry energy: The fourth term E, originates from the asymmetry between the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus. Nuclear data for stable nuclei indicate that for lighter nuclei, the number of protons is almost equal to that of neutrons: N= Z. As A increases, the symmetry of proton and neutron number is lost and the number of neutrons exceeds that of protons to maintain the nuclear stability. This excess of neutrons over protons, i.e. NZ, is the measure of the asymmetry and it decreases the stability or the B.E. of medium or heavy muclei, So, E,«(N~Z),and E, <(N-Z)A (x-2)? (A-22z)" (») Pairing energy: ‘The last term, a pure corrective term, is called pairing energy E, even | even | even even | odd | odd ‘odd | even | odd 8 ey 0 0 odd | odd | even | 35 Binding fraction, f, = P= a, _aZ(Z-1) A as ah Mass of nucleus, $M=ZM,+(A-Z)M, -BEJc? 0228-0 Ii BSS B.02 48, First Foor, Mall Sarai, Near j New Delhi 16, Ph: O1-26851008, 26861009 wowwaareerendeavourcom TEB. Nagar (Metro Gate No.3), Delhi09, PR O11-65462244, 9540292991GD =2M, +(A-Z)M,—“| agA~a,a% 22-1) 5 AS ‘The above formula is known as the semi-empirical mass formula, Assuming, Fy =A(M, ~a, +,)#a,A% p=—4a,-(M,, M,); 0-4 (2,4% +42) = M(A,Z)=F, +pZ+qZ? aM | =p+2qZ=0 atZ (2), pee “ Za» whence, we get _p_(My~My +4a, )A = 2q aan’ +4, > In most cases, the value of Z nearest to Z,, gives the actual stablest nucleus for a given A. =Ai( 198+ 001sa%) @ Shell model: ‘The large binding energy of He-nucleus (cc — particle) suggests that 2 protons and 2 neutrons form a stable nuclear configuration. Taking the clue from the chemical stability of closed electron sub- shells and shells in atoms, the physicsts enquired if nucleons too form simiiar closed sub-shells and shells in nuclei, ic., if protons and neutrons in a nucleus are also arranged in some type of a shell structure. + Points in favour of shell model: ‘The main points in favour of the idea of the shell model are 1. Justas inert gases, with 2, 10, 18, 36, 54,.... electrons, having closed shells show high chemical stability, nuclei with 2, 8, 20, 50, 82 and 126 nucleous-the so called magic numbers of the same Kind (cither proton or neutron) are particularly stable. (Nuclei with Z=N = a magic number are said to be doubly magic.) 2. ‘The number of stable isotope (Z. = constant) and isotones (N= constant) is larger with respective ‘number of protons and neutrons equal to either of the magic mumbers, e.g. Sn(Z = 50) has 10 stable isotopes, Ca(Z = 20) has 6; the biggest group of isotone is at N=82, then at N ~ 50 and N = 20. 3. The three naturally occurring radioactive series decay to the stable end product 2°*Pb with Z = 82 and N = 126 indicating extra stable configuration of magic nuclei. 4, The neutron absorption cross-section is low for nuclei with N= magic numbers like 50, 82 and 126, indicating reluctance of magic nuclei to accept extra neutrons in their completely filled shells. 5. Isotopes like 170, 97K and !37Xe are spontaneous neutron emittes when excited by preceding [—decay.. These isotopes have N = 9, 15 and 83 respectively. ie. N = (8 +1), (S0+1) and (82+1). One can interpret this loosely bound neutron as a valence neutrons which the isotopes emit to assume some magic N-value for stability. 6. Electric quadrupole moment Q of magic nuclei is zero indicating spherical symmetry of nucleus for closed shells. When Z-value or N-vaiue is gradually increased from one magic number to the next, Q increases from zero to a maximum and then decreases to zero at the next magic number. 7. The energy of cor B-particles emitted by magic radioactive nuclei is larger. 0.2 8° ATIT, ia Sarak, Near IVT, New DAE-1G, Phz O17 26851008 23R61009 worrcareerendeavour.com RSM .0.: 45, First Floor, Mam Road, GTB. Nagar (Metro Gate No.3), Delbi-09, Ph: O11-65462244, 9500292991G2) © Salient features (Assumptions) of shell model: + Inthe shell model, therefore, each nucleon in the nucleus is consitered asa single particle that moves, independently of others in the time-averaged field of the remaining (A~1) nucleons, and is confined to its own orbit unperturbed by others. In terms of Schrodinger’s equation, cach nucleon thus moves in the same potential V(r) which may be taken as an average harmonic oscillator potential ie. ® ale VP +o ke y=E 2m’ “2M YOY vee kr? . Schrodinger equation then becomes ( (n+ 2) E3 where N = oscillator quantum number = 0, 1,2, 3, ... $0 that in the harmonic oscillator model, all the energy states are equally spaced. The wave function y has both angular (orbital) and the radial part. + Each nucleon is supposed to have an orbital angular momentum l= [e(e+1)h where ?=0, 1, 2, 3y.nenen the nuclear orbital quantum number. + Each nucleon has also spin angular momentum |5|=./s(s+1)h where s=1/2 and behaves as an independent particle subject to Pauli’s principle that no two identical nucleons can be in the same quantum state. + The quantum mechanical rks for angulas momenta dictate that total angular momentum jh formed by vector addition of orbital angular momentum th and spin sh must be such that ‘(total angular 2 having the solution, E, dae momentum quantum number) is estricted to the following two vas: j= +> and j=£—> 1 ; Los The level j= 4+ corresponds to $ and @ parallel (17) to each other and j= 4 = 108 and afad gs Zieeae | aa il eub-lovela Thea Geil 2 z iyi] 3 Osa) 1|i| wp (nya)? _6 8 1 [2] of (dsj 2/0 | a Ca? 1| 2} se (ds) 12 20 Ts | 7 a) ia ala) 32 (2ps/2)* r|a} sf (la) 2]a| ap Crip}? a |« | op (gaz) 30 50 1) «| ae Cara 2\a| 52 asa) 2|2) 32 Gasp)? s|o| in G12)? i]s | ue (ihirya)!?_ 32 ee 1s [92 (Thay. 2|3| 7 Qf)" 2/3 | 52 Cea) 3|a| 32 (psa) aja | ap Gray? ris | wp Giga)! 44 126 Pig. Nucleon su-sels and sells B- ATA dia Sarai, Near INT; New Del 1 Floor, Mall Road, GT-B. Nagar (Metro Gate No. 3), DeIBFO, Ph: O11-65462244, 9540292991G3) 2 anti-parallel (t) to cach other. Empirically, it is found that the nuclear energy level with higher ‘7 always lies below that with smaller j. So, j= £+1/2 sub-level has a lower energy than j= @~1/2 sub- level, the former giving a more tightly bound nucleonic state. * Each sub-level can have a maximum of (2j + 1) nucleons of the same kind, for a given j. So it can house (2j+1) protons and (2j+1) neutrons. sepptel . 1 + For instance, for £=0, j=£4->=— and the number of nucleons in the eve] =2j+1=2x>+1=2 2 and the state is designated along with n-value as (Isy/2)*- Similarly, for €= ‘The number of nucleons in the two sub-levels are thus 2x3/2+1=4 and (2x1/2-+1) =2. The number sub-states are designed as (Ip,2)" and (Ipy2)* respectively. So the total number of nucleons in this level = 4 + 2= 6, + Success of shell model: 1. Itvery well explains the existence of ma; basis of closed shells. 2. The shell model provides explanation for the ground state spins and magnetic moments of the nuclei. ‘The neutrons and protons with opposite spins pair off'so that the mechanical and magnetic moment cancel and the odd or left out proton or neutron contributes to the spin and magnetic moment of the nuclei as a whole. 3. Nuclear isomerism, ic, existence of isobaric, isotopic nuclei in different energy states of odd-A nuclei between 39-49, 69-81, 111 to 125 has been explained by shell model by the large difference in nuclear spins of isomeric states are their A-values are close to magic numbers. numbers and the stability and high binding energy on the + Limitations of the shell model: 1, The model does not predict the correct value of spin quantum number 1 in certain nuclei, ¢.g., 7/Na 1 2 2. The following four stable nuclei 7H, $Li, !°B and }*N do not fit into this model. 3. The model cannot explain the observed first excited states in even-even nuclei at energies much ower than those expected from single particle excitation, It also fails to explain the observed large quadrupole moment of odd-A nuclei, in particular of those having A-value far away from magic numbers. where the predicted value is 1 = 5/2 while the correct value is + Quadrapole moment: 3(2I-1) 2 5\ 2142 * Inthe even Z-odd N nucleus, the protons couple to J = 0 and neutrons to J = angular momentum of the whole nucleus is } = J. Q= |. Thus the resultant In an odd Z-even N nucleus J = J, In an even-even nucleus } = 0 For odd-odd nuclides the angular momentum J is given by Nordheim’s rules can be stated as:1 +4 and Je =!-4 or the reverse, IED=1J,-J | (a) Strong rule: For j, L (b) Weak rule: For both j= ot or both j= Vip ~ Jn lISIED Si, + i, Above rules can also be written as: For NG, +in-4-1)=0 T=lip— inl 052)? Psa) Pia) here J, N=9 > 1s;2)° Pua)! WP ia) Oda)? T= \ip~ dnl + Exceptional cases: 1. For odd A nuclei which are heavier like 33s or {!Ni sometimes high spin state filled ‘outermost shel, SAs= (8 Ing (ng) dg) (255) (by) (5) Gs) 5 St eben (sx) (154) 2. Incase of Idy,1f,.18y- filled to extent of 3 nucleous. The nucleus outside. up frst. = T BNalid, >[r] >| pp] p v ‘Actually happens Should ve been this ee 1 3 3. For sr'Pb =>spin=> instead of 1=3 as predicted by shell ede. Energetically favourable to have 3 py, state instead of | Liy —> paring energy is larger for larger value. + Magnetic moment of nuclei. Lfij=4™(g,2+2,3); where, =" itis [ey EBERT Resa Rear New Do .7o 01 2CESTOERSIOW wicrernlcownzom 1B.0.: 48, First Floor, Mall Road, GT.B, Nagar (Metro Gate No.3), Deii-09, Ph 11-65462244, 9540292991Gs) Proton: Be=he,=6, =5.58; ‘Neutron: 8-=0, 8, =8, =-3.82 reese Dog (eden) 25(5+1) 4 ‘These relations taken in graph called Schmidt lines. oad proton od neutron oe + i 4 We ae 2 520 | n(p)=30, —_n(N)=37, one unpaired neutron. (sy) (mz) () (6) se) (0 (5) (20x) (5g) Ground state spin 1 = 5/2 and parity = (—1)!= 2 Bi] n(p)=83,,_ n(N)=126 and parity=—1 unpaired p> (Ihy,) 2 i : = j+2.99 forj=e++=j-2.292. 54299 forj= 045 = j-22955 Here, FT, New Delhi 16, Ph 011-26831003, 76901009 wwrncareerendeavourscom 'No.3), Delhi-09, Ph: O11-65462244, 9540292991‘Quadrapole moment: E 23) .2x(200)4 x10)’ =-0.176 Bam Collective Model: + Liquid drop model fails to explain spin, magnetic moment, magic number. + Shell model can not explain deviation of magnetic moment from schmidt limit and large quadrupole moment of certain nuclei and fission and fusion. + A muckeus consist of central CORE and some extra nucleons around the CORE. CORE consists ‘of number of nucleons equal to the magic number. Magic No. Nucleus. ‘The loose nucleons outside the CORE have large centrifugal force on the CORE. If their number is large, they are able to deform the CORE. The total energy of deformed nucleus can be written as: E=E, +Ey +E, E,—- due the extra nucleons Ey ~ Vibrational motion E,, ~ Because of rotational motion. ‘The rotational energy is Eq © M(141) Where I= spin of the rotational state, R Solved Examples Example-1: Ifthe masses of $3Ca, $\Ca and 33Ca are 39.962589 a.m.u, 40962275 a.m.u and 38.970691 Soln. ‘a.m.u. respectively, calculate the energy difference between Id, and Ifyy» neutron shells. ‘Ca-39 has one neutron missing in the Idy/. shell; Ca-40 completes this shell and Ca-41 adds a neutron 10 Ifyjp shell. ‘Therefore, BE. of Idzyp neutron in Ca-40 is: By = (Mgy +My ~Myy)c? = (38.97069 + 1.008665 -39.962589)931 MeV = 0.016766%931 MeV =15.61 MeV B.E. of Ifyj» neutron in Ca-40 is: By = (My +Mn—May)o? = (39.962589 + 1.008665 — 40.96225) x93) MeV = 0,008979%931 MeV = 8.36 MeV ‘Therefore, the energy separation jp is the difference B, ~B, B,—B, =15.61-836=7.25 MeVExample-2: Predict (i) ground state spins, (ji) parities and (fi) the magnetic moments of 2 Al, 3S and {!Ar. AL: 13P (1,2) (Iya) (Ipv2) (Ida) Som 14N~ (1542) (0Paa) (lpia) (sa)® Parity = (-1)? = +1, even parity. [t= 0,1,2, 3, ..for 5, p,d,f,.....states respectively and parity = cn] BS: 16P~(15ya)(Ips2) (tPr2)* (Isa) (2542) LIN=(15y2) (P32) Pre) (dy) (252) (dae) J=jye=2 Parity =(~1)° = +1, even parity War = 187-05) nal vos} (285) son} foe} fm) Oa} fm) fs) J=43e=3 Parity = (-1)° = ~1, odd parity. ‘Example-3: Find the total angular momentum and parity for the ground state of 32S nucleus, using the shell ‘model, and also its electric quadrupole moment from the collective model. 27 te tr Noy Son. Bs: sor-(1] (».) {1} 1) (2) Vala: a7 Mr Rr Na rm-[is} (») (5) ws) (»] (x) Dalal Cs ‘The total angular momentum or spin of the nucleus }35 is the total angular momentum of the last unpaired neutron. os J5=3/2; =2 ford state Parity =(-1)' = +1, even parity ‘The electric quadrupole moment, Q of a nucleus with spin J is given, according to collective model, by (2 fe s\ar42)° where Ry =1.2%A/4 fm =1.2x(33)4 «10m (sine A~33 here) Q Near if, New Dahit6, Phe Road, GT.B. Nagar (Metre Gate No. 3), DeIBEO9, PR 26851008, 26861009 worcareerendeavourcom 65062244, 95402929913 (El poner 3 x42, xD =~0.0355%10°% m? =~0.0355 bam (1° 1barm = 10° m?) ‘Example-4: Compute the binding energy of the last proton in a nucleus of C ifthe mass of "C-nucieus is, Soln, Example-5: Establish the relation A= 2Z for light nuclei using the semi-empiric Soln, 12.0052 was a.m.u, and the mass of the "B-nucleus is 11.01006 am.u. The mass of proton is 1.00759 am.u On the addition ofa proton, the "B-nucleus is converted into "°C nucleus. The excess of mass of "C over "Bis: 12.00052 — 11.01006 = 0.99046 a.m.u. ‘The mass of proton is 1.00759 a.m.u. Thus the proton, when added to the nucleus, suffers mass loss. Mass loss, Am =1.00759—0,99046 = 0.01713 amu. ‘Equivalent energy, AE = 0.01713%931 = 15.95 MeV Binding energy of the last proton= 15.95 MeV. al mass formula, given ).71 MeV, a, =22.7 MeV, M({H) =1.0078, M(n) = 1.0086 unit ‘The mass M ofa nucleus of mass number A and charge stumber Z according to the semi-empirical formula, is given by M=ZMy+(A-Z)M, - For odd A nuclei, we have E; = 0 ‘The mass of the most stable nucleus in a family of isobars is given by the condition (9M/Z),, > (e/a), =(My—-M,)e? 420,240, A=?) Me 22 z Eta O22 2, -my)e 4s) 2 22| 2-442 | (aM, - Myo? + 4a, = 2p) -O4,-m eet aah ++4a,)=(M, ~My)? + 4a, Or, 7 ipNear IT, New Dart, 51008, 26561009 wowecareerendeavourcom 15-048, First Floor, Mall Road, GT.B. Naga (Metro Gate No. 3,Dutht09, Ph: 011-65462248, 9540292991G@) ‘Now, 0.71 MeV, a, =22.7MeV. a, /4a, = 0.0078 and (My Myc? /4a,, = 0.0082 =A j}_140.0082 1 A tor tight nucle. teo0078a%] 2 ©. A=2Z, for light nuclei. Example-6: Using the semi-empirical binding energy formula, calculate the binding energy of $9Ca. Sotn. The semi-empirical binding energy formula is: 2 2(Z-1) _ i (A=2z/) 8A v4 a 7.80 MeV, a, = 0.71 Me a, = 22.7 MeV and 8=34as A = even=40, BE.=a,A% where a, =15.75 MeV, a, even=20 7.80% 407 =17.80%11.696 =208.2 MeV a,A=15.75%40= 630 MeV; a,A% 4x 0,063 = 2.14 MeV BE. = 630—[208.2+84.3—2.14] = 339.64 MeV ‘Example-7: Using the semi-empirical binding energy formula, find the atomic number of the most stable nucleus for a given mass number A. Hence explain which is the most stable among $He, $Be and $Li Soln. Writing E, for binding energy, aaa a where, Z(Z~1) = Z? has been taken. Now, for most stable nucleus, E, must be maximum for a given mass number A, ic., (2) 8a,A7Z=2a,APZ5 24a, aah) A A 20,4 4Z.4-40, (A ~2Z)A"=0 2a,A 2+(a,/2a,)A% 240.015 A’ Substituting the values ofa, and a, Sit BEATIN, Ss Sarai, NearHITy New DeIhi16, Ph: O11-26851008, 26861009 wwwcareerendeavour'com 48, First Floor, Mall Road, GT.B. Nagar (Metro GateNo.3), -65462244, 9540292991Go) for which 0.015 A is negligible and Z = A/2. This shows that of the He, Be and Li are al fight nuc three nuclei, $Li is most stable. Example-8: Show, by way of computation, which nuclei you would expect to be more stable: 3Li or SLi; {Be or }°Be Son. For a given mass number A, the atomic number Z. of the most stable nucleus is: ud 1 8 8 8 A=8,Z=—— = = a 240,15x8% 20.060 2.060 Since of the two Z-values, 3.4 is nearer to 3, the }Li nucleus is more stable, 9 9 9 9, Se 240.015x9% 2+0.065 2.065 Z= Again, for 436 for A= 10, Z 2+0.015x104 Since the two Z-values, 4.36 is nearer to 4, the 2 Be nucleus is more stable. Example-9: Consider a nuclear level corresponding to a closed shell plus a single proton in a state with the anguley: momentum quantum numbers /and j. Of course j= ¢+ 1/2. Let g, be the empirical gyromagnetic ratio of the free proton. Compute the gyromagnetic ratio for the level in question, for each of the two cases j= €+1/2 and j= ¢-1/2 Soln. According to the shell model, the total angular momentum of the nucleons in a closed shell is zero, so is the magnetic moment. This means that the magnetic moment and angular momentum of the nucleus are determined by the only proton outside the closed shell. As, Hy = Het Bs B= Bel + 8,8 ‘We have, Bhim elites) #+8-s!) 3 [Gee ee+I)-s(o+0)] SP 43-2) 1 iGanoso+1)-e(e+1)] (i+) +e(¢41)-s(s41) , iG+1)+5(s+i)-£(e+1) 2i(5+1) & 250+) For proton, g, =1, 8, =p the gyromagnetic ratio for free proton (€=0, With 1 7 Hence we have ).s for j= e+4!2 for j= 0-1/2 HO 25-N1, Jia Sarai, Near IT, New Delhi-16, Ph: O11-26851008, 26861009 worcarecrendemvour com 'B.0.: 48, First Floor, Mall Road, GT.B- Nagar (Metro Gate No.3), DeINi-9, Pk 11-65462244, 9340292991(ex8) The simplest model for low-lying states of nuclei with N and Z between 20 and 28 involves only £7/ 2nucleons. Example-10: Using this mode! in previous question, predict the magnetic dipok moments of $}Ca_and $!Se . Soin, “Ca has a neutron and *'Sc has a proton outside closed shells in state If,,..As closed shells do not contribute to the nuclear magnetic moment, the latter is determined by the extra-shell nucleons. The nuclear magnetic moment is given by 1 = gy where ‘j’ is the total angular momentum, j1, is the nuclear magneton, fora single nucleon in a central field, the g-factor is 1 =34+5, we have for Ca, Example-11: The band spectrum of y2 base on (©)" ground state. Ifthe energy of (2)" state is 44.7 KeV. Soln. What is the spin and parity of state having energy 5.25 KeV. Since E, ec I(I+1) E, =kI(I+1) k2(2+1) = EB, =k2x3 a) equation (2) d E_ 6 6 447 E i(I+l) 141) 525 6x525 = Wle="Gpen =P+I-2=0 => P491-81-72=0 => — I(1+9)-8(1+9)=0 => (I-8)(1+9)= 1248 Or [Lak Pr Example-12: The rotation energy level of an even-even nucleus are (0°) ground state, energy of 2°= 44 KeV and higher state energies are 146, 304, 514 KeV respectively for three exited state. Assign ‘New DelhiT6, Ph: 011-26851008, 26861009 wwwcareerende “48; First Floors Mall load, GT.B. Nagar (Metro Gate No, 3), Delbi09, Ph 01-€5462244, 9540292991,Soln. @ Eye I(1+1) = B,=KI(I+l) E, =k2x3 E=kI(I+I) ER 6 6 44 E 10+) > ide) 146 = W+)= 146 6x3.3=19.8=20 => Pai=20 => P+I-20=0 => I? +51-41-20 => 1(1+5)-4(1+5) => (I-4)=0 = [I=4 . (141) 146 _ 4(4+1) 20304 _3040 @® Bie 23071) > MDE => F+i=4164e42 > P+1-42=0 > P+71-61-42=0 => — 1(1+7)-6(1+7)=0 = (1+7)(7-6)=0 = |[1=6 E,_ (+l) 304__6x7 17+) > 314 (ry Example-13: The difference in the coulomb energy between the mirror nuclei :2Cr and {Mn is 6MeV. Soln, Assuming that the nuclei have a spherically symmetric charge distribution and that e* is approximately 1.0 MeV-fin. Find the radius of the {2 Mn mucleus. Kinetic coulomb energy of uniformly charged sphere of radius R is Ze 5-328 R According to the question, F, ~ Ey, =6MeV 3G6.— Zim?” — Gypey = p= 3 Ze Zin® 5 oR 6xSMeV .9 fm = 4.9 x 10° fin where Z,,=25 and 2,,=24 ‘Example-14: For what elements should stable isobars exist for (a) A = 97 and (b) A= 807 Soln. Semi-empirical mass formula for a X*-atom is, «M4 =M,(A-Z)+M,Z-a,A+a,A”" +a,Z(Z-N)A™? +4,(A-2Z) At 4a,4>* Substituting values of constants in terms of MeV, we have M4 = 939.6(A—Z)+938.82 -144 +134"? +0.602(Z =)? 4194-22) A344" For a most stable isobar23 (@M/AN),.,4 =-0.8+ 0.60(2Z, =I) -76(A-2Z,)4* =0 or Z, = 1684064" 4 401524124" For odd value of A, there should be only one stable isobar, the neighbouring isobars are wnstable and decay to stable isobar. for A= 97. 16.8-+0.6% (97) 15241297 07-424 Hence the most stable isobar is ,,Mo”. By similar calculations for A= 80, we get Z, = 35.32. Hence the most stable isobar will be ,,Br°. It is the case of Z-odd, N-odd. It has been discussed in theory that for even-A values, we get two parabolas due to the term tay A“. The odd Z, values are associated with upper and even Z-values with the lower. The possible stable isobars with Z-even values are ,,Se™ and ,,Kr". 102 28-Amm BO: 48,Chapter-3: Radioactivity and o,p,y Decays © Radioactivity: + Laws of radioactive decay (Disintegration): Atoms of every radioactive substance are constantly breaking imo ffesh radioactive products with the emission of a, B andy rays. (i) The sate of breaking is not affected by extemal factors (temperature, pressure, chemical combination etc.) but is based upon probability concept and depends entirely on the law of chance ic. the no. of atoms breaking per second at any instant is proportional to the number present. If there are N atoms of any substance at time ‘t’ and a number dN breaks in time dt @N =>R==N at at 2. «radioactive constant = ratio of the amount of the substance which disintegrates in a unit time to the amount of substance present on N dN ‘Then Rate of breaking R =AN = dt = loggN=-2t+e N Now whent=0, N=N, >la/=c = loge =o oat Now, Name = Gre -ANoe Ny = number of atoms at t= 0 and N= number of atoms left after time t, ie, No -N-> Converted to daughter . Growth of daughter = N~N=Np—Nge™ =p (1=-<°™!) Attime t ed a x zp the no. of atoms of radioactive substance left behind is given by N= Noe = No. e Hence the radioactive constant is also defined as the reciprocal of the time during which the number of atoms of a radioactive substance falls to 1/e of its original value. + Average life: The atoms of a radioactive substance are constantly disintegrating and then the life of every atom is different. The atoms which disintegrate earlier have a very short life and others which disintegrates the end have a long life. The sum of the lives of all atoms e fe = ee Total numberof atom Wa a Wehave => ~dN= ANAL = ANGe™Mat Total life of -dN atom =—1dN Since the possible life of any one of the total no, of atoms varies from 0 to a, the total life of all 40N. N, atoms is given by f° ; 1 Po tanet PangerMtat 4 pon Average, Tangy fP tae Pang Mat a PerMat 1.0.2 28-A/I1, Sia Sarai Near I, New Deni 16, Ph 011-26851008, 26861009 www-careerendeavourcom 'B.0- 48, First Floor, Mall Road, GT.B, Nagar (Motro Gate No, 3), Delhi-09, Phi: O11-G5462244, 940292991+ “Half life: We have N=Nje™ Athalttfe SP=Nye™™ 5 pest a + Relation between halflife and average life: Typ = 0.693T, + Units of Radioactivity: Sl unit Bacqurrel. 1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second 1 curie = 3.70 x 10!° disintegration per sec. 1 Rutherford = 108 disintegration per second. Twas © Activity or strength: ‘The activity or strength A, ofa radioactive sample at any instant ‘t’ is thus defined as the number of disintegrations occurring in the sarmple in unit time at that is, aN, at ‘The activity per unit mass ofa sample is called its specific activity. Activity, Ay Differentiating the decay equation, N, = Noe™*', with respect to time ~ANp . Hence from the relation (i) above Or, A= Age™ where, A, =dN,/dt and Ay = (AN, /dt), AA is called the activity or the strength of the sample and is proportional to the rate of disintegration. © ‘Theory of Successive Disintegration: Consider the equilibrium which is set up when radioactive body A disintegrate into a radioactive body B which disintegrated into a radioactive C. Let N, and N, be the no. of atom of A and B respectively present in the mixture after a time t and N,, the no. of atoms of A at start (t= 0) . If ‘Ay is the disintegration constant, then for A. => Ny =Nge** Every time an atom of A (called the parent) disappears, an atom B (called the daughter) is produced. Rate of formation of the daughter B= 2.Ny 8- ATH, ia Sarai, Near ATT, New Delbi-T6, Phi 011-26851008, 26861009 wwwicarcerenbeaveurcom First Floor, Mall Road, GTB. Nagar (Metro Gate No. 3), Delb-09, Ph: 011-65462244, 9540292991Rate at which B decays =A.Np ne ah, 7 - Hence the Net rate at which B is produced ="52= (48 —22No) = age —AgNp aN, 7 > gee FaNa = Ay Ngo Multiply both sides by ¢2t = Mott saga annyehn of nyotat] = ae = Notte When t= 0, N, = 0 > a -. hey Te? ote [eOee aa] ao nye nfort or! 2 Ne ao atmal ] + Secular (or permanent ) Equilibrium: IfA, the parent is very long lived i. halflife T, of A >> Half life T, of B, then 24 <<2z-lnsuch cases 2, can be neglected as compared to %, and e~*2' can be neglected as compared to e-*tprovided t is very large. Thus above equation becomes N2 = Ngo TT yp of A very large then ety = No=NyorNo=N5t 5 any =Aghy + Transient Equilibrium: IFT, of A is not very large as compared to the time during which we make observation, then et 44 and Aycan’t be neglected as compared to 22 Th en Bte tt NAL ny ange") = MS Ne=Ngg he PL bm ) ho dg + Radioactive displacement law: During a radioactive disintegration the nucleus which undergoes disintegration is called parent-nucleus and that which remains after the disintegration is called a daughter nucleus c-decay: When a radioactive nucleus disintegrates by emitting an ot-particle, the atomic number decreases by two and mass number decreases by four. It can be represented as 2X49, YO + Het Example: Radium (4 Ra®*) is converted to radon (,, Rn") due to o-decay as Ra > Rn? + He B-decay: When a radioactive nucleus disintegrates by emitting a B -particles, the atomic number increases by one and the mass number remains the same. It can be represented as 2X4 a se (ear-IVT, New DelbF16, Ph: 011-26851008, 26861009 wow:carcerendeavourcom (em F032 28-ANIT, Tin Sor -t Floor, Mall Road, GTB. Nagar (Metro Gate No.3), Delh-09, Ph: 11-65462244, 9540392991 fob:Example: Thorium (,,7%?) is converted to protoactinium (,, Pa) TB Pa +e Ata time, either o or B-particles is emitted: Both a and particles are not emitted during a single decay. ‘When a radioactive nucleus emits y-ray, only the energy level of the nucleus changes and the atomic number and mass number remain the same. ‘During a. or B decay, the daughter nucleus is mostly in the excited state. It comes to ground state ‘with the emission of -rays. Example: During the radioactive disintegration of radium (,, Ra”*) into Radon (,,Rn™), gamma ray of energy 0.187 MeV is emitted, when radon returns from the excited state to the ground state as shown below: Re aRn Solved Examples Example-1: A redioactive sample has its halflife equal to 60 days. Calculate its (i) disintegration constant, Soln. (i) Its average life, (i) the time required for 23 of the original number of atoms to disintegrate and (iv) the time taken for 1/4 of the original number of atoms to remain unchanged. (Since T,,. = 60 days, 1 =0.693/Ty» = 0.693/ 60 = 0.01155 day" (i) Since 2, = 0.01155 day, T =1/%=1/0.01155 = 86.58 days (iil) Number to be disintegrated = =Np. So, the number to remain unchanged 3 1 Thus, NINo= 3 Therefore, From the relation N= a = = x 0.01155 230260471 _ 95 1 days (iv) Here N/N, =~. So, from the decay law, 4 én 4 _ 2.3026x 0.6021 = 120d; X 0.01155 -‘Example-2: (a) A radioactive substance disintegrates for a time equal to its average life. Calculate the fraction of the original substance disintegrated. (b) The half-life of a radon is 3.82 days. What fraction of freshly prepared sample of radon will disintegrate in 10 days? = ance Soln, (a) Here T sinee, 0368 7 io ‘Therefore, Fraction disintegrated = 1~-0.368 = 0.632 0.693 _ 0.693 (b) Here Ty, =3.82 days and t = 10 days. Therefore, we have 2= a = =0.181 day! ie 3 NL orsnao _ Now, No => Fraction disintegrated halP-life of UX, is 24.1 days. How many days, after UX, has been isolated, will it take for 90% of it to change to UX,? Sola, Here Ty) =24.1 days => = 0.693/24.1=0.0287 day" Amount disintegrated = 90/100 > N/Np =10/100=1/10 Since, fm10 _ 2.3026%1 > = eames =80 0.0287” 0.0287 °° K-40 is 1.833108 years. Find the number of B— particles emitted per =1.2x10-7 ¢*1, Avogrado number = sec per g. of K-40, assuming 02 10. Soln. Let N, = Number of atoms of K-40 in 1g at t= 6.02100 /40 17 a JANG| ayy, = L210" 6.025107 at 40 =1.8x10° So, the number of particles emitted per g of K-40 is 1.8x10° Example-S: It is observed that 3.67% 10"? cx — particles are emitted per g of Ra- 226. Calculate the half-life of Ra-226. Avogadro number = 6.02310", Soln. 1g of Ra-226 = 6.023*103/226 atoms of Ra-226, Of these 3.6710" disintegrate per sec. So, the decay constant. 3.6710 _ 0.693% 6.02310 6.02310 /226 23.6710 x226 3=1595 years Example-6: A large amount of radioactive material of half-life 20 days got spread in a room making the level of radiation 40 times the permissible level of normal occupancy. After how many days would the room be safe for occupation. a 'B.0.: 48, First Floor, Mall Road, GT.B. Nagar (Metro Gate No. 3), Delb-09, Phz 011-65462244, 9540292991@9) Soln. Let after ‘t? days the room would be safe for occupation. So, in ‘t” days, the activity would drop down to 1/40 of its initial value. 6 (+ Tia = 40 days, 4=(0.693/20)dry") => fm 40-93, : y320%1.6021 0.693 0.693 ‘Therefore, room would be safe for occupation after 107 days. 06.4 Example-7: Calculate the amount of Ra-226 in secular equilibrium with 1 kg of pure U-238, given the half- lives of Ra-226 and U-238 as 1620 years and 4.5%10? years respectively. Soln, Let x in g be the required amount of Ra-226 in secular equilibrium with I kg of pure U-238. Now: 1 kg of pure U-238 = Sar 9 atoms of U . 6.0210 226 xx atoms of Ra xg of Ra-226 ‘The condition of secular equilibrium gives; [.,),~ (ia)g 6.02%10 x10? _ 6.0210 xx 238%4.5x10° 2261620 226%1620x10° x= 238x4.5x10" =34,18x10" g=0.34 mg Example-8: The Half life of U2 is 4.51 « 10° yrs. What %age of .,U? that existed 101° yeats ago still survives. son, 1= 2688 , 0898 vm tg 4.5108 If Ny = no. of atom of y,U%* excited 10!° year ago N = Ny. N Now esn nke wna t=10!ye > 2 ze" or og, Me =at ° 069310" 5 Jog, No __0.693%10 logy NO = at = 2893% 10 = 0.6673, 2802610910 = Me N ” 23026x45 N = Noe antitog0.673 = 4.648 = =-s0.215 N No % of 4,055 now present ‘Example-9: The half life of a radioactive substance is 5 hr. What will be its one third life time? 0.693 0.693 Nga Soln, Tyy= Shs. Tu2="5 => 4= 220.1986 perhouralso. 5-=e™ New Deliv 16, Ph: O11-26851008, 26861009 wirw.careerendeavourcom B.0.: 48, First Floor, Mall Road, GT-B. Nagar (Metro Gate No. 3), Delbr-09, Ph: O11-65467249, 9540292991, aS. Nu4 Tn this case 573 3026109103 1386 Hence, loge 3=2t or = 7.93 brs Example-10: The activity of certain radio nuclide decreases t0 15% of its original yalue in 10 days. Find its half life. Soln, Let N, be the original no. of nuclei and N left behind after 10 days. If 2 is the radioactive constant, 4 oq, 108. 4 100 = Amd og, 192 = § 2.3026 logo 2% 700% 15° 10 'em10%5 6931 2.8931 3.65 a 0.1897 sod + Velocity of o.-partictes: Let ‘v’be the velocity ofthe «1 particles, M be itsmass, q the charge, ‘1? the radius of the track and B the magnetic field, then v = Bgr/M.. + Range of «-particles: “The distance through which an c.— particle travels in a specified material before stopping to ionise it is called the range of cc-particles in that material. The range is thus a sharply defined ionisation path-length, The range depends on (i) The initial energy of the o:~ particle, (i) the ionisation potential of the. ‘gas and (iii) the chances of collision between the — particles and on the nature and the temperature and pressure ofthe gas. With increase of pressure, the range decreases; it increases ifthe temperature of the gas increased. ‘The range R in standard air is proportional to v*, i.e. Rv? => R=av? The relation is known as the Geiger law, which is valid only in a limited velocity range. 1 2 Since Ro: v'and the energy mv”, the range-energy relationship is RoE? = R=bE*? + Specific ionisation: ‘The number of ion-pairs formed per unit path-length at any point in the path of the ct—particle is sation and is symbolised by 1. aE 1 Si perRS => Easel Since, R aR V + Geiger-Nuttal law: An important quantitative relation between the range R of the a ~ particles and the decay constant of the emitting nuclei was experimentally discovered by Geiger and Nuttall(1911) and is called the Geiger-Nutall law. The relation suns as: fnk=A+BEnR 16851008, 26861009 www carcerendeavour No.3), DeIne09, 65462248, 9SOU2DIIONwhere A and B are constants having values different for different radioactive series. sees a , () 2 Th-series “ay—> Ae-series nr igure: Variation of in 2. with InR: Geiger-Nuttall law Sine Racp% => tnk=C+DEnE where C, D are two constants. + ar-disintegration energy: $X > S9y+fHe The Q-value of the decay process is known as the o.— disintegration energy which is the total energy released in the disintegration process and is given by Q, =(My —M,, ~My )c? where M’s are the masses of the particles and ‘c’ the velocity of light in vacuum, For heavy nuclei, Q, is positive, so the decay can occur spontaneously as it does. According to Jaws of conservation of momentum and energy. 0=M,Vq~Myvy ws sedate lat 1 2 M, ==M, 14% “Lael 4 cy F] enea-nef Where K.E. of a-particle = T,, As A~200 0 => ~Q Gamow explained the emission of a-particle from heavy nucleus using quantum mechanical tunnel effect and the transmission probability of a-particl is given as v, ‘Near-ITT, New Delhi 16, Ph 01126851008, 26861009 wow-carcerendeavour.com B.O.:48, First Floor, Mall Road, GT.B. Nagar (Metro Gate No. 3), Delhi 09, Ph: O11-G5462244, 9540292991G4) B-decay: Let‘v’ be the velocity of a given f— particle, B the magnetic flux density, ‘m’ the relativistic mass of the particle and ‘r’ the radius of the circular track. my mv ee x ey "Be 27g? Be B—decay , we write: 4x AY+ Se ‘The disintegration energy in "decay is: Q =[M, (A,Z)-M, (A,Z+1)—m, ]o? =[M(A,Z)-Zm,-M(A, Z+1)+(Z+1)m, —m, }c* (interms of atomic mass) =[M(A,Z)-M(A,Z+1) Jo? where M, is the nuclear mass, M the atomic mass and m, the mass of electron. Qy. > 0, if M(A, Z)> M(A, Z +1) implying that B~ decay occurs only if the mass of the parent atom is greater than that of the daughter atom. pr- decay: BX oh Y+ he = Q, =[M,(A,Z)-M, (A, Z-3}-m, |e? =[M(A,z)-Zm,=M(A,Z-1)+(Z-1)m,—m, Je =[M(A,Z)-M(A,Z-1)-2m, Je For pr~ decay to occur; Q,, > 0,if M(A,Z)>M(A,Z-1)+2m, i.e, the mass of the parent atom is greater than the daughter atom at least twice the electronic mass, ive. 1.02 MeV. Electron capture: BY4%eohyY Therefore, disintegration energy, Q. =[M, {A,Z}+m,—M, (A,Z~1) |c?-B, where B, is the binding energy of the electron to the orbit. Q. =[M(A,Z)-Zm, +m, ~M(A, Z=1)+(Z-1)m, ]c? -B, =[M(A,Z)-M(A, Z-1) Je? -B, For electron capture to occur: Q, > 0, if M(A,Z)>M(A,Z-1)+B, i.e. the mass of the parent atom is greater than that of the daughter atom by at least the binding energy of the electron, 1.0: 28-A71, Jia Sarai, Near 0248 Fi New Dal Floor, Mall Road, G7 (6, Ph: 011-26881008, 26861009 wwrw-careerendeavour.com "Nagar (Metro Gate No.3), Delhi09, Ph: 01-65462244, 9540292991Gs) + Selection rule for p*- decay: If &5 is odd, intial and final nuclei must have opposite parities (parity changes in these transitions); foreven £5 values the initial and final nuclei must have same parity (no change in parity). Furthermore, as in allowed transitions, the emission of leptons (electron and neutrino) in the singlet state (Femni- selection rule) requires Al < £,, whereas triplet-state (G-T selection rule) emission requires AI< éy +1. Thus selection rules for forbidden transitions are: First forbidden — For these transitions &; and parity changes. Fermi-selection rules: Al ==1, 0(except 0 0) Gamow Teller rules: AL= 22,1, of exept 0-» ot sh 08 ) The examples are: Baro BK +e (12> 3/2") GT. Moya Be 051 F Baars B° 32h Fs GTmixed 2 pa Plas (lx 1R*) + GT mixed 18 Pr BN + B° (12) +1) F+ GT mixed 17 Pm—> HATS + BO (U2 TD) F+ GT mixed Kr BRb+B™ (92-512) GT. Boro By +B" GR ur) GT. Wess lea’ +p RU) GT. Second forbidden. For these transition = 2 and no change in parity. Fermi-seketion rules: Al=+2,+1 (except 00) Gamow Teller rules: AL=43,+2 (except 0-22) ‘The examples are: BeoolflBaspr Rt + 3D) Fe GT mised Paes a4p oo | or FNa> jpNe+B" Cae + pdecay: In itno change in Z. and A. y-ray photons are emitted when the nucleus jumps from an excited state to the lower state (after 10-' sec). It is always not possible that when nucleus jumps from higher energy state to lower y-photon will be emitted. ‘Sometimes the nucleus in higher energy state directly give energy to the atomic e- and hence an © may come out rather than a y-ray photon. This process is known as internal conversion and the € so emitted is called as conversion e-+ Selection rule for 7-decay: Type ‘Symbol [ Change in Angular momentum, L Parity change Electric dipole q 1 Yes Magnetic dipole |My 1 No Electric quadrupole [Ey 2 No Magnetic quadrupole |_ My 2 Yes Electric octupole_| Ey 3 Yes Magnetic octupole |My 3 No Electric 2' — pole E. is [No for L even. Yes for odd} Magnetic 2'—pole | M, L [Yes for L even. No for L odd] od % PSs Gees So, allowed transitions ae of folowing types: £2) 220° L + Pair production: ‘When a y-ray photon passes near to the nucleus and if its energy is equal or more than 1.02 MeV, then due to the electromagnetic interaction with nucleus it breaks up and a pair of e- and positron (Particle-antipariice) is created. This process is known as pair creation (or production). yore e' 2 2mye?(=1.02 eV) E, moc? mee’ + Itisnot possible in free space. (Because momentum is not conserve), ‘When nucleus get energy from outside it goes to high energy state, say there for shart duration of 10" (See Fig.1) and jump to ground state by any of the two process. ( Nucleus jump to ground state by emitting of a y-photon as shown in Fig2. In this case the energy of emitted y-photon is: hv = E, ~ Tigh enesy sites, B Low eneray states Intemal conversion Fig. Emission of y-photon Fie. Fig.2. (i Nucieus in higher energy state has surplus energy (E,~E,), gives this energy directly to the one of the atomic ¢* and jump to the ground state, The e which get the surplus energy, then comes out. (5, Ph: 011-26851008, 26861009 wnncareerendeavourcom “48, First Floor, Mall Road, GTB, Nagar (Metro Gate No. 3), DeIBEOD, Ph: O11-65462244, 9540292991G3) ‘The energy lost by nucleus or gained by e* is divided into two parts as given below. IE.- E,=E, + B. J 2B £ofe from nucleus. KE of emitted &* because the k-shell is near to nucleus, therefore more chances of emission of e~ are fom k-shell. Thus in this case equation (1) becomes, E-E,=E,+By E-E,=E,+By B-E,= Bay + Buy S Port sate" Also for M shell &. ‘Thus from (2). Ey, +Ba, Ea, +Ba, =Eay + Beng AS By >By >Bay > Es, BUY Bas BK +3 yp Mass of uranium => m(U)s235.04278u (mn) = 1.008660 (kr) =91.89719u m(Ba)=140,9129u Calculate energy released Q=[M(U) + mn) — m{Ba)~ (Kr) —3m( ne? Q=[235.04278 + 1.00866 ~140.9129-91.89719 31.0086] Q=0.21537ux931.5 200.6MeV Example-1: In a nuclear reactor Plutonium 2 Py is used as a fuel releasing energy by its fission into the Soln. isotopes of Ba and Sr through the reaction. Putin Bat Sr Syn B.E. / Nucleon for each of these nuck 7.6 8.2 8.6 MeV/nucleon Using this information find the number of such fission reactions / sec in a 100 MW reactor. Power = energy released per sec = 100 M watt Energy released in one sec. from the reactor = 100 = 10* Joule/sec _ 100MeV /sec 16x10" 200 MeV energy released = 1 reaction given as 1 MeV energy released = 3 16851008, 26861009 wonccareerendeavgurcom Metro Gate No.3 2991GD 100 1,100 Toxig® MeV energy releases = 599° 7 619% 00 ge = 1010 23.9 x 108 Sp nlo =39 10 Example-2: An atomic bomb consisting of "5U explodes and releases as energy of 10" J. It is known that Soln, ‘cach Uranium-235 which undergoes fission releases 3 neutrons and about 200 MeV energy. Further only 20% of *U atoms in the bomb undergo fission. Find total number of neutrons released and mass of **U in the bomb. Energy released = 10"J 200 MeV energy is released with —» 3 neutrons EJ 1 MeY energy is released with = 355 neutrons a _ -3,_10 10% Joule energy is released = ox eae 9.7 x 10® neutrons 1 atom is ”U undergoes fission = 200MeV 6.02 x 10 undergoes fission = 6.02 x 10° x 200MeV 235 em of undergoes fission = 6.02 x 10 x 200 MeV. Let the mass of ®5U in the bomb is x kg 2 ig of U 10 Joo Be Of 8U > 6.02 x 10 x 200 MeV energy released when amount of U consumed = 23Sgm 235x10°Kg. 6.0210" x 200x10° = 9.375 « 10 neutrons 1 MeV energy released when amount of U consumed = 23510" x10" a . het eee 10an Ue 10J MeV energy released when amount of U consumed = oe ag Peron 235x107 x10 100 ~ 6.02% 200%1.6x10 x10 x10" 100, 235x10" 20 ” 6.02%200x1.6x10" © x= 6.tkg] Explanation of nuclear fission on the basis of liquid drop model: In the nucleus, there is a ‘competition between nuclear forces which are attractive and repulsive forces (electrostatic) they try to tear apart, the nucleus. In heavy nucleus there is a delicate balance between these two. If we imagine the nucleus to be the drop of liquid then by absorbing a neutron or high energy proton the drop begins to vibrate, the shape of the nucleus changes rapidly back and forth from more elongates to spherical. When nucleus is streached to highly elongated shape, coulomb repulsion being long range will not be change appreciably while the nuclear force being short range is reduced significantly with sufficient streaching the centre becomes pinched off and nucleus will be spited into two pieces. ‘Unequal distribution of A = Asymmetric fission tion of A = Symmetric fission ‘The probability of symmetric fission is least, the syrnmetric fission becomes more probable. he excitation energy of compound nucleus is increased, [ay OLE DEAT, in Sara Near IT New Det Fh 01 25851008, 26RGIOOD wornsarerendeavourcom ES 5.0.248, First Floor, Mall Road, spar (Metvo GateNo.3), 16224, 9540292993Spontaneous fission: 3X > 3X, +2, M(Z,A)-M(Z,,A,)—M(Z,,A,)> 0 O>0 ‘The process will be spontaneous 2 Aa he Symmetric fission, Z, = Z, Condition M(Z,A)— ou(Z, 4)>0 ) al mass formula From semi- pi (4-22) M(Z, 4)= ZM, +(A-Z)M, —a,A-a,A +a, ant 5 ZA)\_Z (A-Z) A 4 bP? 22 (A~22)P 44 + M,—4, +4,7 57 +24, G2 G 3) 2 ar a Le) 44 fesze: (A/2-22/2)* ma-22)} A Ald 4A Condition a) a M(Z,A)~ au(Z, 4)- (eho lre =-0.260,4°” +0.370, > 0, 0.374, <> 0.260,A°” 0264, 7? 40374? a7 l78 z 8) symmetric spontaneous fission PE > 4550] Asymmetric spontaneous fission Fussion: Two or more nuclei fuse together to produce a heavy nucleus. eg, 7H +}H > {He (deuteron is the nucleus of deuterium) Q=B(a)-2BC H) f -> Binding fraction = 4x f.-2x2x fy =28,3MeV ~2x2.225MeV Mey 24 Energy released per nucleon (in fusion) = = 6 MeV While B.E. / nucleon = 1MeV (in fission) So B.E. / nucleon is more in fusion so fussion is more harm Condition: Temperature should be high for fusion, B.E/N (Fussion) > B.E./N (Fission) Mass of mass, fusion reaction gives more energy than fission reaction,Example-1: Find the threshold temperature above which the nuclear reaction? 3He-+3He > ‘He + 21H +12.86MeV can occur ? (Use 44x10" MeV met) ne, 3 E= SKI [k= 1.38 «10? UK] q= #20, q, = He r=2R =2R,A? r=2%12 «10% G8 21 4a 2xde? “3K 4ae, vr 3x138%10™J/ Kx 4ne, x2x1.2xl0™x@y™ 2x 4x1.44x 107% x1.6%10 x10° 10" 3x1,38x107 x2x1.2x10x144 4,968 1.28%10"K. = 1.288244x10" Solved Examples Example-1: A radio-nuclide emits c.— particles of energy 4.8 MeV and has a half-life 1620 years. Compute the velocity of cr — particles and the probability of «.—emission (Mass of 0. = 4.0026 amu. , radius of residual nucleus = 7.9*10-" m) Soln. The energy E,, of the a particles is, non-relativistically, given by 1 2x4.8x1.6x10 V4 4.0026%1.66%10"7 ‘Therefore, velocity, v= ( 516x107 ms Probability of a —emission. P=2/0, where 2. is the decay constant and «, the frequency of hitting the barrier of the nucleus. 0.693 oh ‘ heen 2/Ty = __-1 356 x10" a 7 ANN 1620x365 % 24% 3600 . And, @=v/2R,, where R is the radius of the nucleus. 1.516% 10" ms 20 1 There Peter MS = 9.6% 10S ereiors, 2x 79x10 1356x107"! Therefore, Probability of emission, 4x10 9.610" @40 ‘Example-2: Find the maximum height of the potentenail barier for o.- penetration through **U nucleus. The radius of the residual nucteus is 9,3x107? cm Sola. The Coulomb repulsion energy, U(r) = Z ze* / 4negt .The maximum value corresponds to a distance ., the nuclear radius. Zw 9ax2x(toxto) ; me) Ro 4x3.14x8.85x10"? x9.3x107 ‘Therefore, 7 ___92x2«2.56x10% 43.14% 8.85x10 x9,3x10" x1.6x10 Mev = 28MeV Example-3: Five groups of 0 — particles are emitted 31*Bi decays. Their energies are 6.08, 6.04, 5.76, 5.62 and 5.60, all being expressed in MeV. Calculate the o.-disintegration energies. Soln. Using the relation, = Qu pag ke wehave 212%6,08 2126.04 —— 20 MeV; 6.16 MeV (Qe), = Fog = 820 Me (Qa), = Fog fe 2125.76 212%54 — > —— = 5.87 MeV; = = 5.73 Me (Qa)s= Sig = 587 MeVs — (Qa)y= Sop a 2125.60 = — = 5.71 Mev (Qa) = Seg 71 Me Example-4: A beam of monoenergetic y—rays is incident on an Al-sheet of the thickness 10 cm. The shest reduces the intensity of the beam to 21% of the original. Calculate the linear and mass absorption coefiicients, given decay of Ai = 27000 kgm”. Soin. Let J, be the original intensity and I the intensity on absorption by a thickness “t, ‘Therefore, 1/}, =e", where # = linear absorption coefficient. Here, {Io = 21/100;t=0.1m (0.21) =-1.56 => w=15.6m™ ‘Therefore, mass absorption coefficient, py = W/P ‘Therefore, 021=¢°" => -O.1n Mp =15.6/ 2700 = 5.78107 mm? kg™ Example-5: Show that 33°Pu_ will spontaneously decay by «.— emission . Given: Mp, = 236.046 amu, M, =232.037 am.u. and My, =4.0020 amu, Soln. The reaction is: 33° Pu > 33°U + $He+Q ‘Therefore, Q= (Mp, —M, —Mp, )am.u. = 236.046 -232,037 ~4,002 0.007a.m.u, = 0.007%931.5 MeV = 6.52 MeV Since Q is positive, Pu-236 will decay spontaneously by «emission -@ Example-6: Calcllate the energy of y—rays emitted in the decays of 7 Al. Given: The end-point energy: Soln, 81MeV, M( Al) =27.9819 amu,, M(7Si)=27.9769 amu. During the B—decay 7$A1—» ?8Si, y—rays are being emitted. This implies that daughter nucleus 7#Si isin an excited state. ‘Substituting the atomic masses of parent and daughter Q=(27.9819-27.9769)amx. = 0.005 am.u.= 0.005 x 931.5 MeV =4.65 MeV But the end-point energy = 2.81 MeV. So, y—ray energy = (4.65 2.81) = 1.84 MeV. Example-7: Which nuclide of each pair is unstable inthe following cases? Indicate its mode of decay and energy released in each case. (@) 31i(7.0182 am.u.), {Be(7.0192amu.) 2 (b) 2C(13.0076 am.u.), PN (13.0100 amu.) ) (©) PF(19.0045 a.mu.), gNe(19.0080 ama (@ $P(33.9983 am.u.), 28(33.9978 amu.) [As for each pair of isobars the atomic numbers differ by one, thus only decay or orbital electron capture is possible between them. Neglecting the variation of the binding energy of the electron in different atoms and shell, the energy released in the B” —decay is given by E(-)=[M, (ZA)-Zm, -M, (Z-+1,A)+(Z+1)m,—m, Jo? =[M, (Z,A)-M, (Z+1,a)]o? where M is the mass in atomic masses. Thus f° -decay can take place if M, > M, . Similarly for BY —decay, we have, E(B°)=[M,(Z,A)-M, (Z-1, A)-2m, ]e? ‘Thus, B* —decay can take place only if M, -M, > 2m, = 0.0011 amu. For orbital electron capture, we have E(EC)=[M, (Z, A)-M, (Z-1, A) |e? -Ep.¢ where Ep,¢ represents the binding energy of an electron in the /th atomic shell, which is about 10 eV of 1.110 a.m.u, for K-shell For pair (a), Am =M(Z—1, A)—M(Z, A) = 0.00] am.u. which is Jess than 0.0011 a.m.u. thus 7Be is unstable against K-electron capture. For pair (b), Am=0.0024amu.>0.0011amu. thus ™N is unstable against fv ~decay and K electron capture For pair (c), Am = 0.0035 a.m.u.> 0.0011 a.m.u., thus |3Ne i electron capture. unstable against 8" decay and K- For pair (d), Am =—0.0005 a.m.u. thus }$P is unstable against B - decay SG B.02 45, First Floor, Mall Road, GT.B. Nagar (Metro Gate No. 3), De FT, New Delhi 16, Ph: 011-26851008, 26861009 www.careerendeavourcom 109, Phe O11-65462244, 9540292991 (ea HO.GEAM, Jin Sarai Neara2 ‘Example-8: What are the expected types of gamma ray transitions between the following states of odd Acnuclei : Bor2 > Pua fsr2s bya —> Asia Dive > daa? Soln. We know that for a transition J, -> Ir, the L ofthe emitted y—rays is given by Ih ) and, Since the parity changes, the possible transitions are M4 and ES. Pz sy iE For transition fs > Pyat Ii (3) and Ir -() shence possible L-values are 1,2, 3,4. Since party changes, the possible transitions are M1, E2, M3 and M4. ny BY (¥) and I, -(3) hence possible L-values are 3, 4, 5, 67, 8.. ons are E3, M4, ES, M6 , E7 and M8 For transition Mya > dy For transition hy yp > ds23 and Ty -() hence possible L-values are 4, 5, 6, 7. Since parity changes, the possible transitions are M4, ES, M6,E7. Since the transition probability decreases rapidly with the increase of multiple order L. Hence the predominant decay modes are M4, M1, E3 and M4 in the above transitions. Example-9: Examine the possibi ies of isomeric transitions between nuclei ,Be? and , Li’. Soln. The isotopic masses of these nuclei are , Li’ = 7.016004mu and ,Be’ = 7.016929mu We know that for a B~ decay to be possible 2M*>z,.M4+_,¢' (Nuclear masses). Byadding z electron masses to both sides, the nuclear masses are changed into isotopic masses and the same condition appears now as 2M“ >2,,M* (Atomic masses). Since mass of ,Li’z_,M*+.,e° (Nuclear masses) By adding zelectron masses to both sides, e-nuclear masses are changed into isotopic masses and the same condition appears as 2M*>z_.M4+2,€° (Atomic masses). Since the mass difference between given isotopes is 0.000925 mu = 0.860 MeV, which is less than the energy equivalent of wo electron masses, ie., 1.022 MeV, hence no fs" — decay is poss ‘The atomic binding energy of the K-electron in the Be’-atom, however, is considerably less than the available energy 0.874 MeV, hence K-capture is energetically possible.eB Example-10: Calculate the binding energies of the following isobars and their binding energies per nucleon. Soln. ae Ni* = 63.9280mn, 2Cu = 63.9298mu . Which of these would you expect to be fr —active and how would it decay? Why? @ Since mass of neutron M, = 1.008665mu and M, = 1.007825 mu, hence for ,.Ni, NM, +ZM,, =36%1.008665 + 28% 1.007825 = 64.531mu <. AM=64531- 63.98 = 0.603 Hence binding energy = 561.4 MeV and binding energy per nucleon is 8.77 MeV. Similarly for ,,Cu, AM = NM, +ZM, ~ ;M* =35x1.008665 +29 1.007825 ~ 63.9298 = 64.5272 ~ 63.9298 = 0.5974 mu. Hence binding energy = 556.18 MeV and binding energy per nucleon is 8.7 MeV. (b) These isobars are B” emitters, Le., aNi* > Cu" +B and Cu™ > Zn +B" ifthe mass of the final isotope is less than of the corresponding initial isotope, i.e. if ,M* > z .M*. Since mass of Cu* is greater than that of Ni* and Zn®, hence Ni* is not a f5--emitter but Cu® is a Br -emiter, ‘These isobars are 3* emitter, if M4 > z_,M*+2 ye Since M(Cu*)—_M(Ni**) = 0.0018mu =1.6758MeV is greater than the mass of two electrons, hence Cutt isa p*-emitter. ‘Exampie-11: Find the energy release, if two ,HP nuclei can fuse together to form ,He* nucleus. The binding Soin. ‘energy per nucleon of H? and He' is 1.1 MeV and 7.0 MeV respectivel, Since no. of nucleons in He' nucleus is 4, hence B.E. for He'= 28.0 MeV, similarly BLE. for FP nucleus (combination of one proton and one neutron) = 2.2 MeV. . Mass of ,He* nucleus = 2 [Mass of proton] + 2 [Mass of neutron] ~ 28.0 MeV. Mass of He? nucleus = [Mass of proton] + [Mass of neutron] — 2.2 MeV. In fusion reaction energy released. ‘AE =2 [Mass of ,H?] — [Mass of ,He'] =2[M, + M, - 2.2] — [2M, + 2M, - 28.0] = 23.6 MeV. Example-12: Show from semi-empirical mass formula that fora given isotope the slope of the cr-decay energy Soln, versus neutron number should be negative and the slope versus atomic number should be positive. Compute the slopes for N= 120, and Z= 82. ‘Assuming thatthe parent nucleus (2, A) and the daughter nucleus (Z~2, A-4) are in their ground states before and after emission, we get E, = B(He")+ B(Z ~2, A~4)~ B(Z,A), where B(He*)=28.3MeV and B(Z,A)=a,A—a,4""—a.Z?A" —a,(A-2Z) A" 48. In a.-decay, (4-22) is constant and the slight variation of § between parent and product nuclet is negligible. The finite difference B(Z— 2, A -4)— B(Z, A) can be well approximated by the corresponding derivatives with dZ=~2, dA = 4. Hence we get 8.3-20B 102 -40B 0A i r New DeIhF-16, Ph: O11-26851008, 26861009 wowcareerendeavourcom i (Metro Gate No.3), Delhi-09, Ph: O15-65462244, 954029299184, Z(,_2z =283-4a, 48-4 44a, 4{;-4)_ 28.3-4a, +5 (1 2) 4a, ‘Substitution of numerical values indicates that Eis positive for all nuclides which are heavier than A-150. ‘The dependence of E, on the neutron number N of the parent nucleus when Z. is kept constant is same as that of (OE, /0A)p.cmm:, hence () fate Z(H 1m 2(1-2) ON Jesont 9A 3 APU 3A aA ‘This is a negative number for all values of Z and A, as every term is negative. For Z= 82, N= 120 (or A = 202), we get for a set of coefficients (a, = 14, a, = 13, a, 0.60 and a, = 19 MeV), ) x ) 16x19. 8 (1-28 202° 202 009747 — 0.02539 — 0.1149 = —0.15 MeV per nucleon. Similarly the second part of the question can be solved. Example-13: What are the expected types of gamma ray transitions between the following states of odd A Soln. nuclei, 82> Pray Sr Paras Mua > Asia Iu > Aya For transition g57,—> Dyas Jo = hence possible L values are 4 and 5. ‘parity changes, the possible transitions are M4 and ES, 5- 3 > and J, =>", hence possible L-values are 1,2, 3,4. Since parity For transition fy, > Pyas Je does not change, the possible transition are M1, E2, M3 and EA. For the transition Ay, —> dea, hence possible L values are 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. ae Since parity changes, the possible transitions are E3, M4, E5, M6, E7 and M8. 3h For the transition Miya > dya» Js =~ and “=~, hence possible L-values are 4,5, 6, 7. Since parity changes, the possible transitions are M4, E5, M6, E7. Since the transition probability decreases rapidly with the increase of multiple order L. Hence the predominant decay modes are M4, M1, E3 and MA in the above transitions. Example-14: Calculate the fission rate for U%* required to produce 2 wattand the amount of energy that is Soin. released in the complete fissioning of 1/2 kg of U"S. As we know that 200 MeV energy is released per Tiss Fission rate = 2 watt / 200 MeV per fission 25 x 10" fission/sec No. of U** nuclei in 1/2 kg of U* = (0.5/235) = 6.0247 x 10 On fissioning this number of U** nuclei, the energy release will be (0.5/235) 6.0247 x 10° x 200 MeV = 2.57 x 10° MeV = 10" kilocalories 6, Ph: O11-26851008, 26861009 wornscareerendeavourcom B. Nagar (Metro Gate No. 3), Deli-09, Phi 011-65462244, 9540292991Gs ‘Example-15: Calculate the excitation energy for U®* andfor U®™. Estimate the rate of spontaneous fissioning of 1gm of Us, given its half life ~310" years. Soln. The excitation energy E, = B(Z,A+1)-B(Z, Ay For U6 E, = 4,(236-235)— a, (236*° — 235%) — a, (927 /236"? 92? /235'*) a, (52° 236-51? 1235) +4,(236* -0) 1, ~0.1, 4, 2.24, -0.4a, + 0.01674, =6.8MeV a Similarly for U®, E, = 5.9 MeV. Rate of spontaneous fissioning dN / dt = .N , where N= 6.023 x 107/235 and 2=log, 2/T,,. =0.693/3x10" x3,15x10" AN [dt =2x10" se The" Example-16: 1fU 236 nucleus is fissioned by a neutron, two fission fragments of mass numbers 96 and 138 and two neutron are 235.12, 95.94, 137.95 and 1.009 amu. Calculate the amount of energy released. Soin. Masses before fission = 235.12, 1.0089 = 236.126 Masses after fission = 95.94 + 137.95 +2 X 1.0089 5.938 + 137.95 + 2.018 = 235.905 amu Difference in mass = 236.127 ~ 235.905 = 0.221 amu Energy released = 0.221 x 931 MeV = 206 MeV 0.5 28-AIMI ia Sarai, Near HIT, New DeIbt16, Ph: O11-26851008, 5861009 worw.carcerendenvour.com First Floor, Mall Road, GTB, Nagar (Metro Gate No.3), Delbi-09, Ph 011-65462244, 9540292991Chapter-4: Nuclear Reactions © Compound Nucleus: ‘The compound nucleus theory states that there are two steps involved in a nuclear disintegration and. they are (i) the capture of the incident particle A by the target nucleus B forming a compound nucleus C’ in an excited state i) the de-excitation of the compound nucleus C” into a product nucleus D and the emission of a particle E ora y~photon - So, the nuclear reaction may be represented as A +B—>C”—>D+E. + Rutherford’s first artificial nuclear transmutation may therefore be represented as N+ He > YF >! OHH @ Classification of nuclear reactions: (Elastic scattering: In elastic scattering, the same particles are scattered in diferent directions and there is no loss of energy. The residual nucleus is the same as the target nucleus and is left in the same state (ground state) as the later so that it can be represented as X(x, y)X. An example is the scattering of neutrons by graphite: '""C(n,n)'?C . Example: 2He* +79 Au'®” — 79 Au!” + 9 He* (i) Inelastic scattering: In inelastic scattering, the same particles are scattered in different directions with different energy, as there is loss of energy due to collision. The residual nucleus which is the same as target nucleus is left in an excited state so that the process can be represented as X (x,y) X"- An example is the collision of fast neutrons with U-238, Radiative capture: In radiative capture, the incident particle is absorbed or captured by the target nucleus to form the excited compound nucleus which disintegrates to produce one or more y—photons and goes down to the ground state. The process may be represented as X(x,y) Y". Example: gU7* + gn’ —>,,U"*. (iv) Reaction of transformation: Here the oncoming particle is retained inthe nucleus and the compound nucleus emits a different particle so that the product nucleus is different from target nucleus, e.g. °Be(a,n)?C (v) Photo-disintegration: In photo-disintegration, a very energetic photon is absorbed by the target nucleus so that it is raised to an excited state and subsequently disintegrates. It can be represented as X(y,y)Y. Example: |H? +y—> ,H' + on! (vi) Stripping reactions: In stripping reactions, one or more nucleons from the projectile are captured by the target nucleus, the remaining stripped nucleus is emitted in a different direction. Example: aCu® + ,d?—> Cu +, H! (vil) Direct reactions: A collision of an incident particle with the nucleus may immediately pull one of the nucleons out of the target nucleus and is called ‘pick up reaction’. Example: ,H! + ,d? + ,C? @ Conservation ia Nuclear reactions: (B Conservation of mass number (i) Conservation of atomic number (il) Conservation of energy (inchuding mass-energy) _(iv) Conservation of linear momentum 8, 26B61009 worwcareeren ) Delh-09, Pi eg:(¥) Conservation of angular momentum, (vii) Conservation of isotopic spin @ (vi) Conservation of parity ‘Q-value and threshold energy of nuclear reaction: ‘The law of conservation of energy and momentum imposes certain restrictions on the reactions. ‘These restrictions are called the kinem: Kinematics. ‘Consider the nuclear reaction x+X—>y+¥ ‘restrictions and this mathematical methods is known as. ‘Where x, X, y and ¥ are the bombarding particle, target nucleus, outgoing particle and product nucleus respectively. It is assumed thatthe target nucleus isin rest. Since total energy is conserved in the nuclear reaction, therefore we get, (m,o? +E, )+Mye? = (By +m,c*)+(By-+Myc”) E,,E, and Ey are the kinetic energies of respective particles. ‘Now the quantity Q=E, +Ey -E, = Q=(m,+M,~m, -My): ‘Where Q is called the Q-value of nuclear reaction. (i) If Qs positive, the reaction is said to be exoergic (exothermic) and Gi) IF Q is negative, the reaction is called endoergic (endothermic). ‘The minimum K.E. required for incident particle (x) to start the nuclear reaction is called the threshold energy (E,)®. The relation between Q-values and threshold energy (m, +My) (My +m,—m,) If E® = 0 for exoergic or exothermic reactions i.e. these reaction are spontaneous process. Mechanism of nuclear reactions: ‘Transmutation by protons: (@) (p.a) reactions: i) gli” +H! +(,Be*) 2 Het + Het al 4H! (41 2 Het +2 20) ase! 8°) 95 UP ag He (9) oF! 4H! (sone?) > g0!* + Het (b) (p-») Reaction: © 28" 4H (50%) 0"+ on! Gil) 38a? 4H 9 (s2Btg*) > Mtg + gn! (¥) no Cul 44H! 55920) > ggZnP® + gal Gil) gu +H! > (B07) >, Ho? +2 Hot (iv) 981 +18! (9017) 94 Be? +2 Het (i) 0" +H (oF) rgF + gn! Civ) aad 4H! 5 (sp Cu2®) 9 ag Cu +o (usually endoergic)Gs) © (p:A) reacti (Bgl? +H! 3 LIP + gH? (i) Be +H! +, Be® + 4H? @ Proton capture: Compound nucleus in excited states come to ground state with y-ray photon, () aU? HH (4808) > Be? Gi) 6? Hi (gn) > hay (i) NI 444 + (g0°) > QO" +7 Gov) 9 ay! > (soNe®) > Ne? oy 0) APT Ht (eSF8) > SE H7 (vi) 24088? 44H (pg) > gghtnt If incident proton has an energy (> 20 MeV) the compound nucleus has sufficient excitation energy to permit the expulsion of two or more nucleons. (2) Transmutation by Neutrons:- ‘Neutrons have no electric charge and can penetrate +-vely charged nuclei without any experience of repulsive electrostatic force. (a) (nc) reaction: ‘With slow Neutrons (a+ gat (a?) yt ag Het (i) B+ gn!» (564) ou? Het (id) yg AP7 + gn! > [gAP*) 4, 8a sgt iv) N+ pn! >(,N'5) (v) s Bl 4p Het (vi) ali? +2 Het + 2 Het ‘Capture of fast Neutrons - emission of « - particle are usually radioactive G 41Na 4? > (4yNa"*) 9 F204 2 Het followed by oF -r45 Ne® + Gi) s3AP7 ton! + (;gAP*) 94 Na? + 2 Het followed by yaa —>42 Mg" +B” ©) (n, p) reaction: Proton in the nucleus is replaced by neutron mass no, does not change but change decreases by one unit. (rN + ont > (rw) +9 0% +4140 followed by 60 >) NY 48" +E mae )) gHe? + gn! ->(,He*) >, H? +, H!+@ followed by ,H? >, He? +p" +E, Gill) 1705+ gn! -+ | pCH°) > 45 8° 4,H' + followed by 495% —> CF +8" + Emax With fast neutrons: © gAPT spat > (rsAP%) aM” eH! Gi) 408" sont > (168%) gh pH! " 85. | a 1 29 Cu? ga > (29Cu%) saad HI Gv) ayn gat (ag 28) gu Ht (© (n-y) Reaction: (gH ont > (H?) > Hay Gi H+ on! (48) > HP sy GA) 11.0.5 28-A/I1, Sia Sarai, Near DVT, New Delhh 16, Ph: O11-26851008, 26861009 wwn.careerenleavourcom $M) 1.0.2 48, First Floor, Mall Road, GTB. Nagar (Metro Gate No.3), Delhi09, Ph: O11-65662244,9540292991Product Nucleus is Radioactive: pRB + go> (4g ROH] > gg RAI yi) gala!" gn! > (4g!) > gg int" +y (i) 20+ op (QP) > 92 44 Gv) 29 CUBS + yt (sgCul*) 39 Cul +y (9) 79Au®® + on! >(raAul%) > 79 AUl? +y @ (n=d ) and (nt) reaction: Bombardment of 90 MeV neutrons: 7N + on! > 5 Cl? + ,H® (©) (n—2n) reaction: one neutron captured by nucleus and 2 neutrons are emitted. Q <0 fast neutron are needed . Most cases residue nucleus unstable -followed by positron emission. ( oC ont-+( go) 50142 gn! Gi) aK 4 ono (sok®) rg 242 on! 802s gl» (580!) py Sb! 42g (© Neutron - Three or more particles: Incident Neutron ~30 MeV sufficient energy to overcome coulomb Barrier, 3 neutrons or even 2 neutron and a proton are ejected from compound nucleus. ‘Neutron (~ 100 MeV) Nuclei with moderate mass no. undergo spaiiation and those of high mass no. eg. Bi and Pb suffer fission probably accompanied by spalative. © (3) Transmutation by Deuteron: (a) (4-2) reaction igh energy Deuteron. (0 sth +g? (400!) > pet + Het Gi 40+ HP (oF) > NM eat, Gil) soe? + #P->( Ne?) > 9 FIP oot iv) M6? + Ho ,gAP*) yy Na? + a Het, (9) so APT 4 #145?) > oP + ote? ©) (d— p) Reaction: Isotope creation (0 0+ Ho (yn) > gH Gate 00") 9 gut (i) N+ HP (sae?) ay NoPE HT Gy) 4aP HHP 91998] > 5 PH HT 0) 404 #2 (ht!) ag Cal Ht (0) gg BP pPo[o4POPY > ag BH! © (d-n) Reaction: (b+ # -4(,00°) > Be + on! (i) Be? + 2 (507) > 5 8 on!Gi) 40"? +H? > (yn) > N+ gal When two Deuterons Interact both the (d, n) and (4, p) reactions have been obtained. a HP Het 5 Ha HE AcoMeV > gHe® + on! +3.25 MeV © Cross-section of nuclear reactions: One of the most important parameters in nuclear reactions is the reaction cross-section, symbolised by c. It is quantitative measure of the probability of occurrence of a nuclear reaction. Let a parallel beam of N monoenergetic particles be incident per unit timie normally on a target foil “of surface area A and thickness Ax, having ‘n’ nuclei per unit volume. Now, the number AN of nuclei in the foil undergoing nuclear reaction will be proportional to () the intensity of the beam and Gi) the number of target nuclei contained in the the foil. But the intensity I of the beam = N/A and the number of nuclei in the foi Therefore, numberof mace wansmutedis ANS nas BN =oNn.Ax= Nn, where o = constant. Figure: Nuclear react cross-section: bombardment of target foil. where n, = n.Ax, the number of nuclei per unit arca of the target foil used. The constant o is called the nuclear reaction cross-section, ‘Therefore, nuclear reaction cross-section, ‘The probability of the incident particle to interact with the target atom will be equal to _number of interact particle ~ number of incident particle If dN is number of interacting particle and N is number of incident particles, then m0 Jondx = m[-® 1.0.1 28-A711, Jia Sara, Near, New Delht-16, Ph: 11-3 B.0.: 4S, First Floor, Mall Road, GTB. Nagar (Metro Gate No.3), Delhi-09, Ph: 011-65462248, 954029299)GD Solved Examples Example-1: Calculate the energy generated in MeV when 0.1 kg of “Li is converted to ‘He by proton “bombardment. Given: masses of Li, ‘He and 'H in a.m.u. are 7.01383, 4.0040 and 1.0081 respectively. Son. 3Li+ |H=23He+Q Masses of the reactants = (7.0183 + 1.0081) am.u. ‘Masses of the produicts = (24,0040) a.m.u, .0264 amu. 0080 am.u. ‘Therefore, Difference 0184 amu. ‘Therefore, energy liberated when 7.0183 kg of Li are converted to He is 0.0184 kg. For 0.1 kg of Li, therefore, the amount of energy liberated is 2 0.1x0,0184x9x10% 7.0183x1.6x10"% 0.1% 0.184, _ 0.1x0.0184 = MeV = 14.7410 MeV. 7.0183 7.0183 x (3x10 Example-2: Calculate the binding energy in MeV of He from the following data: Mass of ‘He = 4.003875 a.m.u; mass of 'H = 1.008145 a.m.u. and mass ofa neutron = 1.008986 a.ma1. Soin, A “He-nucleus consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons. ‘Mass of (2 protons +2 neutrons)= 2(1.008145 + 1.008986) am.u. 034262. amu. 003875 amu. Mass of “He-nucleus ‘Therefore, Mass difference 30387 am.u. Binding energy = 0.030387 a.m.u. x c? = (931%0.030387) a.m.u. 8.29 MeV Example-3: Calculate the threshold energy for the nuclear reaction 'N(n,«) "B in MeV. Soln. Masses of reactants = (14. 007550 + 1.008987) a.m.u. = 15.016537 amu. Masses of products = (4.003879 + 1.012811) a.m.u, = 15.016690 am.u. ‘Therefore, Q=(15.016537—15.016690)a.m.u. = —0.000153 a.m.u. = —0.000153x931 MeV = -0.14MeV M(a) ( 3.008987 ) A Mn OOS ST Mev = 0.14[ 1+ |Mev = 0.15 MeV a + 74.007850) MY = O-14| 1474 JMeV = 0.15 Me Example-4: Find the amount of energy in joule released during the process in which 0.001 kg of radium is converted into lead (masses: Ra = 226.0955 am.u., Pb = 206.0386 a.m.u. and — particle =4.003 am.u.) Soln. In the conversion of 1 atom of*Ra into 1 atom of ™Pb, So.— particles ere emitted in all Initial mass of*Ra_ = 226.0955 am.u. Final mass of Pb = 206.0386 a.m.u. Therefore, Difference in masses = 20.0569 amu, Mass of Sot particles = 20.0150 a.m.v ‘Therefore, Mass converted into energy = 0.0419 a.m.u, CeO FSAI, i Sarah Near I, New DeINE16, Ph O01 26851008, 2OSOTOO9 ww carerendeaN OUT com Sl boar ie No.3), DEINE, 9540292991,This is equivalent to an energy (0.0419 x931) am.u, or 39 MeV (for 1 atom) 102 Now, 0.001 kg (= 1 g) of radium contains SIO Ra ~ atoms 6.02310 x39 6.02310 x39%1.6x10 herefore, Total eased, B= 2023x107 39 gory = 6.02310" 391.610 Therefore, Total energy released, E a e Be =16.63%10° J Example-S: The Q-values in MeV of the following three reactions PH47H > fH+IH; 7H+7H > 3H+ hn and }H > He +B- are 4,031, 3.265 and 0.0185 a.mu. respectively. Calculate the mass difference between the neutron and the hydrogen atom from these data, Soln, We have: Q; = 4.031 MeV =(mass of 27H-mass of }H~mass of |H)xc? Qz =3.265 MeV = (mass of 2fH—massof 3H~mass of jn)xc? Q, = 0.0185 MeV mass of }H—mass of 3He) x ca ‘The mass of B~ is too small be taken into account and has been neglected = =, +Q, = (mass of {n—mass of }H) xc? ‘Therefore, Mass difference between neutron and H-atom is thus QQ, +Q, =(4.031—3.265 + 0.0185)x931.5 MeV = 0.7845 MeV Mass difference = 0.7845 /931 amu,=0.000842 as, ‘Example-6: Calculate the Q-values of the following two reactions () {H+} H $He + bn and (ii) $He+ WN YO Given M(?H) M(}*N) =14.003074, M()?0)=16.999133 and M(}H) = 1.007825 all in a.m.u. Indicate also ifthe reaction is exoergic or endoergic. Son, We have Q = (mass of reactants— mass of products) c? = Am.c? (Here, am =[{m (211) +M(?H)}~{M (“He)+m('n)} | =[ (3.0169982 + 2.0147361)-(4.0038727 + 1.0089832) ]am.u. = 0.0188784 amu. => Q=0.0188784x931.48 MeV =+17.57 MeV. Reaction is exoergic. 0169982, M(?H)=2.0147361, M($He) = 4.0038727, M(n)=1.0089832, Mew, —am=[{(*He) +m(""N)}-{o(70)+m4("H)}] = [ (4.003872 + 14.003074)~(16.999133+ 1.007825) Jamu. = (18.0006946—18.006958)aan.u,=-0.000012 ama. ~0.000012%931.48 MeV =-0.11178 MeV So, the reaction is endoergic.G3) ‘Example-7: Assume that 4 hydrogen nuclei are used to form a helium nucleus in the sun to provide the tots? energy to it. Caleulate (i) the energy released when 1 gm-atom of hydrogen is fused to helium, (ji) how much hydrogen is to be converted to helium in the sun per second, given: mass of hydrogen nucleus = 1.00813 a.m.u, mass of He-nucleus = 4.00386 a.m.u, solar constant = 1.35 kW.nr?. earth-sun distance 1.5x10* km and there is no other loss in the energy radiated by the sun, Soln. (i) Mass of H-nucleus = 1,00813 a.m.u; Mass of He-nucleus = 4.00386 am.u, Therefore, Mass difference on fusion = (4x1.00813 — 4.00386) a.mn.u. = (4.03252 ~ 4.00386) amu, = 0.02866 a.m.u. ‘Therefore, Energy released = 0.02866%931 MeV = 26.68 MeV. This amount is released due to fusion of 4 Heatom into helium. Therefore, Energy released due to fusion of 1 gm-atom of H = (26.68 * 6.02 x 10/4) MeV = 40.15 x10 MeV (i) Energy released on fusion of 4 H-atom, E = 0.02866 a.m.u.xc? = 0.02866 1.66 x10 kg .02866 «1.66 x10 x(3x109 J = 4.2810" J ‘Therefore, Energy released per H-atom = (4.28%10"/4)I = 1.0710 Total energy radiated per sec. from the sun = 1. 35x10 xAnx(2.Sx10") =3, 82x10 J ‘Therefore, number of H-atom required 3.5710" ‘Therefore, required mass of hydrogen = 3.57 10°* «1.00813 x1.66% 107” kg 97x10" kg Example-8: Consider the nuclear reaction N' (ct, p)O"”. Mass of neutral atoms are given to be yH! = 1.007825 amu. Het = 4.002603 a.mu. NY =14,003074a.mu. 0!” =16.994131 amu, determine the Q.value of the reaction in MeV. Calculate the threshold K.E. of o-partcle for the reaction, 7N' 4 ,He* —> H+ ,0” Son, Reaction ~ y ¥ Q=(M, +m,-My-m, Jc” “of my tMy af +My-m, | Example-9: Complete the following Nuclear Reactions (0.001279 a.m. -0.001279x931.5MeV Ee 535.494 MeV (0 1708 42-9498 + gHe! (ans. 4) (i 28 42-oghi? + Bet (Ans. ot), (iil) 5LP +2 > Be” + gn! (Ans. H?) (iv) 19 APT + gn» yohtg? +? (Ans. oH"), (0) 8094 pHet 2% gal (Ans. 02) (0) au? +proton -vaparile+ 2 (Ans. partie ;He") (vii) Deuteron + Deuteron -» proton +? (Ans~tritium, + *) in Sarai Ne Cc pea T, New Dalit 16, Pr 11 26851008, 26861009 wowwcarserendeavowrcom BESS 1.0.24, First Foor, Mam Road, GT. Nagar (etvo Gate No.3), DethE-O9, Ph O1-65462244, 9540292991Example-10: Complete the following disintegration reaction by substituting the proper nuclide or particle for the «question mark in each case. @ 148?8(0,p)? (i) Li? (0,7)? Gili) 4gA?7(@P)? Gv) 11Na™(P.7) ,gNO™ (9) s9AF7(2,0),,8a (yi) 5B"°(2.4) U7 (vii) 11Na* (4 2),.MO™ Soln. (i) ,3AP® (ii) 4Be® Gill) 448° (iv) aHe* —_(¥) gn" (vi) on? (vii) gn' ‘Example-11: Complete the following Reactions. @ H (, 1) 2Gi) Li? (p, 2) Be? (ii) N¥(@ p) O'7_ Civ) 2(0, p) Na Soto. (9) sH?, (ii) on’, (iii) ,He*and (iv) ,2Mg%* Example-12: An a-particle with K.E. 1, = 7.0 MeV is scattered elastically by an initially stationary Li® nucleus. Find the K.E. of the recoil nuclers if the angle of divergence of the two particles is @ = 60° Soln, Initial momentum of a - particle is fant, i Final momenta are respectively 6, and py. Conservation of momentum reads Batbur2mTi => pl +phi+2pqpycose=2mT, — (1) Where 9 is the angle between p,, andBy soe HBA Ener rvation: = 5% + = gy conservation: om” 2M Where, m = mass of a, M= mass of Lif m ia = peso =2mT, (2) Subtract (2) from (1) we get. vul(1-B}purr2nccos] © puso Now pa,pui are both +ve number (bring magnitudes of vectors) we must have —1. cose <0 if m B"°(da)Be® (b) 0" (4.n)x > 0" (an) (©) Na®*(p, x)Ne* > Na?9(p, a)Ne*? (d) x(p.n) Ars? > CF (p.njane™ Example-14: What amount of heat is liberated during the formation of one gram of He* from Deuterium H?? What mass of the coal with calorific value of 30 I0/g is thermally equivalent to the magnitude obtained? Soln. Reaction is H? +H? -»He* +Q Fa Nea VT, New Delhi 16, Ph 011-26851008, 26861009 ww.cnrecrendeavourscom SG 5.0545, First Foor, Mal Road, GT-B. Nagar (Mee Gate No.3), Delhi, (65462244, 9540292991Gs (0.02820 — 0.00260)c?= (0.02560 amu)c? = 23.8 MeV. 3 Hence the energy released in the 1gm of He! is 8028910" 23.018 02% 107 Joule = 5.75% 108k) 5.75x10° ‘This energy can be derived from “7 kg =1.9%10*kg of coal ‘Example-15: Making use of the tables of atomic masses, determine the energies of the following reaction. @Li%(p, n) Be? —(b) Be? (n, 1) Be!” (¢) Li? («,n)8"° (d) 0° (4, a)N* Soln. (a) Li? (p, n) Be? Energy of reaction is Q= (Mx +M,.7 ©? +(Mp~M,)C? = (44, ~A,,7)O% +A ~By = (0.01601 + 0.00783 — 0.01693 — 0.00867] amu x c? = -1.64 MeV. (b) Be® (n, y)Be'®: Mass of y is taken as zero. Q=(M, 9 +My ~My 10 Jo? = (45,0 +89 = 6.81 MeV. (©) U7 (a,n)Bi?Q=(4, 7 +45 ~bn~ Ago = ( 0.01601 + 0.00260 ~ 0.00867 — 0.01294 ) amu x c? 2.79 MeV 0 )e2= ( 0.01219 + 0.00867 — 0.01354 ) amu x c2 (@) 09° (a. a)N:0= (A515 #44 ~b0~ OH} 0.00509 + 0.01410 ~ 0.00260 ~ 0.00307 ) amu x ¢?= 3.11 MeV Example-16: Find the velocity with which the products ofthe reaction B® (n, «)Li? come apart; the reaction proceeds via interaction of very slow neutrons with stationary Boron nuclei. Sol. We have : BY (maji? A=(Ay10 +n Ae ~ 8,7 Jo = (0.01294 + 0.00867 — 0.00260 — 6.01601 ) amu * c?= 2.79 MeV. ‘Since the incident neutron is very slow and B" js stationary , the final total momentum must also be Zero. So the reaction products must emerge in opposite direction. If their speeds are respectively, vq, and Vj; then 4y, My and 3(avg +7vi)s1 672x10- = 2.79%1.602x10°% 1 4 So, Jxave(te$)=2.70%10!emt ie? > Vq $9.27 10°m/sec > Vy,= 53 106 misec. Example-17: Protons striking a stationary Lithium target activate a reaction Li’ (p,n)Be” . At what value of the proton KE can the resulting neutron be stationary? Soln, Q= -1.64 MeV. Conservation of Momentum: Pp = Pee (since Initial Li and final neutron are both at rest) aan 2 LT 21.64 MeV = 1.91MeV Hence, Tp = 3m, = ™ 84 MM‘Example-18: A beam of proton (of a certain energy) equivalent to a current of 1.6 mA is incident uniformly on a Sp target containing 10°? atom per m*, $0 that the following reaction take places, p+ Fe—on+ Co Ifcross section for the reaction is 1 bam. Calculate the number of neutrons produced per sec. Son, “Fe+p—> “Cot+n Given: 1=1.6 mA =1.6x107 A ne Since, q=ne => > No. of particle which interact with target is Ny — N= Ny -Nge"@™*= No {I= €° Where nx =107 atom per m*, {i = Nj-N= woh Eeall “Ho = Number of neutron produced per second. Exam ple-19; A 16 pA beam of a particle having cross-sectional area of 10~* m? is incident on a Rh target of thickness 1 pm, This produces neutrons through the reaction o.+ '°Rh —> Pd +3n, (1) Number of particle hitting the target per second is: (a) 05x10" (by 1<10"* (c) 2x10” (a) 4x10” 05x10" Example-20: Consider the decay process t —> x” +y, in the rest frame of the +. The masses of 1, x” and ¥, are H,,H, and zero respectively. Find the energy and velocity of ”. ‘Sum of masses of all particles involved in the rete] Soln. Kinetic energy= -9 Samar oh age Where Q=[m,—m,Je? = (m,—m,—O]e* m+ m, 2m, Kinetic energy = -(m,—m, Je? | ‘The energy of 7 E,, = Kinetic energy + rest mass energy is a _ (mi +ms)e* 16851008, 26861009 www.careereadeavourcom all Road, GTB. Nagar (Metro Gate No.3), DeBsi09, Ph: O11-65462244, 9540292991Chapter-5: Nuclear Force and Nuclear Scattering @ Nuclear forces: ‘According to Coulomb’s lav, the positively charged protons closely spaced within the nucleus should repel each other strongly and they should flyapart. I's therefore dificult to explain the stabity of nucleus unless one assumes that nucleons are under the influence of some very strong attractive forces. The forces inside the mucleus binding neutron to neutrons, protons to protons and neutrons to protons are classified as strong interactions and are represented as nn, pp and n-p forces respectively. ‘Characteristics of nuclear for () They are short range forces ic. the forces between nucleons are attractive in nature when they are 0.5-25F apart and these forces are of short range having maximum value at about 2x10" m_ and falls off sharply with distance, becoming negligible beyond this range, i) They are charge-independent ie. They are charge- independent so that the nuclear force between proton and neutron and are almost the same; (Gi) They are the strongest known forces in nature; (iv) They get readily saturated by the surrounding nucleons i.e. a particular nucleon interacts with a limited number of nucleons around it and other surrounding ones remain unaffected, So, they become saturated over short distance. (¥) They are spin-dependent ie. the nuclear forces depend on the mutual orientation of spins of ‘various nucleons and are different in parallel and antiparallel spins. @ Neutron - Proton Scattering at low energies + Nucleus is a bound system means attractive force exists b/w neutron and proton, In scattering of free neutrons by protons a parallel beant of Neutron is allowed to impinge upon a target containing hydrogen atoms and no. of Neutrons dejected through various angles is determined as a function of Neutron energy. + Since neutron have no charge, they are unaffected by the electrostatic field and their scattering will directly reflect the operation of nuclear force. ‘Two kinds of reactions can be involved in Neutron-proton interaction ) Scattering Radiative Capture: It has low probability for high energy neutron as the cross-section for the . ant , competing radiative capture reaction decreases with > ~>neutron velocity In practice protons are bound in nucleus the chemical binding energy of the proton in a molecule is about 0.1eV. Thus for neutron energy > } eV proton can be assumed free. This sets lower limit the neutron energy. Ifthe neutron energy is less than 10 MeY, only the S-wave overlaps with the Nuclear potential and is scattered. Inthe centre of mass system, the Schrodinger equation for the two body (n ~p) system is. M 2. 7 v' ve ss[e-vely =0 ‘Where M = proton or Neutron mas E = Incident K.E. in cm system potential energy. At large distances from the centre of scattering the soln of this equation is expected to be of the form x reduced mass of the system. (Incident K.E in L-coordinate) and V(r) = Inter Nucleon 16, Ph: 011-26851008, 26861009 wor careerendcavourcom (Metro GateNo. 3), Delhi-09, Ph: O11-68462244, 9540292991 (ey 1.0.528-A01, Jia Sarai NearTTNew Del B.0.: 48, First Ploor, Mall Road, GIEB. NagsSoln. ‘Where, f (®)= scattering amplitude in the direction '6" = plane wave describing a beam of particles moving in z-direction Scattered spherical Incident plane wave ‘The differential cross-section o= f(a) d= 2s fie(0) sinouo Let us consider the wave equation in the absence of scattering centre [V(1) = 0 for all values of ‘r’) ie. vay [My rm can be expanded in terms of spherical harmonics, W =e =e =) R,(r) y/o (8) = (where /is the integer representing the number of partial waves) ‘Scattering amplitudes f (0) EE Ger et sin; P, (cos) where 5, =phase shift due to scattering from the potential. + Differential cross-section do=|f(8)|° a + Total cross-section o= js. dQ. 7 Lee +1)sin? 8, + Scattering length: + For neutrons of very low energy scattered by free protons x is very large and hence k is very small aX? sin? 3, 8 +0 8, must approach zero or (8) would become infinite. # sindy r * ‘we have £(9)="" sind, and scattering cross-section « + For low energy neutrons (0) can be written as (0) ,8n, where quantity +a is called scattering length. + The zero energy scattering cross-section is. op = 4xa® (Identical to impenetrable sphere of radius a). VEO 28-ATI, ie Sarak Near NT, New Deli 16, Ph! O11 26851008, 26861009 woncareerendeavourscom 1B.O.: 48, First Floor, Mall Road, GT.B. Nagar (Metro Gate No. 3), Delhi-09, Ph O11-G5462244, 954029299159. ‘© Deuteron: Deuteron is the only two-nucleon bound system made up ofa proton and a neutron. The two other possible two nucleon system the Diproton and Dineutron do not exist as bound system. + Experimentally Determined Properties of Deuteron @ The BE of Deuteron is very small . Its value is 2.225 + 0.003 MeV. This is very less as compared tothe stable nuclei. i.e, 8MeV, hence loosely bound. (@ The Angular momentum quantum no . often called the nuckar spin of ground state of the Deuteron is 1. It suggest that spins are parallel (triplet state) and the orbital angular momentum of the Deuteron about their common center of mass is zero. This the ground state is 3S state. (Gi) The sum of the magnetic dipole moments of the proton (2.79275 yyy) and Neutron (-1.91315 yy), do not exactly equal to magnetic moment of Deuteron (0.85735 ny) (jv) Deuteron has small but +ve Quadrupole moment suggesting that it deviates from spherical shape and has the probability of finding in the next higher state i.e.,3D state also. Hence and state is a mixture of 'S and 5D state, (¥) mp Combination, neutron is uncharged hence the force is not electrostatic, mass is less hence no ‘gravitational , must be of nuclear origin and assumed to be central and attractive. This assumption somewhat disagrees with the experiment (central). * Consider the example Hp = 2.79281 0.00004 nm and yq =~1.913148 0.000066 nm ‘The fact that py +r — Hg #0 although small. suggests the Deuteron may not be fully deseribed by the spherically symmetric 3s, state. + Moreover is nuclear force iff due to the exchange of Mesons, the magnetic moments of the Nucleons where in the fie state may not be same as when in the nucleus. Correction to magnetic moment due to Mesonie current. + D-state contribution can be considered by Non-Central Tensor free. By Assuming Central potential. 2 Schrodinger equation ~"—v2u(r)+-v(r)y(0)=Ew(r) An where reduced mass. #= me = M2 2 ue ‘Now equation can be written as — a M a? -+v(thu() =Eu(e) u(r) an where w(r)= {and E =~ W = ~2.226 MeV = binding energy of Deuteron + Various types of potential Square well potential == V(r) =-V,_ rt =0 1% Exponential V(r)=—Vger"® , Gaussion, v(¢) = vy"(oo) —Vger""0 Yukawa V(")= Tr + Ground state of deutron (,D?) Deutron is a single two nucleon (one P and One n) bound system which is found in nature. The important experimental determinal properties about deutron are given below: (@ The BE. of deutron/nucleon is very small compare to other nuclei i. itis a weakly system. Gi) The ground state spin of deutron 1, =1 (ii) The ground state parity of deutron = even (+) (iv) The quadnipole momento of deutron (Qs) #0 (¥) The magnetic moment of deutron is slightly different from the sum of intrinsic mag. moments of neutron + proton ice. (by +H,)~Ha > 0 These factor represents thatthe ound state of eutronisamitre of "3, & sates in which ws) (Ls 35 contriby is 96% and *D contribution is only 4%. This indicate that nuclear force are non-central as L + constant and they are spin dependent. In deutron both p and n have spin parallel to each other. + Schrodinger wave equation for Deutron and its solution for central force (L= 0): ‘As deutron is a bound system, let us consider the case of rectangular pot. well represented as 0 rb The schrodinger equation is v =H(00H)= ER, (a (O4)=E Ny (0.8) mm) at = H=¥4(m.~m,=M) where reduce mass For ¢ We get, Ey)b>0 IIT, ia Sarak Near IT, New Deli 16, Phz O11-26851005, 16861009 wew.careerendeavourcom First oad, GTEB. Nagar (Metro Gate No.3), DeIn+09, Ph: 011-65462244, 9540292991 oor, Mal> eye = cot cot 394 as p : /M. A minimum valve of V, can be obtained by setting bY Vom er 3 > Vom aut ‘Vomb = | constant ‘Vp ~25MEV is obtained by putting b is 2x10" m ‘The exact solution of equation (9) is obtained by graphical method in which V,,, ~ 38 MeV Solved. Examples Example-1: Ata centre-of-mass energy of 5 Mev, the phase describing the elastic scattering of a neutron Soln. by a certain nucleus has the following values, y= 30°, 5, = 10° . Assuming all other phase shifts to be negligible, plot do /d0 as a function of scattering angle. Explicitly calculate do / dQ. at 30°, 45° and 90°. What is the total cross section o? a son pocket The differential cross section is given gq = ‘Supposing only the first and second terms are important, we have IS>(20-+1)e* sin8,P, (c0s0) e sin, +3e™ sin, cos0| (cos, sin, +3cos8; sind, cos) + 285 +3sin”8, cos) | AL [sin? 8, +9sin? 3, cos? 0+ 6sin6, sind, c0s(8, ~,)eos0]- K 0.25 +0.27c0s*8+0.49¢080] where *k’ is the wave number of the incident neutron in the centre of mass frame. Assume that the mass of the nucleus is far larger than that of the neutron m,. Then 2 2M.E 2m,c7E __2%938x5 RB IS = 24x10 mr? = 2.410% mm (hey 197? x10 ™ oO _ —30? 45° 90? 1800 vse 1 088 0.73 025° 0The total cross section is: [do 20 2 = ee {f(0.25+0.49c0s6 + 0.27 cos? 0 Ga( 025x027) =1.78x10%em? © 0.18 bam Example—2: Neutrons of 1000 eV kinetic energy ae incident on a target composed of carbon. Ifthe inelastic cross section is 4010-24 em, what upper and lower limits ean you place on the elastic scattering cross section? Soln, At 1 keV kinetic energy, only s-wave scattering is involved. The phase shift § must have a positive imaginary part for inelastic process to take place. The elastic and inelastic cross sections are respectively given by mae —f, 04, =? (-*f) mm, _ 12 mtm, 13 ‘The reduced mass of the system is H= 197 x=. m=150 fm For E = 1000 eV, Vine ape pe 1H xadosi k= 707%10 em? As, Wehave, |e |=V1-0.566=0.659 => Hence, the elastic cross sex jon 6, = nto has maximum and minimum values (6,)).., = 70710 (0.6591) = 194610 em? 5.) pin = 707 x10 (-0.659 1)” = 82%10™ em’ in 4 2 28 oom? ‘Example-3: Distegarding nucleon spin, set a lower bound on the elastic center of mass proton-neutron forward differential cross-section. Soln, ‘The forward p-n differential cross section is given by co oe =Ieoy?afmrtoy =( a a where the relation between Imf(0) and o, is given by the optical theorem. As k= p/f we have 2 F198 27 »( veg.) (2 —— ] m? = 2.6x10™ cm? =2.6 bam ln 46] (pe, 4nhe * } 4nx1.97x10° aq)@ Classification of fundamental fore Chapter-6: Particle Physics The interaction of matter and radiation is govemed by four fundamental forces (8) Gravitational forces (©) Weak forces (contact forces) + The four fundamental interaction: (b) Electromagnetic forces (@) Strong forces. Tnteraction Particle affected Range Relative strength Charac, time Particle exchange Role in universe ‘Strong Quarks Hadrons ~10% m| 1 10 see ‘Gluons Holds quark together to form nucleon. ‘Hold nucleons together to, form atomic nuclei. Electroma gnetic Charged particles ~10° 10™ sec Photons Determine structure of atoms, solids and liquid is important factor in astronomical uiniverse. Weak Quark & leptons ~10%m ne 10 sec. Intermediate bosons Mediates transformatio ns of quarks & leptons, helps determine compositions of atomic nuclei Gravitatio nal All 10” 10% Graviton> ‘Not experimentally detected ‘Assemble matter into planets, stars and galaxies.‘@ Classification on the basis of mass: Elementary Particles Lepton Meson ‘Hadrons ‘Light mass particle medium mass particle Heavy mass particle (Oto 135 MeV) (135 to 938.3 MeV) (938.3 MeV) ‘Leptons ‘Charge Mass ‘Mean Life time & Electron & = 0.511 MeV Stable 1, electron nutrin¢ 0 a ‘Stable. 7 Muon, =1 105.6MeV_| 2.2 x 10° See ‘Vy Muon Nutrino 0 0 Stable T tauon =I 1784MeV__ [3.4% 107 Sec ‘D; tauon nutrino 0 0 Stable | and their six anti particles i.e. e* (positron), 5,, 1", Op, T, Ue @ Classification on the Basis of Interactions: Leptons: Those particles which do not participate in strong interaction. Hadrons : Those particle which take past in strong interaction. © Classification of elementary particles on the basis of spin: (a) Bosons: Spin integral particles (Obey Bose-Einstein statistics) (b)Fermions: Spin half odd integral particles (Obey Fermi-Dirac statistics) © Classification of elementary particles: Elementary Particles 0,1..(Integral spin) 0,1/2... (half odd integral spin) Boson’s Fermions (Intermediate mass) Photon Graviton Pions Kaons "°-meson —Leptons Baryons. (Pi-mesons) (K-mesons) rer eR RK Nucleons Sigma hyperon Lambda K.hyperon Omega hyperon hyperon, Foy Eb © @@ Conservation laws in elementary particle reactio Exact conservation laws: @) Conservation of linear momentum (i) Conservation of angular momentum Gi) Conservation of charge (iv) Conservation of baryon number (¥) Conservation of lepton number + Approximate conservation laws: (@ Isospin or isotopic spin): Ttarose however from the idea that pairs of particles like nucleons and triplets like pions hardly differ in their mass and may be considered as isotopes and that their charges, differing from. each other by unity, suggest space qunatization similar to electron spin and orbit in a magneti field. + A multiplet number (M) is defined as the number of their different charge states. For instance, for nucleons i.e. protons or neutrons - the multiplet number M = 2. Similarly, forthe triplet of pions, M = 3; M=2 for two kaons and two antikaons; M = 1 for one neutral n°. Now, M=2141 => I=(M-1)/2 + Isospin is treated as.a vector T of magnitude I(I-+1), like angular momentum, but Is dimensionless. Its component along Z-axis, is given by 1, which have the allowed values. 1, (1-1), (1-2), I 1 + Fornucleons (M=2),1=(M-1)/2 =4 and the values of are +; and ~ a assigned fo proton, 1, = to neutron. + For pions (M=3),1=(M~1)/2 + Hence, 1;=+,0,-1.f,=41 is assigned to ’,1s=0ton® and |, + Isospin is conserved in strong interactions but is violated in electromagnetic and weak interaction, ‘The Z-component of isospin, ,- is conserved in strong and electromagnetic interaction and not in ltom™ weak interact Gi) Hypercharge(¥): It is defined as double of the average charge @ of the multiplet. y=20 5 = [Q + Forany strong and electromagnetic interaction, the hypercharge is conserved, ie. remains invariant. But it need not be conserved in weak interaction. Example; p+ p> A°+K? +p+n" Hypercharge: 1+1=0+14+140 => AY=0 (ili) Strangeness number (S): It is defined as the difference of the hyper change ¥ and the baryon number B. S=Y-B > Y=S+B i.e., the hyperchange is the sum of the baryon number and the strangeness number Therefore, Q=1;+—— Ph 011-26HST O08, 26861009 worvcaneerendeavourcom 'B.0.: 48, Fist Floor, Mall Road, GTB. Nagar (Metro Gate No.3), DeIh-09, Ph: ON-G5462244, 9540292991 q@ HO 25-A/I1, dia Sarai, Near TT New Del+ Strangeness number S is conserved in strong and electromagnetic reactions, For a weak interactions, AS=Oort1 )Parity: ‘When particle like neutrions are emitted during radioactive decay, they show a preferred spin direction, Ifa neutrino spins in the direction at which a right-handed screw advances, it is said to posses a helicity +1; if however the spin is in the direction of a left-handed screw, the helicity is~ 1.As the parity P is related to the spin J, the two quantum: numbers are usually combined and is 1y 1 i symbolised by J*. So, (4) means the J-value is dana p=et( 3) indicates 6 @ Newtina setteaina ®) Figure: Helicity of neutrino and antineutrino + Instrong and electromagnetic interaction. \eractions, parity is conserved but it is not conserved in weak (¥) Charge conjugation: Charge conjugation means reversal of the sings ofall types of charge i-e. electric, baryonic and aptonic of the particles (Figure below). Ifa physical law holding for particles also holds for corresponding antiparticles, the principle of charge conjugation is said to be valid. Bs © 18s &) a= Bs ‘2 a6: 1 @ a quo Figure: ai of proton, antiproton and neutron, antineutron by charge conjugation + Strong and electromagnetic intera ns are charge conjugate invariant. But the weak intervation like B—decay does not obey charge conjugation. (vi) Time reversal: e The operation T ice, time-reversal means replacing the time ‘t” by -t in all equations of motion ie. reflection of time axis at the origin of time coordinate in relativistic space-time continum. It isthus, like the parity operation, a discrete change. + Toperation consists in reversing the signs of momenta (i = di’ /dt) and angular momenta (L =7%#), 7, New Delh 16, Ph: 011 26851008, 26861009 www.careerendenvourcom ‘GHB. Nagar (Metro Gate No.3), Delb-09, Ph O11-65462244, 9540292991TT also transforms the wave function to its complex conjugate. If T” is conserved i invariance occurs, then the reversed equation of motion is also a valid equation of motion of the system concemed. All the known findamental equations of motion are invariant in ime-reversal. ‘Strong and electromagnetic interactions are invariant under time-reversed transformation, @ CPT Theorem: This is an exact conservation law. Itstates that all interactions in nature are invariant under joint operations of charge conjugation (C), inversion of space coordinates at origin, ie. parity (P) and reversal of time (T). The order of operations is immaterial, ‘The invariance of CPT transformation implies that if any interaction is not invariant under any one of C,P and T operations, its effect gets compensated by the joint effect ofthe other wo. © Conserved quantities in different type of reactions: Conserved Quantities le Electromagnetic ‘Weak, 1. Charge w 2. Linear Mom. KK 3. Relativistic En 4. Spin Se KK 6.Lu 7Li 8. Baryon No. B Ile. 10.7 «KK KKK KK 1S 12. y=B+S 13, Parity (P) 14. Charge conjugation 15. Time reversion (T) 16. CP. KKK KIC 17.CPT KKKKKISKIS RK KKK KK KE K eK ff] off cde © ~~ Meson Octate: 16851008, 26861009 wo. careerendeavourcom TNo. 3), Delhi-09, Ph: 011-65462244, 9S80292991@ Baryon Octate: Spin212, © Relationship between particles and antipa (@) Mass, > Same @) Spin > Same (©) Charge > Same but oppesite in sign. (@) Mag. moment > Same in magnitude but opposite in sign. (©) Mean lifetime of free decay > Same ( Anntilation = Inpairs (g) Creation > Inpairs (h) Total isotopic spin > same () Third component of isospin(!,) > Same in mag, but opposite in sign, @) Intrinsic party > Same for bosons and opposite for Fermions. (&) Strangeness q.No. (S) > Same in mag. but opposite in sign, (Q Lepton no. (L) > Same in mag. but opposite in sign. (m) Baryon no. (B) > Same in mag. but opposite in sign. (n) Hypercharge (Y) > Same in mag, but opposite in sign. ‘The particle and antiparticle have same symbol except a bar over particle for antiparticle. © Concept of antiparticle by Dirac: E=2Jpic" +mie" solution for particle are negative energy state are filled like a sea. antipartcle ‘electron given enough energy it can come out the filled negative state to positive energy. The vaccent state in negative energy behaves like holes —>antiparticles ‘© Quark Model: The elementary particles can be conceived (as far as isospin and hyper charge are concemed) as being built out of combination of quarks. The original three quarks were called up (Symbol x), down (d) and strange (s) Each quarks has an anti-quark associated with it (i7,d,3). Since A quark and its anti-quark have opposite quantum numbers. They can be created from energy. In the reverse process, a quark and its anti-quark annihilate and give energy. 1B.0: 48, First Floor, Mall Road, GTB. Nagar (Metro Gate No.3), Dati, Ph: O11-65462244, 9540292991Thus, energy > w+ dtd energy Quark models for proton and antiproton. ©. @ ©... @ Ch) eI) ae geen (und, wT and Coloured Quark: Quarks and anfiquarks have an additional property of some kind that can be manifested ina total of six different ways, rather as electric charge is a property that car be manifested in the two different ways that have come to be called positive and negative. In the case of quarks, this property became known as colour and its three possibilities were called red, green and blue. The antiquark colours are antired, antigreen and antiblue. According to the colour hypothesis, all three quarks in a baryon have different colours which satisfies the exclusion principle since all are then a different states even if two or three are otherwise identical ‘The rules for combining colours are the following: + Acolour and its anticolour cance{ out. This is called colourless or white. + All three colours or all three anticolours in combination cancel out and give colourless + All hadrons are colourless. Mesons consists of a quark-antiquark pair ofa particular colour and its anticolour. Baryons are made up of three quarks, one of each colour. Thus mesons and baryons are white or colourless. Charm Bottom and OP Quarks: Besides the three quarks (u, d,s) three more quarks are suggested in order to have a significant analysis of the symmetries. These are charm (c), top (i) and bottom (). ‘Thus overall there are six quarks, The various characteristics of these are given in the following table: Quark _|T |% |B [S|¥ [OQ |£|2]T | MassGevy Uw) __|1/2 [+172 [1/3 [0 [173 [2/3 [0 [0 [0 [039 Downtd) [1/2 [1/2/1730 [1/3 |[=1/3]o |o [0 [039 Swrange(s}[0_ [0 |173|-1|-2/3[-1/3 [0 [0 [0 [ost Charme) [0 [0 [173] 0 [1/3 [273 [1 [0 [0 [155 Top) [0 [0 [173 ]0 [1/3 [-1/3[0 [0 [0 [54 Bottom(6) [0 [0 [1/30 [W/3 | 2/3 [o [0 [1 }20 © Classification of quarks: charge | spin | baryon no.[ 1, | 1 | strangeness no. 1 til 3 \tafta 0 a a 3 2 Z 0 3Pseudo Scalar Mesons:' J! Particle | 1 B | s | ¥ | Structure xt 1 o |o o | ud ® 1 c o | o | 0 | wrdd,ss © 1 o fo] ol ue K* ¥ o}i [a | ow ° 1 = K' ¥ Miolifij se aa = K & +¥%jo | a] -1| & Ke y -¥lo | a} -1| n° 0 0 o |o 0 | ss,ua,dd Vector Mesons : J?= 1 Particle [1 4 |B |S | Structure pt 1 1 0} 0 | ud °° 1 0 0 0 ui, dd, s¥ 7 1 -1 |o| o| wa Ke % +Ylo] a] us kK? % -Kjo| a} a R %, +¥lo] al a ie ¥ -Ylo| al w {o” 0 ojo [0 | widdss |Baryons : Partie | Q B S. ¥ [Structure lp T 1 0 1 and Ei uv T 0 I dd Lae 0 1 a 0 ude. eA T r 0 its x [oO 1 Ei 0 ads, x 1 1 1 0 dds = 0 1 2 a "uss. = or T 2 “I ss | Baryon Resonances : Particle B s ¥___| Structure a 1 0 1 um A 1 0 1 ‘und | ” 1 0 i udd ia 1 - 0 aus | a i =I 0 ds ry 1 a 0 dds x 1 “I 0 das 1 2 -l uss | 1 1 2 dss o 1 3 2 S88 Solved Examples ‘Example-1: Ifin the following reaction, the incident kaon has a kinetic energy of 1.63 GeV, calculate the total energy to be divided between the four recoiling particles. Ksp'orantar an ‘The mass-energy of x—mesons are 139.6 MeV, D” =1197.3MeV, proton = 938.3 MeV and iarak Near fT Ty New DeIbi-16, Ph 01126351008, 26861009 worw.careerendeavourcom ist Floor, Mall Road, GT.B. Nagar (Metro Gate No, 3), Delb-09, Ph: 01-65462244, 9540292991Soin. K-=0.4938 GeV (1 GeV =10° MeV) ).9383 GeV E. 1.63 GeV > Total, E=3.0621 GeV Energy of the four recoiling particles are: 3° =1.1973 Gev « =0.1396 GeV a = 0.1396 GeV x* = 0.1396 GeV Total energy 1.6161 GeV ‘Therefore, excess energy = 3.0621 -1.6161 = ‘Therefore, average energy per particle = 1.4461 446 GeV 0.3615 GeV = 361.5 MeV Example-2: Ifa pion decays from rest to give a muon of 4.0 MeV energy, whatis the kinetic energy of the ‘accompanying neutrino? What is the mass of the neutrino in the process? Son. The decay mode of pion iven by, 1 >a +v, +E ‘Therefore, energy, E=(m,—m,)xe (neutrino has zero rest’ mass) = (273m, -207m, )xe? =33.7 MeV ‘Since meon takes 4.0 MeV of energy, the kinetic energy of the accompanying neutrino is (33.7-4.0 )MeV = 29.7 MeV Therefore, mass of neturino= (29.7/0.5 t)m, = 58.23 m, 16m, xc” = 66x 0.51 MeV Example-3: Find the value of third component of isotopic spin of in the following strong interaction: at 4n E+ Kt Kt Soln, ‘The interaction is ‘Therefore, ‘Example-4: identify the type of the following interaction from conservation laws: EA +y (life time <10" s) Sol, We have BIAS 4y Charge, Q 03040 =AQ=0 @: BR-A/I, Sia Sarai Near VT, New De 48, First Floor, MaltRoad, GT.B.Ns 1:16, Ph: O11-26851008, 26861009 www-careerendeayourcom F (Metro Gate No.3), Delhi-09, Ph O1-68862244, 9530292991(73) ‘Example-5: Identify the unknown part Soln. Baryon number, B : +13+1+0 => AB=0 Leptonmmbr, = L: 0-3049 > AL=O Strangenessno.S : 1-140 > As=0 ‘Hypercharge, Y : 03040 => Since the strangeness number is conserved, the interaction i cither a strong interaction or an electromagnetic one. Its half-life is < 10's which points to the fact that it cannot be a strong interaction, but is a weak decay. As $ is conserved, it cannot be a weak interaction. So, itis an electromagnetic interaction and a y—photon is produced. the reactions given below, using the conservation laws. Ow +p ont, @) w+ poK+ (i) The given reaction is iz +p tee 1 ‘The unknown particle must be zero charge and mass, spin > and lepton number 1 as they are conserved. Since the interacting particle is 1” meson, the unknown particle is identified as mu-neutrino, Yn (i) The reaction is mr +p>K’ +... For charge conservation, Q_ : 1414 0+Q Conservation of baryon no. B : 0+1-40+Q Strangeness conservation, S + 0405-148 so ‘Third component of isospin, I, “Its 9-5 Sly i - ‘Therefore, the unknown particle has charge zero, baryon number +, strangeness number +1 and third component of isospin 0. So the particle could be A° or 3°. Example-6: Check ifthe following reactions are allowed or forbidden. Soin. @ we +poAren (i) p+ p> 2m? +290 +20” @ — Thereactionis: a 4p A? +n? Q -141>0+0 => AQ=0 — Q-rconserved B: 041 +140 = AB B-> conserved S: 0+1>-140 = AS40 S— not conserved Itisa strong interaction where the charge and baryon number ase conserved. But since the strangeness number is not conserved, the reaction is forbidden. ‘The reaction is pp’ > 2n* +2" +2n° 41-192-240; AQ=0 +1-1-9040+0; AB=0 S: 040-+0+0+0; AS=0 +1-1904040; AY=0 an allowed reaction. 20-AAL, Jia Sava, Near IVF, New Delhi16 Fi 7 Mall Road, C¥.8, Nagar (Metro Gate No.3) DelhF09, Ph: O11 1-26851008, 26861009 werwcareerendeavourcom 162244, 9540292974 Example-7: An ultra-relativistic proton moves in a magnetic field. Can it radiate x*, x” and x°, electrons and positrons? Soln. Ifthe energy of the proton is sufficiently large, it can radiate = and * mesons, and also positrons. ‘The reactions are: pops’; pontat; pontetv But 7 mesons and electrons cannot be radiated. Example-8: Allocate the Isospin o the strange particles from following spins. (a) © +p? +k? (b) p+p> n° +K* +p © whan on aK? (@) wep oEr a (© vepoEteK (weno KOK woe por eK pt powek! ep Som @ 13 -1 %o % Oy Yo X ¥ ate ne 4 Kt we pod + Kt Oe area eee nena), a ieeyeet xh + podt + Kt ate noe Kt + Kt Onr Aa x ae ee Example-9: Which of the following reactions are allowed and forbidden under the conservation of strangeness, conservation of baryon number and conservation of charge. nian AS ake KO +KT A +p AP sk? Kesh a 4A ar +p o P teow 1 ty ey are) Som @ 8B oO 1 41 0 AB=0 Bo) 30) aa) = re) 6, Ph O11-26851008, 26861009 wwwcareerendcavourcom B.0.: 48, First Floor, Mall Road, GT.B. Nagar (Metre Gate No. 3), Delhi-09, Ph: 011-65462244, 9540292991we po n+ A? 0 a -i'?t 0 ™M BO tf 4 0 S 0 0-1 1 Allowed, ep > sae ~ Q-1' 00 agso w) Boo f 0 1 AB=0 S 0.0 0 -1 Aseo0 Not allowed. Example-10: Calculate the energy of the neutron produced when a slow negative pion is captured by a proton. Should neutron be treated relativistically? Soln. n° + pt on +740 1394938 939+hv+Q or O=138MeV = From conservation of momentum m,v,= E,/e E,+E, 1878+, 138 1878+E, 138-£, 138-£, 138° 18784138-£, 2016—£, or E,=9MeV Using relativistic relations MV p = Mon¥y BEY? We get E,=8.8MeV ‘Example-11: Classify the following processes in terms of the type of interaction. and Je and B,=m,,c*[(1-B°)"? -1] Sole: a+ pA°+KS w+pon’ tm pty> ptm; Body Wopty Koon tes AO pares EA a; and AP pre +. Inthe reactions "+ p—> A° + K° and 7” + p—> n° +n, the interaction isa short-range force between hadrons (7, psm,/\and K) corresponding to one pion-exchange. These reactions obey selection rules AB=0,AQ=0,AY =0,An=0,A7=0,AT, =0 hence the interaction is strong. In the reactions p+y—n" +p, ¥°—> A°+y and n° y+, the interaction is electromagnetic, as the electromagnetic force arises duc to the mechanical effect of the emission and absorption of virtual Photons. These reactions obey all above mentioned selection rules except the rule for conservation of ‘isospin T, hence, the interaction in these processes is electromagnetic. In the reactions K°-yx*+n7, A° > pom, > A°4a- and A°-> p+e" +7, the interaction is weak, as the weak interaction is due to the leptonic decay of strange and non-strange particles and due to non-leptonic decay of strange particles. These reactions do not conserve parity strangeness, isospin and the third component of isospin, hence the interaction in these processes is weak iS ‘Gate No.3), Delbi-09, Ph: O11-65462244, 9540292997Soy é (5) Example-{2: What are the possible values of isotopic spin for the following systems? (a) An* meson and an. Soin, antiproton, (b) two neutrons, (¢) an* meson and aA‘, (d) an* and ax® meson, (¢) au and aif quark, (f) a c, b and an s quark. 1uy= i = I(d) while 1(s) = I(c)= (6) =]@)=0 (@ Using the composition law for isospin, we get LOD) = LO) +L) 1 =, we conchude that the Since J, +4 can be a legitimate isospin projection for both 3 composite state (n*p) can have either 1=5 or 7 2 (&)A composite state of two neutrons can have I(nm) = 1,0 feel 22 Since J, =~1 carmot be an isospin projection ofa state with 7= 0, we conclude that a composite state of two neutrons can only be J= 1. A,(am)= 1,01) + Ln) = () The A° particle is an isosinglet (/ = 0) and, consequently, we have Moe A°)=1 ‘This composite state is therefore /= (@ We can have I(n'n°)=2,1,0 Ln) = (8) + 10°) = 14021 Astate with two % mesons can have J=2,/= 1 or J= 0. However, = 0 has no projection of J, = 1, and the composite state (x*n°) must therefore have I= 2 or = 1 (©) For a composite system ofa wand az quark, we have Teit)=1,0 J,(uit) = I, (u) +10) = Since the projection J, = 0 is possible for both J= 1, 0 states, we concinde that the composite state (ui) can have J= 1 or 7= 0. (HA! quarks with flavor quantum numbers are isosinglets. Thus, we have (bes) =0 ‘This composite state would therefore be a baryon with unique isospin = 0.