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Objectives
1. Understand the evidence supporting the hypothesis that eukaryotes are ancestrally heterotrophic.
2. Know what the equation is for primary endosymbiosis and know that a glaucophyte like Cyanophora was
probably involved in primary endosymbiosis.
3. Know why the cyanelle is a good example of an evolutionary intermediate condition between a free‐living
cyanobacterium and a chloroplast with only two membranes.
4. Be able to explain and/or identify the terms listed at the end of this section.
Background
The glaucophytes are a small but pivotally important group of eukaryotes that are just basal to the red
lineage (See the image from Keeling, 2004 below). They are either unicellular or colonial flagellates that are either
attached or in the plankton. Most taxa are found in soft freshwater environments. Present day glaucophytes are
probably little changed from
the glaucophyte‐like cell that
initiated the endosymbiotic
events that ultimately led to
the chloroplast. Glaucophyte
cells are hypothesized to be a
living intermediate step
between the initiation of a
mutually symbiotic
relationship between a
cyanobacterium and a
heterotrophic eukaryote and a
fully evolved chloroplast
organelle. This view is
maintained because naked
(w/o cell walls) glaucophytes
like Cyanophora contain two
functional chloroplasts‐like
organelles that are called
cyanelles since they still have a
relict peptidoglycan layer (part
of the original cyanobacterial
cell wall) between the inner and outer membranes of the cyanelle. The present DNA evidence also supports the
hypothesis that a glaucophyte‐like cell was the immediate ancestor to red and green algae (hence embryophytes)
all of which have double membrane chloroplasts.
Because of primary endosymbiosis, the morphological synapomorphy for the modern concept of plants is
therefore a double membrane bound photosynthetic organelle, which we call a “chloroplast” except in the case of
glaucophyte cyanelles.
The endosymbiotic origin of the cyanelle can be summed up into what we will call a PRIMARY
ENDOSYMBIOTIC EVENT: O2 producing prokaryotic photoautotroph (a cyanobacterium) + heterotrophic eukaryote
(prob. glaucophyte‐like cell) = eukaryotic photoautotroph with a double membrane photosynthetic organelle [like
Cyanophora]
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General diagram of the events during
primary endosymbiosis (N = nucleus);
from Graham & Wilcox, 2000, Algae,
Prentice‐Hall Inc., Upper Saddle
River, NJ.
Cyanophora paradoxa with two cyanelles; C = cyanelle, N = nucleus, F = flagellum, each C has a dark
carboxysome (modified from Lee, R.E. 1989. Phycology, 2nd ed., Cambridge Univ. Press, p. 112).
Cyanobacterial
outer membrane Peptidoglycan from
cyanobacterial wall
Cyanobacterial inner
membrane
Glaucophyte characters:
Unicellular eukaryotic cells with 2 unequal flagella & each flagellum with 2 rows of hairs
Cyanophora is naked, but other glaucophytes can have a modest cell covering
Blue‐green cyanelles
Unstacked thylakoids in the cyanelles have phycobilisomes with the same phycobiliprotein pigments as
cyanobacteria; also have chlorophyll a again
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The Basic Glaucophyte Cell
Using the light and electron microscope images, be able to recognize and know the function of the following in
glaucophytes:
Binary fission
Cyanelle
Carboxysome
Unstacked thylakoids
Phycobilisomes
Peptidoglycan
Nucleus
Flagella
Make a wet mount of Cyanophora. Initially, the cells will be traveling very fast but they will eventually slow
down. Locate both cyanelles and the carboxysome.
Vocabulary
Binary fission
Carboxysome
Colonial flagellate
Cyanelle
Cyanophora
Eukaryote
Flagella
Glaucophyta
Naked cell
Nucleus
Peptidoglycan
Phycobilisomes
Primary endosymbiosis
Unicellular flagellate (monad)
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