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Lighting Handbook PDF
Lighting Handbook PDF
THE LIGHT
Wavelength ()
It is defined as the distance travelled by a wave in a period. For a transversal wave, it may be defined as the distance between two
consecutive maximums or between any other two points located in the same phase (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Wavelength .
* Wave: Graphic expression of a periodic variation represented in amplitude and time. Amplitude is the maximum value or ordenate taken by the wave.
Wavelength is a highly important characteristic in order to classify the visible radiation spectrum, object of study in this section of
LIGHTING ENGINEERING 2002.
This parameter is determined by the result of propagation velocity (), multiplied by the time it takes to cover one cycle (T Period):
= (m/s s = m)
Frequency ( f )
It is defined as the number of periods that take place in a time unit.
Since period is inverse to frequency, = 1 , the equation above is transformed into:
f
= (m/s 1/s-1 = m)
f
and, therefore, frequency is directly proportional to propagation velocity, and inversely proportional to wavelength.
Propagation velocity ( )
Propagation velocity depends on wave type, elasticity of the medium and rigidity. If the medium is homogeneous and isotropic,
propagation velocity is the same in all directions.
For example, sound propagation velocity in the air, at 20 C, is that of 343.5 m/s, whereas electromagnetic waves propagation velocity
in the vacuum is equivalent to 300 000 km/s = 3 108 m/s.
The fundamental equation which relates propagation velocity to wavelength and frequency is
= f (m s-1 = m/s)
300 nm.
Black light
320
340
Ultraviolet rays
360
790x1012 Hz
380
Violet 400 nm.
Lamp manufacturers usually give radio spectrometrical curves with values raging between 380 nm. and 780 nm. As we have shown,
apart from the meter, nanometer (nm.) is also used in order to express wavelengths, as well as other units like Angstrom () and micron
(m.).
1 m. = 10-60 m
1 nm. = 10-90 m
1 . = 10-10 m
100 100
% %
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
400 nm.
600 nm.
400 nm.
600 nm.
380 nm.
500 nm.
380 nm.
500 nm.
700 nm.
780 nm.
700 nm.
780 nm.
Spectral distribution for a normal day light Spectral distribution for an incandescent lamp
Figure 3
100 100
% %
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
400 nm.
600 nm.
380 nm.
500 nm.
700 nm.
780 nm.
380 nm.
400 nm.
500 nm.
600 nm.
700 nm.
780 nm.
Spectral distribution for a cold white coloured fluorescent lamp Spectral distribution for a high pressure mercury lamp
of corrected colour
Figure 4
their own theory of wave propagation, Huygens was able to explain reflection and refraction supposing that light travels more slowly in
glass or in water than in air. Newton realized about the advantages of the wave theory of light, particularly because it explained colours
formed by thin films, which he had studied very thoroughly. Notwithstanding, he rejected the wave theory due to the apparent rectilinear
propagation of light. In his time, diffraction of the luminous beam, which allows to evade objects, had not yet been observed.
Newton's corpuscular theory of light was accepted for more than a century. After some time, in 1801, Thomas Young revitalized the
wave theory of light. He was one of the first scientists to introduce the idea of interference as a wave phenomenon present both in the
light and in the sound. His observations of interferences obtained from light were a clear demonstration of their wave nature.
Nevertheless, Young's research was not known by the scientific community for more than ten years. Probably, the most important
breakthrough regarding a general acceptance of the wave theory of light is due to the French physicist Augustin Fresnel (1782-1827),
who conducted thorough experiments on interference and diffraction. He also developed a wave theory based on a solid mathematical
foundation. In 1850, Jean Foucault measured the speed of light in water and checked that it is slower than in air. Thus, he finally
destroyed Newton's corpuscular theory of light. In 1860, James Clerk Maxwell published his electromagnetic mathematical theory which
preceded the existence of electromagnetic waves. These waves propagated with a calculated speed through electricity and magnetism
laws which was equivalent in value to 3 x 108 m/s, the same value than the speed of light. Maxwell's theory was confirmed by Hertz
in 1887 who used a tuned electric circuit to generate waves and another similar circuit to detect them. In the second half of the 19th
century, Kirchoff and other scientists applied Maxwell's laws to explain interference and diffraction of light and other electromagnetic
waves and support Huygens' empirical methods of wave construction on a solid mathematical basis.
Although wave theory is generally correct when propagation of light is described (and of other electromagnetic waves), it fails when other
light properties are to be explained, specially the interaction of light with matter. Hertz, in a famous experiment in 1887 confirmed
Maxwell's wave theory, and he also discovered the photoelectric effect. Such an effect can also be explained by means of a model of
particles for light, as Einstein proved only a few years later. This way, a new corpuscular model of light was introduced. The particles of
light are known as photons and energy E of a photon is related to frequency f of the luminous wave associated by Einstein's famous
ratio E = h f (h = Planck's constant). A complete understanding of dual nature of light was not achieved before the 20's in the 20th
century. Experiments conducted by scientists of the time (Davisson, Germer, Thompson and others) proved that electrons (and other
"particles") also had a dual nature and presented interference and diffraction properties besides their well-known particle properties.
In brief, the modern theory of quantum mechanics of luminous radiation accepts the fact that light seems to have a dual nature. On the
one hand, light propagation phenomena find a better explanation within Maxwell's electromagnetic theory (electromagnetic wave
fundamental nature). On the other hand, mutual action between light and matter, in the processes of absorption and emission, is a
photoelectric phenomenon (corpuscular nature).
THE EYE
Vitreous humor
Upper eyelid
Yellow spot
Aqueous humor
Cornea
Optical nerve
Crystalline lens
Ophthalmic muscles
Iris
Retina
Ciliary muscle
g) Cones: photosensitive or photoreceptive cells of the retina which are mainly located in the fovea. They are very sensitive to colours
and almost insensitive to light. Hence, their function is to discriminate fine details and to perceive colours (Fig. 2).
h) Rods: photosensitive or photoreceptive cells of the retina which are only outside the fovea and more concentrated in the periphery.
They are very sensitive to light and movement, and almost insensitive to colour. Thus, their function is to perceive more or less
brightness with which objects are illuminated (Fig. 2).
i) Macule: yellow spot situated in the rear part of the retina, on the optical axis, where a precise and sharp fixation of details and colours
take place. The fovea is in its center which is only formed by cones.
j) Blind spot: a spot in the retina through which the optical nerve drives images or feelings of light to the brain. At this point, there are
no photoreceptors.
Eye globe
Nerve cell
Pigment grains
Rod
Pigmented cell
Retina enlargement Cone
The following chart compares the human eye to the photographic camera.
Chart 1
Wavelength nm.
400 500 600 700
100
%
80
60
NIGHT DAY
40
20
0
Figure 4. Eye sensitivity curve to monochromatic radiations.
In this curve, the maximum eye sensitivity for day white light (photopic) corresponds to a 555 nm. wavelength and to the yellow colour.
The minimum sensitivity corresponds to the red and violet colours.
Hence, luminous sources whose wavelength corresponds to yellow - green are the ones with highest efficacy and worst quality, the
reason being that such light is not appropriate for our eye, which is accustomed to the sun white light. Thus, in premises where there
is a high illumination level orange and red colours are highlighted.
In the case of night light (scotopic), the maximum of sensitiveness moves towards shorter wavelengths (Purkinje's effect). Consequently,
those radiations with a shorter wavelength (blue- violet) produce greater intensity of sensation with low illumination. Such an effect is
very important when illuminating premises with a low illumination level where blue and violet colours can be seen better.
2.5. Accommodation
It is the eye capacity to adjust automatically to different distances of objects, and, this way, to obtain sharp images on the retina. This
adjustment takes place by modifying the crystalline curvature and, thus, the focus distance by contracting or relaxing ciliary muscles.
Provided that the objective is close to the eye, the crystalline curvature is greater than when it is far. In the photographic camera, the
lens and the film.
Accommodation or focus is easier with high luminances * (lighting) which oblige the pupil to adapt or modify the diaphragm towards a
closing position. The common result of this action is the increase of the field depth, or what is the same, a sharp vision of objects at
different distances from the eye or camera.
The eye accommodation capacity decreases with age, as a result of a hardening of the crystalline.
2.6. Contrast
All objects are perceived by contrasts of colour and luminance which different parts of their surface present among themselves and in
relation to the background in which the object appears.
* Luminance: Luminosity effect which a surface produces on the eye retina, whether it comes from a primary source of light or a reflecting surface.
For high enough lighting levels, the normal eye is colour sensitive, whereas for low lighting ones, objects are fundamentally perceived
by luminance contrast which is present against the background. The luminance difference between the observed object and its
immediate space is known as contrast.
Lo
Lf
Figure 5
In Fig. 5, the surface of the object has a luminance "L0" and the background surface has a luminance "Lf". Therefore, contrast "K" is the
difference between these two luminances, divided by their background one, that is to say:
L0 Lf
K=
Lf
a b c
Figure 6
Contrast sensitivity
It is a concept derived from the former one which is equivalent to the minimum contrast of luminances that may be perceived by the
human eye. Mathematically speaking, it would be the inverse of contrast.
Lf 1
G= =
L0 Lf K
1
G= = 100
0.01
However, in normal practical conditions, sensitivity to contrasts is quite smaller because of the reasons exposed above.
2.7. Adaptation
It is the ability of the eye to adjust automatically to different lighting degrees for objects. It consists of the adjustment of the size of the
pupil so that luminance projected in the retina is equal to a value bearable by sensitive cells. If compared to a photographic camera, it
would be the greater or lesser opening of the diaphragm.
If lighting is very intense, the pupil contracts, decreasing the amount of light that reaches the crystalline. If lighting is scarce, it expands
to capture more of it.
In high value illuminations, the pupil reduces to a diameter of approximately 2 mm. In very low value illuminations, the pupil expands
up to about 8 mm.
When a person moves from a place with high illuminance to another which is completely dark, the eye undergoes an adaptation process.
In order to adjust totally to the new situation, the eye needs 30 minutes. The opposite process, when a person goes from a completely
dark place into another with high illuminance, the adaptation period lasts for only a few seconds (Fig. 7).
100
%
Relative photosensitivity
80
60
40
20
0 10 20 30 40 50
Adaptation time (min.)
Figure 7. Eye relative photosensitive curve regarding adaptation time.
2.8. Glare
It is a phenomenon that produces disturbance or decrease in the capacity to distinguish objects, or else, both things at the same time.
This could be due either to an inadequate luminance distribution or phasing or to excessive contrasts in space or time.
This phenomenon affects the retina of the eye: an energetic photochemical reaction is produced which desensitizes it for a certain period
of time, after which, it recovers.
Effects produced by glare may be classified as psychological (discomfort) or physiological (disability). It may be produced in different
ways: direct glare, like the one from sources of light (lamps, luminaires or windows), which are located within the field of vision. Reflected
glare specially from surfaces with great reflectance, specular surfaces like polished metal.
Sources of light generally give rise to a disability glare which is proportional to the lighting produced by the source of light on the eye
pupil, as well as to a factor dependent on the q angle. Such an angle is formed by both the straight line R which joins the eye with
the F focus and the H horizontal plane which goes through the eye in a working position. In Fig. 8, different glares are indicated,
depending on the angle function. A minimum value of 30 has been taken as admissible.
F
Glare
R
H
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Values for the angle
Figure 8. Glare according to the q angle.
Surfaces which are not completely matte give rise to more or less sharp images of their sources of light due to light reflection. Even if their
luminance is not excessive, such images are almost always discomforting when found in the field of vision, and specially, in its central area.
According to these lines, all unnecessary polished surfaces will be avoided as far as possible (glass over tables, for example.). In case semi-
polished surfaces are used (blackboards), sources of light will have the least possible luminance and their position will be calculated bearing
in mind reflexes that may occur (filters, grids, diffusers, etc.). In special cases, images which provide reflection will be useful (silhouette effect
vision, flaw inspection in polished surfaces, typesetting, etc.).
MATTER OPTICAL
PROPERTIES
3.2. Reflection
When any type of waves strikes a flat surface like a mirror, for example, new waves that move away from the surface are generated. This
phenomenon is known as reflection.
When light is returned by a surface, a certain amount of light is lost due to the absorption phenomenon. The ratio between the reflected
flux and the incident flux is called surface reflectance
Any surface which is not completely dark may reflect light. The amount of reflected light is determined by the surface reflection
properties. There are four kinds of reflection, namely: specular, composed, diffused and mixed. Reflector systems are based on these
reflection properties.
Specular reflection (Fig. 1): It takes place when the reflecting surface is flat. This kind of reflection is based on two fundamental laws:
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the surface at the point of incidence lie in the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence (i) is the same as the angle of reflection (r).
i r
Composed reflection (Fig. 2): Contrary to specular reflection, there is no mirror image of the light source, but the maximum angle of
reflected intensity is the same as the angle of incidence. This type of reflection takes place when the surface is irregular or rough.
Diffused reflection (Fig. 3): This takes place when the light that strikes a surface is reflected in all directions, the normal ray to the surface
being the most intense one.
This kind of reflection takes place on surfaces such as matt white paper, walls, plaster flat ceilings, snow, etc.
Mixed reflection (Fig. 4): This is an intermediate kind of reflection between the specular and the diffused reflection, in which some of
the incident beam is reflected and some, diffused. This kind of reflection takes place with non polished metals, glossy paper and
barnished surfaces.
3.3. Transmmission
Radiation passes through a medium without a change in the frequency of monochromatic radiations. This phenomenon can be seen
on certain kinds of glass, crystal, water and other liquids, and air, of course.
However, when passing through the material, some of the light is lost due to the reflection on the medium surface and through
absorption. The relation between the transmitted light and the incident light is known as material transmittance.
Transmission falls into three categories: spread, diffused and mixed.
Spread transmission (Fig. 5): The beam strikes a medium and passes through it. The media which fulfill this property are called
transparent materials and allow a sharp view of objects on the opposite side.
Diffused transmission (Fig. 6): The incident beam spreads through the medium, coming out of it in scattered directions. These
transmitting media are called translucent. The most common ones are ground glass and opalized organic glass. Objects situated behind
them appear blurred.
Mixed transmission (Fig. 7): This is a kind of combination between spread and diffused transmission. It is produced with organic,
polished and carved surface glass. Although beam spread is not complete, objects situated behind them appear blurred, but their
position is relative.
3.4. Absorption
Process by which radiant energy is converted into a different form of energy, mainly in the form of heat. This phenomenon is
characteristic both of all surfaces which are not completely reflective and of materials which are not totally transparent. The ratio between
absorbed flux to incident flux is known as absorptance.
Absorption of certain light wavelengths is called selective absorption. Generally speaking, objects take their color from selective
absorption.
3.5. Refraction
The direction of the light beam may change when passing from one medium to the other. This is a result of a change in the light speed
of propagation. Speed decreases if the new media density is higher, and increases if it is lower. This change in speed and direction is
known as refraction.
There are two laws of refraction:
1. When the wave goes from one medium to another, the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the separating surface of
the media on the incidence point, are on the same plane.
2. The ratio between the incidence angle sine and the refraction angle sine is a constant for the given pair of media.
The above mentioned constant is known as the index of refraction n, for the given media. The second law of refraction is usually known
as Snells law.
n1
n2
2
n1
D
1
sin a1 n2
n1 sin a1 = n2 sin a2 c = =n
sin a2 = n1
sin a1 = n2 sin a2
The distance D in figure 8 is known as displacement. Such a displacemnt depends on the angle of incidence and on the index of
refraction. When the incident ray is perpendicular to the surface, refraction and displacement equal zero.
Refraction varies according to wavelength. Short waves (like blue and violet) are transmitted better than long waves (for example red).
This phenomenon is used to decompose white light into its component colours when passing through a refraction prism. The degree
to which color is decomposed depends on the angle of incidence and the refraction properties of the prism material. This is called
dispersion.
* ni is calculated by the quotient between the speed of light in the air and the speed of light in the medium i.
THE COLOUR
Prism
380 nm.
400 nm.
White light
500 nm.
600 nm.
700 nm.
780 nm.
520
530
510 540
550
560
570
500
580
590
3.200
2.500 600
5.000
800 610
620
490 10.000 6.500 630
650
700
750
24.000
480
470
460
450
400-380
* K = Kelvin. Temperatures of Kelvins scale exceed in 273 C the corresponding ones in the centigrade scale.
Chart 1
Chart 2
Rendering group Rendering range in Colour appearance Examples for preferible uses Examples for acceptable use
in colour
colour (R or Ra)
Warm
Colour equalness, medical
1A R 90 Intermediate
explorations, art galleries
Cold
Warm Houses, hotels, restaurants,
Intermediate shops, offices, schools, hospitals
1B 90 > R 80
Intermediate Printing, painting and textile industry,
Warm industrial work
Warm
2 80 > R 60 Intermediate Industrial work Offices, schools
Cold
3 60 > R 40 Rough industries Industrial work
Rough work, industrial work
4 40 > R 20 with low requisites for
colour rendering
LUMINOUS MEASUREMENTS
Two basic elements intervene in lighting engineering: both the source of light and the object to be illuminated.
In the present chapter, we will deal with fundamental measurements and units used to evaluate and compare the quality and effects of
sources of light.
=1
= 1 radian
r=1
(total) = 2 radians
Figure 2. Plane angle.
The stereoradian is defined as the solid angle which corresponds to a spherical cap whose surface equals the square of the sphere
radius (Fig. 3).
1cd
= 1 Lm
r = 1m. E = 1 Lux
S = 1 m2
1cd
(total) = 4 stereoradians
Luminous output of a source of light in one specific direction equals the ratio between the luminous flux contained in whatever solid
angle whose axis coincides with the considered direction. Its symbol is , and its unit of measurement is the candela (cd). The formula
which expresses it is the following:
= (lm/sr)
Candela is defined as the luminous intensity of a specific source which emits luminous flux equal to one lumen in a solid angle per
stereoradian (sr).
According to the I.S.*, candela may also be defined as the luminous intensity in a certain direction, from a source which emits
monochromatic radiation with a frequency of 540 1012 Hz, and whose energy intensity in the aforementioned direction is 1/683 watts
per stereoradian.
A B
1
2
3
5.5. Luminance
Luminance is the effect which produces a surface on the retina of the eye, both coming from a primary source which produces light,
or from a secondary source or surface which reflects light.
Luminance measures brightness for primary light sources as well as for sources constituting illuminated objects. This term has substituted
the concepts of brightness and lighting density. Nevertheless, it is interesting to remember that the human eye does not perceive colours
but brightness, as a colour attribute. Light perception is, in fact, the perception of differences in luminance. Therefore, it may be stated
that the eye perceives luminance differences but not illuminance ones (provided that we have the same lighting, different objects have
different luminance since they have different reflection characteristics).
Luminance of an illuminated surface is the ratio between luminance of a source of light in a given direction, to the surface of the
projected source depending on such direction.
Real surface
The projected area is seen by the observer in the direction of the luminous intensity. This area is calculated by multiplying the illuminated
real surface by the cosine angle forming the normal with the direction of the luminous intensity (Fig. 5).
Represented by the letter L, its unit is the candela/square metre called nit (nt), with one submultiple, the candela/square centimetre
or stilb, used for high luminance sources.
1cd 1cd
1nt = ; 1stilb =
1m2 1cm2
The formula which expresses it is the following:
L=
S cos
where:
S cos = Apparent surface.
Luminance is independent from the observation distance.
Luminance measurement
Luminance measurement is conducted by means of a special device called a luminancemetre or nitmeter. It is based on two optical
systems, directional and measurement systems, respectively. (Fig. 6).
The directional system is oriented in such a way that the image coincides with the point to be measured. Once it has been oriented,
the light that reaches it is transformed into electric current. Its values are measured in cd/m2.
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
Figure 6. Luminancemeter.
5.6.2. Reflectance
Ratio between the flux reflected by a body (with or without diffusion) and the flux received.
Unit c %
Symbol c
r
Ratio c =
5.6.3. Absorptance
Ratio between the luminous flux absorbed by a body and the flux received.
Unit c %
Symbol c
a
Ratio c =
5.6.4. Transmittance
Ratio between the luminous flux transmitted by a body and the flux received.
Unit c %
Symbol c
t
Ratio c =
= !r dr
Photometric solid is the solid obtained. Fig. 7 shows an incasdescent lamp photometric solid.
120
100
80
60
0
20
40
Figure 7. Incandescent lamp photometric solid.
If a plane passes through the symmetric axis of a source of light, for example, a meridional plane, a section limited by a curve, known
as photometric curve, or luminous distribution curve is obtained (Fig. 8).
180 150
80 120
60
40
cd 90
20
40
60
80 60
100
120
140
0 30
Figure 8. Photometric curve for an incandescent lamp.
By reviewing the photometric curve of a source of light, luminous intensity in any direction may be determined very accurately. This data
are necessary for some lighting calculations.
Therefore, spatial directions through which luminous radiation is irradiated may be established by two coordinates. One of the most
frequently used coordinate systems to obtain photometric curves is the C - represented in Fig. 9.
rotation axis
"C" planes
90
C= C=
18
0
= 180
270 C=
C= in c 0
lin
a ti
on
axi = 9 0
s
= 0
Ro
Wa ad
lkw way
ay si
sid de
e
Photometric curves refer to an emitted luminous flux of 1 000 lm. Generally speaking, the source of light emits a larger flux. Thus, the
corresponding luminous intensity values are calculated by a simple ratio.
When a lamp is housed in a reflector, its flux is distorted, producing a volume with a marked shape defined by the characteristics of the
reflector. Therefore, distribution curves vary according to different planes. The two following figures show two examples where distribution
curves for two reflectors are represented. Fig.10 reflector is symmetric and has identical curves for any of the meridional planes. This is
the reason why a sole curve is enough for its photometric identification. Fig. 11 reflector is asymmetric and each plane has a different
curve. All planes must be known.
60o
30o 0o 30o
Unit = cd/1000 lm
C=90 C=45 C=0
Figure 10. Symmetric photometric distribution curve.
320 240 80 0
70o
50o
30o 10o 0o
Unit = cd/1000 lm
C=90 C=45 C=0
Another method to represent luminous flux distribution is the isocandela curve diagram (Fig. 12). According to this diagram, luminaires
are supposed to be in the center of a sphere where exterior surface points with the same intensity are linked (isocandela curves).
Generally, luminaires have, at least, one symmetric plane. This is the reason why they are only represented in a hemisphere.
-80 1 80
5
60 40
10 80
-70 90
70
20
-60 30
60
-50
60 50
-40 40
-30 30
-20 20
-10 10
GM=0 Imax=100%
This representation is very comprehensive. However, more experience is needed to interpret it.
The flux emitted by a source of light provides surface lighting (illuminance) whose values are measured in lux. If those values are
projected on the same plane and a line links the ones with the same value, isolux curves are formed (Fig. 13).
h
WALKWAY SIDE
5
30
40
0 20
80 60
50
70 10
h
5
2h
1
1
ROADWAY SIDE
3h
6h 5h 4h 3h 2h h 0 h 2h 3h
Lmax=100%
fl=0.154
Finally, luminance depends on the luminous flux reflected by a surface in the observers direction. Values are measured in candelas per
square metre (cd/m2) and are represented by isoluminance curves (Fig. 14).
OBSERVERS: A, B AND C
6h 5h 4h 3h 2h h 0 h 2h 3h
A h
ROADWAY SIDE 1 5 20
30
40
50 5
60
B 0 80
70
50
C h
10
5
2h
WALKWAY SIDE
Roadway R2
1
Qo = 0.07
3h
Lmax=100%
fl=0.152
Figure 14. Isoluminance curves.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
where is the illuminance level in lux (lx), is the intensity of the source in candelas (cd), and d is the distance from the source of light
to the perpendicular receptor plane.
In this way, an illuminance ratio 1 and 2 may be established, between two planes separated by a distance d and D from the source
of light, respectively:
1 d2 = 2 D2
1 D2
= 2
2 = d
S2
S1
E2
F E1
This law is fulfilled when we are dealing with a punctual source of perpendicular surfaces to the direction of the luminous flux. However,
the law is supposed to be accurate enough when the distance undergoing measurement is, at least, five times the maximum dimension
of the luminaire (the distance is big in relation to the size of the area of the source of light).
= cos (lx)
d2
Illuminance in any given point of a surface is proportional to the cosine of the angle of incidence of the luminous rays in the
illuminated point.
In Fig. 2 two sources of light F and F with the same luminous intensity (I) and at the same distance (d) from point P are represented.
To the source of light F with cos0 = 1 corresponds an angle of incidence equal to zero. This source produces illuminance for the point
P with a value of:
h F'
d
60
F
P
Figure 2. Iluminance at a point from two sources of light with different angles of incidence.
p = cos 0 = 1 c p = (lx)
d2 d2 d2
Likewise, F with an angle = 60, corresponding cos60 = 0.5, will produce at the same point an illuminance valued as:
1
p = cos 60 = 0.5 c p = (lx)
d2 d2 2 d2
Therefore, p = 0.5 p, that is to say, to obtain the same illuminance at point P, the luminous intensity of the source F must double
that of the source F.
In practice, distance d from the source to the considered point is not known, but its height h to the horizontal of the point is. By using
a simple trigonometric relation and substituing it in the equation, a new relation where height h plays an important role is obtained:
h h
cos = cd=
d cos
p = cos = cos = cos2 cos
( )
2 h 2
d h2
cos
p = cos3 (lx)
h2
F
M2
illuminance
I
Vertical
d
h
al e
o rm a n c
N in
m
illu
Horizontal
illuminance
M1
M
a
Let us determine the normal, horizontal and vertical illuminance for point M in Fig. 3.
Normal illumination
The inverse square distance law is applied:
N = (lx)
d2
where I is the luminous intensity under the angle a. Virtually, only normal illuminance of a point is considered whenever this point is
situated in the vertical of the source on the horizontal plane (M1 point). Thus, the previous formula is transformed into:
N = (lx)
h2
and also when it is situated in a straight line with the source on the vertical plane (M2 point), the illuminance is:
N = (lx)
a2
Horizontal illumination
If the law of cosine is directly applied, the result is:
H = N cos = cos (lx)
d2
Such a formula may be reformulated in relation to the height h between the F source and the M point (d = h / cos):
H = cos3 (lx)
h2
Vertical illumination
In this case, the law of the cosine is also directly applied. The result is that:
V = N cos (lx)
Between the and angles, there is a simple relation since both belong to a triangle rectangle.
+ + 90 = 180 c = 90 -
Applying trigonometric relations:
cos = cos(90 - ) = cos90 cos + sin90 sin
Therefore, cos = sin. This value is substituted and the result is that:
V = N sin (lx)
V = sin (lx)
d2
The equation may be expressed in relation to the height h between the F source and the M point.
V = cos2 sin (lx)
h2
I
h
Taking this into account, the above mentioned expression is transformed into:
PI = cos2 sin cos (lx)
h2
h is the vertical height of the source of light over the horizontal plane which contains point P.
Vertical / horizontal
The experience from high illuminance level installations with a very good glare control indicates that the ratio between vertical (EV) and
horizontal illuminance (EH) for a good modelling* must not be lower than 0.25 in the main directions of vision.
V
0.25
H
* Modelling: Ability of light to reveal the texture and tridimensional form of an object creating light and shade contrasts.
Vectorial /Spherical
Directional lighting effects may be described partly through vectorial illuminance and partly through the ratio between vectorial and
spherical illuminance.
The illuminance vector at a point has a magnitude equal to the maximum difference in illuminance over those diametrically opposed
surface elements in a small disc (Fig. 5) located in a point, their direction being from the greatest illuminance element to the lowest
one.
Ef
Er
E
Figure 5. Illuminance vector E = Ef Er.
The spherical average at point is the average illuminance over all the surface of a small sphere located at such a point (Fig. 6).
Es
Figure 6. Spherical medium illuminance ES.
Lighting directional intensity may be indicated by the given modelling through the ratio between vectorial illuminance and average
spherical illuminance:
S
If we measure it using a sphere with a radius r which receives a beam of light with an F luminous flux, it would be:
S =
4 r2
Illuminance E of an element of the radius r surface is:
=
r2
j
In a room with a floor, walls and a flat ceiling with diffused reflection, where there is also diffused light, we have that j 0 (that is to
j
say, there are no shadows). Under these circumstances, the modelling index is / sj 0. However, in a completely dark room where
j
the light comes from one direction only (for example, sunlight), = (that is to say, dark shadows). Under these circumstances, the
j
modelling index is equivalent to / = / s = 4.
Cylindrical / Horizontal
An alternative concept to describe the modelling effect is the ratio between cylindrical illuminance and horizontal illuminance at a certain
point.
The average cylindrical illuminance C at a point is average illuminance over a curved surface of a small cylinder located at the point
(Fig. 7). Unless otherwise indicated, the cylinder axis must be vertical.
EC
Figure 7. Average cylindrical illuminance EC.
Cylindrical illuminance at a point equals average vertical illuminance in all directions at such a point. A good modelling is achieved when
the ratio is:
C
0.3 3
H
Generally speaking, direction is automatically taken into account. Therefore, it is not necessary to specify it from an additional point of
view, like in the case of vectorial / spherical ratio: when light comes directly from above, C = 0 and C / H = 0; when light is horizontal,
H = 0 and C / H j q.
Vertical / Semicylindrical
Tests conducted in relation to lighting of pedestrian outodoor areas (low level lighting areas) have proved that the ratio between vertical
illuminance and semicylindrical illuminance provides a useful measure of acceptance of human features modelling, for the mentioned
application area.
Semicylindrical illuminance semicyl at a point in a given horizontal direction equals the average illuminance on a curved surface of a
small vertical semicylinder located at such a point, with a curved surface focused towards the specified direction (Fig. 8).
Esem
Figure 8. Semicylindrical illuminance.
Well balanced lighting relief (neither very short nor very intense) is obtained at:
V
0.8 1.3
semicyl
Extreme ratios are:
Zero very intense modelling.
(/2) = 1.57 very short modelling.
= 0 cos
This ratio is known as Lamberts Law and only perfect emitters or diffusers comply to it.
Lo
L
Io
I
Surface
Figure 9. Luminance invariability in relation to the incidence angle.
LUMINAIRES
General remarks
Due to the high luminance of lamps, it is necessary to increase the emission apparent surface in order to avoid visual problems (glare).
Also, it is necessary to shield lamps to protect them from external agents and to direct their flux in the most convenient way for visual
task.
Thus, different studies and contemporary research place great emphasis on the combination formed by the source of light and the
luminaire.
According to the UNE-EN 60598-1* Norm, a luminaire may be defined as a lighting apparatus which spreads, filters or transforms
light emited by a lamp or lamps including all components necessary for supporting, fixing and protecting the lamps, (except for the
lamps themselves). Should the need arise, also the auxiliary circuits combined with the media for the connection to the power supply.
Main components
Independently from other definitions which could be more or less descriptive, a luminaire may be defined as an object formed by a
combination of elements designed to give an appropriate luminous radiation of an electric origin. Materialization of these elements is
achieved by combining a good formal design and a reasonable economy of materials in each situation.
Formal design solves luminous control depending on needs, which is the main aim: both a thermal control which makes its functioning
stable and an electric control which offers adequate guarantees to the user. Economy of materials provides a solid and efficient product,
an easily installed luminaire, and minimum maintenance while in use.
Regarding the most fundamental characteristic components, body, control gear, reflector, diffuser, and filter among others, must be
mentioned. All of them fall into other classifications shown below.
1. Body: This is the minimum physical element which supports and defines the volume of the luminaire and contains the key
components. According to this criterion, several types may be defined:
- For indoor or outdoor areas.
- Surface or embedded mounted.
- Suspended or rail mounted.
- Wall, bracket or pole mounted.
- Open or enclosed.
- For normal or harsh environments (corrosion or explosion).
2. Control gear: Appropriate control gear would be selected to suit different sources of artificial light, according to the following
classification:
- Regular incandescent with no auxiliary elements.
- High voltage halogene to regular voltage, or low voltage with converter or electronic source.
- Fuorescent tubes. With reactances or ballasts, capacitors and starters, or electronic combinations of ignition and control.
- Discharge. With reactances or ballasts, capacitors and starters, or electronic combinations of ignition and control.
3. Reflector: A specific surface inside the luminaire which models form and direction of the lamp flux. Depending on how luminous
radiation is emitted, it may be:
- Symmetric (with one or two axes) or asymmetric.
- Narrow beam (lower than 20) or wide beam (between 20 and 40; greater than 40).
- Specular (with scarce luminous dispersion) or non specular (with flux dispersion).
- Cold (with dicroic reflector) or normal.
4. Diffuser: This forms the cover of the luminaire in the direction of the luminous radiation. The most frequently found types are:
- Opal (white) or prismatic (translucent).
- Lamellae or reticular (with a direct influence on the shielding angle).
- Specular or non specular (with similar characteristics to reflectors).
5. Filters: In possible combination with diffusers, they are used to protect or lessen certain characteristics of luminous radiation.
* The UNE-EN 60598-1 Norm adopts the Internacional Norm CIE 598-1.
7.2. Luminaire classification according to the degree of protection from electric contacts
Luminaires must secure protection of people from electric contacts. Depending on the degree of electric insulation, luminaires can be
classified as:
Class 0: Luminaire with basic insulation, lacking double insulation or overall reinforcement as well as an earth connection.
Class I: Luminaire with functional basic insulation and an earth connection terminal or contact.
Class II: Luminaire with double basic insulation and /or reinforced overall insulation lacking provision for earth discharge.
Class III: Luminaire designed to be connected to extra-low voltage circuits, lacking internal or external circuits not working at an extra-low
security voltage.
Chart 2. EN-60598 classification according to the degree of protection from water (2nd numeral).
Instead of this third numeral, the EN-50102 Norm on Degrees of protection against external mechanical shock provided by electric
material bulb (code IK) may also be applied.
In the above mentioned Norm, the protection degree from mechanical shock provided by a bulb is indicated by the IK code in the way
shown below:
- Code letters (internacional mechanical shock protection): IK
- Characteristic numerals: From 00 to 10
Each characteristic numeral represents a value for impact energy, whose correspondance is summarised in chart 4.
IK Code IK00 Ik01 IK02 IK03 IK04 IK05 IK06 IK07 IK08 IK09 IK10
Mechanical shock in Joules. * 0.15 0.2 0.35 0.5 0.7 1 2 5 10 20
Generally speaking, protection degree is applied to the bulb as a whole. If several parts of the bulb have different protection degrees,
they must be indicated separately.
Classification Symbol
Luminaires suitable for direct mounting only on No symbol, but a warning notice is required.
non- combustible surfaces.
Luminaires suitable for direct mounting only On plaque.
F
on easily flammable surfaces.
In turn, with regards to the symmetric flux emitted, a classification may be considered into two groups:
1) Symmetrical distribution luminaires: Those in which the luminous flux is spread symmetrically with respect to the
symmetric axis and spatial distribution of luminous intensities. It may be represented as a single photometric curve.
2) Asymmetric distribution luminaires: Those in which the luminous flux is spread asymmetrically with respect to the
symmetric axis and the spatial distribution of luminous intensities. It may expressed by a photometric solid, or, partially, by
a flat curve of such a solid, depending on certain characteristic planes.
- Plane C = 0.
- Plane C = 45.
- Plane C = 90.
Polar distribution curves are in the cd units per 1 000 lumens of flux emited by the lamp. They are represented in cd/1 000
lm or cd/Klm. (Fig. 2).
80
70
60
50
GM=0 10 20 30 40
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
For narrow beam luminaires, a high flux percentage is obtained from small angles. This is the reason why the diagram will initially
show a curve with a great slope for the first angles. From a certain angle onwards, it is virtually parallel to the abscissas axis. This
is due to the fact that almost all flux is distributed in small angles, that is to say, it is concentrated in a small angle range.
For wide beam luminaires, the diagram will show a curve with a softer slope, since flux varies little by little, as the angle increases.
Glare diagram
These diagrams are based on the C.I.E. Glare Protection System. Curves representing these diagrams are of luminance limitation.
Such curves cover a glare index scale (quality classes from A to E established by the C.I.E.) and different illuminance values in
standard service.
Two diagrams must be used depending on luminaire type and orientation according to vision.
The required limitation of luminance depends on the luminaire type of orientation, shielding angle, acceptance degree or class
quality, as well as on the value of the illuminance in service.
In Figs. 4a and 4b, diagrams of luminance curves for the evaluation of direct glare are shown. Diagram 1 is for those directions
of vision parallel to the longitudinal axis of any elongated luminaire and for luminaires which lack luminous lateral panels,
observed from any direction. Diagram 2 is for those directions of vision in right angles to the longitudinal axis of any luminaire
with luminous lateral panels.
It is defined as:
- Luminous laterals: A luminaire has luminous laterals is it possesses a luminous lateral panel with a height of more than 30
mm.
- Elongated: A luminaire is elongated when the ratio between length and width of the luminous area is higher than 2:1.
C=90 C=90
C=0
C=180
C=270 C=270
85
a b c d e f g h 8
GM 6
4
75
3
a/h
65
2
55
45 3 2
1
9 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Cd/m 2 3
G Quality Illuminance values in service E (lx)
1.15 A 2000 1000 500 =<300
1.50 B 2000 1000 500 =<300
1.85 C 2000 1000 500 =<300
2.20 D 2000 1000 500 =<300
2.55 E 2000 1000 500 =<300
a b c d e f g h
65
2
55
45 3 2 1
9 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Cd/m 2 3
C=0
C=180
When using diagrams of Figs. 4a and 4b, luminance distribution of the luminaire in two vertical planes must be considered: the
C0 C180 plane parallel to the inner axis. Luminance distribution of the luminaire in such a plane is used to control glare
limitation in the longitudinal direction of the room. Distribution of the luminaire in the C90 C270 plane is used to verify glare
limitation in the transverse direction to the place to be illuminated.
When luminaires are mounted on the C90 C270 plane parallel to the longitudinal inner axis, such a plane must be used to verify
glare limitation in the longitudinal direction of the place, and luminance distribution on the C0 C180 plane to avoid glare
limitation in the transverse way of the place.
For elongated luminaires, the C90 C270 plane is chosen to coincide with (or parallel to) the longitudinal axis of the lamp/s.
When such a plane is parallel to the direction of the perceived vision, it is said to be longitudinal. However, when the C90 C270
plane is in right angles to the direction of vision, this vision is considered to be transverse.
These diagrams are generally used for indoor lighting luminaires.
Direction of
Type of Allowed value for maximum intensity Allowed value for maximum intensity
maximum intensity
luminaire emitted at an elevation angle of 80 emitted at an elevation angle of 90
inferior to
Cut off 30 cd / 1 000 lm 10 cd / 1 000 lm* 65
Semi cut off 100 cd / 1 000 lm 50 cd / 1 000 lm* 76
Non cut off Any -
195 cd
195 cd
195 cd
195 cd
195 cd
195 cd
130 cd
130 cd
130 cd
130 cd
130 cd
130 cd
65 cd
65 cd
65 cd
65 cd
65 cd
65 cd
0 0 0
The new C.I.E. luminaire classification, which substitutes the previous one, is based on three basic properties of luminaires:
1. The extension to which the luminaire light is distributed along a path: the throw of the luminaire.
2. The amount of lateral dissemination of light, widthways of a path: the spread of the luminaire.
3. The reaching of the installation to control glare produced by the luminaire: the control of the luminaire.
The reaching is defined by the angle max which forms the axis of the beam with the vertical plane going downwards. The axis
of the beam is defined by the direction of the angle bisector formed by two directions of 90% max in the vertical plane of maximum
identity.
Cut- off
195 cd
195 cd
130 cd
130 cd
65 cd
65 cd
Axis of the
beam
max
I max
90% Imax
Figure 6. Intensity polar curve in the plane which contains the maximum
luminous intensity, indicated by the angle used to determine the throw.
The spread is defined by the positioning of the line, running parallel to the axis of the path. Virtually, it does not touch the
furthest side from the 90% Imax on its path. The positioning of this line is defined by the 90 angle.
The three levels of spread are defined in the following manner:
90 < 45 : narrow spread.
55 90 45 : average spread.
90 > 55 : broad spread.
90
h
1h
2h
90% Imax
3h
4h
Figure 7. Spread.
Both the luminaire throw and spread may be more easily determined from an isocandela diagram in an azimuthal projection
(Fig. 8).
max
90% Imax
90
In Fig. 9 the covering given by the three levels of throw and spread of the luminaire mounting height (h) is indicated on a plane
of the path.
Control is defined by the specific index, the luminaire SLI. This is part of the G formula of glare control, determined only by the
features of the luminaire.
( ) ( )
0.5
SLI = 13.84 - 3.31 . log(I80) + 1.3 . log
I80 - 0.08 . I80
+ 1.29 . log(F) + C
I88 log I88
where:
I80 = Luminous intensity at an elevation angle of 80, in a parallel plane to the axis of the roadway (cd).
I80
= Ratio between luminous intensities for 80 and 88.
I88
F = Light emission area for the luminaires (m2) projected on the direction of the elevation at 76.
C = Colour factor, variable according to lamp type (+0.4 for low pressure sodium and 0 for the others).
55
h 60 45
70
(90% Imax)
Short
1.7h
2.7h Intermediate
1h 1.4 h
Long
Narrow
Average Broad
Spread
max
Figure 9. In this figure, the three degrees of throw and spread defined by the
C.I.E. are shown, where h is the luminaire mounting height.
Control is also classified into three levels, which are the following:
SLI < 2 : limited control.
4 SLI 2 : moderate control.
SLI > 4 : tight control.
In the following chart, the C.I.E. previous definitions are summarised and shown.
-80 80 80
-70 70 70
-60 60 60
-50 50 50
Isocandela diagrams
It consists of imagining that the luminaire is in the center of a sphere; in its exterior surface equal intensity points are joined by
a line. Equal surfaces in this diagram represent solid angles. Due to this reason, the diagram may be used to calculate luminous
flux for a given area, multiplying the area by the luminous intensity (bearing in mind the scale in which the diagram is
represented).
If the luminaire is installed with a inclination angle, strokes must be turned around the center in an angle to deduce the new
C- coordinates.
Straight lines from the center represent parallel lines to the roadway axis.
-80 1 80
5
60 40
10 80
-70 90
70
20
-60 30
60
-50
60 50
-40 40
-30 30
-20 20
-10 10
GM=0 I =100%
max
OBSERVERS: A, B AND C
6h 5h 4h 3h 2h h 0 h 2h 3h
A h
WALKWAY SIDE 1 5 20
30
40
50 5
60
B 0 80
70
50
C h
10
5
2h
ROADWAY SIDE
Roadway R2
1
Qo = 0.07
3h
Lmax=100%
fl=0.152
In the diagram, letters A, B and C appear, indicating three positions for the observer which are used in luminance performance
diagrams.
h
WALKWAY SIDE
5
30
40
0 20
80 60
50
70 10
h
5
2h
1
1
ROADWAY SIDE
3h
6h 5h 4h 3h 2h h 0 h 2h 3h
Emax=100%
fl=0.154
Values for each isolux line are given in Emax percentages, the highest being 100%. The lattice on which isolux lines are drawn
is measured in terms of the luminaire mounting height h.
Under the diagram, a factor for the luminaire in use () is indicated.
Maximum illuminance is calculated by means of the following formula:
.
max =
h2
where:
= factor for the luminaire in use.
= lamp luminous flux.
h = interdistance between luminaires.
Performance in luminances
These diagrams are used to calculate average luminance on the surface of the roadway of a public lighting installation. If the
pavement reflection class is known, the corresponding diagram will be used.
Luminance performance diagrams are drawn in units of luminaire mounting height. Due to this reason, they are very useful for
direct graphic uses.
0.6
C
0.5 B
A
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
h h 2h 3h
180
C=90
270
Their reading is equal to that of utilization factor curves, except that the observers position is important. Hence, curves are given
for three observers positions: A, B and C.
- A: Observer located on a side of the sidewalk at a distance h of the row of luminaires.
- B: Observer located in line with the row of luminaires.
- C: Observer located on a side of the road at a distance h of the row of luminaires.
L . . Qo
Lmax =
w .s
where:
L = luminance performance factor.
= lamp luminous flux.
QO = average luminance coefficient.
w = road width.
s = interdistance between luminaires.
Utilization factors
In road lighting, utilization factor (h) is defined as the fraction of the luminous flux coming from a luminaire which, in fact, reaches
the road. Utilization factor curves found on the photometric information sheets offer a simple method to calculate average
illumination, which may be determined for a certain transverse section of the road.
= used
lamp
Utilization factor curves for a luminaire are understood as a function of transverse distances, measured in terms of h (mounting
height) on the road surface, from the center of the luminaire up to each of the two curves (Fig. 15).
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
h h 2h 3h
180
C=90
270
The easiest and quickest way to calculate average illuminance of a straight road of infinite length is by using utilization factor
curves:
..n
med =
w .s
where:
= utilization factor.
= lamp luminous flux.
n = number of lamps per luminaire.
w = width of the road.
s = interdistance between luminaires.
50% I max
Imax
For a floodlight with an intensity distribution of light in a symmetric rotational way (that is to say, distribution remains unchanged
independently from the plane containing the axis of the beam under consideration), a figure for the opening of the beam may
be established, for example 28 at both sides of the axis of the beam.
For asymmetric distribution, as that given by rectangular fllodlights, two figures are given: for example 6/24, since the beam
is spread into two symmetric perpendicular planes (vertical and horizontal, respectively). Sometimes, distribution in the vertical
plane of such floodlights is asymmetric in relation to the beam axis. In this kind of situation, two figures are given for the opening
of the beam in this plane: for example, 5 - 8/24, that is to say, 5 above and 8 below the axis of the beam; and, in the
Horizontal plane
Vertical plane
800
700
600
500
Imax/2
400
300
200
100
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Planes B
AXIS X
0
70
-10
50% of Imax
-20
-30
-40 30
-50 20
15
-60 10
5
-70 3
-80
-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Beta angles
Figure 18. Isocandela diagram for the B- system.
Most calculations are done under the supposition that luminaires are specific sources of light. Thus, there is the need to search for a
point in space limited by the luminaire which will place the specific equivalent and imaginary luminous source.
For angles close to the nadir, there are virtually no differences between photometric data of the same luminaire given by different mea-
surement laboratories. For big angles, there could be differences, for example 80 and 88, if the photometric center of a luminaire is
not clearly established.
The photometric center is a point of a luminaire or a lamp from which the Law of the inverse square of the distance in the direction of
maximum intensity is best complied. Or what is the same, it is the point where the imaginary and specific luminous source, with the
same spatial distribution of luminous intensities of the luminaire is located. The only goal is to simplify photometric calculations.
The C.I.E. has established in its publications the rules to locate such a photometric center for different types of luminaires.
of the systems A- and B-. Tests for obtaining the last two differ depending on the country that conducts them.
When applied to the photometry of these types of luminaires, the reference axis is always vertical and directed towards the
lowest point (nadir).
All systems have a beam of planes with an intersection axis, sometimes called rotation axis.
In each case, a direction in space is characterized by an angle measured between two planes and an angle measured in one
of the planes.
Systems differ between themselves with regards to axis orientation of the intersection in space in relation to the luminaire axis.
To test floodlights, systems adapted to the horizontal axis are used, but their name varies in different countries.
LUMINOTECNIA 2002 87
Chapter 8.
LAMPS
LIGHT PRODUCTION
Natural
All the laws studied and formulated for the ideal radiator may be summarized in a single one: the percentage of visible radiation increases
according to radiator temperature.
As it may be seen in Fig. 2, at 6,500 K the maximum performance is obtained. It would be useless to increase temperature of the
radiator with the intention of obtaining a performance greater than 40%.
50
%
40
20
10
0 10 5 000 K 10 000
Temperature
a coal filament and gave it a practical utility as a series article in 1879. At the same time as Edison, the british Swan also achieved
a usual incandescent lamp.
The coal filament: Lamps used from 1880 to 1909, had a coal filament composed of coked bamboo or paper fibres.
The point of fusion of this filament was approximately of 3,700 C, but due to its high vaporization index, lamps could also be
made for a temperature in service of about 1,900 C. Thus, luminous performance was not more than 3 to 5 lm/W.
The metal filament: At the beginning of the past century, a search begun in order to find metals that would be able to substitute
the coal filament in a susccessful way. Among metals with a high degree of fusion were osmium, tantalium and wolfram mainly.
Wolfram point of fusion is approximately 3,400 C, with an evaporation index slightly lower than that of coal. The lamp life is
approximately 1,000 hours, the filament incandescence temperature reached 2,400 C and a luminous performance of 8 to
10 lm/W was obtained.
8.3. Luminescence
Those luminous phenomena whose cause does not exclussively obey to temperature of the luminescent substance. Such phenomena
are characterized because only some particles of the matter atoms, the electrons, are excited to produce electromagnetic radiations. In
order to understand such a study, Brhs atomic model must be studied.
1 2 3 4 5 6
e3
e2 m
e1
A S
W
E
f
f1 f2
According to this model, each atom is formed by a positive atomic nucleus and by a cover of negative electrons. These are distributed
in different layers that rotate around the nucleus following certain orbits. Usually there is an electric balance in the atom, that is to say,
the number of positive charges is equal to the number of negative charges (electrons). This balance is known as fundamental state of
the electron E, and for electrons in the most internal orbit, it is identical to the base line f (Fig. 3).
If a certain amount of energy is administered to the electron from the outside, electron E is excited and moved from its regular orbit to
the next one or to another more external one. Thus, the energy supplied is absorbed. The electron is located in a superior energy level
(level lines e1, e2, e3, etc. of Fig. 3). After a short time in this level, the electron returns again to its regular initial position (line f of Fig.
3) and emits the amount of energy absorbed at the beginning, usually in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
If the amount of energy is greater, electron E may instantaneously reach a more external orbit. As a consequence of the greater range
of energy achieved, radiation emited when the electron returns to base f will be richer in energy.
Therefore, the different layers of energy correspond to a perfectly determined level of energy, and, thus, there are not intermediate
levels. Thus, it is deduced that in order to excite an atom, an exactly determined amount of energy is necessary. This is emitted in the
form of radiation and/ or heat loss when the atom recovers its fundamental shape.
The emission of energy transformed in this process from an atomic point of view takes place in portions or discontinuous parts known
as energy quants (Bhr postulated that the atom may not rotate at any distance from the nucleus, but in certain orbits only). However,
in the field of practical lighting engineering, light emitted in this tranformation is considered to be emitted in a continuous way, in the
form of electromagnetic waves, which is acceptable for normal cases of its application.
By means of the theory of energy quants formulated by Max Plank, it is proved that different chemical elements, when excited, do not
emit a continuous spectrum due to the different structure of their electronic layers, but only very particular wavelengths (lines) within all
the electromagnetic spectrum. These spectra are known as linear spectra. Each substance has a characteristic linear spectrum and also
luminescent gases like, sodium vapor, whose spectrum is composed by a double yellow line whose wavelengths correspond to 589
and 589.6 nm, respectively.
According to the physical technique used to excite atoms, the type of radiation and the form in which it is emitted, several types of
luminiscence may be distinguished.
A E C
Figure 4. Gas discharge tube.
If a continuous current is applied to the anode A (+) and to the cathode C (-) of the discharge tube (Fig. 4), an electric field
is created between A and C which accelerates negative charges (electrons) and hurries them towards the anode. When an
electron reaches a certain speed, it has enough kinetic energy to excite a gas atom. If the speed of the electron when crashing
against the atom gas is even greater, the impact may even cause the separation of an electron from the atomic cortex, so the
atom lacks an electron in its configuration. That is to say, a positive ion is obtained. This phenomenon is known as impact
ionization. This way, the number of free electrons is even higher. It is even possible that they will increase enormously if the
electric current produced by them is not limited by means of an appropriate resistance (stabilizer).
Together with the free or separated electrons, positive ions may be also found moving in the opposite way of electrons. That is
to say, towards the cathode. Due to their small speed, they may not produce any excitation of other gaseous particles. On the
contrary, after a short period of time, they take an electron again in exchange for an energy emission.
Depending on the noble gas or metal gas with which the discharge container is filled, by means of the previously mentioned
atomic excitation, linear spectra or light colours characteristic of the chosen chemical element will be formed. For example, if
the gas is neon, the light colour is red- orangish, and if it is mercury vapor, it will be white- bluish.
All these phenomena take place within a volume ranging between two electrodes, and it is limited by the discharge container
wall. This volume forms a discharge gaseous column.
If the discharge tube receives an alternating power supply, instead of a continuous one, electrodes change their function
periodically, sometimes behaving as a cathode and some other times as an anode. Otherwise, the luminous production
phenomenon is exactly the same.
Electric discharge conditions for light production in a gas essentially depend on the gas or vapor pressure inside the discharge
tube. So, there are three kinds of discharge, namely:
- Low pressure discharge.
- High pressure discharge.
High voltage electric discharge between cold electrodes (noble gas tubes)
In order to administer enough free electrons in this type of discharge, cold electrodes are used mostly built with a chromium-
nickel metal.
The filling of the discharge tube is with noble gases like neon which emits an intense red- orangish light, or helium which emits
a light pink coloured light and also with metal vapors, especially mercury vapor which emits a white- bluish light, and when
mixed with the neon gas an intense blue light.
Starting and working voltages are high, 600 to 1,000 volts being necessary for half a metre in length. The average voltage
consumption also for half a metre in length is of about 33 W, with a luminous performance of 2.5 to 5 lm/W.
Due to this low luminous performance, noble gas tubes have been barely used for indoor lighting, but they really have played an
important role in luminous advertisement due to their particular easiness to be modelled in the shape of letters.
Low voltage electric discharge between hot electrodes (metal vapor lamps)
If a certain amount of solid sodium or liquid mercury is introduced inside a glass tube previously evacuated in order to transform
metal into vapor through the electric discharge, a metal vapor discharge in gas is obtained. This may be even produced at a
regular low voltage (220 V), with prehated or heated electrodes (hot cathodes). Sodium and mercury vapor lamps work
according to this principle.
From everything that has been exposed until now, it is deduced that light emitted by metal vapor lamps especially depends on
the linear spectrum of the metal vapor chosen. Thus, sodium vapor lamps produce a monochromatic light of a yellow- orangish
light and mercury vapor lamps one of a green- bluish characteristic.
Discontinuous spectra of these lamps are improved through different ways:
Mercury lamps:
- Through combination with an incandescent lamp (blended light lamps).
- Through combination with a fluorescent layer (mercury vapor lamps, corrected colour).
- Through addition of metal halides (metal halide vapor lamps).
Sodium lamps:
- Through combination with mercury light in a metal transparent recipient, at high pressure filling (high pressure sodium
lamps).
Phosphorescence
Phosphorescence takes place when luminous radiation persists in certain luminescent substances even after excitation is over.
This phenomenon corresponds to the fact that under certain energy levels (belonging to certain electronic layers) of some
chemical components, like sulphures, seleniures or oxides of alkali earth metals, apart from this, there is an acummulation level
that prevents electrons from quickly returning to their initial position.
Electrons, that because of their excitation reach this acummulation level, can only in a slow fashion recover their fundamental
state. It is then when the substance continues emitting light. This phenomenon may last fractions of seconds or months
(depending on material type and temperature).
Electroluminance
In order to produce this phenomenon, instead of an exciting radiation, also an electric field may be directly used to rise
electrons at a higher level of energy. This is achieved by inserting a luminescent substance between two conducting layers
and applying alternating current to the group, as for plaque condensers.
This way to obtain light (manifested by a sparkle of a moderate splendor) has been performed in the so- called luminous
plaques to be applied in hospital rooms, building numbering, stair lighting, etc.
Injected luminescence
To a certain extent, it is the opposite case to that of the photoelectric principle, in which photometres to measure light are based.
Whereas there is a luminous energy transformation in the photometre into electric energy (in the form of a minicurrent), on
applying injected luminescence to the so- called solid body lamp of an electric energy, a luminous energy is reciprocally
produced (chromatic radiation). This kind of radiation has a very good application for simple procedures of unimportant marking.
A solid body lamp is obtained by inlay in the net of a semiconductor certain strange atoms, in such a way, that it will remain
divided into two parts, one with an excess of electrons and the other with a defect.
Bioluminescence
Bioluminescence is a luminous phenomenon which is weakly manifested in Nature. It consists of a sparkle emitted by light
worms, some classes of fishes, marine algae, rotten wood and similar. This phenomenon is due to the oxidation process of
some special chemical or organic substances, like the ones glow worms and photogene bacteriae have when in contact with
the air or water oxygen.
So far, it has not been possible to reproduce this phenomenon of Nature artificially.
8.4.2. Luminance
Light lamps preferably used outside must not have a high luminance so that their glare effect is kept within bearable limits. The
admissible luminance value depends on the type of application.
On the contrary, lamps used in luminaires may have great luminances, since they trimmer the glare effect. In general, luminance
to be obtained from a lamp depends on the system adopted for light production, that is to say, on the physical nature of the
source of light and on the fact that it may be pointed, linear or plane.
Lamps luminance may never be increased by means of any optical system but it may be weakened, for example by diffusing
layers.
Chart 2
Whereas incandescent lamps, due to their high content in the power supply (with the exception of coloured lamps), may only
radiate a warm white colour, light colours of discharge lamps are determined by gases or vapors chosen for them. For example,
yellow for sodium vapor discharge, or pale blue for mercury vapor. Other chromatic variants may be used, combining different
metallic vapors or modifying vapor pressure. With fluorescent lamps the possibility of achieving any shade that may be desired
is offered by means of the selection or mixture of a great amount of well- known luminescent substances, in order to adapt
them to each type of application.
8.4.13. Time needed until the luminous flux acquires the normal regime
Incandescent lamps ignite immediataly emiting their total flux. Fluorescent lamps may also do it if quick ignition starters are used.
If not, ignition will be done later on, after one or several attempts.
The other discharge lamps require some minutes as ignition time, until metal vapor acquires the necessary pressure and the
luminous flux reaches it maximum value.
20
45
60
45
p 20 p 45 p 60 h 45
150
110
30 45
h 110 h 150 hs 30 hs 45
Admissible position
Base
Filament
Filling gas
The main parts of an incandescent lamp are the filament, the filament supports, the glass bulb, the filling gas and the base.
Filament: The one used in modern lamps is made out of wolfram (high fusion point and low evaporation degree). A higher
luminous efficiency would be achieved by twisting the filament as an spiral.
Glass bulb: It is a cover of sealed glass which encloses the filament and avoids contact with the air outside (so that it does not
burn).
Filling gas: Filament evaporation is reduced filling the glass bulb with an inert gas. The most commonly used gases are argon
and nitrogen. In these lamps, luminous energy obtained is very little compared to the heat energy irradiated, that is to say, a
great amount of the transformed electric energy is lost as heat and its luminous efficacy is small (it is a waste- energy lamp).
The advantage of these lamps is that they are directly connected to the electric current without the need of an auxiliary
equipment for their working.
Glass bulb
The main difference between an incandescent lamp, apart from the halogene additive mentioned before, is in the glass bulb.
Due to the fact that temperature of the glass bulb must be high, halogene lamps are of a smaller size than regular incandescent
lamps. Their tubular- shaped glass bulb is made out of a special quartz glass (which must not be touched with the fingers).
Since their introduction, wolfram halogene lamps have entered almost all applications where incandescent lamps were used.
The advantages of wolfram halogene lamps with regard to regular incandescent lamps are the following: longer duration, greater
luminous efficiency, smaller size, greater colour temperature and little or no luminous depreciation in time.
Length
The main parts of the fluorescent lamp are the glass tube, the fluorescent layer, the electrodes, the filling gas and the base.
Glass tube: The glass tube of a regular fluorescent lamp is made out of sodium- calcium glass softened with iron oxide to control
short wave ultraviolet transmission.
Fluorescent covering: The most important factor to determine the characteristics of the light of a fluorescent lamp is the type
and composition of the fluorescent powder (or phosphorous) used. This establishes colour temperature (and, as a
consequence, colour appearance), colour reproduction index (R) and, lamp luminous efficiency, to a great extent.
Three groups of phosphorous are used to produce different series of lamps with different colour qualities (standard
phosphorous, tri- phosphorous and multi- phosphorous).
Electrodes: Electrodes of a lamp which possesses an adequate layer of material emitter serve to drive electric energy to the
lamp and provide the necessary electrons to maintain discharge.
The majority of fluorescent tubes have electrodes that are preheated by means of an electrical current just before ignition (they
are given the name of preheating electrode lamps; this preheating is begun by an independent starter).
Filling gas: Filling gas of a fluorescent lamp consists in a mixture of saturated mercury and an inert gas trimmer (argon and
krypton).
Under normal working conditions, mercury is found in the discharge tube both as a liquid and as vapor. The best performance
is achieved with a mercury pressure of about 0.8 Pa., combined with a pressure of the trimmer of about 2 500 Pa. (0.025
atmospheres). Under these conditions, about 90% of the radiated energy is emitted in the ultraviolet wave of 253.7 nm.
In fluorescent lamps, colour temperature ranges between 2 700 K and 6 500 K., with a discontinuous spectral distribution curve
reproducing colours depending on the composition of the fluorescent substance that covers the inner wall of the tube.
Each resulting total luminous radiation is the sum of the radiation of discontinuous spectrum plus that of a continuous spectral
distribution, more efficient each time, with the use of special phosphorous.
Thus, fluorescent tubes with several light tones and chromatic reproduction indexes are manufactured. According to the C.I.E.
norms, these are divided into three main groups:
- Daytime white light: TC > 5 000 K.
- Neutral white: 5.000 K TC 3 000 K.
- Warm white: TC < 3 000 K.
There are several tones for each group, with a wide range of colour temperatures and chromatic reproduction indexes,
depending on each manufacturer. These cover the needs for a wide range of applications.
These lamps require an auxiliary equipment formed by a ballast and an igniter (starter), besides a compensation condenser to
improve the power factor.
Working nominal values are reached after five minutes. When the lamp is turned off, due to a great pressure in the burner, it is
necessary to cool down between four and fifteen minutes before it is turned back on.
Ignition
Ignition is achieved by means of an auxiliary electrode, placed very close to the main electrode and connected to the other
through a high value resistance (25 k ). When the lamp is turned on, a high voltage gradient takes place between the main
and the ignition electrodes, which ionizes the filling gas in this area as a luminescent discharge, the current being limited by a
resistance. Luminescent discharge is then expanded through the discharge tube under the influence of the electric field between
the two main electrodes.
When luminescent discharge reaches the most distant electrode, current increases in a considerable way. As a result, the main
electrodes are heated until the emission increases enough to allow the luminescent discharge to change completely to an arch
discharge. The auxiliary electrode lacks another function in the process as a consequence of the high resistance connected
serially to it.
During this stage, the lamp works as a low pressure discharge (similar to that of a fluorescent lamp). The discharge fills the tube
and gives it a bluish appearance. la corriente limitada por una resistencia. La descarga luminiscente luego se expande por todo
el tubo de descarga bajo la influencia del campo elctrico entre los dos electrodos principales.
Turn- on
The inert gas having been ionized, yet, the lamp does not burn in the desired way and does not offer its maximum production
of light, until mercury present in the discharge tube is completely vaporized. This does not happen until a certain amount of
time has elapsed, called turn-on time.
As a result of the arch discharge in the inert gas a heating is generated providing a quick increase of temperature inside the
discharge tube. This causes mercury gradual vaporization, increasing vapor pressure and concentrating discharge towards a
narrow band along the axis of the tube. With an increase in pressure, radiated energy progressively concentrates along the
spectral lines of greater wavelengths and a small portion of continuous radiation is introduced. This way, light turns whiter. With
time, the arc achieves a stabilization point and it is said that the lamp reaches the total thermodynamic balance point. All mercury
is then evaporated, and discharge occurs in non- saturated mercury vapor.
The turn- on time, defined as the necessary time for the lamp since the ignition moment to reach an 80% of its maximum
production of light, is approximately four minutes.
Stabilization
The high pressure mercury lamp, like most discharge lamps, has a negative resistance and, thus, it cannot work on its own in a
circuit without an adequate ballast to stabilize the flux of the current through it.
Main parts
In Fig. 9 the main parts of a high pressure mercury lamp may be observed.
Base
Discharge tube
Principal electrodes
Support
Wire beam lead
Discharge and support tube: The discharge tube is made out of quartz. It has a low absorption of ultraviolet and visible radiation.
Also, it stands high temperatures of the work involved.
Electrodes: Each main electrode is composed of a wolfram bar, whose extreme is covered by wolfram serpentine impregnated
with a material that favors the emission of electrons. The auxiliary electrode is simply a piece of wire of molybdenum or wolfram
located near one of the main electrodes and connected to another one by means of a resistance of 25 k .
Blister: For lamps up to 125 W of potency, the blister may be of glass sodium- calcium. However, lamps with higher potencies
are manufactured, generally, with hard glass of borosilicate, since higher working temperatures and thermal shock are tolerated.
The blister, which normally contains an inert gas (argon or a mixture of argon and nitrogen), protects the discharge tube from
changes in the room temperature and protects lamp components from corrosion.
Glass covering: In most high pressure mercury lamps, the inner surface of the blister is covered by white phosphorous to
improve lamp colour reproduction and to increase its luminous flux. Phosphorous transforms a great amount of ultraviolet
energy radiated by the discharge into visible radiation, predominantly in the red extreme of the spectrum.
Gas filling: The discharge tube is filled with an inert gas (argon) and a precise dosis of distilled mercury. The first is necessary
to help originate the discharge and to secure a reasonable life for the covered emission electrodes.
The blister is filled with argon or with a mixture of argon and nitrogen at atmospheric pressure. The addition of nitrogen serves
to avoid an electronic arc between the wire supports of the glass.
These lamps require an auxiliary equipment which is normally a ballast with an inductive resistance or transformer of the
dispersion field, besides a compensation condenser.
When the lamp is turned off, it will not start again until it has cooled off enough to lower vapor pressure to the point where the
arc will be turned on again. This period lasts about minutes.
Base
Principal electrodes
Incandescent filament
Filament: The filament, which also acts as a resistance ballast for the discharge tube, is a coiled wolfram wire the same as that
of the incandescent lamp. It is connected with the discharge tube in series and located next or around it, to obtain a good
blended light and to favour a quick ignition of the tube.
Filling gas blister: As for incandescent lamps, the filling gas in blended light lamps is made out of argon but adding a percentage
of nitrogen to avoid an arc in the filament. Compared with the standard high pressure mercury lamp, a greater filling pressure
to keep evaporation of wolfram to the minimum is used.
Blended light lamps have the advantage of being connected directly to the power supply system (ballast and starter for is not
required their working). Ignition takes about two minutes and re- ignition is not possible before cooling- down.
Clear tubular
glass bulb
Electrodes
Quartz discharge
tube
Ellipsoidal diffuser
glass bulb
Due to metal halides, the ignition voltage for these lamps is high. The use of a starter or ignition device with shock voltage of
0.8 to 5 KV is needed.
Most lamps allow for immediate re- ignition with hot lamps (right after being turned- off), by using shock voltage of 35 to 60
KV. If not, they must cool- down between four and fifteen minutes before being turned back on.
Main parts
Discharge tube and supports: The discharge tube of a high pressure sodium lamp is U- shaped, to make the most out of space
and provide a better thermal isolation. It is made out of sodium- calcium glass, and has an inner surface covered with borate
glass to form a protective layer against sodium vapor.
The tube also contains a number of small slits or holes, where sodium is deposited during manufacturing.
Discharge tube filling: The discharge tube filling consists of metallic sodium of high purity and of a mixture of neon and argon,
which behaves as an ignition and trimmer gas.
Electrodes: Low pressure sodium lamps possess cold ignition electrodes. These consist of a triple wolfram wire, in such a way
that a great amount of emitter material may be maintained.
Blister: It is empty and covered by a thin film of infrared material reflector in its inner surface. The infrared reflector serves to
reflect most part of the heat radiation which returns to the discharge tube, keeping it, at the desired temperature, this way, while
visible radiation is transmitted.
These lamps precise an auxiliary equipment formed by a power supplier with an autotransformer or ballast and igniter with
impulse voltage depending on type. A compensation condenser is required.
Nominal values are reached after fifteen minutes after re- ignition. When the lamp is turned off, a few minutes are necessary
before re- ignition.
Discharge tube: The discharge tube is made out of aluminium oxide ceramics (sintered aluminium) very resistant to heat and
to chemical reactions with sodium vapor.
Electrodes: Electrodes, covered by a layer of emitter material, consist of a twisted serpentine wolfram rod around it.
Filling: In the inside of the discharge tube are sodium, mercury and noble gases (xenon or argon) out of which sodium is the
main producer of light.
Blister: This glass is generally empty.
The shape must be either ovoid or tubular. The first one has an inner covering. However, since the discharge tube of the high
pressure sodium lamp does not virtually produce any ultraviolet radiation, the covering is simply a diffused layer of white powder,
to decrease the high brightness of the discharge tube. The tubular glass is always made out of clear glass.
Starters and auxiliary starters: Many of the high pressure sodium lamps have an incorporated auxiliary starter, which helps
reduce the measure of the ignition peak voltage needed for the lamp ignition. Sometimes, both the incorporated starter and
the auxiliary starter are in the lamp itself.
These lamps precise of an auxiliary equipment formed by a ballast and an igniter with impulse tension depending on type. A
compensation condenser is also needed. Nominal values are reached five minutes after ignition. When a lamp is turned off, due
to a great pressure of the burner, it needs to cool down between four and minutes before turning it back on.
The most vulnerable parts of all discharge lamps are the electrodes. During their average rated life, lamps reduce and lose their emit-
ting voltage by the impact of quick ions or by chemical reactions with energetic vapors in the discharge tube. Electrodes in high pres-
sure discharge lamps also produce a great amount of infrared wasted radiation, which decreases efficiency of the lamp.
The induction lamp introduces a completely new concept in light generation. It is based on the low pressure discharge gas principle. The
main characteristic of the new lamp system is that it does not need electrodes to originate gas ionization. Currently, there are two dif-
ferent systems to produce this new ionization of gas without electrodes.
Fluorescent covering
The system has an electronic equipment (at a frecuency of approximately 250 kHz) separated from the lamp besides a
fluorescent tube without electrodes. This allows to preserve optimal energy of discharge in the fluorescent lamp and reach a
high luminous potency with a good efficacy.
The main advantages of this lamp are:
- Extremely long life: 60 000 hours.
- Lamp potency 100 and 150 W.
- Luminous flux up to 12 000 lumens.
- Luminous efficacy of 80 lm/W.
- Low geometric profile that allows the development of flat luminaires.
- Comfortable light without oscillations.
- Start without flickers or sparkles.
These lamps are essentially indicated for those applications where relamping increases maintenance expenses excesively, like
for example, illumination of tunnels, industrial premises with very high ceilings and difficult access, etc.
Bulb
Potency coupler
Metal halide lamps with a clear base and a clear tubular shape
Metal halide lamps with a base in an ellipsoidal form with a diffusing layer
Low pressure sodium with a clear tubular shape and an infrared reflecting layer
High pressure sodium lamps with an ellipsoidal shape and a diffusing layer
Luxurious high pressure sodium lamps with an ellipsoidal form and a diffusing layer
Discharge stabilization
The most simple element that could be applied is a resistance. This solution is not recommendable for alternating current
though, because the lamp illuminates virtually when the power applied to the whole reaches instantaneous values, higher than
the power of the arc. This is translated into flickering of the lamp. Hence, this type of stabilization is almost exclusively used with
continuous current.
Another element that may be also applied to discharge stabilization is a condenser. This solution is not tolerated in a normal
frequency of 50 Hz. (let alone for continuous current) because current of the lamp is greatly distorted when strong peaks of
short duration are produced. The lamp will emit light intermittently and it will run out prematurely. However, this system may
be used with higher frequency power supplies (above 300 Hz.). The advantage being greater luminous performance of the
lamp.
The most widely known element to stabilize discharge lamps in normal practice is formed by an inductive reactance which limits
the intensity of the discharge current, quite efficiently, simply and economically. Current distortion produced in the lamp is
tolerable and generally without flickering. Although it displaces the phase between the power of the lamp and the supply net,
this may be easily corrected by means of condensers in parallel with the line.
When power available in the line is not enough to allow lamp ignition, previous transformers or autotransformers may help. In
order to simplify the set, the so called leakage autotransformers (also called dispersion autotransformers) are used, too. They
incorporate the precise inductive reactance in their secondary body. Once an adequate leakage transformer is available, if a
fluorescent lamp is to work that requires heating of its cathodes for ignition, a starter is introduced. Or it may not be necessary
means of incorporating two new coils to the autotransformer for a correct heating.
Parallel to the previous evolution, the condenser necessary to correct the power factor was used. An inductive reactance in series
with a condenser constitutes an intensity regulator. By correctly using the elements with slight alterations of these, complex
equipments are built. In them, the condenser in series with the secondary one of the transformer, and sometimes with the
primary one, improves lamp stability when compared to strong power variations in the line. Besides, it simultaneously corrects
the power factor and cos of the whole to a better value than if a simple condenser in parallel to the line is used.
Fluorescent lamps
A fluorescent lamp has negative resistance characteristics. Therefore, it must be operated as a whole with a limited current
device (ballast) to avoid current leakage. The ballast, which has positive resistance characteristics, may be:
- Resistive ballast: For continuous current.
- Inductive ballast: It is the most widely spread ballast used for normal alternating current applications.
- Electronic ballast: It is the most expensive, but it offers important advantages compared to the previous ones.
Power factor correction is achieved by placing a condenser in parallel to the circuit of the lamp. Also using capacitive ballasts for
half the lamps and inductive ballasts without compensation for the other half in circuits which contain several lamps.
For lamp ignition some type of help is needed, due to the fact that the fluorescent lamp inner resistance when turned
off is too cold to be turned on automatically when the power supply is applied to it. As far as ignition is concerned,
fluorescent lamp circuits may be divided into three groups:
- Circuits with preheated starter: Ignition is controlled by a conventional or electronic starter.
- Circuits without preheated starter: These lamps may operate with two different types of circuit, instantaneous ignition
(semi- resonant circuit) and quick ignition (non- resonant circuit).
- Circuits with cold ignition: Specially designed for lamps provided with an inner band to ease immediate ignition
without preheating and without a starter.
- Ballast, with or without a separate igniter: Due to the lamp low voltage, these may operate in comparatively simple circuits
which consist, basically, in a ballast in series with the lamp and a starter in parallel. For the correction of the power factor, a con-
denser in parallel is used.
- Transformer with a separate igniter: In this circuit power of the lamp is almost always constant for all its life. It consists in a
ballast, a condenser in series for the correction of the power factor and an electronic igniter.
Induction lamps
Induction lamps are connected to the power supply through a high frequency generator, which is formed by a system of
electronic circuits. The connection between the lamp and the generator is achieved through a coaxial cable which forms part of
an oscillator circuit. Therefore, its length may not be modified.
9.2. Ballasts
9.2.1. Introduction
Reactances or ballasts are accessories to be used in combination with discharge lamps. As inductive, capacitive or resistive impedances,
alone or in combination, they limit the current which circulates through them to the values required for an adequate working.
Moreover, they supply power and ignition current required when necessary, and, in the case of quick start reactances, they also supply
low power necessary for the heating of lamp cathodes.
Given the characteristics offered for correct performance and working of the lamp, the most widely used are those of an inductive type.
The combination of inductive- capacitive reactance is also used.
Resistance and capacitive ones are not used alone since the first ones produce many losses, thus, providing low performance. The
second ones provide a very low power in the lamp due to great deformation of the current wave originated by them.
Reactances certification
Reactances must be manufactured according to corresponding national and international norms. As a consequence, the ones
that have been tested and certified by different organisms, will have the organization symbol printed (Fig. 1.).
Having such certifications allows these products to circulate around countries comprised by such brands.
Reference norms
Norms regulating security and functioning of reactances for high intensity discharge lamps are the following:
UNE-EN 60922: Reactances for discharge lamps (except for fluorescent tubular lamps). General and
safety prescriptions.
UNE-EN 60923: Reactances for discharge lamps (except for fluorescent tubular lamps). Working
prescriptions.
ANSI C82.4: Reactances for high intensity discharge lamps and low pressure sodium lamps.
UNE-EN 60662: High pressure sodium lamps.
UNE-EN 61167: Metal halide lamps.
UNE-EN 60188: High pressure mercury lamps.
UNE-EN 60192: Low pressure sodium lamps.
UNE-EN 60598: Luminaires.
European directives
In order to be able to use electric and electronic devices in the European Union, it is compulsory for them to have the
mark "CE" which means European Conformity, and represents the compliance with the following European Directives
to which lighting products are subjected:
- Low Voltage Directive (LV) 73/23/EEC, in force since 1-1-97 and applicable to all electric devices of nominal voltage
from 50 to 1,000 V. in alternating current and from 75 to 1,500 V. in continuous current.
- Electromagnetic Compatibility Directive (EMC) 89/366/EEC, in force since 1-1-96 and applicable to all electric and
electronic devices that may generate radio- interferences or be affected by perturbances generated by other devices
in their surroundings.
Reference norms
For the Low Voltage Directive (LV), security norms on the product are compulsory.
For those corresponding to Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC), the following norms are applicable:
The applicable harmonic and immunity requeriments of radio- interference emission must be checked with the
luminaire or in the installation where reactances are going to be used.
Harmonics
A harmonic is a perturbation introduced in the power supply by electric equipments. In lighting systems, energy is supposed to
receive a unique frequency and to be constant. Frequency constancy in energy distributions is generally achieved. However, due
to several circunstances, the fundamental wave may be polluted with undesirable harmonics (for example, produced by
associated frequency converters, etc.).
The study of such pollution produced by harmonics is very complex because its consequences depend on the harmonic
frequency amplitude and order, as well as on the situation over the fundamental.
It is necessary to highlight that if the situation of harmonics over the fundamental wave makes composed waves to tend to be
square, impedance coils do not limit intensity received from the lamp sufficiently. Under these conditions, alternating voltage is
similar to a continuous pulsatory voltage to which inductive shocks do not respond in an efficient way.
A mathematical model may be established for the study of power in different elements of the electric circuit (lamp, ballast, etc.),
and decompose it in Fouriers series, taking the first two terms as an acceptable approximation.
The third and subsequent harmonics produced during the use of electromagnetic nuclei (magnetic ballasts) in lighting with
discharge lamps and the generation of odd harmonics produced by the lamps themselves, have two immediate consequences:
1st- Capacitors of power factor correction are not able to correct power factor down to the unit, but, on adding capacity
to such condensers, a capacitive circuit appears.
2nd- In threephasic systems with neuter, current in the neuter becomes similar to that of phases. The reason is that
even cancelling the fundamental frequency charges being equal, that is to say, with balanced phases, the third
harmonics are in phase and, therefore, they are summed.
If devices providing power supply of the threephasic line with neuter would take only the fundamental frequency, the neuter
would not carry current in case of charge balance over the phases. However, if devices take a current containing 33.3% of the
third harmonic, the neuter wire is charged with the same current as that of the phases, although its frequency is three times the
fundamental.
In practice, so that this does not happen with lighting lines, limits have been established in admissible current distorsions for
even harmonic cases , since odd numbers are cancelled (see IEC 1000-3-2, IEC 1000-3-3 or EN 61000-3-2 and EN 61000-
3-3 Norms). Nevertheless, the neuter must be measured at the same size than those of phases, as demanded by the Low
Voltage Regulation, in order to avoid surprises with low quality materials.
Another typical problem with power supply polluted by frequency harmonics is the resonance phenomenon, which may take
place in those equipments composed by an inductive reactance and a condenser in series. These equipments are special and
known as regulators, autorregulators or constant power ballasts.
Types of reactances
Shock reactance
This type of inductive reactance, formed by a simple coil with its corresponding magnetic nucleus, electrically connected in series
with the lamp, is the most comonly used. It constitutes a set of low factor power which may be corrected placing a condenser
in parallel with the power supply (Fig. 2).
Ballast
Lamp
Figure 2
This type of reactance, economic, light and of a small size, provides poor power regulation , as opposed to variations in the
power supply voltage (around 20% of the power oscillation, for power supply variations of 10%) and starting current is high
with respect to the functioning; circuits must be measured for that value. This makes lamp life to be considerably reduced if
power supply volatge fluctuates more than 5%. Therefore, this type of reactances is adequate whenever adequate voltage
stability conditions are met.
Autotransforming reactance
When power supply has a voltage lower than 220 V, it is necessary to foresee an elevation system for that voltage which will
provide us with the necessary one for lamp ignition. This system may be simply an autotransformer and a normal shock
reactance, which is correct from an electric point of view, but also very costly and bulky.
Ballast
F
Power supply
Lamp
Figure 3
Normally, autotransforming reactances have been built for this function, whose basic structure is shown in Fig. 3. They are
formed by two magnetically decoupled winded, even with magnetic shunts between them. So, on top of raising voltage so that
the lamp may be ignited, they also control its intensity. This type of reactances have a very small power regulation. Thus, a
voltage variation of about 5% is transformed into lamp power oscillations of 12%. Besides, we are speaking about power low
factor reactances. In order to correct this factor, bearing in mind that power supply (normally 110 or 125 V), it is obligatory to
place condensers with a great capacity, and, thus, very costly ones.
Autorregulating reactance
This reactance combines an autotransformer with a regulating circuit. Due to the fact that part of the main coil is common to
the second one, its size is reduced. Since only the secondary coil contributes to a good regulation, its degree depends on the
portion of primary power coupled to the second one (Fig. 4).
Capacitor
Ballast
Power supply
Lamp
Figure 4
Lamp
F
Electronic
Power supply
control
N
Lamp
Trimmer
capacitor
Figure 5
As it may be seen, a narrow filter placed before reduces distorsion of the power supply current and avoids that high frequency
signals are reflected in the power supply. Besides, the electronic circuit must be protected from fortuitous impulses which appear
in 50 Hz alternating current.
Once the alternating current has been modified, and with the help of the coupling condenser, high frequency generation in
square wave is the following step, through two transistors, generally. This frequency must be higher than 20 KHz. to go over
audible limits and achieve the greatest performance.
Before applying high frequency to tubes, some solutions to limit current and ease ignition must be established.
It is also necessary to provide the necessary solutions to avoid ballast deterioration at the end of the tube life, etc.
To maintain this low emission level of radio interferences, special attention must be paid to the installation wiring disposition,
following recommendations for this purpose at any time.
9.3. Starters
Mercury lamps have electrodes which allow starting with a low voltage, around 220 V. Therefore, no additional starting device is required.
However, metal halide and high pressure sodium lamps need very high ignition voltage which may not be supplied by the reactance
alone.
Supplying this ignition power is the role of starters, which are also used for ignition of some low pressure sodium lamps.
Working principles
They are based on the principle of taking advantage of energy stored in a condenser, which is discharged by means of an
adequate shooting system in the primary coil of a transformer. Due to the brusque flux variation in its nucleus, a voltage impulse
induced in the secondary one appears. Its peak value is very high and it is of a short duration. When superimposed to the power
supply, it arcs the discharge tube.
According to its working principle three different types of starters may be distinguished: independent starter, impulse transformer
starter and independent starter from two wires.
Besides this classification according to their working, starters may have a deactivation system inside that will interrupt their
working if the lamp does not start in a period of time. These are called temporized starters.
Ballast Transformer
Shooting circuit
Capacitor
Lamp
Resistance
Starter
Figure 6
1 3
F
2
Capacitor
Lamp
Figure 7
Ballast
Resistance
Lamp
Shooting circuit
Figure 8
The may be only used for some metal halide lamps and low pressure sodium lamps of 35 W., which require voltage impulses
relatively low but of a certain duration.
Temporized starters
These starters have an inner device, which after a time previously fixed for impulse production, deactivates its working. If the
lamp does nor ignite due to exhaustion or failure, its stops subjecting all circuit to high voltage impulses.
The starter is active again after the interruption of the power supply circuit voltage, although only for a short period of time
(milliseconds).
Reference norms
Norms applicable to starters are the following:
EN 60926: Starters (except for effluves). General and security prescriptions.
EN 60927: Starters (except for effluves). Working prescriptions.
EN 60662: High pressure sodium lamps.
EN 61167: Metal halide lamps.
Starters
This name is given to starters designed for fluorescent lamp ignition.
The most common type of starter is that called flicker, composed by a glass bulb full of neon gas at a low pressure. In its interior there
are two electrodes, one of them or both are bimetal lamellae which bend slightly by the action of heat. In parallel with the electrodes,
a condenser is connected to eliminate interferences. All this is housed in a cylindrical recipient made of aluminium or of an insulating
material. A plaque with two pins for contact and fixing are included. The starter is embedded in series with the lamp electrodes and
ballast, working automatically in the following way:
When the connection is established, a small electric discharge takes place between the lamellae through the gas, heating them enough
to bend till they get together. This union closes the circuit and eases the flow of current through the lamp electrodes for a short period
of time. When the electrodes are incandescent, they emit electrons around them in the form of a cloud. A bit later, when the lamellae
cool down, they separate opening the circuit and giving rise to the ballast spreading a power impulse tension through which discharge
of the arc and lamp working takes place. Once the lamp is turned on, the starter is out of service without an insufficient voltage reaching
it. If ignition fails, the starter behaves exactly in the same way.
However, electronic starters only make one ignition attempt (very determined) so that any flickering during the ignition stage is
eliminated. Additional advantages of electronic starters are high ignition reliability at low room temperatures and prolongation of lamp
life.
9.4. Capacitors
where:
C = capacity of the capacitor.
q = charge of the capacitor (coulomb).
U = power differential between the capacitor (V) plaques or pins.
If a sine alternating voltage is applied to the circuit u = Umax sin (t), and it is substituted in the previous equation, derivation
and operation is as follows:
i = Umax C sin( t + )
2
This equation indicates the advance suffered by the intensity with regards to voltage due to the capacitor effect.
Frequency effect
Capacity reactance
The capacity of a circuit serves to delay the increase or decrease of voltage, but under no circumstances does it avoid or limit
change. Nevertheless, frequency limits current amplitude in a value equal to 1. = . 1. . ohms. This value is called
C 2 f C
capacitive reactance XC, which increases when frequency decreases and it
decreases if frequency increases. Thus, for continuous current like f = 0 Hz, the capacitive reactance value is infinite and that of
current is zero amperes.
Inductive reactance
Inductance of a circuit serves the purpose of delaying the increase or decrease of current, but under no circumstances does it
avoid or limit the change. However, frequency limits amplitude of the current in a value equal to . L = 2 . . f . L ohms. This
value is known as inductive reactance XL, which increases when frequency is higher and decreases if frequency also does. Thus,
in continuous current, like f = 0 Hz., the value of inductive reactance is zero.
Resistance
Resistance offered by a conductor in alternating current may be said to be the same as that offered in continuous current (ohmic
resistance), whenever the Kelvin and corona effects, and resistance due to parasite currents, hysteresis, etc. may be disregarded.
r Ur
Z = r ()
I
r
Z = Z . (cos + j . sin) = R + j . X ()
The real part of the complex number is the measurement known as resistance, R, represented in the real axis. Its module equals:
R = Z . cos = ZZ2 - R2 ()
r
The imaginary part of this complex number, Z is the reactance X, represented in the imaginary axis in such a way that if it is of
an inductive nature, it is positive, +j . XL, and if it is of a capacitive nature, it is negative,-j . XC. Its module equals:
The angle is the phase different angle between tension and intensity, in such a way that if it is positive, it corresponds to an
inductive circuit. If it is negative, it corresponds to a capacitive circuit. As it is widely known, this angle is of great importance in
alternating current. It is called power factor and provides information about reactive energy and also quantifies it.
XL
-Xc
Z
X (inductive)
0 R
Figure 9
If the impedance triangle of Fig. 9 is multiplied by I2, the result obtained is its corresponding power triangle, in which:
S
Q
0 P
Figure 10
+Q
L
2
P
=
UI QL=UI sin
S=
0 P=UI cos
Figure 11
It will always be lower than the unit, but the closer to it, the more advantage we are taking out of the energy from the power
supply.
Norms for reactances specify that an equipment (set of reactance lamp) has a high power factor when its value is equal or
greater than 0.85.
The use of high power factor reactances has the following advantages:
1- Compliance with requisites from electric energy supply companies of compensating the power factor, at least, at
0.85.
2- To avoid extra charges in light bills for reactive energy.
3- To reduce the section in power supply line conductors in installations.
4- To use high power factor equipments implies to install a larger number of luminaires per circuit so that protection
equipments are reduced and simplified (magnetothermal, differentials, etc.).
Compensation in parallel
Compensation in parallel is done as shown in Fig. 12 where a fluorescent lamp with ignition through a starter has been
represented as a typical example, but it may be applied to any other type of lamp.
Ballast
I IL
F
Ic
Starter
Lamp
Power supply Capacitor
IL
N
Figure 12
The capacitor connected in parallel to the power supply, must have the adequate value so that reactive intensity ahead of the
phase absorbed by it, IC, formed by the one circulating through the lamp, IL, gives a power supply absorbed intensity, IT, whose
power factor is close to the unit (Fig. 13).
Ic
Vpower supply
'
It
IL
Figure 13
Power to be born by the capacitor is that of the power supply, and tolerance admitted in capacity is usually 10% of its nominal
value.
Being:
VPOWER SUPPLY = Power supply tension.
IL = Current absorbed by the equipment without compensation.
IC = Current absorbed by the capacitor.
It = Current in power supply after compensation.
and =Phase difference angles after and before compensation.
P . (tag - tag)
C= (F)
. V2
where:
Compensation in series
As established before, compensation in parallel reduces the reactive power component of the power supply, and, thus, power
losses. With compensation in series reactive power is transmitted to a certain degree and the recover of the line remains
influenced when connecting capacitors in series to the power supply. The formula for the power loss in the line is given by:
U = Ia . R + Ir . (XL - XC)
This formula shows that, when XC = XL,, the power supply reactance is zero and the tension loss originated by the reactive power
transmission is also zero, as a consequence. When an adequate capacitor in series, is included, Xc may be greater than XL. In
this case, reactance of the power supply becomes negative. Thus, compensation in series may also reduce a power supply drop
caused by the transmission of active power.
Relay
Figure 14. The relay switches the winding intake in a single nucleus.
Relay
Figure 15. The relay is inserted in series with the auxiliary shock circuit.
Relay
Auxiliary ballast
Lamp
F Principal ballast
Figure 16. The relay opens the shock circuit derived from the main one.
In any case, lamp consumption is reduced since the relay acts, connecting with an important line existing in the installation. Also,
a temporizer in the equipment of each luminaire may be available, which programmed as required, passes from the normal
level to the reduced one.
The double level system being described may be applied to high pressure mercury lamps and high pressure sodium lamps
(having special care in ignition circuits). This system is not adequate for metal halide lamps because the colour of the light is
very much affected by the emitted power.
In energy saving systems with several lighting levels, the power factor of the installation must be carefully watched. Sometimes
it will be necessary to reduce the needed installed capacity for the maximum level in the minimum level. An added advantage
in double level equipments is the longer duration of equipments and lamps, since generally, harmful surges are produced in
lines during hours in which lighting is connected at a reduced level.
Fluorescent tubes
Fluorescent tubes are classified into two large groups, depending on whether cathodes are heated or not for ignition.
The most common ones are the hot cathode that may be ignited by means of a thermal starter (Fig. 17), heating of filaments
in the rapid ignition systems "rapid start" (Fig. 18), "trigger" ignition (the filament voltage is reduced once the tube has ignited),
semi- resonant ignition (Fig. 19) and ignition through electronic means.
Another type of tubes is that of cold cathodes, which almost exclusively ignite through tension applied between their extremes.
Ballast
Starter
Lamp
Power supply Capacitor
Figure 17. Ignition through starter. Inductive ballast. Compensation of power factor in parallel with the line.
Lamp
Power
supply
Capacitor
N
Figure 18. Rapid ignition. Circuit with autotransformer dispersion (with heating of electrodes in parallel).
Ballast
F
Lamp
Figure 19. Rapid ignition. "Semi resonant" circuit with heating of electrodes in series.
Ballast
Lamp
Ballast
Lamp
Power supply
Capacitor
Reactance
Capacitor
Power supply
Ballast
Capacitor Starter
Power supply
Ballast
Lamp
F
Starter
Ballast
Ballast
Lamp
F
Starter
Ballast
Lamp
N
Ballast
Capacitor Starter
Lamp
Power supply
Luminance
In order to achieve good visibility at work, the most important factor is related to luminance of the task and its surroundings.
The general effect of luminance on visibility is due to the resulting adaptation, process by which properties of the visual
system are modified according to luminances of the visual field. For a given luminance distribution in the visual field, the
adaptation process reaches a final state expressed as adaptation luminance.
Visual system properties affected by adaptation to luminance are the following:
- Visual sharpness, which is the capacity of the system to discriminate between details or objects that are very close.
- Sensitivity to contrast, which is the capacity of the system to distinguish between small differences of relative luminance.
- Efficiency of eye motor functions for accommodation, convergence, pupil contraction, eye movements, etc.
Visual sharpness, sensitivity to contrast and efficiency of eye motor functions are larger with the increase of adaptation
luminance up to a maximum certain level.
For tasks where detail angular size is critical with respect to working visibility, an increase in visual sharpness due to another
increase in luminance is highly important to improve task visibility. However, when the angular size of the critical size is very
much above the threshold of visual sharpness, contribution to its increase is insignificant.
Something similar happens with the above mentioned factors. They may also be positively affected by an increase in
luminance. However, it will provide an improved visibility at work as a result, as long as such factors are critical with respect
to visibility of the task under consideration.
and their surroundings. Reflectances form part of the intrinsic properties of the task and the indoor area. These are not
affected by lighting. Thus, for these tasks only illuminance remains a factor of the lighting system which affects visibility. It
should be born in mind that for these tasks, luminance contrast is not affected by illuminance, but it is determined by
reflectances of details and their background. Therefore, task visibility will be larger with the increase in illuminance up to a
maximum certain level. The effect of the illuminance increase over visibility will be larger as size is smaller, or the contrast
detail or the number of exigencies of the eye motor functions. For details of large angular size, with a high contrast with the
background and static in a known position, the effect of illuminance increase in visibility on a moderate level will be
insignificant.
surfaces and their task. Give origin to brightness by reflectio is. an important factor affecting visual satisfaction.
For indor areas with bright tasks or surroundings, environmental luminances reflected on surfaces and which may veil the
contrast of the task or give origin to brightness by reflection, are an important factor affecting visual satisfaction.
Much research has been conducted in order to determine a preferred range of horizontal illuminances surrounding indoor
areas. For such a purpose, carefully controlled values of surface reflectance in a room must be taken into account. Out of the
results obtained in Western Europe, for brightness free fluorescent lighting conditions, an average curve has been determined
indicating the percentage of observers which consider a particular illuminance as satisfactory. This curve is shown in Fig. 1,
together with the evaluation of too dark and too light.
%
100
Satisfactory
80 Too dark Too light
60
40
20
0
2 3 4
10 2 5 10 2 5 10 (Lx)
Figure 1. Response combinations.
Reference surface
Reference surface of an indoor area is the surface where the recommended appropriate illuminance is supplied, selected
from the charts shown at the end of the present chapter. The reference surface does not need to be reduced to a single
surface area, but it may include a number of separate areas. Indoor lighting specifications must always include a clear
definition of the reference surface.
In indoor working areas, the reference surface will normally be the working plane. For indoor areas where tasks are not
restricted to fixed places, the working plane is considered to be the horizontal plane limited by indoor walls at a height of
0.85 m. above the floor. For indoor areas where task localizations are known and clearly specified, the reference surface may
consist in specific areas of working or task areas.
When the task is not performed in a horizontal plane or is at a different height, the reference surface will have the angle of
the task plane and be at its height.
In indoor areas where work is not done, the reference surface may be the floor, the wall, or any important plane.
Illuminance uniformity
Illuminance given on the reference surface by a lighting installation will never be totally uniform, either in space or in time.
Uniformity in space
Measurement of illuminance uniformity on the reference surface is the ratio between minimum illuminance and average
illuminance.
In general lighting, illuminance uniformity on the reference surface must not be lower than 0.8 to provide possible locations
of equivalent tasks in all the indoor areas.
In localized general lighting or lighting of general areas, average illuminance in areas surrounding tasks must not be lower
than one third of the level for task areas.
Ratio between average illuminances for two adjacent indoor areas (for example, an office and a corridor) must not exceed
5:1.
Uniformity in time
Average illuminance given by an installation will gradually decrease with time due to depreciation of the lamp luminous
flux and the accumulation of dirtiness in lamps, luminaires and surfaces in the room.
Initial lighting: it is the average illuminance when the installation is new and surfaces in the room are clean. Initial
illuminance must be chosen according to requisites imposed by the maintenance program. Its value should not be
used for illuminance recommendations.
Illuminance in service: it is the average illuminance during all maintenance cycle on the reference surface. In some
countries, it is used for illuminance recommendations.
Maintenance illuminance: it is the average illuminance on the reference surface during all the time between two
maintenance operations, substitution of lamps and/ or cleaning of luminaires and surfaces in the room. In some
countries, it is used for illuminance recommendations. In countries where recommended illuminance is established in
terms of illuminance in service, maintenance illuminance should not be under 0.8 of the recommended value.
10.3. Glare
Glare is the sensation produced by an exaggerated luminance within the visual field which alters sensitivity of the eye, causing
discomfort, reducing visibility or both.
Glare may take place in two different ways. Sometimes they occur separately, but generally, they take place simultaneously. The first is
known as physiological glare (or disability glare). It impairs visual capacity and visibility, but it does not necessarily produce discomfort.
The second is known as psychological glare (or discomfort glare). This type is discomforting but it does not necessarily impairs object
observation.
In indoor lighting, psychological glare (discomfort) is likely to be more of a problem than physiological glare (disability). Measurements
taken to control discomfort glare will have to take discomfot glare into account, too. The sensation of discomfort experimented by
discomfort glare tends to increase with the passing of time and contributes to nervous tension and fatigue.
Any given type of glare may be direct or by reflection. Direct glare is the glare directly caused by luminances of the sources of
light, such as lamps, luminaires and windows, which appear in the observers field of vision. Glare by reflection is the glare
produced by reflected luminances from surfaces with high reflectance, especially specular surfaces such as polished metals,
except when these form part of the luminaire. Glare by reflection must be distinguished from other types of reflection which
produce a reduction of the task contrast. They are more correctly described as veiling reflections (high luminance is reflected
by the task towards the eyes, veiling it and reducing its contrasts).
D, low quality 2.20 Visual tasks demanding low visual and concentration levels,
workers frequently confined to movement within a restricted
area.
E, very low quality 2.55 Interiors used with visual tasks not requiring a perception of
detail where workers are not confined to a specific work place
but they move freely from one place to another and not
continuously used by the same workers.
L2 . w
G= 8 . log 2
E 1+ Ed / 500
Ei + Ed
p2 R
where:
G: C.I.E. glare index.
Ed and Ei: vertical illuminances in the eye.
Ed: directly from sources of glare.
Ei: indirectly from background.
L: luminance of the source of glare.
w: size of the source of glare.
p: Guths position index (position index for each luminaire, which is related to the shift of the area of vision).
75
55
65
45
9 103 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Cd/m2 2 3
55
Diagram 2 L
45
9 103 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Cd/m2 2 3
Diagram 1 L
Diagrams of Fig. 2 are diagrams of luminance curves for the evaluation of direct glare. Diagram 1 is for those directions of
vision parallel to the longitudinal axis of any elongated luminaire and for luminaires lacking lateral luminous panels observed
from any direction. Diagram 2 is for those directions of vision in right angles to the longitudinal axis of any luminaire with
lateral luminous panels.
Limitation of the required luminance depends on the type and orientation of the luminaire, the shielding angle, the
acceptance degree or quality class, and the value of illuminance in service.
Type of luminaire
The terms luminous laterals and elongated used to describe the types of luminaire are defined in the following
way:
- Luminous laterals: a luminaire is considered to have luminous laterals if it has a luminous lateral panel with a height
of more than 30 mm.
- Elongated: a luminaire is considered to be elongated when the ratio between the length and the width of the
luminous area is higher than 2:1.
Luminaire orientation
When using diagrams in Fig. 2, luminance distribution of the luminaire in two vertical planes must be taken into account: the
C0-C180 plane and the C90-C270 plane.
85 85
75
75
45 45
When luminaires are mounted in the C0-C180 plane parallel to the axis of the premises, luminaire distribution on such a plane
is used to control glare limitation in the longitudinal direction of the room. Luminance distribution in the C90-C270 plane is
used to verify glare limitation in the transverse direction of the room.
When luminaires are mounted on the C90-C270 plane parallel to the premises logitudinal axis, such a plane must be used to
verify glare limitation in the room longitudinal direction, and luminance distribution on the C0-C180 plane to verify glare
limitation on the room transverse way.
For elongated luminaires on the C90-C270 plane this is chosen coincident with (or parallel to) the longitudinal axis of the lamp/
s. When such a plane is parallel to the direction of perceived vision, vision is supposed to be longitudinal. However, when
the C90-C270 plane is in right angles to the direction of vision, vision is considered to be transversal.
Shielding angle
For those luminaires which, when being observed from an angle of 45 or more with respect to the vertical, lamps or parts
of them may be seen, not only the average luminance of the luminaire according to curves must be limited in Fig. 4, but
also lamps must be well shielded depending on lamp luminance and quality class chosen.
The required shielding angles (Figs. 4 and 5) are shown in Chart 2. If the shielding angle is equal or higher than the tabulated,
glare will belong to the specified class or better.0
Figure 4. Shielding angles for several luminaires.
Shielding angle
90 - < S 90 - = S 90 - > S
Types of sources
According to statistical experience, the minimum luminance threshold is that of 10-5 cd/m2 . Glare appears from 5 000 cd/m2
onwards and, under no circumstances must it go over 20 000 cd/m2. In order to control glare, it is convinient to divide
sources into two large groups, that is to say, those which have a luminance under 20 000 cd/m2 and those with a luminance
above this value.
Sources under 20 000 cd/m2 include all normal types of fluorescent lamps. Luminaires belonging to this group of sources
use, translucent materials and shielding for glare control. In some circumstances, lamp luminance is low enough to allow
bare use.
The group of sources above 20 000 cd/m2 includes for the most part compact lamp types, with an incandescent filament
and varieties of gas discharge. Although both methods of glare control mentioned before are used in low power lamps, the
shielding method is almost excusively used to control glare in the most powerful types, as far as industrial lighting goes. In
these cases, illuminance in the observers eye, such as luminance, must be taken into account. Because of this reason, both
flux coming out and mounting height must be carefully considered when calculating shielding angles convenient for sources
of this class.
Ratio a/h
Instead of the adequate range of critical ranges, a range of critical ratios a/h may be used, where a represents the horizontal
distance and h the vertical distance between the observers eye and the furthest luminaire (Fig. 6). These values are
represented on the right side of glare diagrams.
45 hs
a
tan =
hs
Luminance values
Luminance distribution of luminaires in the C0-C180 and C90-C270 planes are initial values. Average luminance of the luminaire
in a given direction may be calculated as the quotient between luminous intensity in such a direction and apparent luminous
area.
* For linear lamps seen frontways: 0.
New development
A new development in the area of glare systems is the C.I.E. Unified Glare Rating, UGR, which is a new evaluation system of
psychological glare in indoor lighting. Although this system has not been internationally approved, it may be adopted to
general use.
UGR formula
The formula to calculate the UGR value is the following:
UGR= 8 . log
E 0.25
Lb
L2 . w
p2 R
where:
Lb = background luminance (cd/m2).
L = luminance of luminous parts of each luminaire in the direction of the observers eye (cd/m2).
=solid angle drawn by the luminous parts of each luminaire in the observers eye (stereoradian).
p = position index for each luminaire, which is related to the shift of the area of vision (Guths position
index for each luminaire)
A more exact evaluation of glare is achieved by means of a direct application of the UGR formula for the considered
installation, for which a computer program is required.
UGR Charts
A simpler UGR value may be obtained, although not as exact, using standard UGR glare charts. These charts provide
the UGR value calculated for different standard situations and for different types of luminaires.
A disadvantage of these charts is that luminaires cannot be classified. Due to this reason, UGR limitation curves have
been developed.
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
2 3 4 5
8 10 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 2
2
L (cd/m )
Figure 7
The range of the glare index extends from 13 to 28 in groups of 3 units, this being the least increase provided by a
significative change in the sensation of psychological glare.
Another difference is that for these curves, luminaire classification is independent from illuminance. Thanks to curves
luminaires may be classified. However, they are not as exact as charts, since only the luminaire effect is considered and not
the effect of all the installation.
Glare produced by windows
Sky luminance in which glare begins to be perceived is approximately 2 000 cd/m2 and corresponds to horizontal illuminance
of 10 000 lux under cloudy conditions.
Since sky luminance may not be diminished, glare produced by windows may only be prevented using curtains, blinds or
lattices. Alternatively, working positions may be established in such a way that glare from windows does not interfere with
the occupants field of vision.
Psychological glare produced by windows may be reduced using very light decorations on surfaces close to window openings
and spreading decorations on them, allowing incident light to reduce contrast from the window.
5 000
500
50
5
2 000 2 500 3 000 4 000 5 000 10 000
COLOR TEMPERATURE K
The Chromatic Reproduction Index (R) is extremely important as far as quality of light goes, being the first measurement in activities
where an optimal chromatic reproduction is absolutely essential (see chapter 4).
The function of a space enormely influences the way in which lighting must be applied. Therefore, spatial visual requisites have to be
determined in the first place. Later on, and taken the results of these analysis as a basis, appropriate decisions for selection of lighting
systems, lamps and luminaires will be made.
In some cases, the lighting designer may choose the lighting system type; In other cases, architectural design and structural conditions
may dictate a particular type installation.
Indoor decoration and specially reflectances of the large surface rooms have a considerable influence in the lighting appearance.
However, the most important fact is to have the design process in mind, consisting in two well- differenciated stages. The first stage
begins with the client, and includes the study of different local factors which will influence the design. The second stage is the design
process itself, and, it is in this stage where the first decision out of many more regarding design is taken.
cd/m2
10000
5000
Permitted luminance for
2000 general lighting luminaires
1000
500
Illuminance provided initially by a lighting installation will decrease in a gradual way during its use due to a reduction in lamp lumens, to
lamps which burn down, and to accumulation of dirtiness in lamps, luminaires and surfaces of the room. However, it is possible to main-
tain illuminance at or above the minimum permitted value (known as maintained value) cleaning the lighting equipment and the room
surfaces as well as replacing burned down or used up lamps at adequate intervals, according to a previously agreed maintenance pro-
gram.
The value for such maintenance program is indicated in Fig.10. Clearly for the case illustrated, illuminance in the non- maintained
system will decrease up to a 40% of the initial value within the first three years and it will continue to decrease. But with a yearly cle-
aning, relamping and paint changing every three years, illuminance reaches 60% of the initial value. In three years, the maintained
system provides an illuminance 50% greater than that of the system without maintenance.
80
30
Luminaires cleaned Luminaires cleaned
20 every 12 months every 12 months
10
0
1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000 7 000 8 000 9 000
Working hours
Figure 10. Depreciation combined curves showing the cleaning and renovation effect
for an installation of fluorescent lamps.
Lamp failure
Average life of a lamp depends on the type of lamp used and, for discharge lamps, on the ignition cycle. Failures in lamps
cause not only a reduction in illuminance levels, but also an inacceptable reduction in the lighting uniformity degree.
Maintenance factor (fm)
fm is defined as the ratio between illuminance produced by the lighting installation at a specified time, at the illuminance
produced by the installation itself when it is new.
fm, thus, combines losses caused by lamp depreciation flux, luminaire depreciation and depreciation of the room surface. If
each of these depreciation causes is quantified by a specific period of use, a general factor product of the three factors is
obtained.
fm = lamp flux loss factor x luminaire loss factor x room surface loss factor
When the light loss factor for different maintenance situations is calculated, it is possible to predict the illuminance situation
produced by the installation in relation to the time elapsed.
A.L
Ratio of premises =
h . (A + L)
- For indirect and semi-indirect luminaires:
3.A.L
Ratio of premises =
2 h . (A + L)
.
In both formulas:
A = Width of the premises (m.).
L = Length of the premises (m.).
h= Mounting height (m.). The distance between the luminaire down to the useful or working plane is considered.
The height of the premises, H, is the sum of the luminaire suspension contour height, C, plus the mounting height, h,
plus 0.85* m. to which the working plane is from the ground.
Since H and C are data previous to the installation, mounting height is calculated with the following formula:
h = H C 0.85 (m.)
Working environment Fm
Steel fabrication, melting areas 0.65
Welding industries, mechanized 0.70
Industrial offices, rooms 0.75
Operation patios, public premises 0.80
Offices, comercial and computing offices 0.85
Chart 3
* Distance at which the working plane is from the ground according to the Construction Technological Norm.
Currently, this process is computerised (INDALWIN program). But in this section, the process to be followed to perform an indoor ligh-
ting project is going to be indicated. This will be done bearing in mind recommendations established by the C.I.E. as far as illuminan-
ces in service are concerned, direct glare quality limitation and colour rendering group (R or Ra) more highly recommended for a con-
crete installation (warehouses, offices, classrooms, etc.). The following steps must be followed:
1) Premises geometrical characteristics.
2) Reflection characteristics of different surfaces.
3) Obtaining required values for the type of activity to be developed in the premises (average illuminance in service,
glare limitation quality, R), of the C.I.E. charts.
4) Selection of the type of luminaire to be installed according to the characteristics of the premises, which will define
whether the luminaire is to be embedded, suspended or wall mounted.
5) Check that luminaires comply with the direct glare limitation quality.
6) Since an average level will be maintained in the installation, it is necessary to apply depreciation coefficients to initial
values. These have been previously seen.
7) When lighting calculation for premises is done using the utilization factor method, it is necessary to know luminaire
performance and utilization factor (for this reason, K value and ceiling, wall and floor reflections must be known).
8) Once all the data are known, the lighting fundamental formula is applied:
where:
. N . . fu . fm
Ems =
S
Ems = Average lighting in service.
= Lamp unitary luminous flux.
N = Number of lamps (to be determined).
= Luminaire performance.
fu = Utilization factor.
fm = Maintenance factor.
S = Surface to be illuminated.
Assembly workshops
Clothing
Electricity industry
Food manufacture
Smelting
Metal manufacture
Leather works
Paper factory
Printing works
Textile industries
Woodwork shops
Offices
Schools
Shopping precincts
Public edifices
Houses
Hospitals
FLOODLIGHTING
Data collection
It is the fundamental base to make ulterior decisions. The more data, the better, as far as planes, observations, possibility of locations,
lighting hours, dirtiness acummulation prediction, surroundings of the area, streets, crossings, roads or nearby roads, power supply
systems, estimate possibilities, etc. is concerned.
- Lighting hours, needs in peak hours, glares, favourable contrasts, atmospheric conditions, etc. must be carefully considered in security,
protection or production lighting.
- Possible colour effects, shadows and contrasts, floodlight angles, surface reflectance, brightness of the surroundings, etc., must not
be forgotten in decorative or architectonic lighting.
- Possible vertical lighting exigencies, avoidance of shadows and glares to users or the audience, contrasts and game features or class
(competition, club, training, leisure, etc.) will be preferably considered in sports lighting.
Illuminance determination
In case it is not provided, the recommendable level must be fixed bearing in mind all particularities and with the help of the charts
present throughout this chapter and at the end of it.
But not only the minimum luminous level for a correct perception of the object must be taken into account (always eased by the
extraordinary eye adaptation capacity), but also the slightest visual fatigue of people subjected to the action of artificial lighting for long
periods of time must also be avoided. Thus, accidents or a decrease of faculties may be avoided.
General remarks
Column height
In order to calculate the column (tower or post) height in which floodlights will be mounted, avoiding a direct glare, the
abacus in Fig. 2 will be used. It is important the fact that with excessive heights, the price of columns increases considerably.
However, if heights are lower, the number of columns, lamps and luminaires increases very much. Also, if there are relatively
high constructions in different positions within the area, mounting heights lower than those shown in the abacus must be
used in order to avoid strong shadows projected on the area. When the emphasis lies in saving space and in the flexibility
of use of the area, the columns used must be higher than those of the abacus, since an increase in height also increases
the allowed space, and, the number of obstructions in the form of columns decreases, too.
Figure 1
DISTANCE FROM THE COLUMNS TO THE EDGE OF THE AREA TO BE ILLUMINATED
MOUNTING HEIGHT
. . m. 5 m. 8 m. 1 m. 4 m. 7 m.
6m 9 m 12 1 1 2 2 2
0 m. m.
30
m.
6 m. 33
m .
12 m. 36
m .
18 m. 39
MOUNTING HEIGHT
m .
42
24 m. .
m
45
30 m. m.
48
36 m. m .
51
m .
42 m.
54
m.
48 m. 57
m.
54 m. 60
60 m.
0 m. 20 m. 40 m. 60 m. 80 m. 100 m. 120 m. 140 m.
TOTAL WIDTH OF THE SURFACE TO BE ILLUMINATED
Figure 2
Lighting levels
At least the level required in the horizontal plane (horizontal illuminance) must be defined. Sometimes also vertical
illuminance must be controlled (for example, where reading tasks take place, goods are inspected or moved).
The necessary lighting levels and uniformities depend on the difficulty of the visual task, on the one hand, and on the degree
of efficiency and security required, on the other hand. In Chart 1 level and uniformity requirements for different categories
of areas are indicated.
General work
Very rough Excavation, clearance 20 1:4
Rough Woodwork 50 1:4
Regular Masonery, woodwork 100 1:2.5
Fine Painting, electric works 200 1:2
Glare
The degree of glare limit required depends, of course, on the category of the area under study (C.I.E.: Glare evaluation
system for and outdoor sports area lighting).
In general, discomforting glare will be reduced with an increase in the mounting height. Choosing floodlights well and having
special care when pointing them may also help to maintain glare to the minimum. Sometimes, when glare is critical, special
lattices must be placed on luminaires.
Lamps
High intensity discharge lamps are recommended as appropriate for area floodlighting. The most frequently used lamps are
high pressure sodium discharge lamps, and metal halide ones. Even though when colour discrimination is not necessary and
lighting levels are not excessively high, low pressure sodium discharge lamp offers a good solution.
Observation direction
Normally, there are several directions from which a building may be observed, but, in general, one direction in particular may
be considered as the main observation direction.
Observation distance
Observation distance is important since it determines the number of visible details on the structure to be illuminated.
Obstacles
Trees and railings surrounding a building may form a decorative element of the installation. An attractive way of doing so is
by placing the sources of light in front of them. This has two advantages: first, the sources of light are invisible for the observer
and, second, trees and railings are seen as silhouettes against the illuminated background of the facade, increasing the
feeling of depth.
B
B
A
A
B
A
Figure 3
Also projecting elements (like balconies), walls or balustrades may enrich the appearance of a facade and must be taken
into account, if included in the lighting structure. In this case, floodlights must be placed at a certain distance from the facade,
in order to avoid excessively strong shadows. If there is not enough space for this, small floodlights placed on the projection
itself may be used as complementary lighting (Fig. 4).
Recess or concave elements like galleries or balconies will remain in the shadow when placing floodlights at a short distance
from the facade. In these situations, complementary lighting placed on the recess parts themselves may be used. Light of
another colour may be appropriate for this purpose. Lighting through floodlighting placed at a greater distance produces less
shadows and eliminates the need for additional lighting.
Change in the height of the shadow Supplementary local lighting to reduce shadow intensity
produced by variation of
distance "d"
Figura 4
Some of the many alternatives to place luminous sources are: on public lighting posts or on posts specifically placed for this
purpose; on the roof of a neighbouring building; on supports fixed to the facade itself or on the ground, behind low walls,
bushes or hedges.
Chart 2
Recommended lighting levels are those necessary to create a luminance of 4, 6 or 12 cd/m2 on the facade when the
surroundings are poorly illuminated, well illuminated or with a lot of brightness, respectively. Values are valid for lamps with
a wolfram filament of 2 800 K and clean surfaces of buildings . Correction coefficients shown are multiplying.
It is obvious that these differences in the reflection properties of the surface of the material makes necessary a different
lighting for each facade to obtain the desired luminosity in each case. Even the amount of dirtiness on the facade is
important; the reflection factor of a clean facade may be more than twice that of the same dirty facade.
The surroundings have a powerful influence in the effect produced by the buildings illuminated through floodlighting. For
example, if there is a lake, river, channel, etc. near the building, this will be highlighted when its reflections are projected in
water.
Cathedrals, churches, castles, public buildings, bridges and old monuments are examples of buildings which generally
respond well to floodlighting; some industrial and commercial buildings may be illuminated through floodlighting as an
advantage for themselves and for their surroundings.
e) The form of a building illuminated through floodlighting is best highlighted when its contours are visible, its
solidity is emphasized, and the corners are emphasized too, by illuminating the neighbouring walls with a
different luminance. The shape of a building with a non- peaked roof is evidently complete when both, roof and
wall, are illuminated through floodlighting.
f) The solidity of towers, domes and column heads is emphasized if illuminated through floodlighting from no
more than three directions in azimuth.
g) A good pronounced modelling is always desirable, but it does not make sense to highlight small details on flat
facades when the building is seen from a certain distance.
h) Height is more pronounced if building lighting is reduced progressively from its base upwards. If the lowest
parts of a building are hidden from observation at a certain distance by the structures of the surroundings, maybe
it will be convenient to reduce brightness in the opposed direction, for example, towards the ground.
Figure 9
11.3.3. Monuments
Monuments should be illuminated through floodlighting in a way that indicates their style, age and their historical meaning
wherever possible.
Floodlights for monument lighting are similar to those for historical buildings in general. The effects of erosion and, if ceilings
and walls have been destroyed or partially destroyed, should be reported. Lighting should be designed to achieve an effect
without and apparent cause (Fig. 10).
Figure 10
Floodlights for lighting of castles in ruins and similar monuments should be designed to emphasize the compact character
of their structures and reveal the shape of their towers and other prominent elements (Fig. 11).
Figure 11
The historical importance of a monument may be indicated by coloured light. For example, blue light may be used to create
a mysterious atmosphere, and red light to indicate the scene of a battle.
The splendour and magnificence of a monument may be manifested to the maximum only by means of a close and
continuous cooperation between the architect of the project, the lighting engineer and, wherever appropriate, the
archeologist, whose main interest is the preservation of the monument. The lighting equipment should not be attached to
the structure of the building unless a special permission has been granted.
Figure 12
- The shape and main elements of the bridge must be visible from a considerable distance. Most of the times it is desirable
for bridges on roads to include accesses in the lighting project so that it is seen as a part of the road and not as an isolated
element of the complex. Amenity lighting luminaires for roadway lighting should be treated as part of the lighting design.
- The convenience for a bridge to be illuminated through floodlighting depends on the surroundings, the main directions and
the observation distances, the importance of the structure and architecture of the bridge, its importance in the night- time
decoration, and the materials with which it has been built.
- Stone and reinforced concrete bridges generally respond well to lighting through floodlighting, but it may be difficult to show
the shape and details in iron and steel bridges this way, due to the low reflectance and the small area projected of the
members of the structure. However, other methods may be used. For example, lighting with ornamental lights, lamps
supported by cables and chain, have been used in some hanging bridges with satisfaction, but an effective maintenance may
be difficult.
- Lighting should not distract attention from traffic (motorized, highway or maritime traffic) which goes under or above the
bridge. If coloured lighting is used, a special care must be taken to avoid confusion with traffic signals.
- Illuminance necessary to show the effective shape of the bridge will mainly depend on the type of bridge, its surroundings
(including district lighting) and reflectance of the building materials. When the lighting system and location of floodlights has
been decided, its type, number and voltage may be estimated using the INDALWIN calculation program. After the lighting
system has been installed, the effects must be valued from a critical point of view, and adjustments must be done in situ.
- The sides of a stone bridge or similar crossing a valley, a clearing or a river may be usually illuminated through mounted
asymmetric rectangular floodlights in one or both banks. If light is directed from one of the sides mainly, the arches, wring
walls, counterforts and balustrades will be emphasized through coherent shadows which will be formed.
However, this system is not likely to be applied if the bridge is very long. Preferably, floodlights should be mounted under the
bridge platform to minimize glare for traffic and pedestrians going over or under the bridge (Fig. 13). Floodlights that,must be
mounted over the bridge height due to practical reasons should be conveniently oriented so that glare is restricted as much
as possible. This type of bridges may be illuminated also through luminaires mounted on the bridge or near it and hidden
from the normal observation angles or by a continuous row of waterproof fluorescent luminaires mounted on the railing.
The latter system may be applied for the lighting of pedestrian bridge by using luminaires which direct part of the light to
the sidewalk and part to the sides of the bridge. Often, the appearance of an arched bridge is improved if the lower part of
the arches is illuminated, preferably with a different colour of light to the one used on the sides of the bridge. A very dramatic
effect is produced leaving the sides without lighting (in the dark). It is difficult to delineate cables and chains of hanging
bridges except for festive lighting, but their support towers may be generally illuminated by floodlights with a great advantage,
using circular symmetrical floodlights with a narrow beam, mounted in the bridge or next to it and aiming upwards. Lighting
of the zone of the bridge for motorized traffic is normally done with public lighting luminaires.
Figure 13
Tree lighting
Figure 14
Luminaires may illuminate the foliage from a certain distance or be located next to the trunk lighting its branches from the
ground upwards (Fig. 14). The first technique is appropriated for trees with a dense foliage, whereas the other type of
focusing is appropriate for light foliage trees. Beautiful effects may be achieved using different coloured lights (Fig. 15).
Figure 15
If a superior frontal or vertical lighting is not desired or it is not applicable, flowered trees or with naked branches may be
projected against a white or light coloured wall, fence or railing. Another subtle effect more interesting than frontal lighting
from a visual point of vie, may be obtained by illuminating trees and bushes from behind.
But in most cases, floodlights should be placed between the public and the objects to be illuminated. Glare may be avoided
placing screens on floodlights, even though most gardens have many places to hide them, such as bushes, tree trunks or
stumps, rocks, fences, small walls, etc. Alternatively, floodlights may be embedded in the ground (in this case, drainage
possibility must be born in mind).
In general, it is neither economical nor practical to illuminate but a few trees in the park; and due to aesthetical reasons,
uniform lighting of the totality of an area through floodlighting is satisfactory very few times. The trees chosen should be
important and beautiful species and placed in positions where depth and subtlety are given to the scenery.
Spectators
Spectators must be able to follow the players activity and the sport action making the least effort. The surrounding
environment must be comfortable, which means that not only must the playfield or court be seen, but also the immediate
surroundings. Lighting must help the spectator to enter and exit the sport installation security. This security issue is also very
important for players.
T.V. broadcasting
For T.V. broadcasting, lighting must provide conditions that will secure a good quality colour image (Publication C.I.E. n 83),
both for general images of the play and close- ups of spectators and players.
Transmission continuity
In order to comply with T.V. transmission continuity, requirements in case of failure of the normal lighting system, a secondary
system is generally installed to provide an emergency T.V. lighting.
Horizontal illuminance
The illuminated area where the sport activity is taking place is the main part of the visual field of sportmen and spectators.
Therefore, horizontal plane illuminance at ground level serves the purpose of establishing visual adaptation. Due to this fact,
and also to the playfield area being used as a visual background, it is very important that there is an adequate horizontal
plane illuminancce to achieve the correct contrast against the background.
Horizontal illuminance is also very relevant in circulation areas, like anti- panic ligthing, used in case there is a failure of the
normal lighting system to secure spectators movement in and out of the sports field.
Recommended average illuminances in Chart 4 are maintained values. That is to say, they are values that must be reached
during an installation operation period. For the required initial values, maintained values must be multiplied by the inverse
of the maintenance factor (fm).
Vertical Illuminance
Enough contrast must exist for the players body to be identified. This is only obtained if vertical planes are well illuminated,
since this kind of illuminance is essential to recognize objects.
Vertical illuminance is characterized by magnitude and direction. For players, a vertical illuminance is important from all
positions. However, for spectators and cameras occupying a certain position, vertical illuminance must only be considered
for such positions. For cameras with different positions, vertical illuminance on the four lateral planes of the field must be
taken into account.
In practice, vertical illuminance required for players and spectators is automatically obtained if horizontal illuminance
requisites are observed. Therefore, from a practical point of view, vertical illuminance which must be measured at a 1.5
metre height over the playfield, is only a design criterion when considering T.V. transmission continuity, since it plays a major
influence on image quality.
Vertical illuminance must guarantee not only a players recognition or image quality but also the fact that spectators and
players are easily able to follow a ball, a ring, etc. that are flying over the playfield.
Spectators and tribunes are part of the camera visual medium. Therefore, an adequate vertical illuminance must also be
created for tribunes.
Illuminance uniformity
A good vertical and horizontal illuminance uniformity in horizontal and vertical planes is important. It avoids adaptation
problems for players and spectators and it eliminates the need for continuous adjustment of cameras in different visual
directions. If uniformity is not good enough, there is the possibility (especially with television cameras) that a ball or player
will not clearly be seen in certain positions in the field.
Uniformity may be expressed as the ratio between minimum illuminance and maximum illuminance (U1) or as the ratio
between minimum illuminance and average illuminance (U2).
In order for cameras to obtain the best possible visual conditions, the ratio between average illuminance on the horizontal
plane and average illuminance on the vertical one must be kept between 0.5 and 2 in general.
Glare
Glare occurs whenever a discomfort bright area approaches or enters the visual field, producing a disturbing effect for players
and spectators.
Glare may be minimised paying careful attention to floodlight or luminaire choice. We must also make sure that they are
carefully focused, taking into account the main visual directions.
Evaluation of glare
The C.I.E. has developed a basis to evaluate the subjective impression of glare in outdoor areas.
Essentially, it includes a glare index in which the lower the reaching is also, the lower the glare. Glare Rating (GR) is obtained
this way:
EE R R
0,9
Lvl
GR = 27 + 24 . log
Lve
where:
Lvl = veiling luminance produced by luminaires.
eyej
Lvl =
i 2
where Eeye,i is the eye illuminance produced by the source of light (lux) i, and i is the angle between the direction of vision
and the direction of incident light from the source of light i (degrees).
Lve = veiling luminance produced by the medium.
Lve may be approached from the horizontal average illuminance where the sports event is taking place, Ehav, using the
following formula:
p
Lve = 0.035 . Ehav .
For Lvl the sources of light are luminaires, whereas for Lve the field and luminous surroundings are considered as an infinite
number of small light sources.
It is necessary to calculate GR for the observers most critical positions, defined in Fig. 16. for a football playfield.
1A
5 1 10
300 m. 300 m.
1/4 A
1/2 A
4 3 2 8 9
1/4 A
7
6 11
1/4 B
1/2 B
1B
Figure 16
Nowadays, international sport associations are introducing their own GR norms and veiling luminance.
External glare
In past times, glare was only taken into account for players and spectators who were in the illuminated area or very close to
it. Nevertheless, in case of outdoor lighting sports, the disperse light of the installation may bother spectators who are outside
the playfield: for example, for traffic on adjacent roads or for those people who live in the surroudings.
Currently, the C.I.E. is studying a direct parameter to quantify such disturbance, which is directly related to the optical quality
of the floodlights used. This means that in order to avoid this inconvenience, floodlights must be chosen taking into account
the limitation of the disperse light outside the main beam. They must be focused and mounted in an adequate manner.
Recommendations
Although glare ratio, or GR, is not specified in the recommendation sections, it is highly important for all sports lighting
installations. It must coincide with the GR values established in the Publication C.I.E. n 83.
The calculated GR value depends partially on the reflectance area where the sports activity is taking place. For grass courts,
a diffused reflectance of about 0.15 to 0.25 is generally presupposed.
The GR value must be determined for the observers positions of such a sport, at a height of 1.5 metres over the area where
the sports activity is taking place. The observer must see all points at ground level. For an outdoor installation, the effect of
disperse light outside the precinct at a distance of 300 metres from the centre of the area must be calculated. This means
that veiling luminance must be calculated at a 1.5 metre height over the ground for the five most extreme positions.
players, ball or other elements and spectators who are in the area where the sports activity is taking place or near it.
The efficacy of modelling depends on directions from which light sources come from as well as on the number and type of sources
used in it. Modelling may be hard, produced by means of deep shadows, for example, using floodlights with a narrow and simple
beam; or soft, resulting from lighting without shadows from a luminous ceiling, for example. None of these extremes is advisable.
However, for the latter case, it is possible to add some small floodlights to improve modulate.
Good quality television images require a good modulate for lighting. This is the reason why up to 60% of the installed total flux may
come from the side of the main camera, and 40% or even more, from the opposite side, in order to limit length and hardness of
projected shadows for sportment where an asymmetric arrangement of floodlights is used.
Floodlights
Floodlights are classified according to their light distribution:
Circular floodlights (Fig. 17)
There are two types of circular floodlights used in sports floodlighting:
a) With a symmetric beam in a conical shape. They may have a narrow beam or a wide beam.
b) With a slightly asymmetric beam on the vertical plane. They may have a narrow, medium, wide and very wide beam.
Circular floodlights require the use of a source of light more or less narrow, such as a short discharge tube of a high intensity
discharge lamp. When it is not focused downwards from a vertical point of view, the conical beam emits an elliptical or
almost elliptical light modelling over the field (Fig. 17).
Rectangular floodlights are used together with their linear sources such as tubular discharge lamps and halogene ones. A
fan- shaped beam produces a very trapezoidal model of light on the sports area where the activity is practiced (Fig. 18).
When rectangular floodlights are mounted in a not very separate way on the sides of a sports area (normal disposition for a small
area) two advantages are met if compared to the circular unit: light distribution is more uniform and light loss is less (Fig. 19). However,
the circular floodlight is more efficient than the rectangular unit when used in the four corners, diagonal disposition (Fig. 20), whenever
several units per column are used.
When glare may produce important discomfort to people outside the area where the sports activity is practiced, luminous
intensities outside the current beam must be the lowest possible. For this application, a floodlight that may distribute light
totally under the horizontal plane is recommended.
Lighting calculations
In daily practice, it is very common to use computer programs (INDALWIN) to design sports lighting installations. The results
of the program show quantitative values for most of the parameters, such as vertical and horizontal illuminances, uniformity
and glare ratios.
Figure 21
Calculation matrix
Since the distance between the matrix points is relatively small, the value shown for each point represents the area
surrounding such a point (Fig. 22.). Matrix sizes commonly used are:
- from 1 to 2 m.: For small playing areas.
- from 5 m.: For football, hockey or rugby.
In order to specify horizontal illuminances, the matrix must be at ground level, whereas in order to specify vertical
illuminances, it generally is at 1.5 m. over such a level.
1/2 Sx Sx
1/2 Sy
Sy
Figure 22
The positions of the observer and the observation or vision directions used when calculating glare are defined in the matrix.
Camera positions
Camera positions must be known to secure that lighting in such directions is adequate. These are specified as points of
reference in the computer program, and generally speaking, separate calculations are done for a number of points.
Illuminance
When the events are regularly broadcasted from a stadium or football field, the floodlight lighting project is generally designed
to provide the high illuminance necessary to comply with television requisites. The necessary horizontal illuminance for a
play field depends on:
a) The competition level taking place on it.
b) The speed of the ball (also the rapid movement of players must be taken into account).
c) The maximum distance between players and between any of them and the ball during the game.
If the play field has tiers for spectators and the distance between the centre of the field and the most distant spectator is
greater than the maximum distance existent between a player and the game object, the latter is the one that must be taken
into account as a reference criterion. In Fig. 23, the minimum horizontal illuminance levels recommended for different
distances between spectators and the centre of the field are represented.
Professional/
colour T.V.
Competition
Training
Leisure
Figure 23
Vertical illuminance is characterized not only by its magnitude but also by its direction. Vertical illuminance is considered
on a vertical plane in a straight angle with the observers line of vision (Fig. 24).
Position of
observer 1 Position of
observer 2
An adequate vertical lighting from all directions is very important for players. Nevertheless, if it is checked in the four directions
parallel to the play field exterior lines, it will be the adequate one in the rest of directions. For spectators and cameras occupying
a fixed position, only vertical lighting seen from that place must be verified.
In the charts at the end of the chapter, minimum vertical illuminance levels recommended for T.V. broadcasting are shown.
Uniformity ratio
Illuminance uniformity necessary on the field and surrounding courts depends on what is happening. For example, greater
light uniformity is required for television broadcasting than for game development or following of a competition without
broadcasting by the naked eye. A lower uniformity may be accepted for training than for competition. See Chart 3.
Glare
Glare should not be discomforting unless:
a) Floodlights with a precise light control are used and correctly pointed.
b) Floodlights are mounted far from the important observation directions. Mounting angles measured from the centre of the
field should be higher than 20 on the horizontal.
c) The least number of floodlight groups is used or a one- sided disposition. The number of groups in any of the field sides
should not be greater than 4.
d) Illuminance on the field of vision (which includes the field and the areas opposed to spectators) is as high and uniform
as possible, consequent with the avoidance of too much illuminance in the spectators' eyes. In practice, this means that
average illuminance on planes vertical to the height of the spectators eyes opposite it should not be greater than half their
average value on the vertical over the field, and preferably not more than 1/3.
If these requisites are met, the size and luminosity of individual sources and the number of floodlights in each group is not
very important with respect to glare. They have a stronger effect on illuminance on the field. Experience has proved that glare
of a correctly planned installation does not increase when illuminance is greater.
a
Design for three poles
l/6 l/3 l/3 l/6
Figure 25
Small training fields may be illuminated from fewer positions and sometimes only from one side. Rectangular symmetric or
asymmetric floodlights (which produce a fan- shaped beam) are used for most lateral lighting projects. The recommended
mounting height is deduced from Fig. 26, the characteristic angles being measured from the longitudinal line of the centre
of the field and the band line.
12 m. minimum
Objective 25
75 max.
Maximum 30
45 min.
Minimum 20
Figure 26
When three groups of floodlights are used, these should be pointed to obtain an acceptable illuminance uniformity along
the nearby band line. Choosing an appropriate number of floodlights for each tower, illuminances that may be provided go
from adequate low values for training fields, up to high values necessary for colour T.V. broadcasting. Illuminance on vertical
planes on the play area is approximately equal to that of the horizontal planes. Modelling is relatively insignificant and several
shadows may be clearly seen. A careful pointing is necessary to avoid inadequate glare.
Fig. 27 shows the design of lateral floodlight systems where floodlights are mounted in single rows under each side of the
field and provide the necessary high illuminance for colour T.V. Mounting heights of floodlights are defined by the angles
given in Fig. 26. The row of floodlights should be preferably extended beyond the goal lines in order to maintain a reasonable
illuminance uniformity, especially in the areas, and provide light over the players so that they are seen behind the goal posts.
However, this extension may not be possible in practice. Then, trimmer in illuminance towards the goal lines should be
restricted by a reduction of the space of floodlights towards the end of lines or by the pointing of final floodlights outwards.
As for other systems of lateral lighting, average illuminance on vertical planes on the play area is approximately equal to that
of the horizontal ones and a careful pointing is necessary to avoid excessive glare. Where floodlights are mounted on ceilings
(shelters) of tiers, the compensation distance may not be large enough to provide adequate vertical illuminance on the
closest band line. Then, extra floodlights will be needed and should be mounted under the ceiling (shelter) at the necessary
compensation distance.
Figure 27
Systems of towers in corners
The design used for 4 towers in corners is the one observed in Fig. 28. Recommended heights for the tower are deduced
from Fig. 26. Normally, symmetric circular- shaped floodlights are used giving a symmetric beam. Individual beams may be
joined to fill what is seen as a playing area in a non- rectangular form from the above structure. This allows an adequate
illuminance design to be increased over the field. Angular compensations of 5 and 15 degrees, respectively, from the
centre of the band line and the goal entrance provide adequate locations for the towers. In practice, location of the tower is
ordered more often by the disposition of the place than by the ideal lighting requisites.
Large stadiums, and specially those with courts outside the play field, are difficult to illuminate enough from the 4 corners.
Very high towers would be necessary to comply with the angular requisites in Fig. 26, and glare from the long reach
floodlights which would be necessary, would be probably excessive. Because of these reasons, the 6 tower system seen in
Fig. 29 is preferred. The tower height is defined from the centre of the half of the field and approximately twice as many
grouped floodlights in the central towers as those in the corners. Pointing angles are sharp and glare may be controlled quite
easily. The illuminance ratio between vertical planes and horizontal planes is approximately 0.7.
15
Figure 28.
15
Figure 29
Shadows of tiers
The position of shadows projected in the field by tier ceilings and other obstacles may be obtained from the sketch seen in
Fig. 30. If possible, height and location of the tower must be chosen so that shadows do not fall on the play field. Wherever
this is not possible, additional floodlights should be mounted under the tier ceiling and directed towards the shadowed areas
with the same average angle of the main floodlights.
a= d H
h-H
D= d h
h-H
Tower
h
Tier
H
a d
D
Tower
Shadow area
Tier
Figure 30
Archery (indoors)
- shooting zone t/r 100 0.3 0.4 60 2000
ca 500 0.3 0.4 60 2000
cp n.a.
- target t/r 300* n.a. n.a. 60 2000
ca 500* n.a. n.a. 60 2000
cp n.a.
Archery (outdoors)
- shooting zone t/r 50 0.3 0.4 60 2000
ca 100 0.3 0.4 60 2000
cp n.a.
- target t/r 100* n.a. n.a. 60 2000
ca 200* n.a. n.a. 60 2000
cp n.a.
Athletics A
- indoors t/r 200 0.3 0.5 65 2000
ca 300 0.4 0.5 65 4000
cp 500 0.5 0.7 65 4000
- outdoors t/r 100 0.2 0.3 20 2000
ca 200 0.2 0.3 20 2000
cp 400 0.3 0.5 65 4000
Badminton B
t/r 300 0.4 0.6 65 4000
ca 600 0.5 0.7 65 4000
cp 800 0.5 0.7 65 4000
Baseball B
- in the field t/r 150 0.3 0.5 65 4000
ca 300 0.4 0.6 65 4000
cp 750 0.5 0.7 65 4000
- outside the field t/r 100 0.2 0.3 65 4000
ca 200 0.3 0.4 65 4000
cp 500 0.4 0.5 65 4000
Basketball B
- indoors t/r 300 0.4 0.6 65 4000
ca 400 05 0.7 65 4000
cp 600 0.5 0.7 65 4000
- outdoors t/r 100 0.2 0.3 60 2000
ca 200 0.3 0.4 60 2000
cp n.a.
Cycle racing B
- indoors t/r 200 0.3 0.4 65 4000
ca 300 0.4 0.5 65 4000
cp 500 0.4 0.5 65 4000
- outdoors t/r 100 0.2 0.3 20 4000
ca 200 0.4 0.5 65 4000
cp 400 0.4 0.5 65 4000
A
25 m 500 lux 500 lux 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.5 65 4 000
75 m 700 lux 500 lux 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.5 65 4 000
150 m 1 000 lux 700 lux 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.6 65 4 000
B
25 m 700 lux 500 lux 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.5 65 4 000
75 m 1 000 lux 700 lux 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.6 65 4 000
150 m 1 400 lux 1 000 lux 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.6 65 4 000
C
25 m 1 000 lux 700 lux 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.6 65 4 000
75 m 1 400 lux 1 000 lux 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.6 65 4 000
150 m n.a. n.a.
A
25 m 700 lux 700 lux 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.5 65(1) 4 000(2)
75 m 1 000 lux 700 lux 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.5 65 (1)
4 000(2)
150 m 1 400 lux 1 000 lux 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.6 65(1) 4 000(2)
B
25 m 1 000 lux 700 lux 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.5 65(1) 4 000(2)
75 m 1 400 lux 1 000 lux 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.6 65(1) 4 000(2)
150 m 1 750 lux 1 250 lux 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.6 65 (1)
4 000(2)
C
25 m 1 400 lux 1 000 lux 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.6 65(1) 4 000(2)
75 m 1 750 lux 1 250 lux 0.7 0.8 0.5 0.7 65(1) 4 000(2)
150 m n.a. n.a.
(1)
An R of 65 is admissible, but 90 is advised.
(2)
A Tc of 4 000 K is admissible, but 5,500 K is advised.
ROAD LIGHTING
12.1.1. Objectives
The fundamental objective of road lighting is to allow a secure and comfortable vision during the night. Such qualities may
protect, ease and improve motor traffic. An adequate use of public lighting as an operative instrument provides economic and
social benefits like:
a) Reduction in accidents at night- time, including human endangered lives and economic losses.
b) Help to police protection and safety of population.
c) Easier traffic.
d) Promotion of transport and travelling at night.
The aim of public lighting is to provide the driver with the necessary visibility to distinguish obstacles and road layout with
enough time to maneuver in order to guarante security, apart from providing the automobilist with visual comfort while driving.
1. Road type (motorways, dual carriageways, express roads or conventional roads), its location and its layout.
2. Conflict areas, such as crossroads, complicated crossings and special parts.
3. Traffic intensity and composition.
Lighting installation criteria in road segments recommend to bear in mind factors influencing the need for lighting, as well as
considering situations in which due to traffic intensity, only the car dipped headlights can be used for a long period of time.
In conventional roads, changes from full lights to dipped lights in order to avoid glares must be done at an approximate
distance of 500 m. between vehicles circulating in opposite directions. Therefore, the maximum number of vehicles driving
with full headlights per hour, at an average speed of 75 Km/h., is that of 150. This number is equivalent to a total of 300
vehicles per hour during the night on a straight stretch.
Chart 1 offers guiding criteria by indicating values for traffic daily average intensity (IMD) that may be adopted to take into
account the possibility of road lighting.
Likewise, in order to avoid the so-called "black hole" effect, it would be convenient to consider lighting stretches between
merging areas whose distance is inferior to 6 Km. in separate carriageway roads, and to 2 Km. in single carriageway roads.
Besides, it would be advisable to bear in mind those road stretches where there exists a considerable percentage of accidents
during the night when compared to daytime conditions.
TYPES OF USERS
Main user M Motor traffic
0 Other permited users S Slow moving vehicles
Excluded users C Bicyclists
P Pedestrians
Chart 2
Two- way circulation roads and access control (high speed roads):
Traffic density and complexity of road layout:
High (IMD) > 15,000
Medium and low (IMD) < 15,000 ME 1
ME 2
Urban traffic routes with no separation for walkways or cycle paths. ME 1
Chart 3
Luminance is expressed in cd/m2, whereas uniformities, understood as a ratio between luminances, lacks a unit. Disability glare
appears as a percentage, and again, the environmental ratio also lacks units because it is a quotient between luminances.
From the point of view of lighting engineering, the most interesting project situations are the ones belonging to group A-1.
Situations for A-2 and A-3 lighting class are treated in a more general way.
For A1 project situation, Chart 3 summarizes the specific kind of lighting to be adopted, depending only on traffic intensity and
road layout complexity.
For the rest of project situations A2 and A3 there are several options to choose the kind of lighting. In each case, it is selected
according to traffic intensity and road layout complexity, traffic control and separation of different kinds of users, as well as
dominant specific parameters, specified below:
A2 project situation. Dominant parameters:
- Crossroad type (merging areas, intersections).
- Number of junctions.
*The levels for the chart are minimum values in service with maintenance of the lighting installation, except for TI, which are maximum initial values. In order
maintain such service levels, a depreciation factor not greater than 0.8 must be considered, depending on luminaire type and degree of pollution in the air.
** When low luminance level sources of light are used (fluorescent tubes and low pressure sodium), a 5% threshold increase (TI) is allowed.
*** The surround ratio SR must be applied to those traffic roadways where there are not other adjacent areas to the roadway with their own requisites.
Chart 4
* This criterion is not restrictive but may be applied, for example, to motorways, dual carriageways, two- way traffic single carriageways with access control.
Chart 5
Likewise, conflict areas are those sectors with great difficulty because of a high presence of pedestrians, cyclists or
other users of the roadway or lanes.
Lighting installation must reveal or stress the conflict area, as well as all its characteristics, such as position of kerbs,
pavement markings, different delineations, traffic directions, etc. Following the same policy, the presence of
pedestrians, cyclists, obstacles, other vehicles and their movement in the surroundings of the conflict area must be
made evident.
a) Luminance criterion
Whenever possible, luminance criteria, overall and longitudinal uniformities, disability glare and environmental ratios
defined for different lighting classes, will be applied to conflict areas. In all cases, lighting class defined for the conflict
area will be one degree higher than the degree of the roadway to which such a conflict area corresponds. For
example, if a road is to be provided with an ME4 lighting class, a conflict area included in its route will need an ME3a
lighting class. If several lanes meet in a conflict area, as it may happen with crossroads, the lighting class will be a
degree higer than the degree of the roadway that has the highest lighting class.
b) Illuminance criterion
Only when luminance criteria cannot be applied, will illuminance criteria be used. This situation may take place when
the sight distance is lower than 60 m. (minimum value used for luminance calculation), and whenever the observer
may not be properly located due to convolution and complexity of road layout.
In such situations, lighting criteria will be applied by means of average illuminance and its uniformity, which
correspond to the CE series lighting classes (Chart 6). Limitations of glare or lighting pollution control, represented
by G series intensity classes (Chart 7), will also be observed.
HORIZONTAL ILLUMINANCE
LIGHTING
Average Illuminance Average Uniformity
CLASS*
Em (lux) Um
CEO 50 0.40
CE1 30 0.40
CE2 20 0.40
CE3 15 0.40
CE4 10 0.40
CE5 7.5 0.40
* The levels of the chart are minimum values in service with lighting installation maintenance. In order to keep
such service levels, a depreciation factor not lower than 0.8, depending on luminaire type and air pollution
degree, must be considered.
Chart 6
According to Chart 8, ME and CE lighting classes, with identical numbers (for example CE3 and ME3), have a similar
lighting level. When the illuminance criterion is used, lighting class defined for the conflict area will be one degree
higher than that of the corresponding conflict area road. For example, if a road is attributed an ME2 lighting class, a
CE1 lighting class would correspond to a conflict area included in it.
Supposing there is a conflict area in which there is an ME1 lighting class road merging, the conflict area will continue
also as an ME1 lighting class or its equivalent, CE1. When this conflict area offers special complexity and a high risk
of accidents, in the worst situation and circumstances, a CE0 (50 lux) lighting class will correspond to such an area
or its similar luminance level of 3.3 cd/m2. For intermediate situations, lighting classes ranging between the CE1 and
CE0 interval may be adopted, corresponding to illuminance levels of 35, 40 and 45 lux or their similar values of 2.3,
2.7 and 3 cd/m2, respectively.
Conflict areas whose sidewalks or shoulders are not provided with a specific lighting, this will be considered as a
lighting level of, at least, 50% of that foreseen for the roadway.
MAXIMUM INTENSITY
INTENSITY CLASS (cd/Klm)** OTHER REQUIREMENTS
At 70 * At 80 * At 90 *
G1 200 50 None.
G2 150 30 None.
G3 100 20 None.
G4 500 100 10 Intensities above 95 must equal zero.
G5 350 100 10 Intensities above 95 must equal zero.
G6 350 100 0 Intensities above 95 must equal zero.
** Any direction formed by the specified angle from the vertical downwards, with the luminance installed for its working.
** All intensities are proportional to lamp flux for 1 000 lm.
NOTE: Intensity classes G1, G2 and G3 coresspond to semi cut-off and cut-off photometric representations, concepts traditionally used for lighting
requirements defined in section 7.5.2. Intensity classes G4, G5 and G6 designate luminaires with very strong cut-off distribution, like for example,
luminaires with glass flat closing, in any position near the horizontal of the opening or the horizontal position strictly.
Chart 7
When an exhaustive requirement on glare limitation or light pollution control is needed, intensity classes G1, G2 and
G3 may be adopted. Supposing the conflict area typology, due to its configuration, complexity and potential
dangerousness, requires a greater glare limitation or light pollution control, only G4 and G5 intensity classes can be
chosen. Only under extreme circumstances, will G6 intensity class be mandatory.
delineators and contrasting pavement markings, being over the roadway water film caused by rain, maintain visibility
provided by road lighting and vehicle own headlights, preserving visual guidance and road security.
COMPARABLE BY COLUMNS
ME 1 ME 2 ME 3 ME 4 ME 5 ME 6
MEW 1 MEW 2 MEW 3 MEW 4 MEW 5
CE 0 CE 1 CE 2 CE 3 CE 4 CE 5
For ME/MEW classes r-chart C 2 roadway surface reflectance
(Publication CIE n 66)
Chart 8
Lighting installation by means of high mounting supports is a solution when the installation of classic shafts or columns
originates problems in the surroundings, such as:
- Loss of perspective and level separation between supports (crossroads of motor traffic roads at different levels).
- Dimensioning problems (large areas), or aesthetics and visual guidance confusion (multiplicity of supports).
For this type of lighting the most frequent installation heights are 30 and 35 m. supports, even though in concrete situations
like complex crossroads, they may be higher than 40 m. The number of lighting sources will be reduced as much as possible,
by using discharge lamps with high lighting efficacy and potency. Luminaires provided with a conventional, adjustable or
specific optical system as well as floodlights may be installed, always paying attention to convenient solutions to achieve the
established goals.
In order to perform maintenance operations, accessibility to luminaires, control gears and lamps will be done by means of
fixed scales attached to the supports, up to a height of 20 m. For higher columns, the installation of an impeller system is
convenient.
In order to decrease glare, the tilt angle of floodlight maximum intensity will amount to 65%, limiting, as far as possible,
intensity values above this angle. Besides, the installation of grids or other antiglare devices may also be contemplated.
LIGHTING
DESCRIPTION OF ROAD TYPE
CLASSES
Very complex crossings with high traffic density and complex
CE 0
road layout and field of vision
Complex crossings, traffic circles CE 0
CE 1
Toll areas CE 2
NOTE: In lighting situations corresponding to very complex crossings with high traffic density and complex road
layout and field of vision, in some special cases, luminance average uniformity will be 0.5.
Chart 9
12.3.1.1. Method
Luminance at a point of the roadway is calculated using the following formula:
L=
E (c, ) r (,h tg) R (cm/m )
2
2
where the sum () comprises, in theory, all luminaires in the installation. Luminous intensity values (I(c,)) and
reduced luminance coefficient (r(, tg)) are obtained by square interpolation of the luminaire intensity matrix and
the pavement reflection chart. Lastly, variable h is the luminaire maximum height (Fig. 1).
Observer
P
s
Calculated luminance values are influenced by the maintenance factor as decreasing, which takes into account the
lamp luminous depreciation caused by dirtiness. In all calculations, a value lower or equal to 0.8 will be adopted,
depending on luminaire type and local degree of atmospheric pollution.
12.3.1.2. Hypothesis
The following sections are applicable to straight roadway stretches or large radius curves (radius >= 300 m.). In
another kind of configuration, each case will be studied separately, applying certain criteria for special situations.
Moreover, as it has already been indicated, calculations are established for pavement in dry conditions.
- From a longitudinal point of view: 10 points for separations between luminaires lower than 50 m., or the least
number of points that will provide distances equal or inferior to 5 m. between them, for separations between
luminaires higher than 50 m.
- From a transversal point of view: 5 points per lane, one of them located in its center. The two most external points
will remain inside the roadway, with respect to its edge, at 1/6 of the lane width.
Luminaire Luminaire
a/2
a/6
: Lattice point
12.3.1.6. Calculations
- Average luminance: luminance average value calculated in the lattice points.
- Overall uniformity: quotient between the minimum luminance calculated in a lattice point and its average
luminance.
- Longitudinal uniformity: for each of the lanes, it is obtained by dividing minimum and maximum exact luminance
calculated on the axis of the lane.
12.3.2.1. Method
Horizontal illuminance at a point of the roadway is calculated using the following formula:
E (c, ) R
cos3
E= (lux)
h2
being the angle formed by the direction of incidence at the point with the vertical (Fig. 3). The sum () comprises,
in theory, all luminaires in the installation.
d
E=
a dS
I
h
P
Illuminance calculations, as that of luminances, will be affected by a maintenance factor lower or equal to 0.8,
depending on the type of luminaire and the local degree of atmospheric pollution.
12.3.2.4. Calculations
- Average illuminance: average value of illuminances calculated in the lattice points.
- Average uniformity: quotient between minimum illuminance calculated at a point of the lattice and average
illuminance.
- Extreme uniformity: quotient between minimum and maximum illuminances calculated at a point of the lattice.
12.3.3.1. Method
It is based on the calculation of veiling luminance:
Eg
Lv = 3 10-3 ( ) 2 (cd/m2)
where Eg (lux) is the illuminance produced by the eye in a plane perpendicular to the line of vision, and (rad) is
the angle between the direction of light inciding in the eye and the observation direction. The sum () is extended,
in principle, to all luminaires of the installation (see 12.3.3.4.).
The increase of the perception threshold is calculated according to the following formula:
Lv
TI = 65 ... (in %)
(Lm)0.8
which is a valid formula for roadway average luminances (Lm) between 0.05 and 5 cd/m2.
Ig
p la
ing
d
iel
20
Sh
=1
W
1/4W
12.3.3.5. Calculations
- Veiling luminance: for each row of luminaires, the closest one is first considered, progressively driving away and
accumulating veiling luminances produced by each of them until their individual contribution is lower than 2% of the
accumulated one. The maximum is up to luminaires located at 500 m. from the observer. Finally, veiling luminance
of all rows of luminaires will be summed.
- Increase in perception threshold: it will be calculated with veiling luminance values obtained according to 12.3.3.1.
and with average luminance according to 12.3.1.6.
Walkway
Walkway Walkway
Roadway
Walkway
Figure 5
Walkway
Walkway
Roadway
Walkway
Walkway
Figure 6
H mounting height of aiming points (Figs. 7 and 8) must be equal to that of the points of the main road that merges in the
traffic round to be illuminated. In case the central area of the traffic round lacks lighting higher or equal to 1.5 times the main
roadway average illuminance, supplementary lighting will be required.
Roadway
ay
lkw
Wa
Wa
lk
wa
y
ay Ro
ad
a dw wa
Ro Walkway y
Figure 7
Roadway
ay
lkw
Wa
Wa
lk
wa
y
y Ro
wa ad
ad Walkway wa
Ro y
Figure 8
If the central part of the traffic round has a diameter lower than 18 m., a special aiming point in a column or multiple arm
shaft will be installed in its center (Fig. 7). If its diameter is greater than 18 m. or it has trees in the center, aiming lights will
be placed in the prolongation of the circulation axis (Fig. 8).
With regard to installation of aiming points in curves and in relation to lighting, curve stretches are considered those whose
radius is inferior to 300 m. When their radius is greater than such a figure, they will be considered as straight stretches.
If the width A of the traffic road is lower than 1.5 times its mounting height H, aiming points must be installed in the outer
part of the curve, locating an aiming point in the prolongation of the circulation axis (Figs. 9 and 10). Separation between
aiming points will be inversely proportional to the radius of the curve, varying between 3/4 and 1/2 of the calculated average
separation of a straight stretch of such a traffic road.
For traffic roads whose width is greater than 1.5 times their mounting height H, the installation of aiming points must be two-
sided coupled. In any case staggered distribution must be avoided.
Walkway
Roadway
Roadway
Figure 9
Wa
lkw
Ro
ay
ad
wa
y
Wa
lkw
ay
Figure 10
Walkway
H
Roadway A
Walkway
A
Walkway
H Roadway A
Walkway
A
Walkway
H Roadway A
Walkway
A
Walkway
Direction of traffic
Roadway
Central reservation b
Direction of traffic
Roadway
Walkway
For central reservations, wider than 3 m., double-armed shafts will not be used. In any case, their disposition will be
studied as if we were talking of two separate and independent roadways, giving rise to the installation of the following
figures. Fig. 15 is recommended over Fig. 16, since drivers are incited to circulate always on the traffic lane nearest
to the central reservation (left lane).
Walkway
Direction of traffic
Roadway
Central reservation b
Direction of traffic
Roadway
Walkway
Figure 15. Installation for any b value.
Walkway
Direction of traffic
Roadway
Central reservation b
Direction of traffic
Roadway
Walkway
Figure 16. Installation for values b > 3m.
12.4.2.5. Catenary
Aiming points are fixed axially to the catenary longitudinal cables, lying between two solid supports installed in the
central reservation and located at a great distance one from the other, at about 50 to 100 m. (Fig. 17).
This type of distribution has a very serious inconvenience which is that aiming points are easily moved by the action
of the wind, losing some of their effectiveness.
Walkway
Central reservation
Direction of traffic
Central reservation
Central reservation
Slow moving traffic roadway (2 lanes)
Direction of traffic
Walkway
Figure 18. Combined grouping.
Walkway
Slow moving traffic roadway
Direction of traffic
Central reservation
Direction of traffic
Central reservation
Walkway
Figure 19. Combined grouping.
8 - 10 mts.
If trees have a small size, luminaires will be placed at a height of 12 to 15 metres (Fig. 21). In any case, it is convenient to
give trees an adequate pruning periodically.
12 - 15 mts.
e1
e1' < e1
e e' < e e
e = normal separation
e' = reduced separation
e1
Figure 22
e1
e e' < e e
e1' < e1
e = normal separation
e' = reduced separation
e1
Figure 23
e1
e e' < e e
e1' < e1
e = normal separation
e' = reduced separation
e1
Right angle intersection: Recommended installation on two roadways
with one- sided and two- sided lighting
Figure 24 e1
e e' < e e
e1' < e1
e = normal separation
e' = reduced separation
e1
Figure 25
In the second case, when motor traffic in one of the roadways is canalized by means of small directional traffic islands
whereas, traffic is not in the other, (Fig. 26), the installation of aiming points must begin with the roadway provided
with traffic islands, which will be studied separately. The installation of aiming points will begin from the intersection,
reducing the separation between these and continuing with the roadway with canalized traffic, adopting any of the
adequate installation systems (one- sided, staggered, double row, two- sided, etc.).
The origin of locating aiming points for roadway lighting wherever traffic is not canalized by means of traffic islands
will be also tackled at the intersection, adjusting aiming points as established for the other roadway, and continuing
with an adequate placing of aiming points bearing in mind the roadway characteristics (one- sided, staggered, double
Figure 26
12.4.4.2. "T"- shaped intersections between two illuminated and partially canalized roadways
This type of intersections (Fig. 27) establishes an installation of aiming points recommended so that users who arrive
from the merging roadway are able to see an illuminated background ahead of them.
This is not the only possible solution, though. Depending on local conditions, it may be possible to reduce the
number of aiming points, using others of a higher potency and height installation (Fig. 28).
Figure 27
60 m.
"T"- shaped intersection: Installation example with aiming points of more power
and of height supports than those of figure 13.27. Aiming point of 18 m.
with 4 luminaires. Aiming point of 18 m. with 2 luminaires. Aiming point of 12
m. with 1 luminaire. Aiming point of 12 m. with 2 luminaires
Figure 28
12.4.4.3. "Y" or "T"- shaped intersections between two roadways totally canalized
In the proximity of such intersections, generally both traffic directions for vehicles are separated by large directional
traffic islands, along which the layout of aiming points is one- sided (Fig. 29).
Likewise, more powerful and aiming points of a greater height may be placed (Fig. 30).
Figure 29
.
50 m
.
50 m
.
50 m
.
50 m
Figure 30
12.4.5. Vegetation
Understanding and cooperation between vegetation and lighting is required so that neither interferes with the job or function
performed by the other.
luminaire
A
Mounting height
Pruning line
M
The selection of the type of shrub or tree must be based on those which leave enough free space for lighting with minimum
interference between both of them. These selections may include trees with stylized, spherical or normal forms. In most cases,
a good pruning service may solve any problem between trees and road lighting.
It must be highlighted that even in installations with a great mounting height, it is not necessary to prune all trees up to the
luminaire height. It is only necessary to prude those branches which fall below the useful luminous beam (Fig. 31). Leafiness
of trees located between the luminaire and the objects, may serve the purpose of trimming and distinguishing silhouettes in
an intentioned way. At the same time, it helps to reduce luminaire direct glare on possible observers or drivers. This advantage
is particularly important in roads with local traffic and residential areas, where relatively high inter- distances, together with high
potencies and angles approaching the horizontal are required.
e
typ
14
al
ri c
nd
Cyli
12
pe
l ty
ida
10
am
ical
r
typ e
py
Spher
de
idal
Wi
Oval type
8
yra m
ow p
6
N a rr
2 4
Walkway
Roadway
0
0 2 4 6
Luminaire projection mts.
Figure 32
Another possible design modification may be luminaire suspension by means of catenary systems over the center
of the roadway. In this case, the problem is the extra expenses implied by the utilization of two supports per
luminaire. An added disadvantage to this system is the loss of lighting efficacy which takes place when luminaires
are under the action of the wind, given that the wind modifies their orientation and, therefore, also their photometric
distribution.
Another possible design variation consists in reducing the luminaire installation height under vegetation, in such a
way that also lamp potency is reduced. The problem is also that of extra expenses, since the interdistance between
luminaires has to be reduced. Therefore, the number of luminaires must be increased and advantages disappear.
One last design alteration may be performed, which consists in increasing lamp potency to compensate for light lost
on its way towards roadway and sidewalks. However, this presupposes a clear inconvenience since the luminaire
direct glare increases and, above all, energetic cost is also higher without resulting in a clear improvement of luminous
uniformity.
pe l ty p e
l ty mida
r icapyra pe
e e a l ty
ric
W h
Sp Wid
d
id
Sp
in
he e py
amidal typ
p yr
l
rica
Cy
N
Cy
e
w
ar
lind
l ty p e
ro
row
Nar
rical type
ramidal type
pyramida
yp
e 1
2
Rodway side
3
4
5
Figure 33
Although roadway lighting usually produces interferences with vegetation, lighting of walkways of other lateral areas
of the roadway must not be forgotten. This aspect is sometimes even more important than roadway lighting itself in
certain residential or pedestrian areas.
TUNNEL LIGHTING
where:
L0 = Luminance of the obstacle.
Lf = Luminance of the background.
Contrast C may be positive or negative:
If L0 > Lf C > 0 Positive contrast (obstacle lighter than background)
If L0 < Lf C < 0 Negative contrast (obstacle darker than background)
In the case of tunnels, two types of contrast must be distinguished: the so- called intrinsic or physic Cint measured
next to the obstacle and the retina contrast CR measured from the vehicle drivers eye.
In Fig. 1, it may be checked that intrinsic contrast Cint is measured next to the obstacle in (1), while retina contrast
CR is evaluated from the observers eye in (4). Between both contrasts, a set of veiling luminances called atmospheric
Latm, of windshield Lpb and foveal or Frys Lv, respectively, which give rise to veiling glare which discomforts vision in
the drivers eyes.
The layers of air in the atmosphere containing particles illuminated by sunlight give rise to atmospheric luminance
Latm due to the refraction of light in such air layers of the atmosphere. This type of luminance depends on
atmospheric conditions and the position of the sun.
Luminance of the windshield Lpb is produced as a result of the existence of windshields in vehicles, which provokes
difraction or reflection effects depending on the position of the sun in the visual field and the state, curvature and
inclination of the windshield itself.
Foveal veiling luminance or Frys Lv is caused by the discomfort in vision provoked by a luminance not belonging to
the visual task to be perfomed. This also difficulties the perception of images of such a visual task, due to the
luminous veil produced in the drivers eye as a result of the difraction of light in the aqueous humor of the eye globe.
Atmospheric windshield and foveal or Frys veiling luminances produced between the obstacle and the driver, as
shown in Fig. 1, reduce the intrinsic contrast Cin of the obstacle (CR < Cint) without changing the sign of the contrast,
decreasing visibility of obstacles at the entrance of tunnels.
Such a reduction in the intrinsic contrast may cause that visibility of obstacles at the entrance of tunnels is not
secured, above all in the case of strong veiling luminances, which may oblige to duplicate luminance values to be
reached in the tunnel threshold zone by means of artificial lighting. The aim is to soften reduction of the mentioned
contrast. Consequently, a decrease of the visibility of obstacles on the part of the driver may take place. Thus, the
effect produced by veiling luminances is taken into account when establishing lighting levels at the entrance of
tunnels.
Parasite or veiling luminances which characterise the effects of the surroundings of the tunnel, the windshield and
the atmosphere and bother the drivers vision are variable according to the region and zone where the tunnel is
located. They also depend on its orientation, season, climate, hour of the day, etc.
2 Atmosphere
3 Windshield
where:
DS = Security distance (m.).
V0 = Design speed (Km/h.).
RT = Perception- reaction time (s).
f1(v) = Friction coefficient (longitudinal) dependent on v.
g = Gravity acceleration (9.81 m/s2).
h = Slope or gradient inclination of the road (%).
Applying the formula, the following examples of stopping distance DS on flat roads for retardations from 3.5 to 5
m/s2 are obtained:
Chart 1
When a vehicle is close to a tunnel, the induction and adaptation effects and the influence of veiling luminances are
intimately related to the distance at which the driver of the vehicle is at the entrance of such a tunnel, in the so-called
access zone with an approximate length equal to the security distance (DS, Fig. 4).
The higher the speed of a vehicle, the higher the security distance (DS). This is the reason why some considerations
must be taken into account:
- Perception of an obstacle is proportional to the inverse of the square of the security distance (DS-2), supposing
contrast is constant.
- Atmospheric veiling luminance Latm is proportional to the security distance (DS). Atmospheric transmission is
Tatm = 10-kDS.
- Visual adaptation speed is related to the vehicle approximation speed.
For a driver in the access zone, the higher the speed of the vehicle, the longer the distance from the entrance of the
tunnel towards the interior in which the driver has to see inside the tunnel. This presupposes greater length of the
threshold zone to be illuminated.
Likewise, the greater the distances, an obstacle located in the interior of the tunnel requires a smaller angle in the
drivers eye and, thus, it is less visible. Besides, the air layer between the driver located in the access zone and the
entrance of the tunnel is greater, which means greater atmospheric luminance Latm, reduction of intrinsic contrast Cint
and, consequently, decrease of visibility of obstacles. All this requires higher lighting levels in the threshold zone of
the tunnel.
In short, higher speeds require longer security distances (DS), which means greater length of the threshold zone of
the tunnel to be provided with lighting, as well as higher lighting levels in such a zone. Therefore, due to both reasons,
higher costs come along.
L
P = qc =
Ev....
where:
L = Roadway luminance in cd/m2.
Ev = Obstacle vertical illuminance in lux at the roadway level in the direction of traffic. That is to say, average
illuminance on a vertical surface perpendicular to the axis of the tunnel, and oriented towards the entrance.
Figure 2
The measuring of tunnel lighting, by means of a symmetrical system in the entrance zone leads to lighting levels
difficult to achieve for approximation speed of vehicles higher than 90 Km/h with weak or average veiling luminances
in the access zone, or higher than 70 Km/h with strong veiling luminances. When levels higher than 200 cd/m2 are
to be achieved, very complicated to reach in practice with the symmetrical system, it is necessary to find other
alternatives in such situations, either limitation of the speed of vehicles or installation of a lighting system at
counterflux in the entrance zone.
Figure 3
The counterflux lighting system is only used in the tunnel entrance zones. It is recommended in this zone where the
limitation of the vehicle speed is high, that is to say, from approximately 90 Km/h, given economic advantages found
in these situations. Luminaires are to be installed over traffic lanes and are normally equipped with high pressure
sodium lamps. It must be stressed that counterflux lighting is never installed in the interior zone of tunnels.
Due to the own structure of the system, its installation must be avoided in two- way tunnels (bidirectional), because
in this case, what is counterflux for one determined direction of traffic would be favourable for the opposite one, thus,
modifying drivers visual conditions.
The counterflux lighting system usually creates more contrast between the obstacle and the background, but it can
also produce a certain increase in the black hole effect, reducing drivers visual comfort. Likewise, such a counterflux
system may not be appropriate for the entrance of tunnels with high daytime light, and it is even less effective when
traffic intensities are very high or a high percentage of slow moving vehicles is foreseen.
In this lighting system which provides good visibility of obstacles, glare must be limited controlling luminous intensity
emited by luminaires. The use of specular pavement (high specular factor S1) and light is advisable, from a
photometric point of view. That is to say, with a high average luminance coefficient Q0, pavement class R3, R4 or C2,
according to recommendations of the C.I.E., with a high degree of brightness or luminosity (Q0 is the highest
possible). Besides, a high luminance must be limited in tunnel walls, at least, up to a 1 m. level, with the aim of
reducing obstacle vertical illuminance (Ev).
Symmetrical 0.2
Counterflux 0.6
Note: Lighting systems whose values for contrast development coefficient is between 0.2 and
0.6 have not been taken into account.
Chart 2
The value of the contrast development coefficient qc = L/Ev is slightly linked to the intrinsic characteristics of the
tunnel lighting system, to the installation of luminaires and the reflective characteristics of the pavement, as well as
to the photometric contribution of the tunnel walls.
These values of Chart 2 characterize the lighting system of tunnels only in night- time measures, that is to say, without
influence of day- time light, which alters values of the contrast development coefficient qc.
In measurements during the day in the entrance zone of tunnels and for the symmetrical lighting system, qc reaches
figures higher than 0.2, whereas for the counterflux system, qc values are lower than 0.6. Especially, due to this
variation in the contrast development coefficient qc = L/Ev during a day- time measurement respect to a night- time
measurement, contrast changes sign going from negative to positive contrasts and viceversa. This gives rise to
situations in which obstacles are not perceived.
Chart 3
Chart 4
Chart 5
Visual guidance provided by tunnel lighting allows an increase in the visibility of the roadway and vertical
and horizontal marking, especially the latter, installing, in turn, marking (rows of luminaires, post
mounted delineators, etc.) both on the roadway and on the tunnel walls in order to improve visual
guidance.
In this sense, when establishing ponderation factors depending on visual guidance (Chart 5), additional
installation of retroreflecting dispositives on the walls and surface of the roadway, especially for tunnels
corresponding to 5, 6 and 7 lighting classes (Chart 7), will be taken into account.
Chart 6
0-3 1
4-5 2
6-7 3
8-9 4
10-11 5
12-13 6
14-15 7
Chart 7
levels of the different zones. Nomenclature and a corresponding definition of such lighting engineering levels is established below:
L20 = Luminance in access zone.
Lth = Luminance in the threshold zone.
Ltr = Luminance in the transition zone.
Ln = Luminance in the interior zone.
Lex = Luminance in the exit zone.
Tunnel length
Entrance
Exit
L20
Lth
Lex
Luminance
Ltr
Lin
DS DS DS
Entrance zone DS= Security distance
Direction of traffic
Figure 4
CHART A
AVERAGE LUMINANCE OF THE ACCESS ZONE L20 (Kcd/m2)
SKY PERCENTAGE (%) IN CONICAL VISUAL FIELDS AT 20
35% 25% 10% 0%
ROAD TYPES
REGULAR SNOW REGULAR SNOW REGULAR SNOW REGULAR SNOW
B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A
Brightness situation in the visual field
(1) (1) (1) (1) (2) (3) (2) (3)
Security distance 60 m (4) (4) 4 5 4 5 2.5 3.5 3 3.5 1.5 3 1.5 4
Security distance 100 to 160 m 4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 3 4.5 3 5 2.5 5 2.5 5
Being:
1) Effect fundamentally depends on tunnel orientation:
B: Low; In the north hemisphere: southern entrance.
A: High; In the north hemisphere: northern entrance.
For eastern and western entrances intermediate values between low and high must be chosen.
2) Effect fundamentally depends on brightness of surroundings:
B: Low; Low reflectances of surroundings.
A: High; High reflectances of surroundings.
3) Effect fundamentally depends on tunnel orientation:
B: Low; In the north hemisphere: northern entrance.
A: High; In the north hemisphere: southern entrance.
For eastern and western entrances intermediate values between low and high must be chosen.
4) For a stopping distance of 60 m, in practice, there are no sky percentages of 35$.
Notes: northern entrance means the entrance for drivers circulating southwards. southern entrance refers to the entrance for drivers
circulating northwards.
Chart 8
Exact method
Luminance of the access zone L20 is the average luminance contained in a conical field of vision represented by an angle of
20%, with its vertex in the position of the drivers eye. It is located at a distance before the tunnel equal to the stopping
distance, and the cone oriented towards the tunnel portal on a point situated at a height of 1/4 of the tunnel mouth.
Determining luminance for the access zone L20 is extremely relevant since it predetermines the level to be obtained by means
of lighting in the threshold zone. Such luminance of the access zone depends on the atmospheric conditions of the place
where the tunnel is located. The calculation of the luminance of the access zone L20 is obtained from a sketch of the
surroundings of the tunnel zone. The formula below is used:
L20 = a * Lc + b * LR + c * LE + d * Lth
where:
a = % of the sky.
Lc = Sky luminance.
b = % of the road.
LR = Road luminance.
c = % of the surroundings.
LE = Surrounding luminance.
d = % tunnel entrance.
Lth = Threshold zone luminance.
with: a+b+c+d=1
The unknown factor to be determined in the formula is the value of the luminance in the threshold zone (Lth). When stopping
distances higher than 100 m. are faced, the mouth entrance percentage of tunnels is low (< at 10%) and since Lth also has
a low value with respect to other luminance values, the contribution of Lth may be disregarded.
For a stopping distance of 60 m., the norm establishes that:
L20 = (a * Lc + b * LR + c * LE) / (1 / K)
Because K never exceeds 0.1, the result is:
L20 = a * Lc + b * LR + c * LE
being a + b + c < 1.
If the data to know exactly the value for a, b, c and d are not available, the ones defined in the following charts will be used.
If surrounding values are not available, the following are used:
In this chart, the value for L is known. In order to define the percentage of the sky which contributes to the value L20 in the
installation under study, Fig. 5 is used.
Security distance 160 m. Sky 35% Security distance 100 m. Sky 27%
Figure 5
Chart 10
0.5 DS
L% Lth
100
80 Ltr = Lth(1.9 + t)-1-428
60 Ltr = Lth(1.9 + t)-1-428
40 with Lth = 100% and t = time in seconds
20
10
8
6
4
t. sec.
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Threshold zone Transition zone
80 Km./h
100 m. 200 m. 300 m. 400 m.
100 Km./h
100 m. 200 m. 300 m. 400 m. 500 m.
120 Km./h
100 m. 200 m. 300 m. 400 m. 500 m. 600 m.
Figure 6
According to Fig. 6, the length of the transition zone is the distance a vehicle must travel to go from the level of
luminance at the end of the threshold zone, up to the luminance value at the beginning of the interior zone, visual
adaptation supposed. Consequently, for each speed of the vehicle, the allowed reduction of luminance in the
transition zone Ltr, depends on the distance travelled in the mentioned zone.
Average luminance in service of the roadway with maintenance of the installation of the transition zone Ltr decreases
gradually, from the luminance of the threshold zone down to the luminance of the interior zone. In any position in
the transition zone, luminance of the roadway surface must be equal or exceed luminance established in Fig. 6.
The curve of Fig. 6 is the result of numerous experimental tests depending on eye adaptation, from high luminance
levels to very low values which have given rise to a mathematical approximation corresponding to the following
formula:
established in Chart 11 depending on the security distance (DS) and the lighting class defined in Chart 7.
Up to a height of 2 m., the walls of the tunnel must have an average luminance similar to the roadway average luminance in
service with maintenance of the installation Lin.
The luminance level in the interior zone of the tunnel must allow to reach the following objectives:
- Visibility of any eventual obstacle on the roadway at a distance, at least, equal to the security distance, bearing in
mind opacity of the atmosphere of the tunnel due to vehicle toxic fumes.
- Guidance of vehicles without ambiguities.
- Good quality of the luminous environment, whose psychological effect above all is important in very long tunnels.
It must be stated that levels of the interior zone are achieved in all the length of the tunnel. Also, in the so- called lighting
reinforcement zones (entrance zone and, exit ones, too), where this lighting is called basic lighting.
Chart 11
Chart 12
LV
TI = 65 in % for 0.05 [ Lm [ 5 cd/m2
(Lm) 0.8
LV
TI = 95 in % for Lm > 5 cd/m2
(Lm) 1.05
where:
TI = Threshold increase corresponding to disturbing glare.
Lv = Total veiling luminance in cd/m2.
Lm = Average luminance on the roadway in cd/m2.
The threshold increase (TI) must be lower than 15% for threshold, transition and interior zones during the day, and for all
zones during the night. For the exit zone during the day, there is no limit in the disturbing glare.
Influence of the three first points depends on the speed of the vehicle and the separation between luminaires; the last point
depends on the photometric characteristics, (luminous intensity distribution) and interdistance between luminaires, too.
When the distance between the extremes of adjacent luminaires is lower than the length of a single luminaire, the third point
related to speed of change from light to dark is minimized, the flickering or Flickers effect perceived becomes insignificant,
due to the fact that the lighting installation may be similar to a continuous line.
In order to calculate the flickering frequency or Flicker in a zone of the tunnel, speed of traffic is divided in metres/ second by
the separation between luminaires in metres.
Example:
v = 60 Km/h. = 16.6 m/s.
Luminaire separation = 4 m.
Flickering frequency or Flicker = 16.6 / 4 4.2 Hz.
Flickering frequencies or Flicker (luminance variation) ranging between 2.5 Hz. and 15 Hz. at driving speed for more than 20
seconds must be avoided, given the fact that the flickering effect may be disregarded for frequencies under 2.5 Hz. and above
15 Hz.
Chart 13
- Tunnel length.
- Existence of curves in the interior.
- Presence of slopes or ramps in the tunnel.
Short tunnels and underpasses shorter than 25 metres in length, normally do not require installation of day- time lighting. When the
short tunnel length is slightly higher than 25 metres, the dark background formed by the walls and ceiling of the tunnel, as well as by
the roadway itself, may hamper the vision of vehicles and, in turn, of pedestrians crossing it (see Fig. 7), difficulting perception. In this
case day- time lighting must be installed in the tunnel or underpass.
Chart 16
For each type of short tunnel in guiding diagrams and in their left part, the following four questions are posed: length, exit
visibility, speed and traffic density.
- Length (m): Four sorts of length are established for each guiding diagram for short tunnels or underpasses,
expressed in metres.
- Visible exit?: In each guiding diagram it is considered, whether the exit of the tunnel or underpass is visible or not
when the driver of the vehicle approaches the tunnel and finds himself, at least, at a distance equal to that of
security distance (DS) before the tunnel entrance.
- Speed [80 Km/h: In guiding diagrams 2 and 3, corresponding to tunnels of the B and C type, the speed of the
tunnel or underpass design is thought to be higher or lower than 80 Km/h. The design speed is very important in
relation to security distance (DS), as well as regarding risk of accidents and their severity.
- Traffic density: In guiding diagrams 2 and 3, it is born in mind and it may be classified as light and dense.
In diagram 2 corresponding to short tunnels of the B type (two- way intercity), a dense amount of traffic is valued when daily
average intensity of vehicles is higher than 5 000 (IMD > 5 000).
In diagram 3, which makes reference to short tunnels of the C type (one- way intercity of motorways and dual carriageways),
a dense amount of traffic is estimated when daily average intensity of vehicles in higher than 10 000 (IMD > 10 000).
Four diagrams are established constituting a guide of an orientative nature. They also provide help to decide whether the short
tunnel or underpass needs day- time lighting or not. If necessary, the type of lighting to be adopted is also detailed.
For example, the case of a short tunnel of 120 metres in length, located on an intercity road with slow moving traffic (v < 60
Km/h.) and a daily average intensity of IMD < 3 000. It is necessary to decide whether day- time lighting must be provided
and, in case it is required, to determine the type of lighting to be installed. The working system is the one described below:
Following guiding diagram n. 4, the tunnel is located within the corresponding interval of lengths. That is to say, between 101
and 150 metres.
The second question, visible exit?, is answered. For an affirmative answer, day- time lighting is not required according to
diagram 4. For a negative answer, due to the existence of curves or slopes in the interior of the tunnel, limited day- time lighting
is installed.
Supposing the same short tunnel but with a length of 170 metres, according to diagram 4, the only two alternatives are, in
case the tunnel exit is not visible, the installation of limited day- time or complete day- time lighting respectively.
Diagrams constitute a practical guide that, for each concrete situation, will be adapted to the type of road bearing in mind:
- The real structure of the tunnel, its access and exit roads.
- Traffic density and composition, either motorized or mixed, including slow and fast moving vehicles, bicyclists,
pedestrians, etc.
Guiding diagrams may be considered to be orientative for the design, working and maintenance of short tunnels and
underpasses lighting. The following technical and economic considerations will be taken into account:
- Performance of a detailed analysis of the risk of accidents and security in relation to lighting (quality and quantity).
- Study of convenient marking at the entrance of the tunnel, especially regarding the limit speed, turn- on of vehicle
headlights, etc.
- Performance a meticulous exam of installation costs and annual exploitation of lighting, including working,
maintenance and repairing costs in relation to security and comfort provided by such an installation (costs/ benefits
binomial).
13.5. Maintenance
The maintenance factor used in lighting studies normally covers luminaire depreciation (dirtiness) and lamp (loss of luminous flux).
In the case of tunnels which are installations with a high degree of atmospheric pollution, it is very important to have a maintenance
program (cleaning of walls and luminaires) defining the cleaning cycles which will allow to comply with the factor established in the
study.
The norm recommends to use a maintenance factor of 0.7 to define the value of the average level of the luminance of the roadway
and 0.5 for the walls.
Relamping will be performed when the average level is under the one established or the lack of uniformity is unacceptable.
SHORT TUNNELS
TYPES OF TYPE A TYPE B TYPE C TYPE D
TUNNELS DIAGRAM-1 DIAGRAM-2 DIAGRAM-3 DIAGRAM-4
Length < 25 < 80 < 100 < 100
25 to 75 80 to 120 100 to 150 100 to 150
75 to 125 120 to 150 150 to 200 150 to 200
> 125 > 150 > 200 > 200
Visible exit? YES YES YES YES
NO NO NO NO
Speed YES YES
< 80 km/h NO NO
Traffic density LIGHT LIGHT
DENSE DENSE
* In type B tunnels, traffic density is high when IMD > 5 000.
** In type C tunnels, traffic density is high when IMD > 10 000.
Chart 18
If lighting is foreseen on the road, this will be installed in such a way that an adequate penetration of lighting inside the short tunnel
or underpass is guaranteed.
The content of guiding diagrams for short tunnels and underpasses detailed in section 13.3. are summarized in the previous chart.
A high reflectance of walls is important to increase brightness of the background against which objects may be seen. In short tunnels,
where the exit is not visible from the security distance (DS) in front of the tunnel entrance, reflectance of walls is particularly important.
The reason is that reflectance of high walls will secure that a great amount of day- time lighting, entering through the exit mouth, is
reflected towards drivers. Walls with a diffused reflectance in service higher than 40% are known as HIGH, and walls with less than
40% of reflectance, are called LOW (the depreciation or maintenance factor must be considered).
In any tunnel, walls must have a white covering of up to 2 m. in height, with a flat surface and a high specular reflectance in service
or maintained. The low part down to 0.50 m. and lateral sidewalks may be blackened or painted black, basically when the roadway
covering is light or white, due to vehicle driving needs with a good maintained contrast, in order to improve total perception. When
reflectance of the walls is classified as LOW, length signalled in each of the four guiding diagrams must be reduced in a 20%.
The degree of day- time light entering the exit is also important. Thus, a tunnel with a big transverse section, for example, of three lanes
or wider, and a flat exit or with a downward slope and facing south, will admit a maximum of day- time light and will contribute
considerably to visibility in the tunnel. Moreover, day- time light may be poor when the tunnel has two or fewer lanes, in case the exit
is located in a cut or is surrounded by high buildings. Also when the road has an upward slope from the exit or in case the exit faces
north. The importance of day-time light near the exit decreases with the length of the tunnel. When day- time light is GOOD, the length
indicated for each of the four guiding diagrams must be increased up to a 20%.
As far as tunnel geometry and access roads are concerned, lighting design of the tunnel must follow the most conservative route for
each guiding diagram. The same attitude must be considered when:
- The tunnel has a slope first and a ramp later (changes in vertical curvature).
- There are geometrical discontinuities or singularities.
In case the tunnel presents a bad total perception, lighting design must follow a conservative path for each of the four guiding diagrams.
A specific analysis is needed when transportation of dangerous cargo is frequent. In this case, lighting design in the tunnel must be
performed following the most conservative path for each of the guiding diagrams.
13.9.1.1. Visual guidance in the entrance zone for tunnels. Lighting class 1
In the entrance zone of tunnels with a lighting class 1 (Chart 7), in the first 75 m., at least five luminaires must be
installed whose luminous intensities towards the driver will be adjusted to what has been established in Chart 19. It
may be necessary to tilt luminaires, in order to achieve the luminous intensities specified in Chart 19.
CHART I
LUMINOUS INTENSITIES IN TUNNEL ENTRANCE ZONE
LIGHTING CLASS 1
ANGLE 80 < < 87.5 = 87.5
INTENSITY (cd) INTENSITY (cd)
TIME
MIN. MAX. MIN. MAX.
During the day 300 800 400
During the night 8 50 25
Chart 19
In order to secure an adequate visual guidance, the separation between luminaires will not be higher than 25 m. In
curved tunnels, at least four luminaires will be visible. Regarding separation between luminaires this could be
reduced.
13.9.1.2. Visual guidance in the interior zone for tunnels. Lighting class 1
In the interior zone of tunnels, lighting class 1 (Chart 19), the luminaires installed will have luminous intensities
towards the driver that will comply with what has been established in Chart 20.
CHART II
LUMINOUS INTENSITIES IN TUNNEL INTERIORS
LIGHTING CLASS 1
ANGLE 80 < < 87.5 = 87.5
INTENSITY (cd) INTENSITY (cd)
TIME
MIN. MAX. MIN. MAX.
Day and night 8 50 25
Chart 20
LIGHT POLLUTION
Visual task and pedestrians needs differ from drivers in many aspects. The speed of movement is lower, and the perception of objects
surrounding pedestrians is more important than seeing objects that are further away. Therefore, quality criteria of pedestrian lighting
cannot be equal to those of road traffic. In urban areas, perception of their immediate environment is more important for pedestrians,
in order to avoid any type of crime (thefts, vandalism, sexual harassment, terrorist acts, etc.).
The decision whether lighting for a public road in a certain area or place must be provided or not must be taken based on a detailed
study. Once the decision to service a lighting installation has been made, design criteria and lighting levels will be adjusted, avoiding
exceeding the criteria established in the following C.I.E. publications:
Nevertheless, lighting levels established in the publications above may be exceeded up to a 20%, except for cases correctly justified
in which it would be possible to exceed such percentage.
As far as those elements which constitute the installation, LIGHTING ENGINEERING calculations, measurements, maintenance, etc.
whatever is established in the following C.I.E. publications will be observed:
- Publication C.I.E. 30.2: 1982 Calculation and Measurement of Luminance and Illuminance in Road Lighting.
- Publication C.I.E. 31: 1976 Glare and Uniformity in Road Lighting Conditions.
- Publication C.I.E. 32/AB: 1977 Lighting in Situations Requiring Special Treatment (in Road Lighting).
- Publication C.I.E. 33: 1977 Depreciation of Installations and their Maintenance.
- Publication C.I.E. 34: 1977 Road Lighting Lantern and Installation Data.Photometrics, Classification and Performance.
- Publication C.I.E. 121: 1996 The Photometry and Goniophotometry of Luminaires
L0 Lf
C=
Lf
Being:
L0= Object luminance.
Lf= Background luminance.
Contrast C may be either positive or negative:
If L0 >Lf C > 0 positive contrast (the object is lighter than its background).
If L0 <Lf C < 0 negative contrast (the object is darker than its background).
Contrast C may acquire the following values:
Positive contrast (light object) 0<C<
Negative contrast (dark object) -1 < C < 0
Light pollution or night- time luminous glare in the sky produces a veil in the observation field which has its own luminance L v. At the
same time, this luminance is added to the luminance of the object and its background. Thus, the new contrast C is the following:
It is always verified that C < C, given that the dividend is the same and the divisor is always greater.
When veiling luminance Lv increases, the observed object may disappear from the field of vision, specially in the case of astronomic
observations when a star or celestial object with a very weak luminance L0 is under study.
National parks and areas with a special natural beauty will receive the same treatment as the "E 1" zone, as far as installed upper
hemisphere flux limitations go, as established in Chart 2. Distance regime shown in Chart 4 is not applied to the rest of the zones.
In Chart 2, upper hemisphere flux maximum limits or installed values FHSinst are established for each of the areas.
As a way of an example, Chart 3 contains the type of astronomic observations possible for each zone.
Nevertheless, in the case of lighting of highways and dual carriageways, important urban routes, by-passes, etc. it is recommended to
install luminaires with an Installed FHSinst 5% upper hemisphere flux.
In the case of pedestrian lighting, as well as artistic with lanterns, historic devices, etc., an FHSinst 25% is suggested
When the life of lighting installations is exhausted, or renovation is needed for any reason, it is recommended to install luminaires with
the upper hemisphere flux limitations shown above in this section.
It is advisable to have a replacement program of existent luminaires whose installed upper hemisphere flux is greater than 25%
(FHSinst/25%), installing luminaires which comply with the values recommended in this section.
For the correct use of Chart 4, the zone where the "point of reference" is located must be first selected. Afterwards, in Chart 4, the
minimum distance in Km. is obtained, where the following zone begins, and so on for the rest of adjacent areas.
Values recorded in Chart 4 have been deduced from practical experience, even when the number of cases under study has been
limited.
- to switch off advertising and decorative lighting from a certain hour onwards.
- to direct light downwards and not upwards whenever possible, especially lighting for edifices and monuments (Fig. 1).
NO YES YES
Figure 1
- If there is no possibility to direct lighting downwards and not upwards, use screens and paralumens to avoid dispersion of
light beam (Fig. 2).
NO YES YES
Figure 2
- To install lighting equipments which will reduce the dispersion of light on the horizontal plane of the luminaire, with
minimum values or even none over such plane (Figs. 3 and 4).
NO YES
Figure 3
YES
NO
Figure 4
- For glare to be minimum, direct light ray beams downwards keeping them under 70. If mounting height is increased, light
ray beams shoud be lowered. In places with low environmental light, glare may be very disturbing. Due to this reason,
positioning, aiming or orientation of luminaires may be carefully attended (Fig. 5).
YES O.K.
90
70 <70
NO
Figure 5
- When possible, it is recommended to install luminaires with an asymmetric reflector which will permit to maintain their
front closing parallel or almost parallel to the surface that needs to be illuminated (Fig. 6).
NO YES
Figure 6
- In order to avoid installing excess of light, recommendations which fix levels to light different tasks with tolerances permited
must be observed.
- In the case of small safety lighting installations and house lighting, there are two solutions:
- Passive detectors of infrared rays may be effectively used if correctly installed and lined. In general, a 150 W. halogene
lamp is more than enough. 300/500 W. lamps provide too much lighting, greater glare and darker and more emphasized
shadows.
- Permanent illuminations with low brightness during all night. are equally acceptable. In the case of a porch in a house, a
compact fluorescent lamp of 9 W. (600 lm.) is adequate for most cases.
- For motor traffic lighting, flux emitted above the horizontal plane must be reduced and close light must be restricted.
E1 0 2 1* 0 0 0 10
E2 5 5 1 50 0.5 5 10
E3 15 10 5 100 1.0 10 15
E4 25 25 10 100 2.5 25 15
BIBLIOGRAPHY
IES Lighting Guide: The Outdoor Environment.
Frdergemeinschaft Gutes Licht: Good Lighting for Schools and Educational Establishments.
Frdergemeinschaft Gutes Licht: Good Lighting for Safety on Roads, Paths and Squares.
Frdergemeinschaft Gutes Licht: Good Lighting for Offices and Office Buildings.
Equipos auxiliares para lmparas de descarga. Antonio Vela Snchez, Juan Jos Garrido Vzquez.
Sistema elctrico para lmparas de descarga. Antonio Vela Snchez, Juan Jos Garrido Vzquez.
Julio Arias Alfonso Ramos: Luminotecnia Prctica. Indalux Iluminacin Tcnica, S.L. (1990).
Jess Feij Muoz: Instalaciones de iluminacin en la arquitectura. Ed: Secretariado de publicaciones, Universidad de Valladolid.
Publication CIE n 19/2.1 (1981): An Analytic Model for Describing the Influence of Lighting Parameters upon Visual Performance.
Publication CIE n 19/2.2 (1981): An Analytic Model for Describing the Influence of Lighting Parameters upon Visual Performance.
Publication CIE n 20 (1972): Recommendations for the Integrated Irradiance and the Spectral Distribution of Simulated Solar
Radiation for Testing Purposes.
Publication CIE n 24 (1973): Photometry of Indoor Type Luminaires with Tubular Fluorescent Lamps.
Publication CIE n 30.2 (1982): Calculation and Measurement of Luminance and Illuminance in Road Lighting.
Publication CIE n 34 (1977): Road Lighting Lantern and Installation Data-photometrics, Classification and Performance.
Publication CIE n 38 (1977): Radiometric and Photometric Characteristics of Materials and their Measurement.
Publication CIE n 46 (1979): A Review of Publications on Properties and Reflection Values of Material Reflection Standards.
Publication CIE n 53 (1982): Methods of Characterizing the Performance of Radiometers and Photometers.
Publication CIE n 60 (1984): Vision and the Visual Display Unit Work Station.
Publication CIE n 67 (1986): Guide for the Photometric Specification and Measurement of Sports Lighting Installations.
Publication CIE n 100 (1992): Fundamentals of the Visual Task of Night Driving.
Publication CIE n 102 (1993): Recommended File Format for Electronic Transfer of Luminaire Photometric Data.
Publication CIE n 109 (1994): A Method of Predicting Corresponding Colours under Different Chromatic and Illuminance
Adaptations.
Publication CIE n 112 (1994): Glare Evaluation System for Use within Outdoor Sports and Area Lighting.
Publicacin CIE n 115 (1995): Recomendaciones para el alumbrado de calzadas de trfico motorizado y peatonal.
Publication CIE n 129 (1998): Guide for Lighting Exterior Work Areas.
Publication CIE n 130 (1998): Practical Methods for the Measurement of Reflectance and Transmittance.
rea de I+D, Departamento de proyectos de alumbrado. Indalux Iluminacin Tcnica, S.L. (Abril-96).
Norma UNE 20064 (1973): Lmparas tubulares de fluorescencia para iluminacin general.
Norma UNE-EN 60927 (1990): Aparatos arrancadores y cebadores (excepto los de efluvios).
Norma UNE-EN 60598-2-01 (1993): Luminarias. Parte 2. Requisitos particulares y ensayos. Seccin 1: Luminarias fijas de uso
general.
Norma UNE-EN 60598-2-02 (1993): Luminarias. Parte 2. Reglas particulares. Seccin 2: Luminarias empotradas.
Norma UNE-EN 60598-2-03 (1993): Luminarias. Parte 2. Reglas particulares. Seccin 3: Luminarias para alumbrado pblico.
Norma UNE-EN 60598-2-04 (1993): Luminarias. Parte 2. Reglas particulares. Seccin 4: Luminarias porttiles de uso general.
Norma UNE-EN 60598-2-05 (1993): Luminarias. Parte 2. Reglas particulares. Seccin 5: Proyectores.
Norma UNE-EN 60598-2-06 (1993): Luminarias. Parte 2. Reglas particulares. Seccin 6: Luminarias con transformador integrado
para lmparas de filamento de wolframio.
Norma UNE-EN 60598-2-08 (1993): Luminarias. Parte 2. Reglas particulares. Seccin 8: Luminarias porttiles.
Curso bsico de Ergonoma. Santiago Gonzlez Gallego. Colegio Oficial de Peritos e Ingenieros Tcnicos Industriales de Valladolid.
Documentos Tcnicos: La Iluminacin en los Lugares de Trabajo. Instituto Nacional de Seguridad e Higiene en el Trabajo. Ministerio
de Trabajo y Seguridad Social.
Gua Tcnica: Lugares de Trabajo (interpretacin y aplicacin del R.D. 486/1997 de 14 de Abril). Instituto Nacional de Seguridad e
Higiene en el Trabajo. Ministerio de Trabajo y Seguridad Social.