Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Sciences
May 1961 volume 50, number 5
Review Article -
HERE APPEARS to be a rapidly growing interest erties of the drug and its dosage forms and the
Tin the effects that the dosage form of a given biological effects observed following administra-
drug and the route of administration have on the tion of the drug in its various dosage forms.
biological effects elicited by the drug. This This broad definition would include drug la-
problem has been discussed at some length in the tentiation (2) and the preparation of different
literature but is largely unrecognized by many in salts of a given acidic or basic drug for the pur-
the biological and medical professions. Often it pose of altering the biological effects elicited by
is assumed that the nature and intensity of the the parent drug. Hence, biopharmaceutics en-
biological response obtained with a specific compasses the study of the relation between the
chemical compound in animals and man is due nature and intensity of the biological effects ob-
only to the inherent activity of the molecular served in animals and man and the following
structure of the compound. However, since factors: (a) simple chemical modification of drugs
dissolution, diffusion, absorption, transport, bind- such as formation of esters, salts, and complexes ;
ing, distribution, adsorption on and transfer (b) modification of the physical state, particle size
into cells, metabolism, and excretion are also and/or surface area of the drug available to the
intimately involved in drug action, the molecular absorption sites; (c) presence or absence of
structure, although vitally important, is only one adjuvants in the dosage form with the drug;
factor in drug action. The term dosage form (d) the type of dosage form in which the drug is
above includes the chemical nature (salt or administered ; and ( e ) the pharmaceutical process
simple derivative), physical state (amorphous or or processes by which the dosage form is manu-
crystalline, solvated or nonsolvated, polymorphic f actured.
form, etc.) and the particle size distribution and Since biological screens in animals and man are
surface area of the drug itself in the dosage form. often one point determinations with respect to
The term biopharmaceutics was recently time, the effect of the above factors are often not
coined (1). In its broad sense we may define bio- ascribed to biopharmaceutics but to the inherent
pharmaceutics as the study of the relationship activity of the molecular structure of the partic-
between some of the physical and chemical prop- ular compound under investigation. Usually one
must obtain the intensity of the biological re-
Received from the Pharmacy Research Section, Product
Research and Development The Upjohn Co.
sponse as a function of time to ascertain the effects
The author wishes to d a n k Drs. C. A. Schlagel, L. C. of the factors outlined truly.
Schroeter W. Morozowich and E. N. Hiestand who offered
suggestio& during the prdparation of this manuscript, and This review is circumscribed. I t deals only
Drs. E. R. Garrett and J . I . Northam who aided in prepara-
tion of the material shown in Fig. 2 and in the Appendix. with pharmaceutical and other factors which
359
360 Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
may have an effect on the rate and/or extent of ship then there is no relationship. Consideration of
absorption of drugs. The rate of absorption of a examples where the kinetics have been elucidated
( 5 ) , of the models of Teorell ( 3 ) ,and of those shown
drug, and/or the percentage of the administered in this manuscript indicate the relationships are
dose which is absorbed, can have a profound not simple. In particular, consideration of kinetics
effect on the intensity of t h e biological response indicate one would not usually expect the time after
which is measured in animals and man. This is a single dose a t which the peak blood level occurs to
coincide with the time of peak biological activity.
an area in which t h e industrial and practicing Often the peak biologicalactivity will be delayed from
pharmacist, the pharmacologist, and the physi- the peak blood level with respect to time.
cian should have a good grasp of the fundamentals. One should not only think in terms of biological
The reviewer believes that i t is in the area de- effects after single doses of drugs but also these
effects after multiple doses since there is usually
fined as biopharmaceutics above t h a t a large
accumulation of the drug in the body on most
part of the future of pharmacy lies. dosage regimens. The amount of drug in the body,
James B. Conant, one of the great teachers and Ab, a t time t is the product of the concentration, C,
scientists of our age, wrote: There must be con- of the drug in the fluids of distribution at time t and
stant critical appraisal of the progress of science the volume of distribution, V<I. Hence, by defini-
tion, Ab does not include drug in the gastrointestinal
and in particular of scientific concepts and op- tract, unchanged drug in the urine, or metabolized
eration. The reviewer was requested t o write drug. After repetitive dosing, Ab depends upon the
a critical review of the subject matter and he initial and maintenance doses, the rate of absorption
has attempted to do so. Perhaps some readers the k b of the drug, the dosage interval, At, and the
number of doses, n, which have been administered.
will disagree with the discussion and treatment in
As n becomes very large, Ab becomes essentially in-
various sections. This is good. The purposes of dependent of n (4,6). The amount of drug a t any
the review are: (a) t o outline some of the funda- particular site, where it acts, is related to A b , a t any
mentals of the absorption of drugs; ( b ) t o indicate time t , by a number of kinetic constants and time.
whv absorption is often a problem i n the ad- The usual nature of the biological activity ( B A ) -
amount of drug in the body ( A b )plot is shown in Fig.
ministration of drugs by many routes; ( c ) t o at-
1; this is a modification of one of the figures in the
tempt t o review some of the more recent and older paper of Van Gemert and Duyff (7). The actual
literature concerning absorption of drugs; ( d ) shape of the S-curve relating B A and Ab will be differ-
to try t o stimulate scientists to do research in ent for different therapeutic agents. For example,
if the distance between ( A b ) B A = 0 and ( A b ) B A = 1
this most important area of pharmaceutical and
approaches zero then the agent is said to have an
medical research. all-or-none effect (7).
The usual response-dose plot is also S-shaped like
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES the one in Fig. 1. This would be expected since
Blood and Tissue Levels-Biological Activity such plots result from measuring response (or bio-
Relationships.-A simplified scheme for drug dis- logical activity) after single doses of diffcrcnt magni-
tribution was given by Teorell (3) as follows: tude, and under these circumstances
remote with respect t o the time of administration, constant (in hr.-l) for metabolic conversion of the
but has been adequately explained on a kinetic basis, drug.
is that of digitoxin. The work of Okita, et al. (18), From the above we may also write
makes excellent reading. By use of biosynthetically-
labeled digitoxin, administered intravenously t o A + B = Ir,(ki + k2) = Vi.kb (Eq. 4)
patients with congestive heart failure, they showed where k b is the first-order rate constant for loss of
that digitoxin has a very long residence time in the drug from the blood. If there is no metabolic con-
body. After autopsy of some patients they showed version of the drug then the third term of Eq. 3
that only about 2 mcg. of digitoxin per 100 Gm. of reduces to V l .kg. C. If there is metabolic conversion
ventrical tissue from the heart could be found and of the drug, the constant B cannot be evaluated from
that this represented less than 1%of the administered the unchanged drug recovered in the urine because of
dose. Swintosky (19) reported the half-life of uncertainty about the complete absorption of the
digitoxin, calculated from twenty-day urinary ex- drug, Independent experiments where the drug is
cretion data to be 5.3 days, but, unfortunately, did administered intravenously, however, allow com-
not relate it to the work of Okita, et al. Okita also putation of the constant B(5).
found that the myocardium has no special affinity The second method of calculating instantaneous
for digitoxin in comparison with other organs and rates of absorption is that used by Nelson (21) and
that the amount there a t any time after administra- others. This method involves application of equa-
tion is explicable on the basis of the kinetics and tion (5):
distribution. Another interesting aspect of this
work was proof that biliary excretion of unchanged
digitoxin is followed by reabsorption in the small
R = 1 (i
.f kb
;i-)
. d2Ae + dAe (Eq. 5 )
intestine. Hence, the drug keeps cycling back and
where R = the instantaneous rate of absorption a t
forth between the vascular system and the intestine.
time t i n mg./hr,f= the fraction of the drug absorbed
Kinetics of Absorption.-The rate of absorption
and the extent of absorption (i. e., the per cent of the which is excreted unchanged in the urine; k b has
the significance indicated above; d2Ae/dt2= the
dose absorbed) are very important factors in deter-
second derivative of a plot of cumulative amount
mining the magnitude of the blood and tissue levels
(mg.) of unchanged drug excreted in the urine
with respect t o time after administration and, hence,
against time in hours; dAe/dt = the first derivative
in determining the intensity of biological activity.
of the same plot.
Nelson (20) and Dominguez ( 5 ) have published
The third method, that of Domingnez ( 5 ) ,involves
excellent reviews on the kinetics of absorption, dis-
the assumption that the blood concentration curve,
tribution, and excretion. This review will only
contain sufficient material on this subject t o make Cversus t , can be fitted with a threc-term exponential
equation of the type
other parts of the review more intelligible.
Except for an intravenous injection in which the C = aexp.-at-cexp.-rt+dexp.-St (Eq.6)
rate of injection is experimentally controlled, in all
other administrations a drug enters the blood stream Evaluation of the constants as he indicates allows
a t an unknown rate. Under certain circumstances plotting of the rate of absorption (mg./hr.) as a
this rate can be determined. Dominguez (5), function of time and, hence, also of cumulative
Nelson ( Z l ) , Swintosky ( 2 2 ) ,and others have shown amount absorbed as a function of time. Equation 6
that many substances administered orally exhibit assumes that the rate of absorption, R,involves the
a steady state of diffusion during absorption, first- two exponential terms as follows
order metabolic conversion, and/or first-order
urinary excretion of unchanged drug and metab-
R = P(exp.-rt - exp.-St) (Eq. 7)
olite(s). If these fundamental premises are ful- where
filled by a given drug then one can calculate the in-
stantaneous rate of absorption at different times R = RC(r - 01) = Ad(./- - (1:)
methods. The first method, that of Dominguez ( 5 ) , Now Teorell ( 3 ) and others, including Kriiger-
requires a knowledge of the volume of distribution of Thiemer (4).assumed that the rate of absorption
the drug. The method is based on application of could be represented by a single exponential func-
Eq. 3: tion leading to an equation of the type
where R = the instantaneous rate of absorption at where k is the first-order rate constant for the absorp-
time t in mg./hour; Vl=the reduced volume of dis- tion process, Cois the amount absorbed divided by the
tribution and V l = A / k 2 where V1 is in ml. and k2 in volume of distribution, and the other symbols have
hr.-l, dC/dt=the instantaneous slope of the blood the significance indicated above. I n his article,
level curve a t time t; C= the plasma concentration Kriiger-Thiemer (4)stated that k may be gained
in mg./ml.; A =the renal clearance with dimensions from Eq. 8 by series evolution for exp.-(k - b ) t ,
ml./hr. A is the slope of the straight line when rate whereby three approximations may be calculated.
of excretion of unchanged drug in the urine (mg./hr.) He gave the first and second of these approximations.
is plotted against plasma concentration, C, in me./- The difficulty with application of this method, as
ml. B = t h e slope of the straight line when rate Dominguez ( 5 ) pointed out, is that Eq. 8 leads to
of metabolic conversion of the drug (mg./hr.) is the conclusion that the rate of absorption jumps in-
plotted against C in mg./ml. The dimensions are stantaneously from zero to its largest value either
ml./hr. B = V1.kl where kl is the first-order rate a t the time of administration or after some lag
Vol. 50, No. 5, May 1961 363
time. I n reality, for cases which have been in- in absorption rate, ka, and other factors would
vestigated the plasma level-time plot obtained fol- have on plots of amount of drug in the depot versus
lowing oral administration had four points of in- time, amount of drug in the body versus time, and
flection. The first inflection point occurs shortly cumulative amount excreted versus time. The
after administration, usually within the first one-half models shown in Figure 2 illustrate this. The models
to one hour. The second point of inflection corre- are similar, but different in some aspects, t o those
sponds t o the time when the rate of absorption is a of Teorell (3), De Jongh and Wijnans (24), Van
maximum. The third point corresponds t o the peak Gemert and Duyff ( 7 ) , Kriiger-Thiemer (4), and
plasma level at which time the instantaneous rate of Garrett, et al. (see footnote).
absorption is exactly equal t o the instantaneous rate Hypothetical Models of the Kinetics of Absorp-
of excretion. After the maximum plasma level there tion and Excretion Following Administration of
is a fourth point of inflection corresponding to the Slowly Releasing Dosage Forms.-The models (Fig.
time absorption has ceased and the plasma level-time 2 and Table I)2were designed to show the relative
plot becomes a simple exponential function of time, effects of stomach emptying and slow release of drug,
namely C= Co.exp.--kbt. Hence, application of Eq. by either a zero-order or first-order process, on a re-
8 t o obtain the rate of absorption may lead t o large sulting hypQthetica1 blood level, if the drug is re-
errors. However, the equation is very useful as a moved from the blood by a first-order process. In
simple model torepresent an approximate blood level- all cases, the rate constant, k8, for removal of drug
time plot. A factor which was discussed by Nelson from the blood (and other fluids of distribu-
(20) is the effect of stomach emptying rate on the tion) is taken as 0.1155 hr.-l, which corresponds
nature of the absorption curve. Equations 7 and 8 t o a half-life of six hours; this is the average
really describe the amount of substance in compart- value for salicylic acid in human subjects.
ment Cas a function of time for two consecutive first- In all cases, curve C would correspond to the blood
--
order reactions. namely level, or actually, the fraction of the total drug
in the fluids of distribution. Curve D corresponds
s Y to the fraction of the total drug which has
A B C (Eq.9) been excreted and/or metabolized t o time t
(or k ) (or kb) If the drug was not metabolized, but excreted
It is conceivable that the A-+E reaction may be unchanged in the urine, then curve D, in each case,
stomach emptying which has been shown t o obey would correspond t o the cumulative amount of the
first-order kinetics in many cases (see Gastrointes- drug in the urine to time t. Curves A and B corre-
tinal Physiology section). spond to the amounts of drug in compartments A and
There are many problems connected with the B , respectively. For example, in model I , curve B
application of these methods. The first method corresponds to the amount of slowly available drug
necessitates determination of the volume of dis- still present in the dosage form at any time t . The
tribution of the drug which in many cases is subject constant. kl, for release of drug in quickly available
t o considerable error. The second method requires form in model I , and for stomach emptying in
no knowledge of the volume of distribution, but there models I1 and 111, was chosen as follows: when k l =
is some doubt in the reviewers mind that the deriva- 1.0 hr.-l it requires 2.772 hr. (four half-lives) to re-
tives, d A , / d t and d 2 A e / d t 2 , can be obtained with con- lease or empty 93.75y0 of the original material.
siderable accuracy unless a large number of points Since X A = a~t t = O in both models I1 and 111, a
are available for the excretion curve in the region ko of 0.2 hr.-l in model I1 corresponds approximately
where the derivatives are determined. Particularly to a k p of 0.5 hr.-l in model I11 on the basis that after
where the drug has a long half-life (> ca. six hours) about five hours essentially all the B+C process, if
and the dosage form being studied allows slow ab- considered alone, would be complete; similarly a
sorption of the drug, one may interpret a certain ko of 0.05 hr.-in model I1 corresponds approximately
segment of a plot of cumulative amount of drug ex- to a kp of 0.1 hr.-l in model I11 on the basis that after
creted against time as a straight line when in reality about twenty hours essentially all the B+C process,
the line is curved and has an inflection point in this if considered alone, would be complete.
region. The line may be only apparently linear be- Careful study of the plots in Fig. 2 (see Appendix
cause the number of points are too small upon which also) shows the effect of changing one of the rate
t o make a sound statistical decision. Some of the constants while the other two are held constant
model diagrams, Figure 2, illustrate this point well. One can also visualize why tissue levels of drug, or
Perhaps the difference is only of academic interest in level of drug a t the site of action, would not usually
one sense but in another sense it may be quite correspond with the blood level in relation t o time
important. For example, one could conclude, on since the amount of drug in such tissues would in-
insufficient evidence, that a given dosage form was volve one or more compartments and rate constants
releasing the drug at a constant, zero order rate, leading off from the C compartment. Hence, in
when in reality it may be releasing the drug at a the usual case, one would not expect peak biological
slow first order rate. This could be true, for ex- action t o correspond with peak blood level in rela-
ample, in the interpretation of the kinetics of excre-
tion of amphetamine from product F in the paper 1 The plots shown in Fig. 2 were kindly provided by Dr. E.
of Campbell et al. (23). The third method involves R. Garrett and C. D. Alway of the Department of Physical
assignment of two of the constants, namely a n d s . and Analytical Chemistry of T h e Upjohn C o . The analol:
computer used was described by Garrett ef al. [ J . Pkarm.
to the absorption process. This method has been Exgtl. Tkerap., 130, 106(1960)]. The pGogramming of the
shown by Dominguez ( 5 ) t o be applicable to the analog computer for the plots shown in Fig. 2 will be de-
scribed in a future article entitled: Pharmaceutical Applica-
absorption of creatinine in the dog and man. Such tion of the Analog Computer I.
equations as Equation 6 are useful to prepare 1 The differential equations and their solutions, shown in
Table I, were kindly provided by Dr. J. I. Northam of the
models t o illustrate the relative effects of change Statistical Section of The Upjohn Co.
364 Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
tion t o time. The plots help one to visualize the erlydesigned dosage formof this type producesafter a
differences one obtains when a drug is given in a single dose an essentially constant Ab, which is above
quickly available form and in a prolonged action or that level needed for suitable therapeutic activity
slowly releasing form. This can be seen, for ex- but below the peak level obtained with the same
ample, by comparing curves A and B in model I. dose of drug in a quickly available dosage form, for a
The Relationships Between Dosage Forms, period of time which is some multiple of the time
Optimal Dosage Schedules, and the Kinetics of that the quickly available dosage form would main-
Absorption.-Most oral dosage forms may be tain a level of drug above the level needed for
broadly divided into three types based upon the therapeutic activity. The principle, upon which
rapidity with which the drug is absorbed after ad- most dosage forms of the latter type is based, is
minstration. The first type would be those which, slowing of the absorption rate of the drug by slowing
when administered, allow extremely rapid absorption the rate a t which the drug is released to the absorp-
of their contained drug. Many solutions, some sus- tion sites in the gastrointestinal tract. Properly
pensions containing the drug in very small particle designed and functioning, a sustained release or pro-
size, and some ordinary compressed tablets, which longed action dosage form administered orally acts,
rapidly disintegrate and liberate the drug in very during some time interval following administration,
small particle size, could be included in this group. like a continuous, constant rate infusion or a con-
The second type encompasses the true sustained stant surface pellet implant. Some commercial
release or prolonged action dosage forms. A prop- products, which are marketed as sustained release or
' . O
<_--- r
0.8
/
/
I
100 to 300 ml. for the meals of 1,250 ml., but only where t is the time in hours, K is the time when 50%
20 ml. when the initial volume of the meal was 750 of the tablets have emptied, andf is the slope factor,
ml. It was not seen at all with meals of 330 ml. or a characteristic of the spread of the plot. The
initial volume. (c) The osmotic pressure of the data of Bukey and Brew (88,891, Crane and Wruble
meal has an effect. For example, addition of sucrose (go), and Blythe, et al. (91), obtained by administra-
in relatively large amounts t o a fluid test meal usually tion of enteric coated tablets t o human subjects,
causes a more rapid initial stomach emptying but and the data of Wagner, et al. (92), obtained by ad-
once the exponential rate is established the rate ministration of such tablets to the dog, all give
linear plots on either normal probability or logistic
is much slower when the subjects ate sucrose. ( d )
Cold meals tend t o empty faster than hot meals. ruling graph paper. These results strongly suggest
( e ) The composition of the test meal influences the that the emptying of single enteric coated tablets is
rate. (f) Most investigators are also agreed that a just a matter or probability and that one can explain
given individual tends to be true to his type with the results by the laws of probability. If one ex-
respect to gastric emptying rate. trapolates this knowledge to the situation discussed
above, where a large number of individual units are
Borgstrom, et al. (73), found that a 500-Gm test
administered a t one time, with the drug dose dis-
meal containing carbohydrate, fat, protein, and water
tributed amongst them, one could deduce that the
was delivered from the stomach of human subjects
units would empty from the stomach also accord-
t o the duodenum in small portions over a four-hour
ing to the laws of probability. If they should empty
period with a maximum amount during the second
by a pseudo first-order rate, like liquid meals, this
hour. Other investigators have obtained similar
should not be too unexpected since the first-order rate
results (76, 82, 83), although healthy medical stu-
constant is a probability function. In this case,
dents appear to have more rapid stomach emptying
however, medication is being constantly delivered
rates, probably due to increased mental pressures.
to the absorption sites and one does not get the all-
Stomach emptying of larger solid units, such as or-none effect observed with enteric coated tablets.
large granules or tablets, appear to follow the same Because of the above, it is quite unscientific to
sort of rules, but often the reported emptying times average blood levels observed after administration
are longer and over a wider range. If there is only of single enteric coated tablets to large groups of
one unit, such as an enteric coated or delayed action individuals. However, it is perfectly acceptable to
(laminated) tablet, we may be dealing with an all- average blood levels following administration of a
or-none effect. If the single enteric coated tablet product where the dose is distributed amongst a
stays in the stomach, the patient gets no medicine. large numhcr of coated or uncoated units, such as
If it is laminated, the outer dose dissolves rapidly granules. Support for the extrapolation of the
in the stomach but the inner dose, if protected by an data obtained on enteric coated tablets administered
enteric coating, may leave the stomach right away to many different subjects to administration of a
giving a double dose of drug, or it may stay in the large number of units which stay intact in the stom-
stomach anywhere from zero to twelve hours. ach of one individual is given by the data of Deeb
Hence, the idealistic picture painted for such single and Becker (86). These authors showed that dl-
unit enteric medication is not supported by the amphetamine sulfate coated granules and d- and dl-
scientific facts. However, if the dose of drug is amphetamine resin complex administered to rats
divided into a large number of units, which stay in- were emptied from the stomachs of the rats over very
tact in the stomach, then stomach emptying is grad- long periods of time extending beyond fifteen hours.
ual (84-86) and extends over a period of time prob- When their average percentage residual amphet-
ably comparable to that following a meat meal or amine in the stomach was plotted on a logarithmic
longer. The net effect is that medication is delivered scale against time in hours, the different preparations
to the absorption sites from the time of administra- give two to four linear segments. Even their con-
tion, and continues to be delivered over a consider- trol, &hetamine sulfate administered in 0.5%
able period of time postadministration. Blood sodium carboxymethylcellulose, was not emptied
level studies in man with prednisolone in coated completely in an eight-hour period. The authors
form, where the dose was distributed amongst a failed to mention that amphetamine sulfate and
large number of individually coated units, indicated sodium carboxymethylcellulose would interact t o
the above also (8). form a poorly soluble salt-complex and that this
For single enteric coated tablets administered to probably influenced their control results. In fact,
large numbers of human subjects, and followed one of the sustained action products of amphetamine
by roentgenography or roentgenoscopy, the reviewer marketed is just the interaction product cited above.
has found that most of these sets of data in the litera- Field, et al. (93), working with Resodec, stated that
ture give one or two linear segments on normal prob- there was a delay in the stomach emptying of the
ability or logistic ruling graph paper. In construct- resin in dogs followed by a relatively rapid passage
ing such plots one plots the cumulative percentage through the intestines. In this case, the ammonium
of tablets emptied from the stomach on the probabil- and potassium ions on the resin product Resodec
ity axis, or on the logistic axis, and the time, in were all exchanged for hydrogen ion while the
hours, on the normal arithmetic axis. The data resinate was in the stomachs of the dogs.
are usually well represented by only one or two When a sulfonic acid resin and an amine drug
straight lines. If only one line is obtained on logistic are combined to give a resinate the following re-
ruling paper then the equation of the lines is given by actions would be important both in vitro and in
(87): vizv.
Vol. 50, No. 5, May 1961 371
+ - +
R-SO$-HaN-R + X+ $ R-SOIX + strongly basic resin by hydroxide ion. Rapid
emptying of the acetylsalicylate ion in solution,
amine drug resinate resin in acid cycle followed by rapid absorption of the resulting mole-
I
Dissolution Rate.-In a recent review (136) it was Fig. 3.-Illustration of the effect of difference in
dissolution rates of a weak acid and its sodium salt
stated that: different salts of the same drug rarely on the nature of the biological response-time plot.
differ pharmacologically; the differences are usually Day No. 1, 0---placebo, six normal subjects;
based on physical properties. The authors then A- C . T. Orinase, 1.0-Gm. dose administered as
cited examples, and, unfortunately, included two tablets, 10 normal subjects; x C. T. Orinase
chloramphenicol palmitate, which is an ester and sodium, dose equivalent t o 1.0 Gm. of Orinase ad-
not a salt. Perhaps qualitatively, i. e., in the nature ministered as four tablets, 5 normal subjects. Day
of the biological response elicited, a series of salts NO. 2, *-. placebo, five normal subjects; x-.-.-.
of the same acidic or basic drug may not differ C. T. Orinase sodium, dose equivalent to 1.0 Gm. of
Orinase administered as four tablets, seven normal
appreciably. However, quantitatively there may be subjects.
vast differences. The observed difference between
a weak acid or base and its salts,or between different
I n some cases physical form is exceedingly
salts, will be the intensity of biological response in
important making it difficult, as stated above, t o
relation t o time after administration. This must
write generalizations. An example is the report of
follow from the fundamental factors considered
Mullins and Macek (141) concerning various forms
before. Each drug must be studied as a separate of novobioan. These authors reported that crystal-
entity and the effects of administration of the weakly line novobiocin acid, a t a dose of 12.5 mg./Kg. in
acidic or basic drug itself, and of various salts,
dogs, produced no detectable plasma levels of the
observed. Few generalizations can be made because
antibiotic over a six-hour period. Their in vitro
of the large number of variables involved. How- data indicate that in 0.1 N hydrochloric acid this
ever, as Nelson (64) pointed out, the dissolution crystalline acid dissolves exceedingly slowly. How-
rate of the particular form largely determines the ever, amorphous acid novobiocin, administered
rate of build-up of blood level with time and the orally in the same dose, produced peak blood levels
maximum blood level attained. Nelson (128) re- and a n area under the blood level-time plot, approx-
ported that, in ritro, the initial dissolution rate of imately twice that produced by the same dose of
tolbutamide sodium in acidic medium was nearly the sodium salt. Hence, apparently, amorphous
376 Journal of Pharmaceaitical Sciences
acid novobiocin is both much more rapidly and
much more efficiently absorbed than the sodium
salt in dogs. However, the amorphous acid slowly
converts t o the crystalline acid in aqueous solutions
making readimixed suspensions of the amorphous
01
90 I
acid impractical for commercial sale. Ffiresz (142)
obviously tested crystalline novobiocin since he
reported negligible levels in human subjects; he
failed t o distinguish whether he was testing the
crystalline or amorphous form.
Differences in dissolution rate in vivo of different
brands of dosage forms of the same drug have
considerable therapeutic implication. This aspect r, I1
of the problem was discussed by Levy recently
( 143). Everyone who fosters indiscriminate brand
interchange should read his article and check the
references. The reviewer was rather amazed t o see
the conclusions drawn in a recent review (144)
concerning prednisone tablets. A partial excerpt is
as follows: While the disintegration test (U. S. P.
test) is a severe one, the failure of the first samples
. . . to disintegrate under the test conditions might
in some instances be reflected in reduced absorption
of the drug. In general, however, the risk involved
in prescribing prednisone by generic name appears
t o be small. Drawing such conclusions without
biological data can be exceedingly dangerous and
.-
I I I I I I I I I I I I
0 2 4 6 8 10 I2
misleading. Even the statement that the U. S. P. TIME I N MINUTES
disintegration test for compressed tablets is a Fig. 4.-Correlation of dissolution rate and dis-
severe one needs comment. In a group of com- integration time. Curve A is the powdered drug.
mercial acetylsalicylic acid tablets tested by Levy and Curves B , D, and E are different lots of uncoated
Hayes (145, 146), the most rapidly dissolving prod- tablets of the same drug. Curves C and F are two
ucts exhibited longer disintegration times than the lots of coated tablets of the same drug. The arrow
slowly dissolving products. The authors concluded on each dissolution plot corresponds t o the disinte-
that disintegration times is no index of rate of gration time of the tablets as determined by the
dissolution or of availability of the medicament. U. S. P. procedure.
Their in vitro work was supported by in Gvo tests in
which quantitative measurements of excretion of four out of five tablets tested, the disintegration
salicylate were made in a large number of human time corresponded t o between 90 and 100% of the
subjects after oral administration of different drug being in solution; for the fifth tablet, tablet
commercial aspirin tablets. They found that the D, the disintegration time corresponded to about
absorption of aspirin is affected by: ( a ) the dis- 80% of the drug being in solution. With such a
solution rate (not the disintegration time) of the correlation it may be valid t o use the disintegration
tablets, ( b ) the gastric emptying rate, and (c) test as a routine procedure. However, such a
the mode of administration. They even found that correlation would have to be established for each
doubling the amount of water taken with the drug formulated in tablets and made by a certain
tablets vastly altered the rate of absorption of the procedure. One should not extrapolate the results
aspirin. Their recommendation, based on the over- shown in Fig. 4 to a totally different drug or t o
all results, was that the U. s. P. disintegration test tablets made by a different manufacturer.
be replaced by a dissolution test. A disintegration A good pharmaceutical house tests its product
test merely measures the time required for the tablet in vivo and establishes that the particular dosage
to break up into a certain size range of granules form does give the response expected. One cannot
which will drop through the certain size of screen predetermine such an effect from in vitro experi-
in the apparatus. The test tells nothing about how ments but only make guessestirnates. Because of
rapidly the drug will be released from the small these considerations the reviewer and others
granules. Many substances, such as cement or (147) believe it is equally dangerous t o assume
metals, could be made into granules and compressed that a sustained action preparation will not work
into tablets which would pass the U. S. P. dis- in vivo based upon results of some in Gtro tests,
integration test; in vivo the granules would pass such as is apparently done sometimes by the Food
through the intestinal tract completely unchanged and Drug Administration (148). Unless a cor-
and be excreted in the feces. relation has been established for the given drug in
A problem of introducing a dissolution test to the given dosage form between the in vitro test
replace the disintegration test for tablets is the results and the in vivo results, one is only guessing.
additional time needed for control laboratories t o Alteration in the surface area of a dose of a
run the former compared with the latter test. A medicament can have an effect similar t o changes in
possible means of circumventing this is t o correlate type of salt or physical form. This follows from a
the results of a dissolution test with a disintegration consideration of the equations describing dissolution
test on each product. An example is shown in rate as a function of several variables above.
Fig. 4. I n the example cited it is shown that in Mouriquand, et ul. (149), gave evidence that there
Vol. 50, No. 5, May 1961 377
was a difference between ordinary and lyophilized teration in binding equilibria between cells, protein,
thiamine hydrochloride when tested in pigeons. A and aqueous phases of blood; ( d ) alteration in cell
given weight of lyophilized thiamine hydrochloride permeability in favor of extracellular spaces;
would be expected t o have a very much larger and ( e ) alteration of liver metabolism whereby
surface area than the same weight of crystalline less of the absorbed antibiotic is metabolized by
thiamine hydrochloride. In fact, such differences this organ. Bunn and Cronk (153) reviewed
in surface area account for the very rapid in vitro tetracycline blood levels obtained in five laboratories
dissolution times of many commercial parenteral and concluded that tetracycline phosphate com-
products which contain lyophilized powders. The plex, tetracycline base with sodium hexameta-
report of Sakuma, et al. (150), stated that absorption phosphate, tetracycline hydrochloride with citric
of sulfadimethexine was more rapid when the acid, and tetracycline hydrochloride with glucos-
drug was administered in microcrystalline suspension amine hydrochloride produced significantly higher
than when the same dose was administered as serum concentrations than those obtained with
compressed tablets. Their blood level data also tetracycline hydrochloride within the early hours
indicated that a greater percentage of the dose after administration. However, Finland (154)
was absorbed following administration of the in an editorial in the same issue stated: The paper
microcrystalline suspension than following the of Bunn and Cronk in this issue unfortunately gives
tablets since there was a considerable difference in the erroneous impression that by lumping together
the areas under the average plasma level-time plots. large amounts of heterogeneous data one arrives
Hence, it would appear that this drugs absorption is a t a true evaluation of differences. Far from being
rate-limited by surface area. Reporting on his true, this is a well-known and obvious technique
tests of a sustained action preparation, King (151) for submerging true differences or similarities
wrote: A markedly greater therapeutic effect was through dilution of well-controlled data with large
obtained when the tablets were chewed before numbers of observations that are not so well
swallowing. This confirms the experience of Weiss controlled. The carefully controlled experiments
and his co-workers and is now a routine recom- of Nelson (155) indicated there were no significant
mendation in prescribing this preparation. In differences in absorption of tetracycline hydro-
the same article it was stated that: according to chloride when administered as a 200-mg. dose alone,
the manufacturers the-[drugs]-are incorporated or with various potentiators, including hexameta-
in an inert binding material from which they are phosphate, citric acid, and glucosamine hydro-
released slowly in order to extend the duration of chloride, as judged by urinary excretion of un-
their therapeutic activity. It appears that in changed tetracycline. It would appear that this
this case the clinician did not think when he wrote controversy is still far from solved.
his article. Chewing such a sustained action Okuda, et al. (156), presented data which they
product before ingesting it would almost, or com- claimed clearly demonstrated that supplementation
pletely, destroy the sustained release mechanism; of a vitamin B.5 deficient diet with D-sorbitol brings
and, if the dosage form contained two or three about a n increase in the urinary excretion and in the
usual doses of drug, obviously allow rapid absorption liver concentration of vitamin B.5 in young adult
of the total drug. rats. They stated that the results may be in-
Effect of Adjuvants on the Absorption of Drugs.- terpreted as evidence that the absorption of vitamin
In the recent literature there have been many reports B6 was increased by the sorbitol. The effects of
that the administration of a certain compound, here- D-sorbitol on vitamin BIZabsorption, under similar
after called the adjuvant, will increase the fraction of conditions, were different than those with vitamin
the dose of a certain drug which is absorbed, or at Bg. Prolonged feeding of ~-sorbitolresulted in
least produce higher peak blood levels of the drug. apparent reduction of vitamin B12 absorption with
In many cases the adjuvant is the solvent, or a com- concomitant decreases in the plasma and liver
ponent of the vehicle, in which the drug is ad- concentrations of vitamin B1z. Their results seem to
ministered. Many or all of these may be real effects. contradict the previously reported observations on
However, usually insufficient control of variables, increased absorption when vitamin BIZ was co-
inadequate description of the experiments, and/or administered with D-sorbitol by mouth to normal
the forms studied throw considerable doubt on the rats and human volunteers. However, they claimed
conclusions drawn. Furthermore, the effect of an these diametrically opposite results may be explained
adjuvant may be on the blood side of the gastro- on the basis of differences in the physical states of
intestinal barrier, after absorption of both drug the two mixtures of vitamin BIZand sorbitol and in
and adjuvant into the blood stream occurs, and the manner in which the experiments were per-
and have little or nothing to do with absorption, formed. Their unpublished data indicate that
per se. Often such possibilities are not considered sorbitol enhanced absorption of vitamin Blz only
by the authors. The reviewer has collected about when a large dose (1,000 mcg.) of vitamin BIZwas
two hundred such references, but no attempt t o used, and that without the cecum this effect cannot
review all of these will be made. Some of the be shown in rats. The markedly enlarged ceca of
complicating factors in such studies will be discussed the sorbitol-dosed rats suggest a possible role of the
however. cecum in the absorption of vitamin BIZ. They also
Snell and English (152) reviewed some of the pointed out that in their study the absorption of
possible reasons for the increased serum levels of vitamin B12 was measured under a condition in
tetracycline hydrochloride following oral adminis- which sorbitol was not present in the lumen when
tration of the antibiotic with glucosamine. The the test dose was administered. Such a condition
possible reasons cited were: ( a ) increased absorption permits estimation of the effect of prolonged feeding
from the gastrointestinal tract; ( b ) decreased of the adjuvant on the absorption capacity of the
elimination in the bile. urine. and feces; (c) al- intestinal wall. rather than a direct effect of sorbitol
378 Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
on absorption of vitamin B1,or interaction between produced average lobeline plasma levels which
the two components. built up from 0.3 to 1.8 mcg./ml. over a six-day
Nontoxic doses of the surfactant, sodium lauryl period. The same dose of the alkaloidal salt
sulfate, greatly increase the rate of absorption of administered without the buffer salts gave essentially
glucose administered t o rabbits according t o no plasma levels, and the placebo gave none. Such
Kozlik and Mosinger (157). Subsequently, Hardt effects are difficult to understand in the light of the
( 158) claimed that sodium lauryl sulfate introduced report of Rubin, et al. (164). The latter authors
in certain doses in solid or solution form into the found that amounts of antacids administered with
stomachs of dogs produces complete inhibition aspirin preparations had insufficient buffering
of normal gastric motility for periods up to ninety capacity t o cause a significant reduction in gastric
minutes. Later, Nissim (159) reported that both acidity in human subjects. One would not expect,
trimethylhexadecylammonium bromide and stea- on the basis of their report, that the amount of
rate inhibited the absorption of glucose but did antacid administered with the lobeline sulfate would
not inhibit the absorption of methionine or sodium significantly alter the pH of the gastric contents
butyrate in the rabbit. He claimed his results either. Perhaps further investigation in this area is
supported earlier conclusiods that large doses of necessary.
ionic surfactants Iead to structural damage, while When Case, et uZ. (165) described a new technique
small doses appear to reduce the functional efficiency for preparing sterile pellets for implantation in
of the mucosal cell. Careful reading of these experimental animals they did not mention the
papers indicates that further work is necessary t o possible effects of their adjuvants, namely 45y0
elucidate the effects of ionic surfactants on ab- lactose and 5% acacia, on the dissolution rate
sorption. in vivo. One would expect a considerable difference
Sometimes artificial conditions introduced during in dissolution rate in vivo from a pellet prepared as
experimentation cause a different effect than that they recommended and a pellet of pure compressed
observed under normal conditions. For example, methyl cholanthrene. The effect of the adjuvants
Raven, et al. (160), found that lysine markedly may be different for different carcinogenic agents
increased the deposition of single doses of Ca45 also. The presence of the adjuvants in this case
and SrsS in the femur of fasted rats, but supple- would alter the effective surface area of the carcino-
mentation of a normal diet with additional lysine genic agent in the depot. There may also be an
did not bring about a similar effect. Furthermore, interaction effect. For example, Wells, et al.
they found that glutamic and aspartic acids mark- (166), reported that lactose had a stimulating
edly reduced the enhancement of absorption of effect upon cholesterol absorption. This is another
Sr8 and Ca45produced by lysine. Chelation be- example where biological testing, and comparison of
tween glutamic acid and calcium was postulated to results from the new formulation and a control,
account for the suppression. The presence of casein should have been made.
and starch also largely suppressed the effect of the In some cases an adjuvant may inhibit the
lysine on absorption of the metallic ions. Sim- absorption of a compound by formation of a less
ilarly, the presence or absence of food in the gastro- soluble compound. Hudson, et al. (167), reported
intestinal tract has a pronounced effect on the that sitosterol and cholesterol formed a 1 : l mixed
observed blood levels obtained after administration crystal or solid solution, which has a solubility
of certain antibiotics (161). Most clinical experi- only one-third that of cholesterol in methanol
ments, where blood levels of antibiotics are meas- and a reduced solubility, compared with cholesterol,
ured, are carried out with fasting patients or sub- in aqueous sodium oleate or sodium desoxycholate
jects. solutions. This may possibly explain the hypo-
The effect of an adjuvant on the bacterial flora of cholesteremic effect of sitosterol in the human being.
the gastrointestinal tract may also be responsible
for alteration in the absorption of a drug or food RECTAL ABSORPTION
ingredient. Samuel (162) reported that large doses
of neomycin, administered orally to human subjects, Until 1958 pharmaceutical research and develop-
produced a 17 t o 29% decrease in mean serum ment directed towards rectal administration of
cholesterol levels. Intramuscular injection of drugs was principally concerned with modifying the
neomycin failed t o have the same effect. He properties and physical characteristics of suppository
reasoned that since only about 3% of an oral dose bases. In vivo studies following rectal administration
of neomycin is absorbed, the neomycin must act of drugs were usually of the type where a pharma-
in the tract. I t was suggested that the effect may cological response, or blood, or urine levels, were
be due to modification of the flora or inhibition of measured a t one or more times. Such studies are
intestinal enzymes. Since cholesterol esters must based on the assumption that the rate of rectal
be hydrolyzed, apparently, before they are absorbed, absorption bears a constant, direct relationship to
this could be the explanation. However, one would the amount of drug in a certain body fluid or organ,
have to exclude the possibility that neomycin and or the bIood level required t o elicit a pharmacologic
and either cholesterol esters, or cholesterol, formed a response.
less soluble complex. In 1958 Riegelman and Crowell (168) published
The effect of buffering agents on the absorption of the details of a radiological procedure by which it is
weak acids, such as acetylsalicylic acid and alka- possible to conduct continuous external detection
loidal salts, has been the subject of extensive of the rate of rectal absorption of radio-tagged
investigation. Rapp, et al. (163), found that compounds from specially designed suppository
repetitive administration of 2 mg. of lobeline sulfate, vehicles inserted in the rectal passage of the female
administered in combination with small amounts rat. The experimental design is such that a diffusion
tricalcium phosphate and magnesium carbonate, gradient is set up within the rectal section. The
Vol. 50, No. 5 , May 1961 379
section simulated a finite cylinder with sealed end PERCUTANEOUS ABSORPTION
faces, diffusion out of the cylinder occurring in a
radial direction only. Using the mathematical The primary requirement for topical therapy is
solution of Diinwald and Wagner (169) for radial that the drug incorporated into a vehicle must
diffusion, the authors were able to derive a relatively reach the skin surface a t an adequate rate (172)
simple equation t o evaluate their data. This and in sufficient amounts. Although dermatologic
equation is : vehicles may not penetrate the skin to any extent
nor act as carriers to transport the medicament
(log N ) - ( N f / N o )- Nf = - k t (Eq. 30) through the epidermal barrier, there may be a
marked difference in the clinical effectiveness of a
where N = the dose detected by the external drug when using different vehicles (172). The
counter a t time t , N l = the dose detected by the choice of vehicle will depend upon both the charac-
counter at the end of the experiment, NO = the teristics of the drug and the nature of the condition
total dose administered as detected by the scintil- to be treated. This section will be concerned with
lation counter, k = a pseudo first-order rate constant some of the fundamental factors involved in the
with dimensions, time-, t = the time. rate and extent of percutaneous absorption. Then
The derivation includes no mathematical con- we will discuss some other factors which are capable
siderations of the rate process for drug transfer of altering the fundamental factors.
across the rectal membrane. In general, they Fundamental factors involved in rate and extent
believed that the absorption rate process was very of percutaneous absorption are: ( a ) type of skin
much faster than the diffusion process. The and whether the skin is normal, abraded, or diseased
apparent rate constant, k , is complex in nature, (173); (6) site of absorption-transfollicular route,
including diffusion, absorption, and differences in transepidermal route, or both (173, 174); (c)
formulation. However, it is extremely useful in effective thickness of the skin barrier phase (174);
expressing the data and making accurate com- ( d ) area to which the drug is applied (173, 174);
parisons of variations in formulations. ( e ) thermodynamic activity of water in the vehicle
Applying their method t o various compounds and and in the skin barrier phase (174); (g) thermo-
suppository vehicles, Riegelman and Crowell dynamic activity of the drug in the vehicle (174);
(168) concluded the following: ( a ) The rate of ( h ) thermodynamic activity of the drug in the skin
absorption of sodium iodide is accelerated in the barrier phase (174); (i) diffusion coefficient of the
presence of surfactants and appeared to be pro- drug in the vehicle (174); ( j ) diffusion coefficient of
portional t o the surface tension lowering and the the drug in the skin barrier phase (174); ( k ) in-
peptizing action of their surface active components. dividual contact time and the frequency of re-
( b ) The rate of absorption of the sodium salt of application (173).
2,4,6-triiodophenol is retarded by the presence of Shelmire (173) pointed out that the vehicle
surfactants. Hydrolysis and subsequent solubili- assumes more importance when the stratum corneum
zation of the free phenol was postulated to explain is intact and that differences in drug penetration
this effect. (c) Il3I-tagged iodoform and 2,4,6- attributable t o the vehicle are more pronounced.
triiodophenol were best absorbed from true solutions On abraded or diseased skin there may be a large
in water, or from aqueous suspensions. Surface increase in both rate and extent of absorption of
active agents and polyoxyethylene polymers mark- a drug in a vehicle (173). The site of absorption
edly retarded the rate of absorption of these agents. may be important since a vehicle such as petrolatum
The relative particle size of these drugs was also may plug the follicles and delay penetration of
shown t o affect the rate of absorption. Solutions of the drug (173). One would expect the rate of
the compounds in solid polyethylene glycol and absorption to be inversely proportional t o the thick-
oleaginous bases resulted in very prolonged ab- ness of the skin barrier (173, 174). Similarly, one
sorption times. would expect the extent of absorption to be directly
Samelius and Astrom (170) reported that admini- proportional t o the area of skin covered by the
stration of 0.75 Gm. of acetylsalicylic acid in two ointment, cream, or lotion (173,174).
types of suppository bases by the rectal route Shelmire (173) stated that hydration of the
to human subjects resulted in essentially equiv- stratum corneum is one of the most important
alent blood levels of salicylate to those obtained factors in drug penetration into the skin. He (173)
with the same dose by the oral route of adminis- hypothesized that the outer stratum corneum
tration. They also observed that rectal absorption may be considered a semisolid acid which ejects
of hesobarbital sodium was better from cocoa protons absorbed on the surface, and itself becomes
butter base than from a Carbowax base in the negatively charged relative to the surrounding
rabbit. positively charged solution. The hydration of the
Reporting on a study done in rats in which the stratum corneum results from water diffusing from
colon was ligated near the anus and near the the stratum mucosum, from water diffusing in
ileocecal junction to form sacs, Lish and Weikel from the atmosphere, or from perspiration that
(171) found that: ( a ) absorption of phenol red accumulates after application of an occlusive
(an acidic indicator) was enhanced by the presence vehicle on the surface (173). As Higuchi (174)
of anionic surfactants and that this enhanced has pointed out, however, the important thing is
absorption was retarded by treating the rats with the thermodynamic activity of water in the barrier
chlorisondamine or atropine; (6) the absorption of phase, not just the amount there. The activity of
phenol red was not affected by the nonionic sur- water may be altered, for example, by neutral salts.
factant, Pluronic F-68; ( 6 ) the absorption of Shelmire (173) stated that hydration of the stratum
methyl violet (a basic indicator) was not affected corneum appears to increase the rate of passage of
by the anionic surfactants, Aerosol OT or sodium all substances which penetrate the skin. He (173)
lauryl sulfate. suggested the mechanism was to increase the size of
380 Jozlrnal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
the pores. There will not only be a physical al- I n the common case there is much more solid drug
teration of the tissue due t o hydration but also a t present than necessary t o saturate the external
high water activities there will be changes in both phase of the vehicle, i. e., C >> C,, and the above
the diffusion coefficient and activity coefficients of equations may be further simplified to
the penetrating agent (174). The nature of the
vehicle upon application and, when the water in it
has evaporated, may markedly alter the activity of and
water in the stratum corneum. Greases and
oils are the most occlusive vehicles and induce
increased hydration through perspiration accu-
mulation a t the skin-vehicle interface (173). Hu-
mectants in vehicles tend to decrease the extent If we substitute activities for concentrations we have
of hydration of the stratum corneum by interference
with the formation of a continuous oil film on the Q = a f (Eq. 35)
skin surface (173). Hydrophilic powders will and
decrease the extent of hydration by increasing
surface area and, hence, increasing rate of evap-
oration of water (173). If an ointment is covered
with a bandage there will be a tendency to hold
perspiration and increase hydration; if left open to where a = the thermodynamic activity of the drug
the air the perspiration can evaporate and de- in the vehicle, a, = the thermodynamic activity of
hydration may occur (173). Similarly, the thick- the drug in the external phase of the vehicle, and the
ness of the applied film of ointment or creams will other symbols have the significance indicated above.
directly affect hydration of the stratum corneum Higuchi (174) pointed out that the instantaneous
(173). If one assumes that the effectivethickness of rate of release of medicament from the vehicle
the hydrous barrier depends upon the rate of flow (equivalent t o rate of absorption with opposite sign)
of blood through it, then capillary dilation and rate may be regulated by controlling a, D, and a,. If
of capillary blood flow will influence absorption an aqueous solution is the external phase of the
(174). vehicle, as can be varied by changing the effective
One thing that the pharmacist can alter is the pH of the vehicle for poorly soluble weakly acidic
thermodynamic activity of the drug in the vehicle. and basic drugs. The activity coefficient of the
The thermodynamic activity of the drug in the molecular form of such drugs (the molecular or
vehicle is the product of the concentration of unionized form being assumed to be the species
drug and the activity coefficient of the drug in the absorbed) is a rapidly changing function of pH for
vehicle. Many authors have indicated the im- p H values greater than the pKa for acidic drugs and
portance of the concentration of drug in a topical less than pKzu - pKb for weakly basic drugs.
preparation, but few have indicated that the activity For an acidic drug we have
coefficient may be changed in many ways. Some
investigators have increased the concentration of HA e H C + A- (Eq. 37)
the drug in the vehicle but actually have lowered
thermodynamic activity because they are apparently (Eq. 38)
not aware of the effect of p H and other factors.
Higuchi (174) pointed out that the driving force UA- 'aH+ - aA- -
n A-
behind the drug movement is the difference in the QHA = K, - Kl Ka ' lop"
thermodynamic potential between the vehicle and (Eq. 39)
the deeper tissues and the direction of flow for
systems is always from higher thermodynamic As the pH of thc vehicle increases, the activity of
potential to lower thermodynamic potential. the molecular species, U H A , decreases rapidly in the
Absorption from Suspensions.-Consider the case region where pH > ph', or l o p H > Ka.
of an extremely fine dispersion of the drug in a homo- For basic drugs we have
geneous base, such as penicillin in a petrolatum base.
Higuchi ( 174) derived the following simple relation-
B + H20 -" BH' f OH- (Eq. 40)
ship among the variables:
U B H + . U H=~ ~
OB H + . I O - P -
~ ' "anI[+.lOp"
a H = b.n~+- - ____. ~
where Q = the amount of drug absorbed a t time t Kb. 10-PH Kh' lopKw
per unit area of surface exposure, C = the concen- (Eq. 42)
tration of the drug in the vehicle, e. g., in r n g . / ~ m . ~ ,
C, = the solubility of the drug in the external As the pH of the vehicle increases, the activity of
phase of the vehicle, D = the diffusion constant of the molecular species, an, increases rapidly in the
the drug molecule in the external phase of the region where pH > p K b or pH > pKw - pKa.
vehicle, and t = the time, e. g., in hours. Hence, in the p H ranges discussed above, the
The derivation involves the assumptions that activity of the molecular species of a weakly acidic
release by the ointment itself is rate-limiting the drug will be higher a t lower p H valuesand the activity
absorption process and that the skin surface con- o f n~olecularspecies of a weakly basic drug will be
stitutes a perfect sink for the released drug. higher a t higher pH values (174). Changing the
pH at which the vehicle is buffered by two pH
units can make a hundredfold difference in the
activity of the molecular species in the vehicle.
Vol. 5@No. 5,yMay 1961 381
Since the instantaneous rate of absorption, d Q / d f , which have involved use of salicylic acid (175179)
is proportional t o the square root of the activity and sulfanilamide (178, 180) as tracers in dermato-
of the molecular species, then changing the vehicle logic research. The activity coefficients of these
p H by two pH units can make a ten-times difference tracers and their thermodynamic activities at a
in instantaneous rate of absorption. given concentration in the various vehicles would be
Considering the above equations it is obvious expected to vary widely just on the basis of the
that if one molecule of the molecular species is nature of the vehicles and tracers employed in
absorbed (lost from the ointment), another molecule these studies. Polyethylene glycols complex sali-
mnst be formed from A- or BH+ in order t o keep cylic acid; therefore. one would expect the thermo-
K O or Ka constant. Not taking this into con- dynamic activity of salicylic acid at a given
sideration has led to some obvious errors in reason- concentration in polyethylene glycol ointment to
ing. For example, Stolar, Rossi, and Barr (175) be very low. The results obtained by Shelmire
stated: It is doubtful that the concentration of (177), Stolar, et al. (175, 176), Plein and Plein
free salicylic acid present at such pH values (178), and Nogami and Hanano (179 A ) using bases
(6.95% sodium salicylate in hydrophilic ointment containing polyethylene glycols and Carbowaxes
with continuous aqueous phase having a pH of are explicable on the above basis. The very flat
6.2 t o 6.5) could account for the amount detected blood level curve of salicylic acid, parallel but
in the blood of rabbits examined during this inves- only slightly above the time axis, which Stolar,
tigation. Since salicylic acid has a pKal of 2.97, et al. (175), obtained when salicylic acid in poly-
there is a very low activity of salicylic acid in the ethylene glycol ointment was applied t o rabbits
external phase of their preparation. However, as skin is indicative of the low thermodynamic activity
indicated above, once the molecules of salicylic of salicylic acid in this vehicle. Also, it shows that
acid which are available are absorbed more are the complex acts as a reservoir releasing drug very
formed from the salicylate ions. In the same paper slowly but a t an essentially constant rate to the
(175) these authors gave blood level data for skin barrier. Hydrophilic ointment contains 37%
absorption of salicylic acid from an ointment w/w water and one would expect the thermodynamic
containing 6% salicylic acid in the same vehicle, activity of salicylic acid in this vehicle to be quite
hydrophilic ointment. The initial slope of the high. This would be also true for the water-
blood level curve resulting from the latter oint- containing emulsions used by Shelmire (177).
ment is considerably steeper than the initial slope The rate of penetration of salicylic acid from these
of the blood level curve resulting from application vehicles was reported t o be very rapid (175, 177).
of the equivalent ointment containing sodium The thermodynamic activities of salicylic acid a t
salicylate. This difference in initial slopes is a given concentration in hydrophilic petrolatum
indicative that the rate of absorption was con- and petrolatum would be expected t o be inter-
siderably faster from the ointment containing mediate between those in hydrophilic ointment and
salicylic acid than from the ointment containing polyethylene glycol ointment on the basis of
sodium salicylate, which agrees with the predictions solubilities and the anhydrous nature of the former
of Higuchi (174) above. two ointments. If one takes into consideration
It was indicated previously that the activity of that the area under the blood level-time plot is a
the drug in the vehicle may also be increased by measure of the amount of salicylic acid absorbed
using a different crystalline modification of the (8) and with a given tracer the initial slope of the
solid phase of the drug, particularly where more blood level curve is indicative of the rate of ab-
complex organic drugs are involved. Such different sorption, then the above considerations appear to
crystalline modifications have different thermo- explam largely the results of Stolar, Rossi, and Barr
dynamic activities a t room temperature More (175, 176). Similarly, tlie thermodynamic activity
energetic species, however, are metastable, tending of sulfanilamide a t a given concentration in various
to revert t o the more stable, less energetic species ointment bases would vary widely and should be
(174). Hence, the trick in such cases would be to taken into consideration in considering the results
use a more energetic species which would have a obtained by Plein and Plein (178) and Gemmell
suitable stability for the expected life of the product. and Morrison (180).
These are highly specific situations for a particular The diffusion coefficient of the drug in the vehicle
drug in a particular vehicle and are usually not is a n important consideration for the pharmacist
predictable by common knowledge but require also. Higuchi (174) pointed out that the diffusion
extensive experimentation. coefficient, D, is inversely proportional to the
viscosity of the vehicle. This follows from Stokes-
For a given concentration of drug in certain Einstein equation for the diffusion of colloidal
vehicles, the activity coefficient of the drug, and particles, namely
consequently the thermodynamic activity of the
drug in the vehicle a t that concentration, may vary
by a factor as much as a thousandfold (174) from (Es. 43)
one vehicle t o the next. Solutes held firmly by the
vehicle, such as when the drug forms a soluble
complex with the vehicle, exhibit low activity where D is the diffusion coefficient, R is the gas
coefficients; hence, the rate of release from such constant, T is the absolute temperature, 7 is the
drug-vehicle combinations will be slow. Solutes mean radius of the particles, 7 is the viscosity, and
held loosely by the vehicle (less affinity of the N is the Avagadro number. If it is assumed that
vehicle for the drug or solute) exhibit high activity all the particles have the same size, that they are
coefficients; therefore, the rate of release from such spherical in shape, and that their density is the
drug-vehicle combinations will be faster (174). same as for the disperse phase in bulk, then the
This helps to explain some of the investigations relationship
382 Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
This integrates, with G = 0 at t = 0 to
of some form of the drug if this form is precipitated correlating the then-known facts but much more its
in the depot. Since the rate of dissolution is sxcess or failure in stimulating further experi-
largely influenced by the solubility of the drug mentation or observation which in turn is fruitful.
in the fluids a t the site of injection then the solubility This dynainic p n l i t y of science4 viewed not as a
of the drug is important (202, 203). Both the practical undertaking but as a dewelopmmt of
solubility and the rate of dissolution are influenccd conceptual schemes4 seems to me to be close to the
by derivitization of the drug, by salt formation, heart of the bcst definition. Hence, it would
and by complex formation (202, 203). (i) The appear that one of the major objectives of research,
crystal form of the drug used (203). ( j )The particle in general, should be to evolve new conceptual
size and particle size distribution of the drug in schemes. These may be modified or displaced in
suspension in the vehicle (203). (K) Coating of the the future, yet meanwhile, they have organized
particles of drug t o delay absorption or decrease knowledge, effected progress, and stimulated future
release rate (203). ( I ) The presence or absence of research.
adjuvants such as suspending agents (202). ( m ) These general quotations and remarks apply to
The presence or absence of vasoconstrictors (202). the specific subject matter of this review, namely
( n )The partition coefficient of the drug between the absorption. We need more of the type of research
vehicle and the tissue fluid if the drug is injected in that leads to new concepts and less of that which
solution in an oil or oil-like vehicle (202). (0) leads t o new things. This is particularly true in the
The chemical nature of the drug, i. e., whether it is a role which pharmacy will play in the future. We
neutral molecule, a weak acid, a weak base, or a need better control of variables and better planning
salt. of the experiments. Quite often a n hour spent
One may generally summarize the above factors in meditating on what one is going t o do is worth
by saying that they are the same factors which more than a year in a laboratory. We need better
control the rate of dissoltrtion of a solid and/or its planning of experiments in which blood and urine
transfer from one phasc t o another. There are levels of drug are determined and niathematical
many lifetimes of useful research in just using the analysis of the results.
list above as a guide and designing experiments in Perhaps in the future we can relate the physical
such a way that one isolates only one variable at a and chemical properties of different drugs and
time and studies its relative importance with their dosage forms t o their absorption patterns
typical types of drugs such as neutral molecules, i n r!iso. Such research would involve very care-
weak acids, weak bases, and their salts. If we fully controlled in sitro and i n vivo measurements
had such fundamental information the formulation followed by proper correlation of results. Should
of a given parenteral product would not be quite so this become a reality we may be able t o make quite
empirical as it is a t present. accurate predictions of the rate and extent of
absorption of an entirely new compound in a cer-
In man, purely local reactions to injected material tain dosage form on the basis of the physical and
may take the form of pain occurring immediately chemical properties.
upon injection of the material or very shortly
thereafter, or of inflammatory reactions, sometimes
with abscess formation occurring during the days APPENDIX
following the injection. More rarely, reactions
remote in time from the injection may occur, for Models, differential equations, solutions of the
example, the paraffin granuloma. Triil in man is differential equations, and rate constants used i n
often the only way to detcrmine if a local reaction preparing the plots shown in Fig. 2
to an injection will occur (204). Animal tests are Model 1.-A hypothetical model for cases where
useful in predicting whether a local reaction may there is absorption of the drug from both the
occur in man (204, 205). The mechanism of pain stomach and the intestines and/or where a sustained
occurring after injection and why some drugs cause action dosage form contains some readily available
more pain than others seem t o be very poorly drug (in compartment A ) and some slowly available
understood. This seems to be a fruitful arca of drug which is relcased at a constant rate.
research which to the reviewers knowledgc has not
A kl
been approached. To what extent such local
reactions influence the rate of absorption from a
(quickly available d r u g ) l C kt ,
/blood
parenteral depot is little kuown also. The recent ko
work of Schou (206-208) indicates that liberation of (slowly available drug)
histamine a t the site of injection, due to trauma,
decreases the rate of absorption, particularly
D excretion and metabolic products
immediately after injection. Italics added.
Vol. 50, No. 5, May 1961 385
Assumptiom-(a) The rate constants k1 and k,, The rate constants used were as follows:
are fkst-order rate constants, in hours-, and k1 f k a .
( b )The rate constant, kl, is a zero-order rate constant In ki
Set (hr.-t) ko (hr.-9 (hr. -1)
in units of fraction of total amount per hour. (c) 1 1.0 0.20 (i. e., 5 hr. to re- 0.1155
Assume X A = 0.3 at t = 0 ; X B = 0.7 a t t = 0 ; lease the total
X C = X D = o a t t = 0 ;and t 5 O.i/ko. ( d ) Release amount, 1)
from the dosage form is rate-determining the 2 1.0 0 . 0 5 (Le., 20hr. tore- 0.1155
absorption process. lease the total
If X A , X B , X C , X D are the amounts in compart- amount, 1)
ments A . B , C, and D,respectiveIy, at time t . then 3 0.5 O.O5(ibZd.) 0.1155
dt
first-order rate rather than a t a zero-order rate as
gat2 = -ko and X B = 0.7-kot in model 11. A11 three constants, kl, k2, and k3 are
then first-order rate constants, in hours-.
d_X_c
dt
= ko + klXA - k3Xc and X c = ka X c
Xa = 1 -X A - XB -xc
The rate constants used were as follows:
ki ki
Set (hr.-l) ko ( h r . 3 (hr.-l)
1 1.0 0.14 (i. e., 5 hr. to re- 0.1155
lease the 0 . i )
2 1.0 0.0325(i.e.,21.5hr.to 0.1155
release the 0.7)
c
dt
c k2XB - ksXc and xc =
=
,
,
..A\
I .
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