Engineering Failure Analysis 44 (2014) 136147

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Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

Review

Hydro turbine failure mechanisms: An overview

Ugyen Dorji 1, Reza Ghomashchi
School of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Turbine failure not only increases the plant down-time and brings about revenue losses but
Received 12 December 2013 also poses a serious threat to the life of the operational and maintenance personnel espe-
Received in revised form 3 April 2014 cially when the power house is underground. There are basically four main failure modes
Accepted 9 April 2014
identied in open literature. The current article presents an overview of these four hydro
Available online 2 May 2014
turbine failure modes based on an extensive literature review and also eld observation
from the Tala Hydropower Plant, Bhutan. Moreover, the report provides information about
Keywords:
different turbine parts that are more likely to be liable to damage under these failure
Hydro turbines
Cavitation
modes. It also attempts to elucidate some recommended methods to prevent/mitigate
Erosion against these failure modes.
Material defects 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Fatigue

1. Introduction

Hydropower is currently the most important renewable source of the worlds electricity supply and there is still a con-
siderable untapped potential in many areas. Continued exploitation of this resource is likely as a response to the worlds
demand for energy. Environmental legislation such as the Kyoto Protocol is putting increasing pressure on all governments
to generate clean energy from sustainable sources. Hydropower is amongst the key answers to the environmental issues.
According to the report on the structure of renewable energy resources harnessed as of 2008, indicates 86.31% of the renew-
able energy is generated by hydropower plant [1]. Table 1 provides a comparative indication of the renewable energy sources
tapped as of 2008.
The values in Table 1 conrm the importance of hydropower development against the other renewable methods of pro-
ducing energy such as biomass, wind, geothermal, solar and marine energies. However, hydropower plant may be subject to
a number of constructional, operational and maintenance problems that could reduce the plant electricity generation capac-
ity. Moreover, the plant may suffer huge revenue losses due to several teething problems which ultimately increase the
down time of the plant. One such problem is the hydro turbine and its components failure. In this report, an overview of
the turbine types and their failure mechanisms will be presented briey.

2. Types of hydro-turbines

For hydroelectric power stations, the amount of electrical energy that can be generated from a water source depends
primarily on two main parameters:

Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 0 431456177; fax: +61 8 83134367.

E-mail address: reza.ghomashchi@adelaide.edu.au (R. Ghomashchi).
1
Current address: Tala Hydropower Station, Bhutan.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2014.04.013
1350-6307/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 U. Dorji, R. Ghomashchi / Engineering Failure Analysis 44 (2014) 136147 137

Table 1
Worlds renewable energy harnessed as of 2008 [1].

Source TWH %
Hydropower 3247.3 86.31
Biomass 223.5 5.94
Wind power 215.7 5.73
Geothermal 63.4 1.69
Solar including photovoltaic 12.1 0.32
Marine energies 0.54 0.014
Total 3762.54 100

 The distance the water has to fall.

 The quantity of water ow.

As the water source varies according to the geographical location of the plant, water turbines are designed subsequently
to suit these different locations. The design and selection of water turbine is mainly based on the principle of energy con-
version, available water head on the machine, the specic speed of the turbine and the quantity of water that can be utilised
for continuous power generation. Accordingly these turbines are grouped under two main categories [2].

 Impulse turbines For example: Pelton and Turgo turbines.

 Reaction turbines For example: Francis, Kaplan and Bulb turbines.

The classication of turbines is essential to differentiate the failure mechanism that the turbine may experience. Depend-
ing on the type of turbine used for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy, in general, the four failure modes of
cavitation, erosion, fatigue and material defect may affect the impulse and reaction turbine differently [3]. For example, a
reaction turbine is likely to fail mostly due to cavitation while an impulse turbine is most probable to fail due to erosion
[25]. Moreover the failure due to material fatigue and material defect may depend on the operating condition of the power
plant. So, it is essential to give a brief account of most widely used hydropower turbines before concentrating on different
failure mechanisms.
It also is important to emphasize that material defects refer to defects generated in the turbine components during the
installation process and not during the manufacture of turbine. It is assumed that once the hydro turbine left the manufac-
turing site, it is fully checked and all quality specications and requirements are met and satised.

2.1. Pelton turbines

The Pelton turbine as shown in Fig. 1 is used where there is a small water discharge with a large available water head on
the turbines. It is similar to the water wheels used in the past. Pelton turbines constitute a series of runners/buckets aligned
around the rim of the shaft. Water from the dam is fed through the nozzles at high speed, hitting the blades of the turbine,
converts potential energy of the water in mechanical energy (shaft rotation), which is ultimately transformed into electrical
energy through generator.

2.2. Francis turbines

The Francis turbine is used where a large ow and a high or medium head of water is involved. Fig. 2 given below shows a
Francis turbine mechanism used in a hydropower station. The Francis turbine is also similar to a waterwheel, as it looks like a
spinning wheel with xed blades in between two rims. This wheel is called a runner. A circle of guide vanes surround the
runner and control the amount of water driving it. Water is fed to the runner from all sides by these vanes causing it to spin.
As reported by Hart and Whale [6], Francis turbine operates with a water head of 3060 m. The Francis turbine runner has
a high operating efciency (approximately 90%) over a wide range of head heights and ow rates. The size of a Francis tur-
bine runner can range from less than 1 m to over 15 m in diameter. A typical size used in New Zealand hydro-stations would
be 3 m.

2.3. Kaplan turbines

Propeller type turbines, such as Kaplan turbines are designed to operate where a small head of water is involved. For
Kaplan turbines as shown in Fig. 3, the angle (or pitch) of the blades can be altered to suit the water ow. The adjustable
pitch feature of Kaplan turbines allows these types of turbines to operate efciently at a wider range of water head, allowing
a provisional variation in the water level in the dam. Kaplan turbines can be used in sites having a typical head range of
240 m with 15100% efciency at full discharge for double regulated type and about 30100% at maximum discharge
for single regulated types [7,8].
138 U. Dorji, R. Ghomashchi / Engineering Failure Analysis 44 (2014) 136147

Fig. 1. Pelton type hydropower station set up (Source: Western Power Corporation) and a photo of Pelton wheel (http://www.kelvin.it).

3. Cavitation

The water enters hydraulic turbines is subjected to changes in pressure and velocity. Such variations may result in
changes in ow characteristics with consequences on turbine performance and useful life. Cavitation failure could be one
of the outcomes of such changes affecting turbine useful life. Cavitation is due to the formation of vapour bubbles and
the burst of such bubbles as a result of changes in the uid pressure at the vicinity of moving vapour bubbles falling below
the vapour pressure of the uid. This is the case for owing uids over the surface of a machine component where the
dynamic component of the uid pressure increases due to uid velocity suppressing the static component. The static

Fig. 2. Francis type hydropower station set up (Source: Western Power Corporation) and a photo of Francis turbine (http://www.grz.g.andritz.com).
 U. Dorji, R. Ghomashchi / Engineering Failure Analysis 44 (2014) 136147 139

Fig. 3. Kaplan type hydropower station set up (Source: Western Power Corporation) and a photo of Kaplan turbine (http://www.tbhic.cn).

Fig. 4. Cavitation pitting damage occurs as a result of repeated uid impact on the surface of a Kaplan turbine due [11].

pressure governs the process of vapour bubble formation or boiling. The bubble burst generates an extremely high local pres-
sure creating cavities on the surface of machine parts such as hydro-turbine components. Therefore, cavitation may occur
near the fast moving blades of hydro-turbines or near the exit of the turbine where there are large differences between
the static and dynamic components of uid pressure. Recent studies evaluated the magnitude of this high local pressure
140 U. Dorji, R. Ghomashchi / Engineering Failure Analysis 44 (2014) 136147

Fig. 5. Detail view of the cavitation eroded zone on a Kaplan runner blade [13].

to be approximately 700 atm (70 MPa) [9]. Repeated formation and collapse of these vapour bubbles during the uid ow
deteriorates the surface of the machine components due to pitting action [2]. It has been reported that cavitation causes sur-
face penetration damage of up to 10 mm per year to critical components such as impellors, turbine blades, and casings [10].
Fig. 4 gives a typical example of cavitation which has resulted in surface pitting of a Kaplan turbine [11]. The cavitation
eroded zone of a runner blade of a Kaplan turbine is given in Fig. 5.

4. Cavitation causes and types

The main causes of cavitation in hydraulic turbine may be due to the following conditions [12]:

 Design prole of the turbine.

 The frequent change in the operating condition of the plant to meet various load requirements.

Based on the analysis of structural vibrations, acoustic emissions and hydrodynamic pressures measured, the likelihood
of cavitation may be evaluated in hydraulic turbines and the formation of cavities detected experimentally [14]. Accordingly,
cavitation in case of Francis turbine initiates as a result of the changes in the uid ow velocity as it encounters the blades.
The uid ow which is usually turbulent in nature becomes even more turbulent as the velocity and pressure change over
the turbine blades. The increase in velocity changes the level of dynamic pressure and creates different ow patterns over the
surface of the turbine blades with respected cavitation damage of [15];

 Fluid ow pattern over the leading edge of the turbine blade.

 Fluid ow pattern over the trailing edge of the turbine blade.
 Formation of swirl in the draft tube once the uid leaves the trailing edge of turbine blade.
 Formation of inter-blade vortex.

The four types of cavitation detected in Francis turbine are shown in Fig. 6 which demonstrates how leading edge cavi-
tation, trailing edge cavitation, draft tube swirl and inter blade vortex cavitation can damage the Francis turbine. The leading
edge cavitation as shown in Fig. 6(a) can be the serious issue that is likely to erode the blades deeply. It is on account of liquid
ow obstruction and change in water pressure at the point of contact and subsequent water bubbles formation. For the trail-
ing edge cavitation, Fig. 6(b), it is a noisy type of cavitation that minimises the machine performance and initiates blade ero-
sion. Draft tube swirl, Fig. 6(c), can produce low frequency pressure pulsation resulting into hydraulic resonance causing
high amplitude vibration on the turbine components, which could potentially disturb the whole power house structure.
Inter-blade vortex cavitation as depicted in Fig. 6(d) or sometimes known as the Von Karman vortex cavitation is a phenom-
enon that can occur mostly on the trailing edge of the turbine components [15].

5. Cavitation susceptible turbine parts

The turbine parts which are most susceptible to cavitation vary with the type of turbines and the plant operating condi-
tions as summarised in the following Table 2.
The cavitation action in case of Francis turbine may be severe in the blade leading area and the trailing edge as shown in
Fig. 7. Other associated components such as draft tube, guide vanes and wicket gates experience lesser cavitation damages
compared to the blade. Moreover in most of the literatures, the cavitation defects for Francis turbines are illustrated only on
the blades [3,9,15].
 U. Dorji, R. Ghomashchi / Engineering Failure Analysis 44 (2014) 136147 141

(a) Leading edge (b) Trailing edge

(c) Draft tube (d) Inter-blade

Fig. 6. Cavitation damages in Francis turbine (a) leading edge cavitation, (b) trailing edge cavitation, (c) draft tube swirl and (d) inter-blade vortex
cavitation [15].

Table 2
Turbine parts which are more susceptible to cavitation [1,9,12,16].

Classication of Type of Parts that are susceptible to cavitation

turbine turbine
Impulse Pelton Bucket: Actually the shape of the Pelton bucket is cavitation-free geometry. However, the bucket tends to suffer
cavitation due to initiation of rough surface on the bucket by repeated impingement of erosive material from the
river [9]
Bulb Blades, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation result for ow through the bulb turbine showed cavitation
turbine may occur on the blade surface indirectly affecting the efciency of the plant
Reaction Francis Leading edge of the blade, trailing edge of the blade, draft tubes, guide vanes, wicket gates
Kaplan Blades, guide vanes

6. Cavitation prevention

A review of the literature and hands on experience of the rst author indicated that cavitation phenomenon may not be
completely avoidable in all turbines. The problem of cavitation in hydropower plant could be minimised if the load uctu-
ation is kept to a minimum or avoided completely. However, Spannhake [16], did suggest that the problem of cavitation may
be avoided completely if:

 To design the turbine to operate with forward whirl in the draft tube.
 Improve the distribution of pressure along the back side of the turbine blades.
 Change the blade prole such that it will have forward edge shape.

Continued research into the above-mentioned three possible methods of avoiding cavitation is still on-going by using the
latest predictive tools such as Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) techniques to study the uid ow along the surface of the
machine components [15]. On the operational level however, there are procedures to monitor the effect of cavitation damage
on the hydraulic turbines such as online vibration monitoring. In addition, proper use of cavitation resistance materials for
blades, draft tubes, wicket gates, etc. and the injection of air into the draft tube are successfully adopted in the hydropower
plants to mitigate cavitation problem [3]. A brief account of the methods to minimise cavitation is elaborated below.
142 U. Dorji, R. Ghomashchi / Engineering Failure Analysis 44 (2014) 136147

Fig. 7. Cavitation details in the runner blade of the Francis turbine [15].

Fig. 8. Effect of alloy microhardness on its cavitation incubation time [18].

6.1. Online vibration monitoring

Online vibration monitoring devices which detects abnormal vibration during plant operation is the most effective and
common method of controlling cavitation in hydropower plants. The turbine section which experiences cavitation as a result
of explosioncollapse of vapour bubbles induces abnormal vibration to the machine [1,17]. The online vibration measure-
ments are compared to the standard permissible vibration limit of the turbine section. Any abnormal vibration beyond
the permissible limit is internally linked to the machine control system that commands machine shut down to prevent fur-
ther damage and also for the safety of the operational and maintenance ofcials in the power house.

6.2. Use of cavitation resistant materials

Proper selection of the turbine material and manufacturing route is an essential preventative step to combat cavitation
damages. According to Bhagat [18], it is necessary to understand the effect of materials properties on the cavitation
incubation time and rate, since materials with greater cavitation incubation rate will have higher cavitation erosion rate.
It is shown the cavitation incubation time increases logarithmically with materials microhardness which means harder
materials should be less prone to cavitation damages, see Fig. 8.
However, cavitation resistance is also dependent on the ductility and toughness of the materials to enable them to absorb
the cavitation energy. As a result, non-strain rate sensitive materials with higher number of slip systems and greater ability to
undergo plastic deformation are more resistant to cavitation, such as Co and austenitic stainless steel. Bhagat [18] also indi-
cated that metals with lower stacking fault energy and greater work hardening rate are more resistant to cavitation. However,
properties such as hardness and toughness and ductility usually have opposing effects on materials resistance to fracture.
Therefore, a combination of high hardness and ductility and toughness may be achieved with composite materials with
 U. Dorji, R. Ghomashchi / Engineering Failure Analysis 44 (2014) 136147 143

Fig. 9. A schematic diagram showing the fully submerged daft tube in the tail race water [2].

proper selection of matrix and reinforcing agent. As points out by Bhagat [18] a composite may be more resistant to cavitation
if both matrix and bre are selected to be;

 Work hardenable (low stacking fault energy) materials.

 Low strain-rate sensitivity (no ductile-to-brittle transition).
 Relatively large diameter bre which may undergo plastic deformation without fracturing.
 Moderate bre volume fraction to allow larger interbre distance.
 Fibres normal to the surface.
 Good interfacial bonding to allow subsurface micro-buckling of bres.

He suggested that a ductile matrix/ductile bre composite material may have superior cavitation damage resistance to
that of the matrix material and maybe used to manufacture turbines and its associated components. In contrast to Bhagat
[18] suggestion, Kjolle [2] and Raghuvir et al. [12] showed that the best materials to combat severe cavitation damage
are normally cast alloy steel with 13%Cr and 4%Ni or 16% Cr and 5% Ni. In addition, these alloys have excellent strength plus
being adequately weldable.

6.3. Injection of air into the draft tube

The problem of cavitation in the draft tube arises as a result of ow separation that takes place at the exit of the turbine
blades [9]. Accordingly, the ow separation at the exit of the turbine blade induces vibration of high amplitude to the
machine components with undesirable effect to the turbine assembly. Studies and the experimental result of a prototype
Francis and Kaplan turbine showed that an injection of air into the draft tube region dampens the vibration and also stabi-
lizes the ow [4]. As a result of these ndings, todays draft tube for Francis and Kaplan turbines are submerged below the
level of the water in the tailrace as shown in Fig. 9.

7. Erosion

Erosion is the process of gradual removal of material from the surface of a component as a result of repeated deformation
and cutting action [3]. The erosive wear of turbine and its components in hydropower plants occurs as a result of the ow of
high velocity and impingement of abrasive sediments on the surface of the turbines [17] for example the sediment that
breaks down the oxide coating layer on the ow guiding surface. Instantaneous breakage of the oxide layers leads to the for-
mation of surface irregularities in the ow guiding surfaces initiating cavitation type effects on the turbine unit [2]. The pho-
tograph of the nozzle and the seal ring assembly, Fig. 10, of the Tala Hydropower Plant, a 1020 MW electricity generating
plant in Bhutan, shows signicant damage as a result of sand erosion. This photograph was taken on 29th October 2009
when one of the unit noted abnormal vibration and noise during full load with 10% overload operation strategy to meet
the load requirement of the plant. The blades of the Pelton turbine unit along with the seal ring were damaged completely
as a result of operating the plant with higher concentration of silt on the previous day before the failure. Inspection of the
failed components and common experience in the hydropower turbine maintenance concluded that the failure is due to a
combination of sand erosion, localised change in materials property during installation and extra load beyond the designed
and recommended limits of operation of the plant. According to Frunzaverde et al. [19], the chances of damage to hydro
turbines by operating the plant at partial and over load condition is because of pressure uctuation and subsequent vortex
formation in the draft tube cone. In addition to this pressure uctuation, the draft tube surge as a result of vortex formation
causes vibration and noise in the machineries and enhances the possibility of turbine failure.
144 U. Dorji, R. Ghomashchi / Engineering Failure Analysis 44 (2014) 136147

Broken tip nozzle

Surface irregularities on
the seal ring

Fig. 10. A nozzle and seal ring failed due to excessive sand erosion, Tala Hydropower Plant, Bhutan.

Moreover, a study to evaluate the effect of sand particles on the turbines have indicated that the erosive wear of turbine
and its components is directly proportional to the sediment size and its mineral content [5]. Similar results were also indi-
cated by Kjolle [2] wherein the erosion rate is directly determined by the sediment types and their characteristics properties
such as shape, size and quantities.

8. Sediment erosion susceptible turbine parts

Numerical simulation using computational uid dynamics were carried out at Cahua Power Plant to study the impact of
the characteristic features of the sediments on turbines wear. It concluded the following turbine parts are more susceptible
to sand erosion [17]:

Stay vanes Parts of a Francis turbines

Guide vanes
Runner vanes
Turbine blades
Bucket, Parts of a Pelton turbines
Nozzle
Seal rings
Deectors

Accordingly, the ow simulation result showed that the uid ow attained highest velocities and acceleration at the out-
let of the turbine blade resulting in the prediction of highest erosive wear at the outlet of the blade and the lower cover [17].
Additionally, the study also showed unexpected sediment erosion occurring on the suction side of the guide vanes.
The erosion of the turbine parts reduces the efciency of the turbines which directly affects the total generation of the
plant. In addition to this reduced performance, the turbine component may break down during any time of its service life
causing danger to operational and maintenance crews. Fig. 11 shows the damage on the nozzle and the bucket of the Khimti
Hydropower Plant in Nepal. The photograph also shows maximum sediment erosion on the location where there is direct
impingement of the sediment particle in case of Pelton turbine. Similarly, in case of Francis turbines, the leading and the
trailing edge of the blade experience the maximum erosion [20].

9. Sediment erosion prevention

There are different methods of combating sediment erosion in hydropower plants [2]. Damage due to sand erosion por-
trays serious issues in hydropower plants due to increased shut down time during maintenance and subsequent revenue
losses as a result of the damage [4]. However, the impact of sediment on turbine blades and its components can be mini-
mised to an acceptable limit by:

 Constructing civil structure such as dam and de-silting chambers.

 Monitoring the concentration of sediment ow to power house.
 Coating to improve resistance against erosion.
 U. Dorji, R. Ghomashchi / Engineering Failure Analysis 44 (2014) 136147 145

Fig. 11. Eroded Pelton turbine component of Khimti hydropower plant, Nepal (a) nozzle, (b) bucket [20].

 Proper selection of turbine and its component materials.

9.1. Dam and de-silting chambers

Dams are civil structures that are constructed across the river ow direction in order to store the water for many other
purposes. In general, most dams are constructed to store water for electricity generation, control ood, and also a mechanism
to reduce the velocity of the ow so that sediments may be deposited in the reservoir.
As a result of sedimentation process in the reservoir, ow of erosive sediments to power house may be minimised to an
acceptable level. A de-silting chamber is a civil structure constructed in line with the dam whereby the velocity of the ow is
further reduced to eliminate much ner erosive materials owing into the power house. Consequently, clean water after the
de-silting chamber is supplied to the power house for electricity generation and therefore the damage of turbine as a result
of sediment ow is minimised.

9.2. Sediment concentration

Another method of preventing expensive turbines from damage is to monitor the concentration of the sediment particles.
An online silt measuring device (part per million PPM) is installed to measure silt content in the river. The online measured
data is compared to the permissible silt limit of the plant. If the silt limit is greater than the acceptable PPM value, the sensor
directs power house to shut down the machine automatically.

9.3. Coating

A general method of minimising the effect of sediment erosion may be done by applying hard surface coatings [21]. Coat-
ing such as ceramic pastes, ceramic paints, and hard facing alloys are some of the general and standard coating materials
used in hydropower plants. Recent studies in improving the coating quality and nish showed that applying tungsten car-
bide based composites such as 86WC10Co4Cr, have much improved resistance against sediment erosion [21].

9.4. Materials selection

The most common materials to combat sand erosion and minimise erosion effect on hydro turbines are the generally
hardened stainless steel types with either 13% Cr and 4% Ni or 16% Cr and 5% Ni [2]. Consequently, turbine parts such as noz-
zles, buckets, seal rings of a Pelton turbine are fabricated or cast from these stainless steels and heat treated (hardened) to
better resist sediment erosion.

10. Fatigue

Material fatigue is another form of turbine failure mode [19]. The turbine components which are subjected to repeated
alternating or cyclic stress below the normal yield strength fail progressively by cracking [2]. The turbine assembly
constitute various interconnected components and as a result, the vibration in one of the members is transferred to others,
ensuing deformation in all the components [22]. Furthermore, an additional stress in the affected parts may result in abrupt
failure of the component [2]. Analysis of water ow over the turbine surface showed formation of eddy current which
146 U. Dorji, R. Ghomashchi / Engineering Failure Analysis 44 (2014) 136147

(A) (B)
Fig. 12. (A) (a) Flange of turbine showing multiple fatigue cracks initiation sites, (b) stable fatigue cracks and (c) drilled holes. (B) a schematic
representation of the propagation of fatigue failure [22].

Hooks welded as support

Fig. 13. Welded hooks on the surfaces of the nozzle for support during installation, Tala Hydropower Plant, Bhutan.

initiates vibration and stresses on turbine blades and to other components. Turbine materials which are subjected to
repeated hydraulic vibration may result into material failure due to fatigue [19].
As shown in Fig. 12, a turbine shaft ange which has failed due to multiple fatigue cracks initiated at the point of contact
between the ange and turbine runner assembly [23]. Similar fatigue initiation is also highly noticeable at the corners of the
runner of Francis turbines and Pelton buckets. To combat fatigue failure, turbine parts which experience fatigue may be man-
ufactured by nickel alloy steel with 13%Cr and 4%Ni for Pelton buckets and with 16% Cr and 5% Ni for Francis runners [2].
Fatigue failure in turbines may also be minimised if the proper material selection material with good fatigue strength
and endurance limits and with sufcient factor of safety may be considered during the design stage. Furthermore, fatigue
failure can be avoided by monitoring the vibration level of the turbine unit [2].

11. Material defects

A review of available literature on turbine failure mechanism and several case studies of the failed turbine parts in hydro-
power plants showed combined effect of sediment erosion and cavitation are the main cause of turbine failure. The failures
of turbine parts as a result of material defects generated during installation stage are very rare in publication. Material
defects are essentially controlled during turbine and its components fabrication stage, so that the fabricated turbine parts
meet the standards as required by the hydropower plant. However, it is necessary to keep the properties of the turbine parts
intact during erection and installation stage. Unnecessary tag welding and lugs on the surface of the turbines as support for
lifting and installing turbine parts may distort the material properties of the turbine as shown in Fig. 13.

12. Conclusions

The turbine failure and its subsequent impact on the power house structure and the threat it may impose to the
operational and maintenance crews needs due attention to improve the performance of the turbines and safeguard the
power plant. This can only be achieved through understanding of the turbine failure mechanisms, and particularly identify
turbine parts that are most susceptible to specic type of failure. Four types of failure, namely cavitation, erosion, fatigue and
 U. Dorji, R. Ghomashchi / Engineering Failure Analysis 44 (2014) 136147 147

materials failure due to improper installation procedure have been identied as the main cause of failure for most turbines.
Attempts were also made to highlight the relationship between the type of turbine (Pelton, Francis and Kaplan) and the most
vulnerable part of the turbine to a specic failure. Also some suggestions were made to mitigate turbine failure.

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