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Definitions Series
f (n) = O(g(n)) iff positive c, n0 such that n n n
X n(n + 1) X n(n + 1)(2n + 1) X n2 (n + 1)2
0 f (n) cg(n) n n0 . i= , i2 = , i3 = .
i=1
2 i=1
6 i=1
4
f (n) = (g(n)) iff positive c, n0 such that
In general:
f (n) cg(n) 0 n n0 . n n
X 1 X
im = (n + 1)m+1 1 (i + 1)m+1 im+1 (m + 1)im
f (n) = (g(n)) iff f (n) = O(g(n)) and m+1
f (n) = (g(n)). i=1 i=1
n1 m
X 1 X m+1
f (n) = o(g(n)) iff limn f (n)/g(n) = 0. im = Bk nm+1k .
i=1
m + 1 k
k=0
lim an = a iff > 0, n0 such that
n Geometric series:
|an a| < , n n0 . n
X cn+1 1 X 1 X c
sup S least b R such that b s, ci = , c 6= 1, ci = , ci = , |c| < 1,
i=0
c1 i=0
1c i=1
1c
s S.
n
X ncn+2 (n + 1)cn+1 + c X c
inf S greatest b R such that b ici = , c 6= 1, ici = , |c| < 1.
s, s S. i=0
(c 1)2 i=0
(1 c)2
Harmonic series:
lim inf an lim inf{ai | i n, i N}. n n
n n X 1 X n(n + 1) n(n 1)
Hn = , iHi = Hn .
lim sup an lim sup{ai | i n, i N}. i=1
i i=1
2 4
n n
n n
n
X X i n+1 1
k Combinations: Size k sub- Hi = (n + 1)Hn n, Hi = Hn+1 .
sets of a size n set. i=1 i=1
m m+1 m+1
n n
Stirling numbers (1st kind):
k n n! X n n n n
Arrangements of an n ele- 1. = , 2. =2 , 3. = ,
k (n k)!k! k k nk
k=0
ment set into k cycles.
n n n1 n n1 n1
n 4. = , 5. = + ,
k Stirling numbers (2nd kind): k k k1 k k k1
Partitions of an n element
n m n nk
X n
r+k
r+n+1
set into k non-empty sets. 6. = , 7. = ,
m k k mk k n
n k=0
1st order Eulerian numbers: n n
k X k n+1 X r s r+s
Permutations 1 2 . . . n on 8. = , 9. = ,
m m+1 k nk n
{1, 2, . . . , n} with k ascents. k=0
k=0
kn1
n n n
= (1)k
n
2nd order Eulerian numbers. 10. , 11. = = 1,
k k k 1 n
Cn Catalan Numbers: Binary
n
n
n1
n1
n1
trees with n + 1 vertices. 12. = 2 1, 13. = k + ,
2 k k k1
n n n n n
14. = (n 1)!, 15. = (n 1)!Hn1 , 16. = 1, 17. ,
1 2 n k k
n
n1
n1
n n n n X n 1 2n
18. = (n 1) + , 19. = = , 20. = n!, 21. Cn = ,
k k k1 n1 n1 2 k n+1 n
k=0
n n n n n n1 n1
22. = = 1, 23. = , 24. = (k + 1) + (n k) ,
0 n1 k n1k k k k1
n
0 1 if k = 0, n n n+1
25. = 26. = 2n n 1, 27. = 3n (n + 1)2n + ,
k 0 otherwise 1 2 2
n X m X n
X n x+k n n+1 n n k
28. xn = , 29. = (m + 1 k)n (1)k , 30. m! = ,
k n m k m k nm
k=0 k=0 k=0
X n
nk
n n nkm n n
31. = (1) k!, 32. = 1, 33. = 0 for n 6= 0,
m k m 0 n
k=0
n
(2n)n
n n1 n1 X n
34. = (k + 1) + (2n 1 k) , 35. = ,
k k k1 k 2n
k=0
X n X X n
x n x+n1k n+1 n k k
36. = , 37. = = (m + 1)nk ,
xn k 2n m+1 k m m
k=0 k k=0
Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Identities Cont. Trees
n n n
Every tree with n
X n k
n+1 X k X 1 k x X n x+k
38. = = nnk = n! , 39. = , vertices has n 1
m+1 k m m k! m xn k 2n
k k=0 k=0 k=0
X X edges.
n n k+1 nk n n+1 k
40. = (1) , 41. = (1)mk , Kraft inequal-
m k m+1 m k+1 m
k k ity: If the depths
X m X m
m+n+1 n+k m+n+1 n+k of the leaves of
42. = k , 43. = k(n + k) ,
m k m k a binary tree are
k=0 k=0
d1 , . . . , dn :
X X
n n+1 k n n+1 k
44. = (1)mk , 45. (n m)! = (1)mk , for n m, n
m k+1 m m k+1 m
X
k X k 2di 1,
n mn m+n m+k n X m nm + n m + k i=1
46. = , 47. = ,
nm m+k n+k k nm m+k n+k k and equality holds
k X k
only if every in-
nk
X
k nk n
n +m k n n +m
48. = , 49. = . ternal node has 2
+m m k +m m k
k k
sons.
Recurrences
Master method: Generating functions:
T (n) = aT (n/b) + f (n), a 1, b > 1 1 T (n) 3T (n/2) = n 1. Multiply both sides of the equa-
tion by xi .
log b a 3 T (n/2) 3T (n/4) = n/2
If > 0 such that f (n) = O(n )
.. .. .. 2. Sum both sides over all i for
then
. . . which the equation is valid.
T (n) = (nlogb a ).
log2 n1 3. Choose a generatingPfunction
3 T (2) 3T (1) = 2
If f (n) = (nlogb a ) then G(x). Usually G(x) = i
i=0 x gi .
T (n) = (nlogb a log2 n). Let m = log2 n. Summing the left side 3. Rewrite the equation in terms of
we get T (n) 3m T (1) = T (n) 3m = the generating function G(x).
If > 0 such that f (n) = (nlogb a+ ), T (n) nk where k = log2 3 1.58496.
and c < 1 such that af (n/b) cf (n) 4. Solve for G(x).
Summing the right side we get 5. The coefficient of xi in G(x) is gi .
for large n, then m1
X n m1
Example:
X i
i 3
T (n) = (f (n)). i
3 = n 2 .
i=0
2 i=0
gi+1 = 2gi + 1, g0 = 0.
Substitution (example): Consider the
Let c = 23 . Then we have Multiply
X and sum:
following recurrence X X
i
Ti+1 = 22 Ti2 , T1 = 2.
m1
X m
c 1
gi+1 xi = 2gi xi + xi .
i
n c =n i0 i0 i0
c1
Note that Ti is always a power of two. i=0
We choose G(x) = i0 xi gi . Rewrite
P
Let ti = log2 Ti . Then we have = 2n(clog2 n 1)
in terms of G(x):
ti+1 = 2i + 2ti , t1 = 1.
= 2n(c(k1) logc n 1) G(x) g0 X
= 2G(x) + xi .
Let ui = ti /2i . Dividing both sides of = 2nk 2n, x
i0
the previous equation by 2i+1 we get
ti+1 2i ti k
and so T (n) = 3n 2n. Full history re- Simplify:
= + i. G(x) 1
2 i+1 2 i+1 2 currences can often be changed to limited = 2G(x) + .
history ones (example): Consider x 1x
Substituting we find i1
ui+1 = 21 + ui , u1 = 12 , X Solve for G(x):
Ti = 1 + Tj , T0 = 1. x
G(x) = .
which is simply ui = i/2. So we find j=0 (1 x)(1 2x)
i1
that Ti has the closed form Ti = 2i2 . Note that
i Expand this
using partial fractions:
Summing factors (example): Consider X 2 1
the following recurrence Ti+1 = 1 + Tj . G(x) = x
j=0 1 2x 1 x
T (n) = 3T (n/2) + n, T (1) = 1.
Rewrite so that all terms involving T Subtracting we find X X
i i1 = x 2 2i xi xi
are on the left side
X X
Ti+1 Ti = 1 + Tj 1 Tj i0 i0
T (n) 3T (n/2) = n. j=0 j=0
X
i+1 i+1
= (2 1)x .
Now expand the recurrence, and choose = Ti . i0
a factor which makes the left side tele-
scope And so Ti+1 = 2Ti = 2i+1 . So gi = 2i 1.
Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
1+ 5 1 5
3.14159, e 2.71828, 0.57721, = 2 1.61803, = 2 .61803
i 2i pi General Probability
1 2 2 Bernoulli Numbers (Bi = 0, odd i 6= 1): Continuous distributions: If
Z b
2 4 3 B0 = 1, B1 = 21 , B2 = 61 , B4 = 30
1
, Pr[a < X < b] = p(x) dx,
1 1 5
3 8 5 B6 = 42 , B8 = 30 , B10 = 66 . a
ber iff x = 2n1 (2n 1) and 2n 1 is prime. k-Tough S V, S 6= we have Area of triangle (x0 , y0 ), (x1 , y1 )
Wilsons theorem: n is a prime iff k c(G S) |S|. and (x2 , y2 ):
(n 1)! 1 mod n. k-Regular A graph where all vertices 1
x1 x0 y1 y0
2 abs x x
.
have degree k. 2 0 y2 y0
Mobius
inversion: k-Factor A k-regular spanning
1 if i = 1. Angle formed by three points:
subgraph.
0 if i is not square-free.
(i) = r Matching A set of edges, no two of
(1) if i is the product of
(x2 , y2 )
r distinct primes. which are adjacent.
2
Clique A set of vertices, all of
If
X which are adjacent.
G(a) = F (d), (0, 0) 1 (x1 , y1 )
Ind. set A set of vertices, none of
d|a
which are adjacent. (x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 )
cos = .
then X a Vertex cover A set of vertices which 1 2
F (a) = (d)G . cover all edges. Line through two points (x0 , y0 )
d
d|a Planar graph A graph which can be em- and (x1 , y1 ):
Prime numbers: beded in the plane. x y 1
ln ln n
Plane graph An embedding of a planar x0 y0 1 = 0.
pn = n ln n + n ln ln n n + n
ln n graph. x1 y1 1
n Area of circle, volume of sphere:
+O ,
X
ln n deg(v) = 2m.
vV
A = r2 , V = 34 r3 .
n n 2!n
(n) = + + If G is planar then n m + f = 2, so
ln n (ln n)2 (ln n)3 If I have seen farther than others,
f 2n 4, m 3n 6. it is because I have stood on the
n
+O . Any planar graph has a vertex with de- shoulders of giants.
(ln n)4
gree 5. Issac Newton
Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Calculus
Wallis identity: Derivatives:
2 2 4 4 6 6
=2 d(cu) du d(u + v) du dv d(uv) dv du
1 3 3 5 5 7 1. =c , 2. = + , 3. =u +v ,
dx dx dx dx dx dx dx dx
Brounckers continued fraction expansion:
v du dv
12 d(un ) du d(u/v) dx u d(ecu ) du
4. = nun1 , 5. = dx
, 6. = cecu ,
4 = 1+ 32 dx dx dx v2 dx dx
2+ 52
2+
2+ 72 d(cu ) du d(ln u) 1 du
2+
7. = (ln c)cu , 8. = ,
dx dx dx u dx
Gregrorys series:
1 1 1 1 d(sin u) du d(cos u) du
4 =1 3 + 5 7 + 9 9. = cos u , 10. = sin u ,
dx dx dx dx
Newtons series:
d(tan u) du d(cot u) du
1 1 13 11. = sec2 u , 12. = csc2 u ,
= + + + dx dx dx dx
6 2 232 3 2 4 5 25 d(sec u) du d(csc u) du
Sharps series: 13. = tan u sec u , 14. = cot u csc u ,
dx dx dx dx
1 1 1 1 d(arcsin u) 1 du d(arccos u) 1 du
= 1 1 + 2 3 + 15. = , 16. = ,
6
3 3 3 3 5 3 7 dx 1 u dx
2 dx 1 u2 dx
Eulers series: d(arctan u) 1 du d(arccot u) 1 du
17. = , 18. = ,
dx 1 + u2 dx dx 1 + u2 dx
2 1 1 1 1 1
6 = 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 + d(arcsec u) 1 du d(arccsc u) 1 du
2
19. = , 20. = ,
= 1
+ 1
+ 1
+ 1
+ 1
+ dx u 1 u dx
2 dx u 1 u dx
2
8 12 32 52 72 92
2
= 1
1
+ 1
1
+ 1
d(sinh u) du d(cosh u) du
12 12 22 32 42 52 21. = cosh u , 22. = sinh u ,
dx dx dx dx
Partial Fractions d(tanh u) du d(coth u) du
23. = sech2 u , 24. = csch2 u ,
Let N (x) and D(x) be polynomial func- dx dx dx dx
tions of x. We can break down d(sech u) du d(csch u) du
N (x)/D(x) using partial fraction expan- 25. = sech u tanh u , 26. = csch u coth u ,
dx dx dx dx
sion. First, if the degree of N is greater
than or equal to the degree of D, divide d(arcsinh u) 1 du d(arccosh u) 1 du
27. = , 28. = ,
N by D, obtaining dx 1 + u dx
2 dx u 1 dx
2
where Z Z
1 dk N (x)
Ak = . 10. tan x dx = ln | cos x|, 11. cot x dx = ln | cos x|,
k! dxk D(x) x=a Z Z
12. sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x|, 13. csc x dx = ln | csc x + cot x|,
The reasonable man adapts himself to the
world; the unreasonable persists in trying Z p
to adapt the world to himself. Therefore 14. arcsin xa dx = arcsin xa + a2 x2 , a > 0,
all progress depends on the unreasonable.
George Bernard Shaw
Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Calculus Cont.
Z p Z
15. arccos x
a dx = arccos x
a a2 x2 , a > 0, 16. arctan xa dx = x arctan xa a
2 ln(a2 + x2 ), a > 0,
Z Z
sin2 (ax)dx = 1
cos2 (ax)dx = 1
17. 2a ax sin(ax) cos(ax) , 18. 2a ax + sin(ax) cos(ax) ,
Z Z
19. sec2 x dx = tan x, 20. csc2 x dx = cot x,
dx
Z p
39. = ln x + a2 + x2 , a > 0,
a2 + x2
dx
Z Z p p 2
1 x
40. 2 2
= a arctan a , a > 0, 41. a2 x2 dx = x2 a2 x2 + a2 arcsin xa , a > 0,
a +x
Z p 4
42. (a2 x2 )3/2 dx = x8 (5a2 2x2 ) a2 x2 + 3a8 arcsin xa , a > 0,
dx dx 1 a + x dx x
Z Z Z
x
43. = arcsin a , a > 0, 44. 2 2
= ln , 45. 2 2 3/2
= ,
2
a x 2 a x 2a ax (a x ) a a2 x2
2
dx
Z p p Z
2
p p
46. a2 x2 dx = x2 a2 x2 a2 ln x + a2 x2 , 47. = ln x + x2 a2 , a > 0,
x2 a2
2(3bx 2a)(a + bx)3/2
dx 1 x
Z Z
48. 2
= ln , 49. x a + bx dx = ,
ax + bx a a + bx 15b2
Z
a + bx 1 x 1 a + bx a
Z Z
50. dx = 2 a + bx + a dx, 51. dx = ln , a > 0,
x x a + bx a + bx 2 a + bx + a
Z 2 a + a2 x2
a x2 p Z p
52. 2 2
dx = a x a ln , 53. x a2 x2 dx = 13 (a2 x2 )3/2 ,
x x
a + a2 x2
dx
Z p p Z
4
54. x2 a2 x2 dx = x8 (2x2 a2 ) a2 x2 + a8 arcsin xa , a > 0, 55. = a1 ln ,
2
a x 2 x
2
x dx x dx
Z p Z p 2
56. = a2 x2 , 57. = x2 a2 x2 + a2 arcsin a, x
a > 0,
2
a x 2 a 2 x2
a2 + x2 a + a2 + x2 x2 a2
Z p Z p
a
58. dx = a2 + x2 a ln , 59. dx = x2 a2 a arccos |x| , a > 0,
x x x
dx x
Z p Z
x x2 a2 dx = 31 (x2 a2 )3/2 , = a1 ln
60. 61. ,
x x2 + a2 a + a2 + x2
Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Calculus Cont. Finite Calculus
dx dx x2 a2 Difference, shift operators:
Z Z
1 a
62. = a arccos |x| , a > 0, 63. = ,
x x2 a2 x2 x2 a2 a2 x f (x) = f (x + 1) f (x),
x dx x2 a2 (x2 + a2 )3/2 E f (x) = f (x + 1).
Z p Z
64. = x2 a2 , 65. dx = ,
x2 a2 x4 3a2 x3 Fundamental Theorem:
2ax + b b2 4ac X
1 f (x) = F (x) f (x)x = F (x) + C.
ln , if b2 > 4ac,
dx
Z 2
b 4ac 2
2ax + b + b 4ac b b1
=
66. X X
ax2 + bx + c 2 2ax + b f (x)x = f (i).
arctan if b2 < 4ac,
, a i=a
4ac b2 4ac b2
Differences:
1 p
(cu) = cu, (u + v) = u + v,
ln 2ax + b + 2 a ax2 + bx + c , if a > 0,
dx a
Z
67. = (uv) = uv + E vu,
ax2 + bx + c 1 2ax b
arcsin , if a < 0, (xn ) = nxn1 ,
a b2 4ac
(Hx ) = x1 , (2x ) = 2x ,
2ax + b p 2 4ax b2 dx
Z p Z
x x
ax2 + bx + c dx = (cx ) = (c 1)cx ,
68. ax + bx + c + , m = m1 .
4a 8a 2
ax + bx + c
Sums:
x dx ax2
+ bx + c b dx
Z Z P P
cu x = c u x,
69. = ,
2
ax + bx + c a 2a 2
ax + bx + c P P P
(u + v) x = u x + v x,
1 2 c ax2 + bx + c + bx + 2c P P
uv x = uv E vu x,
c ln , if c > 0,
dx x
Z
n+1
= x x = xm+1 ,
P n P 1
70. x x = Hx ,
2
x ax + bx + c 1 bx + 2c
arcsin
, if c < 0, P x c x P x
x
c |x| b2 4ac c x = c1 , m x = m+1 .
Z p Falling Factorial Powers:
71. x3 x2 + a2 dx = ( 13 x2 15
2 2
a )(x2 + a2 )3/2 ,
xn = x(x 1) (x n + 1), n > 0,
0
x = 1,
Z Z
72. xn sin(ax) dx = a1 xn cos(ax) + n
a xn1 cos(ax) dx,
1
xn = , n < 0,
Z Z (x + 1) (x + |n|)
n 1 n n n1
73. x cos(ax) dx = ax sin(ax) x sin(ax) dx,
a xn+m = xm (x m)n .
Z
xn eax
Z Rising Factorial Powers:
74. xn eax dx = n
xn1 eax dx,
a a xn = x(x + 1) (x + n 1), n > 0,
ln(ax) 1
Z
75. xn ln(ax) dx = xn+1 , x0 = 1,
n+1 (n + 1)2 1
n+1 xn = , n < 0,
x m
Z Z
(x 1) (x |n|)
76. xn (ln ax)m dx = (ln ax)m xn (ln ax)m1 dx.
n+1 n+1 xn+m = xm (x + m)n .
Conversion:
x1 = x1 = x1 xn = (1)n (x)n = (x n + 1)n
x2 = x2 + x1 = x2 x1 = 1/(x + 1)n ,
x3 = x3 + 3x2 + x1 = x3 3x2 + x1 xn = (1)n (x)n = (x + n 1)n
x4 = x + 6x3 + 7x2 + x1
4
= x 6x3 + 7x2 x1
4
= 1/(x 1)n ,
x5 = x5 + 15x4 + 25x3 + 10x2 + x1 = x5 15x4 + 25x3 10x2 + x1 Xn
n k X n
n
xn = x = (1)nk xk ,
k k
x1 = x1 x1 = x1 k=1 k=1
n
x2 = x + x1
2
x2 = x x1
2 X n
xn = (1)nk xk ,
x3 = x3 + 3x2 + 2x1 x3 = x3 3x2 + 2x1 k
k=1
n
x4 = x4 + 6x3 + 11x2 + 6x1 x4 = x4 6x3 + 11x2 6x1 n
X n k
x = x .
x5 = x5 + 10x4 + 35x3 + 50x2 + 24x1 x5 = x5 10x4 + 35x3 50x2 + 24x1 k
k=1
Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Series
Taylors series: Ordinary power series:
(x a)2
X (x a)i
f (x) = f (a) + (x a)f (a) + f (a) + = f (i) (a).
X
2 i! A(x) = ai xi .
i=0 i=0
Expansions:
1 X Exponential power series:
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + = xi ,
xi
1x
X
i=0 A(x) = ai .
i!
1 X i=0
= 1 + cx + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + = ci xi , Dirichlet power series:
1 cx i=0
1
X ai
A(x) = .
X
= 1 + x n
+ x 2n
+ x 3n
+ = xni , ix
1 xn i=0 i=1
Binomial theorem:
x X
2 3
= x + 2x + 3x + 4x + 4
= ixi , n
n nk k
(1 x)2
X
i=0 (x + y)n = x y .
n k
X n k!z k X k=0
= x + 2 n 2
x + 3 n 3
x + 4 n 4
x + = in xi , Difference of like powers:
k (1 z)k+1 i=0
k=0
n1
xi
X
xn y n = (x y) xn1k y k .
X
ex = 1 + x + 21 x2 + 16 x3 + = ,
i=0
i! k=0
X xi For ordinary power series:
ln(1 + x) = x 12 x2 + 31 x3 41 x4 = (1)i+1 ,
i X
i=1 A(x) + B(x) = (ai + bi )xi ,
i
1 Xx i=0
ln = x + 21 x2 + 31 x3 + 41 x4 + = ,
1x i X
i=1
xk A(x) = aik xi ,
X x2i+1
sin x = x 3! 1 3
x + 5! 1 5
x 7! 1 7
x + = (1)i , i=k
(2i + 1)! Pk1 i
i=0 A(x) ai x X
x2i
i=0
= ai+k xi ,
xk
X
cos x = 1 2! 1 2
x + 4! 1 4
x 6! 1 6
x + = (1)i , i=0
i=0
(2i)!
X
X
x2i+1 A(cx) = ci ai xi ,
tan1 x = x 31 x3 + 51 x5 71 x7 + = (1)i , i=0
i=0
(2i + 1)
X
n i A (x) = (i + 1)ai+1 xi ,
= 1 + nx + n(n1)
X
(1 + x)n 2 x 2
+ = x,
i=0
i i=0
1 i+n i
X
xA (x) = iai xi ,
X
n+2 2
= 1 + (n + 1)x + 2 x + = x,
(1 x)n+1 i=0
i i=1
Bi xi ai1
Z
x X
xi ,
X
1 1 2 1 4 A(x) dx =
= 1 2 x + 12 x 720 x + = ,
x
e 1 i! i=1
i
i=0
1 2 3
X 1 2i i A(x) + A(x) X
(1 1 4x) = 1 + x + 2x + 5x + = x, = a2i x2i ,
2x i=0
i+1 i 2 i=0
1 X 2i i A(x) A(x)
= 1 + 2x + 6x2 + 20x3 + = x, =
X
a2i+1 x2i+1 .
1 4x i=0
i 2
n i=0
1 1 4x
1 4+n 2
X 2i + n i Pi
= 1 + (2 + n)x + 2 x + = x, Summation: If bi = j=0 ai then
1 4x 2x i=0
i
1
1 1 X B(x) = A(x).
ln 3 2 11 3 25 4
= x + 2 x + 6 x + 12 x + = Hi xi , 1x
1x 1x i=1 Convolution:
2
Hi1 xi
1 1 X i
ln = 21 x2 + 43 x3 + 24 11 4
x + = , X X
2 1x i A(x)B(x) = aj bij xi .
i=2
i=0 j=0
x X
= x + x 2
+ 2x 3
+ 3x 4
+ = Fi xi ,
1 x x2 i=0 God made the natural numbers;
Fn x X all the rest is the work of man.
= F n x + F 2n x 2
+ F 3n x 3
+ = Fni xi .
1 (Fn1 + Fn+1 )x (1)n x2 Leopold Kronecker
i=0
Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Series Eschers Knot
Expansions:
n
1 1 X n+i i 1 X i
n+1
ln = (Hn+i Hn ) x, = xi ,
(1 x) 1x i=0
i x i=0
n
X n i X i n!xi
xn = x, x
(e 1) n
= ,
i=0
i i=0
n i!
n
i n!xi (4)i B2i x2i
1 X X
ln = , x cot x = ,
1x i=0
n i! i=0
(2i)!
2i 2i 2i1
i1 2 (2 1)B2i x 1
X X
tan x = (1) , (x) = x
,
i=1
(2i)! i=1
i
1 X (i) (x 1) X (i)
= x
, = ,
(x) i=1
i (x) i=1
ix
Y 1
(x) = , Stieltjes Integration
p
1 px
If G is continuous in the interval [a, b] and F is nondecreasing then
X d(i) Z b
2 (x)
P
= where d(n) = d|n 1,
xi G(x) dF (x)
i=1 a
X S(i) P exists. If a b c then
(x)(x 1) = where S(n) = d|n d, Z c b c
xi
Z Z
i=1 G(x) dF (x) = G(x) dF (x) + G(x) dF (x).
2n1
2 |B2n | 2n a a b
(2n) = , n N, If the integrals involved exist
(2n)! Z b Z b Z b
x (4i 2)B2i x2i
X G(x) + H(x) dF (x) = G(x) dF (x) + H(x) dF (x),
= (1)i1 , a a a
sin x i=0
(2i)! Z b Z b Z b
n
1 1 4x X n(2i + n 1)! G(x) d F (x) + H(x) = G(x) dF (x) + G(x) dH(x),
= xi , a a a
2x i=0
i!(n + i)! Z b Z b
Z b
i/2 i c G(x) dF (x) = G(x) d c F (x) = c G(x) dF (x),
x
X 2 sin 4 i a a a
e sin x = x, b b
i!
Z Z
i=1 G(x) dF (x) = G(b)F (b) G(a)F (a) F (x) dG(x).
s
a a
1 1x (4i)!
If the integrals involved exist, and F possesses a derivative F at every
X
= xi ,
x i=0
i
16 2(2i)!(2i + 1)! point in [a, b] then
2 Z b Z b
4i i!2
arcsin x X
= x2i . G(x) dF (x) = G(x)F (x) dx.
x i=0
(i + 1)(2i + 1)! a a