LAB MANUAL

Circuits and Measurement Lab

EE-395

Department of Electrical Engineering

Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology
Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh

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 Course Title Circuit and Measurement Lab
Course number EE-395
Credit Value 2.0
Course Category DC
Pre-requisite EE-111 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering;
EE-276 Circuit Theory; EE-251N Electrical Measurement
Contact Hours (L-T-P) 0-0-3
Type of Course Practical
Course Objectives For the enhancement of theoretical knowledge and to give the practical exposure
to different electrical circuits, transducers, ac bridges, instruments and
measurement procedures.
Course After completing the course, the students will be able to:
Outcomes 1. Determine electrical parameters by using different bridges.
2. Determine the performance parameters and calibrate different measuring
devices.
3. Generate resonance in series and parallel RLC circuits.
4. Analyze the performance characteristics of thermal and optical transducers.
5. Verify network theorems and determine z & h parameters for given electrical
networks.
Syllabus List of Experiments

1 To determine the resistance of ferry alloy by Kelvins

double bridge method.
2 To measure harmonics in a simulated distorted electrical
signal using lab view.
3 To determine inductance and resistance of a coil by
Anderson bridge method at different frequencies.
4 To perform experiments for resonance of series RLC circuit
and parallel RLC circuit, and to plot resonance curves.
5 Study of characteristics of thermal and optical transducers:
(a) To study the resistance-temperature characteristics of
the thermistor and (b) To study the resistance-insolation
characteristics of a light dependent resistor (LDR).
6 To Calibrate the given thermocouple pyrometer.
7 For a given circuit, verify experimentally: (a) Thevenins
Theorem and (b) Superposition Theorem.
8 Determine z and h parameters of two-port network.

1. V. Del Toro, Electrical Engineering Fundamentals, PHI Learning, New Delhi.

Books*/References 2. A.K. Sawhney, A course of Electrical and Electronic Measurement and
Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai & Co (Pvt.) Ltd., Delhi, 1999.
Course Assessment/ Evaluation of each lab reports, 60 Marks
Evaluation/Grading Sessional Viva-voce held every week on each lab report
Policy Sessional Total 60 Marks
End Semester Examination (2 Hours) 40 Marks

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 Total 100 Marks

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

PEO 1: Students will have a successful technical or professional careers, including supportive and
leadership roles on multidisciplinary teams.

PEO 2: Students will be able to acquire, use and develop skills as required for effective professional
practices.

PEO 3: Students will be able to attain holistic education that is an essential prerequisite for being a
responsible member of society.

PEO 4: Students will be engaged in life-long learning, to remain abreast in their profession and be
leaders in our technologically vibrant society.

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

a) Students will demonstrate knowledge of mathematics, science and Electrical Engineering.

b) Students will demonstrate an ability to identify, formulate and solve Electrical engineering problems.
c) Students will demonstrate an ability to design electrical and electronic circuits and conduct
experiments with electrical systems, analyze and interpret data.
d) Students will demonstrate an ability to design a system, component or process as per needs and
specification within realistic constraints.
e) Students will demonstrate an ability to visualize and work on laboratory and multidisciplinary tasks.
f) Students will demonstrate skills to use modern engineering tools, software and equipment to analyze
problems.
g) Students will demonstrate knowledge of professional and ethical responsibilities.
h) Students will be able to communicate effectively.
i) Students will show the understanding of impact of engineering solutions on the society and also will
be aware of contemporary issues.
j) Students will develop confidence for self-education and ability to engage in life-long learning.
k) Students can participate and succeed in competitive examinations.

Mapping with POs

POs a b c d e f g h i j k
x x x x x x x x

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 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR PERFORMING EXPERIMENTS IN THE LAB

1. All students shall carry out experiments in groups.

2. Each group will carry out a particular experiment, assigned to them in each term.

3. The next experiment to be performed is the next experiment mentioned in the list of

experiments (cyclic order).

4. The student should come prepared and should go through the experiment sheet

provided to them and the relevant theory.

5. After completion of the connection of circuit, get the connection checked by Instructor

or lab staff.

6. After performing the experiment, get the observation signed by a teacher.

7. Submit the Report, complete in all respect, on the consecutive next turn. Provide

sample calculation, graph, comment on result etc.

8. No student will be allowed to proceed to next experiment, unless he/she submits the

report of previous experiment. In such case no attendance will be marked for the

defaulter student.

9. The lab report will be checked and viva-voce will be held at the time submission on

each tern.

10. The Instructors and lab staff are available to assist the students in their work.

11. In case of any accident while performing experiments, turn off the power supply

immediately. Use fire extinguisher, if anything catches fire.

12. In case of any injury, use the first aid kit provided in the lab.

13. It is prohibited to smoke, eat or drink in the laboratory.

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 14. The class room discipline has to be maintained in the laboratory.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES & EQUIPMENT

Generally the equipment and devices discussed are:

1. Nature and types of measuring instruments

2. Basic measuring instruments
3. Power supplies
4. Digital/electronic Instruments
1. Nature of Measured Quantity and Number of Measuring Elements

i. Direct current circuit and/or dc responding measuring element

ii. Alternating current circuit and/or ac responding measuring element
iii. Direct and/or alternating current circuit and/or dc and ac responding measuring element

Safety

Chassis (casing or body) of instrument is normally connected to ground terminal of the

input ac power supply, for the safety of working personnel.
In case of CRO used in power electronics lab, it could give an electric shock to working
personnel and cause short-circuit condition with COMMON terminal of probe at the
negative terminal of the ac-to dc converter, which is a floating point (in the negative half-
cycle, it is at input phase (negative) level i.e. -2340V). Thus remove GROUND of input ac
power supply of CRO and be careful. The COMMON terminal is now floating which is
protected from short circuit but it still gives an electric shock while touching it.
High voltage flash may appear to working personnel during measurement (e.g. using
DMM), which is due to the transmitted effect of lighting stroke through power supply
wires/ conductors.
Position of use
i. Instrument to be used with the dial vertical
ii. Instrument to be used with the dial horizontal
iii. Instrument to be used with the dial inclined (for example 60o) from the horizontal plane

Principal of Operation of Instruments (type)

i. Permanent magnet movingcoil instrument

ii. Permanent-magnet ratio-meter (quotient-meter)
iii. Moving-iron instrument
iv. Polarized moving-iron instrument
v. Moving-iron ratio-meter
vi. Induction instrument
vii. Electrostatic instrument
viii. Vibrating-reed instrument
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 ix. Non-insulated thermo-couple (thermal converter)
x. Insulated thermocouple (thermal converter)
xi. Electronic device in a measuring circuit

Use & Application of Instruments

Type of Instrument Suitability Major uses
PMMC (dArsonval D.C. Most widely used meter for d.c. current, voltage and
type) resistance measurements. Good accuracy.
Moving Iron A.C. (D.C. also Inexpensive type used for currents and voltages at
possible with power frequency. Also used in indicators/ panels.
correction) Not very accurate.
Rectifier D.C. or A.C. It is combination of rectifier and PMMC instruments.
Good for variable frequency measurement including
power frequency. Good for low impedance circuits.
Electrodynamometer Both D.C. and Widely used for precise power measurements. Used
A.C. as standard meter for calibration (AC/DC) and called
as transfer instrument.Alsoused for precise a.c.
current and voltage measurements at power
frequencies.
Heating effect Both A.C. & Used for ac current, voltage and power measurement
D.C. at variable or radio frequency. Used for distorted or
non-sinusoidal waveforms..
Thermocouple D.C. or A.C. Measurement of voltage, power etc. at variable or
(Heating effect) radio frequency. Used for distorted or non-sinusoidal
waveforms.
Induction type A.C. only Current, voltage, power & energy measurement.
Electrostatic D.C. (or A.C. at Measurement of high voltages.
one frequency)
Hall effect A.C. & D.C. For power and current measurement, AC or DC
current probes and also used as transducers for
current & power.

2. Basic Measuring Instruments: The Basic measuring instruments commonly used in the
laboratories are the instruments needed to measure the basic electrical quantities such as currents
and voltages and include ammeters, voltmeters and multi-meters.

(a) Ammeters and Voltmeters: The ammeters, used to measure electric currents with very low
internal resistance are used in series with the load. Voltmeters have high internal impedance and
are connected in parallel with the load to measure voltages. Both instruments have their terminals
marked with + & - polarities and should be carefully used with correct polarities. These
instruments are available in different ranges and are accordingly named e.g., micro-ammeters,
milli-ammeters, milli-voltmeters etc. The voltmeters draw negligible amount of current from the
circuit under measurement and its sensitivity is expressed in ohms per volt. Typically a meter
movement having a 1 ma full-scale current has a sensitivity of 1000 Ohms/Volt whereas if the full-
scale current is 100 microampere, the sensitivity is designated as 10,000 Ohms/Volt. The higher

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the ohms-per-volt rating, the more sensitive is the meter and the smaller is the loading effect on
the circuit. A good voltmeter has sensitivity between 20,000 100,000 Ohms/V.

Precautions:
(i) Higher voltages/currents should never be measured on low-range meters.
(ii) The meters must always be connected to the circuits with correct polarities.
(iii) For accurate measurement, the meters must be kept stationary in horizontal position.

(b) Multi-meters: It incorporates voltmeter, ammeter and ohmmeter into one case, and same meter
movement is utilized for all of them. Generally it has three switches the function switch which
selects the type of measurement viz. current, voltage or resistance, the range switch, which selects
different ranges, and the mode switch which selects the ac or dc mode of operation. Two types of
multi-meters are generally available in the laboratories Analog and Digital. In digital multi-
meters, digital panel meter consisting of LCD or LED display with A-to-D converter and some
processing circuitry replaces the meter movement. Batteries are used as a power supply in most
solid-state multi-meter.

(I) Analog multi-meter: A typical AMM, which is widely used in laboratories, is SIMPSON Model
260-6M. It has 8 ranges for dc voltage measurement, 6 ranges for ac voltage measurement, 5 ranges
for dc current, 3 ranges for resistance measurement, and 1 for power measurement in dBs as
marked on the front panel. It has a single switch serving the functions of both mode and function
switches.

(ii) Digital Multi-meters: Generally DMMs available in the laboratories are hand-held and auto-
ranging having a power ON/OFF switch and separate jacks for measurements and are so simple to
use that needs no explanation. DMMs are becoming more common and are replacing the analog
multimeters (AMMs) in the laboratories today.

3. Power Supplies: The electronic circuits employing active devices need dc voltages for their
operation, which are derived from ac mains and should be free from ripples and independent of
any variation in the ac mains voltage or in the load current drawn by the circuit itself. The
equipment providing such voltages are called Regulated Power Supply (RPS) Units. Fixed,
Variable and Dual RPS are needed in the laboratories and therefore, Multi-output RPS is
commonly available in various laboratories. As a sample RPS, the APLAB Transistorized RPS
Unit is described as follows:
The APLAB Multi Output RPS Model 7711: This power supply delivers three outputs.
(i) 0-30V dc output continuously variable with 2 Amps capacity. This output is suitable for general
purpose.
(ii) 5V pre-set dc output with 5 Amps. Capacity suitable for digital integrated circuits.
(iii) A symmetrical dual supply +15V, 0, -15 pre-set dc output with 500mA capacity, suitable for
linear IC circuits. All the outputs of Model 7711 are floating (i.e., neither any of the +ve output
neither terminals nor any of the ve output terminals nor any point within the regulator circuitry
is connected to ground).

Description:

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Input & output termination: The unit works from 230V ac supply through a mains cable with a 3-
pin plug, with a ground terminal for the safety of working personnel. All the output terminals are
provided on the front panel and are marked clearly.

Metering & panel controls:

+30V/2A Section: Two separate front panel meters continuously monitor the output voltage &
load current. The least count of the voltmeter is 0.5V on the scale 0-30V and that of the ammeter
is 50ma on 0-2.5A scale. Coarse and Fine controls are provided on the front panel for setting the
output voltage & current within the specified ranges.

Symmetrical Dual PS & +5V Sections: A single panel meter monitors, either +15V or 15V or
+5V section output, with the help of selector push switch provided on the front panel. The meter
has two scales. One is 4 to 6V and the other is12-18V. The least count of the 4-6V scale is 0.2V
and that of 12V to 18V is 0.5V. One sepwerate control is provided to adjust the output voltage of
+5V section from 4.5V to 5.5V and another one to adjust output voltage (+) & (-) 15V supply
section from 12V to 18V. The maximum load-current supplied by 5V section is 5.0Amps. And
that for Symmetrical Dual Supply section is 500mA.

Protection & Indication:

The outputs of all the three sections are fully protected against over loads & short circuits by means
of fold back characteristics. The outputs automatically reset after removal of over load. A built-in
Crowbar Circuit operates and reduces the output voltage below 2V in case output voltage tends
to exceed the crowbar limit (approx.6.2V) to protect the supply from over voltage.
The availability of the output voltages are indicated by the three red LEDs marked 5V, +15V & -
15V provided on the front panel.
The regulation is less than 0.1% and the ripples are less than 1mV. This supply can be used as CV
or CC supply. For setting the current limit of the 30V section, short-circuit the output terminals
and adjust the Current (COARSE & FINE controls) until the panel meter reads the desired value.
Leave the pots in this adjusted mode. The supply will now operate within the set voltage & current
limits and will crossover from voltage mode to current mode when the load increases or vice-versa.
The current limit of the other sections is pre-set, both output voltage & load current will start falling
simultaneously.

4. Digital and electronic instruments: These instruments are being widely used for general
purpose (e.g. digital multimeters) and special applications (e.g. digital energy meters). Now, it is
available at low cost and with good accuracy. Sometimes many measuring features are clubbed
together without any additional cost.

Digital Multimeter (DMM 4011)

Introduction
Hand-held
Compact Light-weight
High class Engineering & rugged design ensures very reliable performance.
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 DC/AC Volts.
DC/AC Currents.
Resistance, Capacitance, and Frequency Measurement.
Diode Testing & Continuity Testing.
Transistor hFE measurement.
10A Fuse protected.
Palm size.

Technical Specifications
Function Range Accuracy Input Maximum .Input
Impedance
DC Voltage 200mV 0.5% of rdg 1D 10M 1000 VDC or Peak
2V-20V-200V 0.6% of rdg 1D AC
1000V
AC Voltage (50- 200mV 1.0% of rdg 4D 10M 750 V rms
500Hz) 2V-20V-200V 1.5% of rdg 4D 300V rms at 200
750V mV
DC Current 2-20-200mA 1.2% of rdg 1D Burden Volts Protection
10A 2% of rdg 4D
0.7 V 0.5A/250V Fuse
10A/250V Fuse
10A/60Sec. Max.
Test Condition 500
Resistance 200 1.0% of rdg 3D 3V DC VDC or AC Peak
2V-2000K 0.8% of rdg 3D 0.3 V DCV
20MW 3.0% of rdg 3D
Diode Test Voltage 2V
Test Current (1 0.6mA)
Capacitance 2000pF 5% of rdg 400Hz-50mV
20-200nF 10D
2-20F
Frequency (Auto 2KHz-15MHz 0.5% of rdg Trig-Lo-1Vrms
Range) 1D Trig-Hi-2Vrms
HFE 0-1000 Ib=10A approx. Vca<3.5V

Continuity: 200 Beeper Sounds < 40 + 20

Resolution: For DC V & AC V: 100V
For DC & AC A: 1A
Res: 0.1 Freq: 10Hz
Large size LCD Display: 3 Digit 1999 counts
Auto zero/Auto Polarity
Over Range indication
2.5 Measurement/Sec.
Power 9V Battery: typical 225 Hours. Low Battery Indication
Operating Condition: 0-50oC 75%RH
Dimensions (mm): 151H x 70W x 38D
Weight: 200g with Battery. (Subject to change)

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OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS

Voltage Measurements
1. Connect the red test lead to the VA jack and the black test lead to the COM jack.
2. Set the Function/Range switch to the desired voltage range and slide the AC/DC selector
switch to the desired voltage type. If magnitude of voltage is not known, set switch to the
highest range and reduce until a satisfactory reading is obtained.
3. Connect the test leads to the device or circuit being measured.
4. For DC a (-) sign is displayed for negative polarity: positive polarity is implied.

Current Measurements
1. Set the function/Range switch to the desired current range and slide the AC/DC selector
switch to the desired current type.
2. For current measurements less than 200mA connect the red test lead to the VA jack
and the black test lead to the COM jack.
3. For current measurements of 200mA or greater, connect the red test lead to the 10A jack
& the black test lead to the COM jack. (10A for max. 60 sec.).
4. Remove power from the circuit under test and open the normal circuit path where the
measurement is to be taken. Connect the meter in series with the circuit.

Resistance and Continuity Measurements

1. Set the Function/Range switch to the desired resistance range or continuity position.
2. Remove power from the equipment under test.
3. Connect the red test lead to the VA jack and the black test lead to the COM jack.
4. Touch the probes to the test points. In ohms, the value indicated in the display is the
measured value of resistance. In continuity test, the beeper sounds continuously, if the
resistance is less than 4020.

Diode Tests
1. Connect the red test lead to the VA jack. And the black test lead to the COM jack.
2. Set the Function/Range switch to the position.
3. Turn off power to the circuit under test.
4. Touch probes to the diode. A forward voltage drop is about 0.6V (typical for a silicon
diode).
5. Reverse probes, if the diode is good. OL is displayed, if the diode is shorted, 000 or
another number is displayed.
6. If the diode is open OL is displayed in both directions.
7. If the junction is measured in a circuit and a low reading is obtained with both lead
connections, the junction may be shunted by a resistance of less than 1k. In this case the
diode must be disconnected from the circuit for accurate testing.

CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENTS

1. Set the Function/Range switch to the desired F (capacitance) range.

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 2. Never apply an external voltage to the Cx sockets. It may result in damage to the meter.
3. Insert the capacitor leads directly into the Cx socket.
4. Read the capacitance directly from the display.

Frequency Measurements
1. Set the Function/Range switch to the Hz position.
2. Connect the red test lead to the VA jack and black test lead to the COM jack.
3. Connect the test leads to the point of measurement and read the frequency from the display.

Transistor HFE Measurements

1. Set the Function/Range switch to the desired hFE range (PNP or NPN type transistor).
2. Never apply an external voltage to the hFE socket. Damage to the meter may result.
3. Plug the transistor directly into the hFE socket. The sockets are labeled E, B, and C for
emitter, base & collector. Read the transistor hFE (dc gain) directly from the display.

Safety Instructions:
Dont use DMM if it is or test leads look damaged, or if meter not operating properly.
Take caution while working above 60VDC or 30VACrms.Such voltages pose a shock
hazard.
When using the probes, keep your fingers behind the finger guards on the probes.
Measuring voltage, which exceeds the limits of the multimeter, may damage the meter and
expose the operator to a shock hazard. Always recognize the meter voltage limits as stated
on the front of the meter.
Remove test leads before changing battery or performing servicing.

Fuse replacement: If no current measurement possible, check for a blown overload

protection fuse. There are two fuses: F1 for the VA jack and F2 for the 10A jack. For
access to fuses, remove the two screws from the back of the meter and lift off the fuses.
Replace F1with the original type 0.5A/250V, fast acting fuse. Replace F2 only with the
original type 10A/250V, fast acting fuse.
Battery Replacement: Power is supplied by a 9 volt battery. To replace the battery,
remove the two screws from the back of the meter and lift off the front case. Remove
battery from battery contacts.

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 Experiment No.1 Inst8/1

Object: To determine the resistance of the given Ferry Alloy wire by kelvins
Double Bridge method.

Theory: The Kelvins Bridge is a modification of the Wheatstone bridge and

provides increased accuracy in measurement of low value resistances. The Kelvins
double bridge incorporates the idea of a second set of ratio arms - hence the name
double bridge and the use of four terminal resistors for the low resistance arms.
If X and S are the unknown and standard resistances respectively. The first of ratio
arms is Q and M & other ratio arm is q and m [as shown in the Circuit diagram].
When galvanometer gives null deflection,
X Q q
---- = ---- = ----
S M m
For the elimination of contact resistances, low resistances are provided with 4
terminals, two current terminals and two potential terminals. The resistance
measured is between potential terminals.

Procedure: Apparatus E1P3 is the known variable standard resistance, the

resistance between studs being 0.1 ohm. Apparatus EIP3A is the double ratio box.
Study the above apparatus & find out the internal connection diagrams of both.
Connect as in Fig.1. Choose a suitable ratio and vary S until the galvanometer gives
null deflection. Note the magnitude of S. Now Reverse the current in the circuit by
a reversing switch and note the readings of S for a particular value of ratio. Then
vary the ratio and take a second set of reading. Measure the diameter of the Ferry
Alloy wire and its length between potential terminals. Take readings of the diameter
of the wire at several places and calculate the mean diameter.

Circuit Diagram:
KDB

M Q
G

m q E1P3A

S X
11 E1P3
 Inst-8/2

Observations:

Ferry Alloy Wire (EIM22)

Before Reversal After Reversal
st
1 Reading 2nd Reading st
1 Reading 2nd Reading

Current

Ratio

Value of
standard
Resistance (S)

X=S

Reports:

1. Why do low resisters have 4 terminals?

2. Why is the Kelvin bridge method employed for measurement of low

resistances?

3. What are its advantages over the potentiometer?

4. Why is necessary to take a second set of reading with the current in the circuit
reversed?

5. Draw a circuit distance of the shunt used with the galvanometer.

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 Experiment No.2

Object: To measure harmonics in a simulated distorted electrical signal

using lab view.
Theory: Different types of power electronic controllers, lighting circuits
chokes act as a nonlinear load. These load draws a non-sinusoidal current
from the grid and the distorted current affects the communication lines
including the local area network (LAN/WAN).These harmonics can cause
problems like degradation of conductors and insulating materials in
motors and transformers. Therefore the study of electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and its measurement is very important.
The total harmonic distortion (THD) term is normally used to estimate the
non-linearity or deformation of waveform is normally defined as rms of
harmonics expressed as a percentage of fundamental components. For
most applications, it is sufficient to consider the harmonic range from 2nd
to 25th .But in many cases THD may be considered upto 50 th harmonics.
Thus

50 2
=2
=
1

Where is the rms of the nth harmonic?

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Procedure:
1. Use desktop PC with LabVIEW software.
2. Connect the sub VIs as shown in figure 1.
3. Use the signal processing VIs to perform signal generation and
measurement.
4. Add different harmonics and measure it.
5. Change the magnitude of different harmonics and observe its effect on
the waveform.
6. Trace the spectrum (bar chart).

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Results :

Conclusion:

Report:

1. What do you mean by virtual instrumentation? Explain.

2. Explain the effect of harmonics in power quality (PQ) of grid.

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 Experiment No.3
Inst-9/1

Object: To determine inductance and resistance of a coil by Anderson bridge

method at a different frequencies.

Theory & Formula Used: Anderson Bridge is used to determine the self-inductance
in terms of a standard capacitor. This method is applicable for precise measurement of
self-inductance over a very wide range of values.
At balance, (See the circuit diagram given) it can be shown that
R3
L1 = C ---- (R2R4 + R4r + R3r)
R4
R3
and R1 = R2 ----
R4
Procedure: Replace oscillator in Fig.1. by low voltage d.c. supply and detector by a
D Arsonoval galvanometer. Vary R2 to obtain balance. Supply the bridge now with a
constant suitable a.c. voltage. For fixed value of R3, R4 and C, adjust the value of r to
obtain a.c. balance for different frequencies 1600 cycles/sec. and 1000 cycles/sec.
(Sometimes C may also be varied, if necessary). The balance is indicated by the
electronic null detector when its deflection is minimum. Now, replace the null detector
by a headphone and note the value of r for balance. It is advisable to use shielded leads,
the shields of all the leads being earthed. This would eliminate the effect of stray earth
capacitance of the leads which becomes prominent at 1600 cycles/sec. For greater
accuracy shielded components and Wagners earthing system should be adopted.
Circuit Diagram:
1
L
il
o

R3
C

D
1
R

r
R2 R4

16
 Inst-9/2
Observations:
i) For d.c. balance
R2 =
R3 =
R4 =
ii) For a.c. balance
Electronic null detector
f=1600 cycles/sec f= 1000 cycles/sec
R2 =
R3 =
R4 =
C =
r =

Reports:

1. What is the purpose using shielded leads and providing electric shields to the
various component of the bridge?
2. Compare the results with the indicated value of the inductance, according for the
discrepancies if any?
3. Draw the phasor diagram for the bridge balance condition.
4. Give the name of other detector which can be used with this bridge.
5. Why do you observe minimum deflection while determining the null point?
6. Draw the equivalent circuits of an inductive coil and hence her phasor diagram.

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 Experiment No.4

Gen-2/1

Object: To obtain data of a series and parallel resonance circuits of R, L & C

elements and to plot the resonance curve.

Theory: Resonance in an ac circuit can be defined in the following ways:

1. An ac circuit is resonant when the circuit power factor is unity.
2. An ac circuit is resonant when the applied voltage and the input current are in
phase.
3. An ac circuit is resonant when the reactive component of the input impedance is
zero.
4. An ac circuit is resonant when the susceptance component of the input admittance
is zero.
Consider a series RLC circuit as shown in Fig. 1. The general expression for the
impedance is
Z R (X L X )
C
Resonance in a series RLC circuit requires that XL X 0 or XL X 0 or
C C
2f0L = 1/2f0C, solving for the f0 we get; f0= 1/2 LC or WO =1/LC this
frequency fo at which the resonance occurs is called the resonant frequency. The
term quality factor (Q) is used to described the effectiveness of a coil and is defined
by
Maximum Stored energy per cycle
Q = 2
Energy dissipated per cycle
The expressions for Q in a series resonant circuit can be given by
o L resonant frequency
QO = or QO = o =
R bandwidth
2 1
Parallel Resonance circuit: In this circuit, the value of impedance at resonance
conditions is maximum and current is minimum. The current at resonance is given
by
V V CR L
Io = o = o , where Zo = ( is called the dynamic impedance of the circuit)
Zo L CR
1 1 R2
Resonance frequency fo = ( )
2 LC L2
The phasor diagram is shown in figure. The capacitor current Ic leads the supply
voltage Vs by 900 and the inductor current IL lags the voltage V by the angle

18

= 1 . The supply current I is the phasor sum of IC andIL . At resonance I is

in phase with Vs andIC = IL sinL .

Circuit Diagram Gen-2/2

R L
Coil

+
C VTVM

+ _
Audio
Oscillaor
-

Series resonance circuit

VTVM

i
iL iC

Va RL
z C
Audio
Oscillator

Parallel resonance Circuit

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Procedure:

1. Calculate the resonance frequency f0 of the given circuit.

2. Make the connections and switch OPN the oscillator and VTVM. Allow warm
up time.
3. Starting from a frequency sufficiently below f0 measure the voltage across
capacitance at suitable interval of frequency in case of series resonance and
Voltage across the resistor in case of parallel resonance, keeping input voltage
constant, say at 1 volts, up to a sufficiently above f0.It is desirable to take the
readings at close intervals near resonance.
4. Calculate XC and I and plot current V/s frequency, find the resonance
frequency and compare it with f0.

Gen-2/3
Observation Format:

Series Resonance: Vi = 1V

Sr. No. f(Hz) Voltage across capacitance (Volts) V XC I (amp.)

Parallel Resonance: Vi = 1V
Sr. No. f(Hz) Voltage across resistor (Volts) V R I (amp.)

Report:

1. Comments on the results obtained.

2. Determine the Q factor of a coil.
3. Determine the % error in resonance frequency.

20
 Experiment No.5
Experiment: Study of characteristics of thermal and optical transducers.
Object: a) To study the resistance-temperature characteristics of the thermistor.
b) To study the resistance-insolation characteristics of a light dependent
resistor.
Theory: Different types of the transducers and sensors are available in the market
which are used for different applications. Both thermal and optical type sensors are
available. The cost these transducers vary over wide range. Thermistors are very
cheap and slow (with more response time). While the optical transducers are fast
(with low response time) but they are costly. The resistance of the light dependent
resistor (LDR) depends upon insolation (light intensity). Resistance of these
transducers varies over wide range depending upon the variations of the temperature
and insolation, respectively. Study of these characteristics helps to find allowable
range of operation or range of linearity of the transducers etc.
Procedure.
a) Output characteristics of the thermistor:
1. Connect a digital multi-meter (DMM) in resistance-mode to
thermistor terminals as shown in figure 1.
2. Connect the GLS bulb terminals to an auto transformer. With variation of
the output voltage of the auto transformer, the variation in voltage and
power hence temperature around the thermistor takes place.
3. Place a thermometer touching the body of the thermistor. Put a paper box
over the setup to keep inside temperature of the box uniform (constant).
4. Find the resistance by DMM for each value of the temperature (controlled
by the variation of the auto-transformer voltage).
b) Output characteristics of the LDR:
1. Keep the previous setup and remove the thermometer now.
2. Put the sensor LUX meter just behind the LDR.
3. Change the output voltage of the autotransformer so that light intensity
of GLS bulb varies. Thus insulation reaching to the LDR varies.
4. Measure resistance of LDR at each setup using DMM.
Thermistor LDR
S.No Voltage Temperature Resistance Voltage Insolation(LUX) resistance

Report:
1. Describe important characteristics of the thermistor
2. Why thermistors are preferred even if the output characteristics is nonlinear.
3. Describe optical transducers. 4. Plot graph for both cases.

21
 Experiment No.6

Object: To Calibrate the given thermocouple pyrometer

Theory: The emf of thermocouple of two dissimilar metals is a function of the

difference in temperature between hot and cold junction, when the cold junction
is maintained at a constant temperature. The energy content of a particular wave
length of the radiation from a black body is a function of its absolute temperature.
Thus the intensity of light of any single wave length depends upon the temperature
of the hot body. Thus the temperature of a hot body can be measured with the
help of an optical pyrometer. In case of a thermocouple, the ambient temperature
does not remain constant. Thus the variation of the temperature of the cold
junction causes error in the measurement. For this purpose, the temperature of
the cold junction is maintained to a constant level with the help of a heater at 50
degree centigrade. Thus, the emf is given by

E=K (T1-T2)

Where T1 and T2 are hot and cold junctions.

E=KT1-KT2

KT2 becomes constant and therefore emf of the thermocouple varies linearly
depending upon T1.

Moreover, a voltmeter cannot give a correct reading of the emf due to loading
effect. Therefore, a potentiometer is used to measure and to calibrate the given
thermocouple.

Procedure: Take the hot junction of the chromel-Alumel thermo-couple out of the
porcelain sheath and study the construction of the thermo-couple. Study also the
circuit diagram of the furnace and the function of its different parts. Put back the
thermocouple in the porcelain sheath; connect the compensating leads of the cold
junction at 50o C. The copper wires twisted to the ends of the leads are taken to a

22
voltage measuring device such as a potentio-meter (multiplier setting x 0.01) or a
milli voltmeter.

Start the furnace and note the readings of the pyrometer mounted in the furnace
body (the output voltage of the chromel-alumal thermo-couple) at intervals of say
20oC up to few hundred degree celcius.

Observations:

Cold junction temperature -------- Emf voltage. ------------

(a) For Celiberation of Thermocouple pyrometer:

S.No. Temp oC E.m.f. (by potentiometer.)

Reports:

1. Draw the graph of thermocouple EMF against hot junction temperature.

2. Why are compensating used with thermocouple?
3. What is the practical importance of cold junction temperature?
4. What are various types of thermocouple available?

23
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 1 - Thermocouple
Heater

E m f 1 to
potentiometer
Lead
Cold
Furance
junction
Hot
junction

Battery
Coarse Fine

Dial 1

1.0 0.1

Dial 2

Dial 3
Emf 1

Dial 4
Fig 3 - Potentiometer

24
 Fig 1
Heater

E m f 1 to potentiometer

Lead

Cold junction
Furance Hot junction

Battery
Coarse Fine

Dial 1

1.0 0.1

Dial 2

Dial 3

Unknown
G emf

Dial 4

Fig 2
2V
G

Unknown Unknown Stan- Galvano Battery

emf 1 emf 2 dard meter
cell

Selector switch

Coarse Fine

Dial 1 Dial2 Dial3 Dial4

Fig 3

25
 Experiment No.7
Object: For a given circuit, verify experimentally

(a) Thevenins Theorem.

(b) Superposition Theorem.

Theory: The use of Thevenins theorem is specially very helpful and time saving
when we wish to find the response for different values of load resistance. For
resistive network. Thevenins theorem may be stated as follows:

Thevenins Theorem: Any two terminals AB of a network composed of linear

passive and active elements may be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit
consisting of an equivalent voltage source Voc in series with an equivalent resistance
Rth. The voltage source Voc is equal to the potential difference between the two
terminals AB caused by the active network with no external resistance connected to
these terminals. The series resistance Rth is the equivalent resistance looking back
into the network at terminals AB with all the sources within the network made
inactive.

Superposition Theorem: It states that in a linear network containing several sources

(including dependent sources) the overall response (loop current or node voltage) at
any point in the network equal the sum of the responses of each individual sources
made inoperative, i.e., replaced by impedance equal to their internal impedance.
Procedure:
For (a): Thevenins Theorem:
1. Select suitable values of R1 R2 and R3 resistors. Make the connection as shown
in fig.1 (a). Measure the current (L1) flowing through load RL.
2. Disconnect the RL and Ammeter from the circuit and measure the voltage at AB
keeping supply terminals shorted.
3. Measure the resistance RS of the circuit between AB keeping supply terminals
shorted.
4. Compare the theoretical and practical results.
For (b): Superposition Theorem:
1. Connect the circuit elements as shown in fig.2 and measure the current (I) in
branch R2.
2. Disconnect the dc source and short circuit the AB terminal. Again note down
the current (Iac) flowing through the ammeter.
3. In the circuit shown in fig.2, disconnect the ac source and short circuit the
terminals (c-d) and then measure the current (Idc) in branch R2.

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Observation & Calculations:
For (a): Thevenins Theorem.
Voc = Volt
Rs = Ohms.

IL = Amp.
RL = Ohms.
Vdc = Volts
For (b): Superposition Theorem.
I = Amp. Calculated
Iac = Amp. Iac= Amps.
Idc = Amp. Idc= Amps.
Vac = Volts 2 2
I= I I = Amps.
dc ac
Vdc = Volts

R 1
R 3 R
A Th
A

A A

R 2

R L

B (b )
(a )

F ig . 1 . T h e v e n in 's E q u iv a le n t
R 2
a C d
mA

R 4
V R 3
R 5

R 1

b C

F ig . 2 .

Report:
i. How these theorems are helpful in circuit analysis?
ii. Discuss the limitations of the above theorems.
iii. Comment on the theoretical and practical, results, accounting for the
discrepancy, if any.

27
 Experiment No.8

Determination of z and h parameters of a two-port network.

Theory: A two-port is an electrical network with two pairs of terminals. The

behavior is expressed in terms of (v1 , i1) and (v2 , i2 ) and their transforms (V1, I1)
and (V2, I2) at the two ports. It is again understood that the current entering and
leaving each port are equal.
For (a):
The defining relations for the Z parameters are;
V1 = Z11I1 + Z12 I2
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2
To define Z11, Z21 put I2 = 0 (output open)
V1
Z 11 Input impedance
I1
I2 0

V2
Z 21 Forward transfer impedance
I1
I2 0

Similarly putting I1 = 0 (inputopen)

V2
Z 22 Output impedance
I2
I1 0

V1
Z 12 Reverse transfer impedance
I2
I1 0

The defining relations for the h-parameters (Hybrid parameters) are given by
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2
V2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
V1
h11 Impedance at port (1) with output shorted
I1
V2 0

I2
h 22 Admittance at port (2) with input open
V2
I1 0

I2
h 21 Forward short-circuit current ratio
I1
V2 0

V1
h12 Reverse open circuit voltage ratio
V2
I1 0

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Procedure:
For (a):
1. Connect a voltage source at port 1, measure the circuit voltage at both the port
while port 2 is open circuited.
2. Measure the circuit voltage at port 2, measure the voltage and current at port 1
and also current at port 2.
3. Now short circuit port 2 through a mA. Measure the voltage and current at port 1
and also current at port 2.
4. The necessary observation for port 2 can be noted as in parts 1- 3.

For (b):
1. Connect the oscillator and VTVM as shown in Fig.2. Change the frequency
of input signal and measure the response voltage of filter for each and every
input keeping the input signal voltage constant, then plot a graph between
voltage ratio V2 / V1 and frequency.

Sample Questions:
For (a) Calculate the z and h parameters with the help of the observations and then
compare it with the theoretical results.

For (b) Calculate the cut off frequency for the filter and then compare the result
+with the observed value by plotting the gain versus frequency curve.

Circuit Diagram:

2
2
I1 I1

+ +

V1 V2

- -

I1 1 2 I2

F ig : - A t w o p a r t w it h v a r ia b le s a t t h e p a r t s .

29
 Gen-5/3
F o r (a )
mA
1
A 2

(1 )
V V (2 )

2`
1`

F ig . 1

Report:
1. What modifications can be made to achieve the sharp cut-off characteristics of
these filters?
2. Discuss the applications of network parameters.

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