4/16/2016 IndoorpositioningsystemWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Indoorpositioningsystem
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Anindoorpositioningsystem(IPS)isasystemtolocateobjectsorpeopleinsideabuildingusingradiowaves,magneticfields,acoustic
signals,orothersensoryinformationcollectedbymobiledevices.[1]Thereareseveralcommercialsystemsonthemarket,butthereisno
standardforanIPSsystem.

IPSsystemsusedifferenttechnologies,includingdistancemeasurementtonearbyanchornodes(nodeswithknownpositions,e.g.,WiFi
accesspoints),magneticpositioning,deadreckoning.Theyeitheractivelylocatemobiledevicesandtagsorprovideambientlocationor
environmentalcontextfordevicestogetsensed.[2]ThelocalizednatureofanIPShasresultedindesignfragmentation,withsystemsmaking
useofvariousoptical,[3]radio,[4][5][6][7][8]orevenacoustic[9]technologies.

Systemdesignsmusttakeintoaccountthatatleastthreeindependentmeasurementsareneededtounambiguouslyfindalocation(see
trilateration).Forsmoothingtocompensateforstochastic(unpredictable)errorstheremustbeasoundmethodforreducingtheerrorbudget
significantly.Thesystemmightincludeinformationfromothersystemstocopeforphysicalambiguityandtoenableerrorcompensation.

Contents
1 Applicabilityandprecision
2 RelationtoGPS
3 Locatingandpositioning
4 Locatingandtracking
5 Identificationandsegregation
6 Nonradiotechnologies
6.1 Magneticpositioning
6.2 Inertialmeasurements
7 Wirelesstechnologies
7.1 WiFibasedpositioningsystem(WPS)
7.2 Bluetooth
7.3 Chokepointconcepts
7.4 Gridconcepts
7.5 Longrangesensorconcepts
7.6 Angleofarrival
7.7 Timeofarrival
7.8 Receivedsignalstrengthindication
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7.8 Receivedsignalstrengthindication
7.9 Others
8 Mathematics
8.1 Empiricalmethod
8.2 Mathematicalmodeling
9 Uses
10 Seealso
11 References
12 Externallinks

Applicabilityandprecision
Duetothesignalattenuationcausedbyconstructionmaterials,thesatellitebasedGlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)losessignificantpower
indoorsaffectingtherequiredcoverageforreceiversbyatleastfoursatellites.Inaddition,themultiplereflectionsatsurfacescausemultipath
propagationservingforuncontrollableerrors.Theseverysameeffectsaredegradingallknownsolutionsforindoorlocatingwhichuses
electromagneticwavesfromindoortransmitterstoindoorreceivers.Abundleofphysicalandmathematicalmethodsisappliedtocompensate
fortheseproblems.Promisingdirectionradiofrequencypositioningerrorcorrectionopenedbytheuseofalternativesourcesofnavigational
information,suchasinertialmeasurementunit(IMU),monocularcameraSimultaneouslocalizationandmapping(SLAM)andWiFiSLAM.
Integrationofdatafromvariousnavigationsystemswithdifferentphysicalprinciplescanincreasetheaccuracyandrobustnessoftheoverall
solution.[10]

WithdetailedreadinginthemarketingdocumentsandeveninthespecificationsservedbymanyoftheIPSvendors,theinterestedcustomer
willlookfordetailsonprecision,reproducibilityandothertermsforqualityoffunctionwithlittlesuccess.Manyvendorsdonoteventangle
withthetermaccuracy

RelationtoGPS
Globalnavigationsatellitesystems(GPSorGNSS)aregenerallynotsuitabletoestablishindoorlocations,sincemicrowaveswillbe
attenuatedandscatteredbyroofs,wallsandotherobjects.However,inordertomakepositioningsignalsubiquitous,integrationbetweenGPS
andindoorpositioningcanbemade.,[11][12][13][14][15]

Currently,GNSSreceiversarebecomingmoreandmoresensitiveduetoceaselessprogressinchiptechnologyandprocessingpower.High
SensitivityGNSSreceiversareabletoreceivesatellitesignalsinmostindoorenvironmentsandattemptstodeterminethe3Dpositionindoors
havebeensuccessful.[16]Besidesincreasingthesensitivityofthereceivers,thetechniqueofAGPSisused,wherethealmanacandother
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informationaretransferredthroughamobilephone.

However,propercoveragefortherequiredfoursatellitestolocateareceiverisnotachievedwithallcurrentdesigns(200811)forindoor
operations.Beyond,theaverageerrorbudgetforGNSSsystemsnormallyismuchlargerthantheconfinements,inwhichthelocatingshallbe
performed.

Locatingandpositioning
Despitethename,mostcurrentIPSsystemsaresocoarsethattheycannotbeusedtodetecttheorientationordirectionofanobject.[17]

Locatingandtracking
Oneofthemethodstothriveforsufficientoperationalsuitabilityis"tracking".Whetherasequenceoflocationsdeterminedformatrajectory
fromthefirsttothemostactuallocation.Statisticalmethodsthenserveforsmoothingthelocationsdeterminedinatrackresemblingthe
physicalcapabilitiesoftheobjecttomove.Thissmoothingmustbeapplied,whenatargetmovesandalsoforaresidenttarget,tocompensate
erraticmeasures.Otherwisethesingleresidentlocationoreventhefollowedtrajectorywouldcomposeofanitinerantsequenceofjumps.

Identificationandsegregation
Inmostapplicationsthepopulationoftargetsislargerthanjustone.HencetheIPSmustserveaproperspecificidentificationforeach
observedtargetandmustbecapabletosegregateandseparatethetargetsindividuallywithinthegroup.AnIPSmustbeabletoidentifythe
entitiesbeingtracked,despitethe"noninteresting"neighbors.Dependingonthedesign,eitherasensornetworkmustknowfromwhichtagit
hasreceivedinformation,oralocatingdevicemustbeabletoidentifythetargetsdirectly.

Nonradiotechnologies
Nonradiotechnologiescanbeusedforpositioningwithoutusingtheexistingwirelessinfrastructure.Thiscanprovideincreasedaccuracyat
theexpenseofcostlyequipmentandinstallations.

Magneticpositioning

Magneticpositioningcanofferpedestrianswithsmartphonesanindooraccuracyof12meterswith90%confidencelevel,withoutusingthe
additionalwirelessinfrastructureforpositioning.Magneticpositioningisbasedontheironinsidebuildingsthatcreatelocalvariationsinthe
Earth'smagneticfield.Unoptimizedcompasschipsinsidesmartphonescansenseandrecordthesemagneticvariationstomapindoor
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locations.[18]

Inertialmeasurements

Pedestriandeadreckoningandotherapproachesforpositioningofpedestriansproposeaninertialmeasurementunitcarriedbythepedestrian
eitherbymeasuringstepsindirectly(stepcounting)orinafootmountedapproach,[19]sometimesreferringtomapsorotheradditionalsensors
toconstraintheinherentsensordriftencounteredwithinertialnavigation.Inertialmeasuresgenerallycoverthedifferentialsofmotion,hence
thelocationgetsdeterminedwithintegratingandthusrequiresintegrationconstantstoprovideresults.[20][21]Theactualpositionestimation
canbefoundasthemaximumofa2dprobabilitydistributionwhichisrecomputedateachsteptakingintoaccountthenoisemodelofallthe
sensorsinvolvedandtheconstraintsposedbywallsandfurniture.[22]

Wirelesstechnologies
Anywirelesstechnologycanbeusedforlocating.Manydifferentsystemstakeadvantageofexistingwirelessinfrastructureforindoor
positioning.Therearethreeprimarysystemtopologyoptionsforhardwareandsoftwareconfiguration,networkbased,terminalbased,and
terminalassisted.Positioningaccuracycanbeincreasedattheexpenseofwirelessinfrastructureequipmentandinstallations.

WiFibasedpositioningsystem(WPS)

WiFipositioningsystem(WPS)isusedwhereGPSisinadequate.Thelocalizationtechniqueusedforpositioningwithwirelessaccesspoints
isbasedonmeasuringtheintensityofthereceivedsignal(receivedsignalstrengthinEnglishRSS)andthemethodof
"fingerprinting".[23][24][25]TypicalparametersusefultogeolocatetheWiFihotspotorwirelessaccesspointincludetheSSIDandtheMAC
addressoftheaccesspoint.Theaccuracydependsonthenumberofpositionsthathavebeenenteredintothedatabase.Thepossiblesignal
fluctuationsthatmayoccurcanincreaseerrorsandinaccuraciesinthepathoftheuser.Anyplace[26]isafreeandopensourceWiFi
positioningsystemthatallowsanybodytorapidlymapindoorspacesandthatwonseveralawardsforitslocationaccuracy.[27][28]

Bluetooth

AccordingtotheBluetoothSpecialInterestGroup,[29]Bluetoothisallaboutproximity,notaboutexactlocation.Bluetoothwasnotintendedto
offerapinnedlocationlikeGPS,howeverisknownasageofenceormicrofencesolutionwhichmakesitanindoorproximitysolution,notan
indoorpositioningsolution.Micromappingandindoormapping[30]hasbeenlinkedtoBluetooth[31]andtotheBluetoothLEbasediBeacon
promotedbyAppleInc..LargescaleindoorpositioningsystembasedoniBeaconshasbeenimplementedandappliedinpractice.[32][33]

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Chokepointconcepts

Simpleconceptoflocationindexingandpresencereportingfortaggedobjects,usesknownsensoridentificationonly.[7]Thisisusuallythe
casewithpassiveradiofrequencyidentification(RFID)systems,whichdonotreportthesignalstrengthsandvariousdistancesofsingletags
orofabulkoftagsanddonotrenewanybeforeknownlocationcoordinatesofthesensororcurrentlocationofanytags.Operabilityofsuch
approachesrequiressomenarrowpassagetopreventfrompassingbyoutofrange.

Gridconcepts

Insteadoflongrangemeasurement,adensenetworkoflowrangereceiversmaybearranged,e.g.inagridpatternforeconomy,throughout
thespacebeingobserved.Duetothelowrange,ataggedentitywillbeidentifiedbyonlyafewclose,networkedreceivers.Anidentifiedtag
mustbewithinrangeoftheidentifyingreader,allowingaroughapproximationofthetaglocation.Advancedsystemscombinevisualcoverage
withacameragridwiththewirelesscoveragefortheroughlocation.

Longrangesensorconcepts

Mostsystemsuseacontinuousphysicalmeasurement(suchasangleanddistanceordistanceonly)alongwiththeidentificationdatainone
combinedsignal.Reachbythesesensorsmostlycoversanentirefloor,oranaisleorjustasingleroom.Shortreachsolutionsgetappliedwith
multiplesensorsandoverlappingreach.

Angleofarrival

Angleofarrival(AoA)istheanglefromwhichasignalarrivesatareceiver.AoAisusuallydeterminedbymeasuringthetimedifferenceof
arrival(TDOA)betweenmultipleantennasinasensorarray.Inotherreceivers,itisdeterminedbyanarrayofhighlydirectionalsensorsthe
anglecanbedeterminedbywhichsensorreceivedthesignal.AoAisusuallyusedwithtriangulationandaknownbaselinetofindthelocation
relativetotwoanchortransmitters.

Timeofarrival

Timeofarrival(ToA,alsotimeofflight)istheamountoftimeasignaltakestopropagatefromtransmittertoreceiver.Becausethesignal
propagationrateisconstantandknown(ignoringdifferencesinmediums)thetraveltimeofasignalcanbeusedtodirectlycalculatedistance.
Multiplemeasurementscanbecombinedwithtrilaterationandmultilaterationtofindalocation.ThisisthetechniqueusedbyGPS.Systems
whichuseToA,generallyrequireacomplicatedsynchronizationmechanismtomaintainareliablesourceoftimeforsensors(thoughthiscan
beavoidedincarefullydesignedsystemsbyusingrepeaterstoestablishcoupling[8]).

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TheaccuracyoftheTOAbasedmethodsoftensuffersfrommassivemultipathconditionsinindoorlocalization,whichiscausedbythe
reflectionanddiffractionoftheRFsignalfromobjects(e.g.,interiorwall,doorsorfurniture)intheenvironment.However,itispossibleto
reducetheeffectofmultipathbyapplyingtemporalorspatialsparsitybasedtechniques.[34][35]

Receivedsignalstrengthindication

Receivedsignalstrengthindication(RSSI)isameasurementofthepowerlevelreceivedbysensor.Becauseradiowavespropagateaccording
totheinversesquarelaw,distancecanbeapproximatedbasedontherelationshipbetweentransmittedandreceivedsignalstrength(the
transmissionstrengthisaconstantbasedontheequipmentbeingused),aslongasnoothererrorscontributetofaultyresults.Theinsideof
buildingsisnotfreespace,soaccuracyissignificantlyimpactedbyreflectionandabsorptionfromwalls.Nonstationaryobjectssuchasdoors,
furniture,andpeoplecanposeanevengreaterproblem,astheycanaffectthesignalstrengthindynamic,unpredictableways.

AlotofsystemsuseenhancedWiFiinfrastructuretoprovidelocationinformation.[4][5][6]Noneofthesesystemsservesforproperoperation
withanyinfrastructureasis.Unfortunately,WiFisignalstrengthmeasurementsareextremelynoisy,sothereisongoingresearchfocusedon
makingmoreaccuratesystemsbyusingstatisticstofilterouttheinaccurateinputdata.WiFiPositioningSystemsaresometimesused
outdoorsasasupplementtoGPSonmobiledevices,whereonlyfewerraticreflectionsdisturbtheresults.

Others

Radiofrequencyidentification[7](RFID):passivetagsareverycosteffective,butdonotsupportanymetrics
Ultrawideband[8](UWB):reducedinterferencewithotherdevices
Infrared(IR):previouslyincludedinmostmobiledevices
Gen2IR(secondgenerationinfrared)
Visiblelightcommunication[3][36](VLC):canuseexistinglightingsystems
Ultrasound:[9]wavesmoveveryslowly,whichresultsinmuchhigheraccuracy

Mathematics
Oncesensordatahasbeencollected,anIPStriestodeterminethelocationfromwhichthereceivedtransmissionwasmostlikelycollected.
Thedatafromasinglesensorisgenerallyambiguousandmustberesolvedbyaseriesofstatisticalprocedurestocombineseveralsensorinput
streams.

Empiricalmethod

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Onewaytodeterminepositionistomatchthedatafromtheunknownlocationwithalargesetofknownlocationsusinganalgorithmsuchas
knearestneighbor.Thistechniquerequiresacomprehensiveonsitesurveyandwillbeinaccuratewithanysignificantchangeinthe
environment(duetomovingpersonsormovedobjects).

Mathematicalmodeling

Locationwillbecalculatedmathematicallybyapproximatingsignalpropagationandfindinganglesand/ordistance.Inversetrigonometry
willthenbeusedtodeterminelocation:

Trilateration(distancefromanchors)
Triangulation(angletoanchors)

Advancedsystemscombinemoreaccuratephysicalmodelswithstatisticalprocedures:

Bayesianstatisticalanalysis(probabilisticmodel)
Kalmanfiltering[5](forestimatingpropervaluestreamsundernoiseconditions).

Uses
Themajorconsumerbenefitofindoorpositioningistheexpansionoflocationawaremobilecomputingindoors.Asmobiledevicesbecome
ubiquitous,contextualawarenessforapplicationshasbecomeapriorityfordevelopers.MostapplicationscurrentlyrelyonGPS,however,and
functionpoorlyindoors.Applicationsbenefitingfromindoorlocationinclude:

Augmentedreality[37]
Schoolcampus[38][39][40]
Guidedtoursofmuseums[41]
Shoppingmalls.[40]
Storenavigation[42]
Warehouses[40][43]
Airports,bus,trainandsubwaystations[40][44]
Parkinglots.
Targetedadvertising[45]
Socialnetworking.
Hospitals[39][40][46][47]
Hotels.[40]
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Sports.
Indoorrobotics[48]
Tourism.
Otherpublicbuildingmaps.[40]

Brandshaveembracedbothsidesofindoorpositioninginrecentmonths:thenavigationandanalyticsaspects.

Forexample,Indoorway(http://www.geomarketing.com/indoorwaycombinesindoornavigationlocationanalytics),anIPSprovidersthat
usesacombinationofwifi,Bluetooth,andmagneticpositioning,hashelpedretailersunderstandcustomersroutinesandhabits,and
thereforemonetizethespaceoftheirfacilities,accordingtoCEOKonradStanik.[49]

BTsInstoreVisibility(http://www.geomarketing.com/retailnextsnewventuretracksproductsnotpeople)isaninterestinginversion,where
theyvebeentrackingtheproductspositionwithinthestore,ratherthanthecustomers.Thatmeanstheycanseewhenanitemispickedupand
walkedaroundthestoreorbroughttothefittingroom,andwhetheritsputbackontheshelforultimatelypurchased.Inthisway,theyreable
togetabetterunderstandingofhowtheconsumerisinteractingwiththeproduct.[49]

Seealso
Automaticvehiclelocation
BluetoothSMART
Cyberphysicalsystem
EkahauSiteSurvey
Floorplansandhousenavigationsystem.
Fuzzylocatingsystem
Homeautomation
InternetofThings(IoT)
GSMlocalization
Motionplanning
Navizon
Nearfieldcommunication(NFC)
Pointr
Realtimelocatingsystem(RTLS)
Roboticmapping
SensorFusion
SkyhookWireless
Visiblelightcommunication(VLC)andLiFi

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Externallinks
EZLocalization(http://research.microsoft.com/enus/projects/ez/)
Micromapping(http://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/Micromapping)inOpenStreetMap
IndoorMapping(http://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/Indoor_Mapping)inOpenStreetMap
IPINConferences.(http://www.ipinconference.org/)
IndoorPositioningexplained(http://www.lighting.philips.com/main/education/lightinguniversity/lightinguniversity
browser/webinar/indoorpositioning.html)

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Categories: Automaticidentificationanddatacapture Geolocation Radiofrequencyidentification Radionavigation Tracking

Ubiquitouscomputing Wirelesslocating Maps Indoorpositioningsystem

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