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    CE311 M-G 6 Earth Work PDF

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    Froilan Angbengco

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 15
    Chapter 6 Earthwork 6-1, Foreword Payment for grading on highway and railroad construction is usually based on a bid price per cubic yard for excavation measured! in place as computed from survey notes. The unit price ordinarily includes: hauling excavated ‘material (cut from within the limits of the roadway or moving in other material (borrow) from outside areas; building the embankments (fll) to specified form; disposing of surplus material (waste); and performing such operations as forming earth shoulders, trimming slopes, and preparing the subgrade for railroad ballast or for highway base or surface courses, ‘Separate unit prices for different types of material excavated may be used. There are advantages, however, in reducing the number of classifications to two—"rock excavation” and “common excavation"—or even to a single type called “unclassified excavation.” Fill quantities are important in grade-line design, though they are not paid for directly inthe usual contract. However, on projects consisting wholly 19 114 EARTHWORK of embankment—such as levees—the payment is based on a unit price for fil as computed from survey notes. 6-2, Earthwork Operations ‘The operations included under this heading depend on the nature and ‘magnitude of the project. ‘A. On major highway projects where photogrammetric methods are used, the usual operations in sequence are: 1, Office work-—taking cross-section measurements by photogrammetric techniques along a selected route center line prior to construction, 2. Office work—obtaining quantities by electronic computer methods {rom data obtained in 1 3, Field work—setting construction stakes from measurements obtained in | and from alignment data, 4, Miscellaneous-—making. added measurements and computations needed for determining final pay quantities. B. On secondary roads and most single-track railroad projects where Photogrammetric metheds are not used, the usual operations in sequence are: 1. Office work—making preliminary estimates of grading quantities along a selected route centerline drawn on a contour map. 2, Field work—setting cross-section stakes along the route after the alignment is staked. 3, Office work—computing grading quantities from data obtained in 2 4, Miscellaneous—making added measurements and computations needed for determining final pay quantities. 6-3. Types of Cross Sections ‘The determination of earthwork quantities is based on office or field cross sections taken in a specified manner. On highway and railroad work, cross sections are vertical and at right angles to the survey centerline. Every section, is an area bounded by the original and the graded surface, the latter being efined by its side slopes, shoulders, subgrade, median strip, and drainage ditches, Figure 6-1 shows a portion of a graded roadbed passing from fill to cut (side ditches are omitted for simplicity). The sketch illustrates several cross sections, the types depending on their shape and the number of measurements ‘used to determine them. section a rod reading is always taken at the center-line tional readings are usually taken at the intersections of the side slopes and the ground surface; if stakes are driven at these points they Figure 6-1 6-8. TYPES OF CROSS SECTIONS 115, Types of cross sections, 116 EARTHWORK Original surface Side Shidr Shidr Shidr Side slope Pavement Median Pavement slope Figure 6-2 ara ale slap tales. Aditional rod readings ate taken where conitons ree he, : ‘The section at Hs a regular three-level section in cut, so named because thos rod cans ae wed fo tone atthe center stake and two thes tte pena lection In atoad and twodsne highway construction, thn ype in cut ori curs more ote han any ether {Fe Secon at Dan © ae special cases ofa treeleve section, cach aving grade poi (point or G) sone core. it aocion a Ds feeee stim infil Tita moication of @ these ation ia which to adtonal eins ae taken daly teow abo) the edge ofthe base (orate ation at isan regular section nl, A lrge numberof rod readings ae roqied to fix itcin the cae shown, ther are Ou readings at poina rin aan che tvs atte slope stakes and center stake "Te sion aE isa sde-il section, having et on one sie and fill cn tester ide of grade point a. In th ease sete the grade point scomtconter ine, tin general may fal ayers Between te cs of sree section ats level scion so designated because the ground is level tannery ad only one tod reading atthe coterie sient, A rajor rural hghwy, such aon the Interstate Syste, wl usualy have four of more nea vated mdan, wide shoulders, and dainage ticks atthe fo of et side slopes Figure 6:2 shows eros section iting this desertion 6-4, Location of Cross Sections. For convenience in caleulations and field work, cross sections are usually taken at each fullstation (or half.station) stake on the survey center line ‘They are also taken at curve points and additional plus-points where in portant “breaks” in the topography occur. Where grading is very heavy or 65. SPECIAL FORMULAS FOR END AREAS 117 ‘whete unit costs are high, as in rock excavation, cross sections are taken at closer intervals, Ifthe transition between cut and fill occurs on a side hill, ax many as five cross sections may be needed. In Fig. 6-1 these sections are located at CD, E, F, and G. Theoretically, complete cross sections are not necessary at Cand F, but their stationing is needed to locate the apexes of the pyramids having triangular end bases at E. Thus, the cross sections at the transition are reduced to three: (1) at the fill-base grade point D, (2) at the eenter-line grade point £, and (3) at the cut-base grade point G. The points C and F are ‘often so close to D and G they are omitted from the notes and the apexes of the transition pyramids assumed to fall at D and G. Where the three sections at the transition are very close together, the grade contour DEG is assumed to be at right angles to the center line; there are then wedged-shaped solids ion either side of the grade contour. See page 127, 6-5. Special Formulas for End Areas Allend areas that are bounded by straight lines can be found by the coordinate ‘method (section 6-6). However, the simple geometric areas defined in section {6-3 occur so frequently that its convenient to have special formulas for them. Figure 6-3 shows the areas at certain eross sectiors in Fig. 6-1. The common notation is spread among the several sketches. The distance c is always the vertical distance (cut or fill) between ground and grade at the ‘enter line, and sh, (or f,) is the vertical distance between ground and grade atthe slope stake. Distances between ground and grade at other points are denoted by c; and ¢, in cut, and by fj and J, in fill as at section B). The in- clination s ofthe side slopes is expressed by the ratio of horizontal distance to vertical distance (as unity). ‘The horizontal distance from the survey center line to any slope stake is seediewe smerny 0 Teun telat b+ D aene42) “9 Ap= ab +s) (6-3) ‘The area of a regular three-level section (as at H) is found by adding the ‘reas ofthe two cross-hatched triangles to the areas of the two triangles having 118 EARTHWORK the common base ¢. Thus, Ay = ded, +) + Bb(0 + he) Substitution of H for hy + h, and D for dj + d, reduces the relation to cD bH bet (o-4) eer ee Daa eee nes oa tae ane el aes aan (etaeay aac ee eer eee eae its fixed area is b?/4 :. Consequently, the “grade-triangle formula” is Dip byes a-Hern) 5 69 Se ee ea ete eens b/2 sand b?/4 s. Po ea er ee ea des em ee Ome tee triangles disappears; therefore, D = d, (or d,) + $b, and H or h,. The seas ar, ee Oo a ne coon eae Tere ere ee Se a are erence ven ee eee Aretwh 66) ‘where w is the actual base width of the triangle. AC section E in Fig. 6-3, w= bp ‘The area ofa fve-level section as at B)is found by combining the indicated triangles having common bases, The final relation is As= Heb + fidi+ fay) 7) I the section isin ext, c, and c, are substituted for f and f. 6-6. End Areas by Coordinates The area of an irregular section, such as A in Fig. 6-1, is best found by a coordinate method The procedure takes the ofigin of coordinates at the Figure 6-3 6.8. END AREAS BY COORDINATES 119 4120 EARTHWORK center of the base and the coordinates of the comers of the area writen in clockwise order starting with point A and repeating the coordinates of A to close the figure. This is shown as the first form on page 120. From theory developed in plane surveying, the area of @ closed figure ‘whose coordinates are set up inthe first form is equal to one-half the difference between the algebraic sums of the products indicated by full diagonal lines and those indicated by dotted diagonal lines. In this form careful attention must be paid to algebraic signs. ‘The possibilty oferrors in signs can be avoided by writing the coordinates, asin the second form on page 120, The coordinates start at the center ofthe ‘base s origin, and then proceed clockwise around the left portion of the section and counter-clockwive around the right portion in the form ofa figure 8 on is side, Algebraic signs are omitted. All products indicated by the solid diagonal lines have the same sign; all those indicated by the dotted diagonal lines have the opposite sign. As before, the end area is one-half the difference between the sums of the two sets of products ‘On large rural highway projects the cross sections approximate Fig, 6-2 and most end areas will be irregular. Moreover, the cross-section data will have been obtained by photogrammetric methods. In such cases the data are used as input to electronic computer programs which use the theory of coordinates to produce the end areas. Machine calculation of areas is done best with coordinates set up in the second form. In using the machine, multiply the figures connected by the solid diagonal lines, accumulating the products in the proper register. Then reverse-multiply the figures connected by the dotted diagonal lines, thus subtracting those products. The result remaining on the register isthe double area, For cut areas, the sum of the products indicated by dotted diagonal lines is lasger than the sum of the products indicated by fll diagonal lines; for fil areas, the reverse is true, When using the calculating machine the products making up the larger sum are set up first. Ordinate BSE SEEK EXEX Abscissa Double Area by Coordinates—First Form + 1 POPE PII 2 2 Double Area by Coordinates—Second Form xsi 67. COMPOUND AND OTHER IRREGULAR SECTIONS. 121 Some computers prefer to use machine calculation forall areas, even the standard types represented by formulas 6-2 through €7. This is done by a generalization of the method just described, In all cases omit algebraic signs, For areas lying entirely to the left ofthe survey centerline, use the coordinates in clockwise order; for areas to the right, use counter-clockwise order of the coordinates. It makes no difference which coordinate is used first, 80 long asitis repeated at the end, that is, so long as the traverse is closed, For side- hill sections (Fig. 6-5) use the figure 8 form of coordinates described for section A, starting at the grade point separating the cut and fil portions. 6-10, Volume by Average End Areas Except where the solid between cross sections is a pyramid (as between E and F in Fig. 1), itis usually considered a prism whose right cross-sectional area is the average ef the end areas. For sections having areas of A, and A; ‘and L ft apart, the average-end-area formula for volume in cubic yards is Pray ‘This formula is exact only when the end areas are equal, For other cases it usually gives volumes slightly larger than their true values. If it were to be applied to a pyramid, for example, the error would be the maximum and ‘equal to 50%, of the correct volume. In practice, however, the total error in a long line is rarely more than 2%, Also, calculation of the errors or corrections. (ee section 6-13) is much more complicated than determining the average- tend-area volumes themselves. In consequence, the average-end-area method is almost always used, and invariably ruled to apply in the absence of speci- fications to the contrary. ‘In applying the average-end-area formula the simplest method is to add the end areas (determined by calculation or by planimeter) and multiply L (atds) ena 6-11. EXAMPLE OF EARTHWORK CALCULATION 127 SLOPE-STAKING NOTES—SECOND EXAMPLE ~~] SOREAGE [GRADE = sta. | BLEV. R 92400) 991.6 fp ea eCls a C102 | 78 368 “454 91452) 875.6 ro 20 35 91+00) 864.5 ele 28 90450] 867.3, EI 02 90-405) 875.3 eis 6-13. Prismoldal Volumes and Corrections [As noted in section 6-10, the average-end-area formula usually gives volumes slightly larger than their true values. When a precise value is necessary—and the ficld measurements are refined enough to warrant it—the solid between ‘oss sections is considered to be a prismoid rather than an average-end-area prism, ‘The prismoidal formula for volume in cubic yards is b(t htet Ao) v= (6-10) 6 where Aq isthe area of section midway between A, and A, and the other terms have the same meanings as in formula 6 Tn route surveying the prismoidal formula applies to any solid generated by a straight line passing around the sides of plane parallel end-bases. Accordingly, it fits warped-surface solids as well as plane-surface solids, provided that the warp is continuous between the ends. The formula aso "applies to a wide variety of solids seldom found in earthwork calculations, such asthe frustums of prisms, cylinders, and cones. ‘Owing to the need for computing the area of the midsection A direct determination of volumes from the basic prismoidal formula is inconvenient. Itiseasier to apply a prsmoidal correction C, tothe average-end-area volume. By definition, %-C,=%, (en) ‘When the values given by formulas 6-8 and 6-10 are substituted in formula 6-11 and the esuting formula is reduced, the general prismoidal- correction formula is Ome ‘More convenient working formulas for solids commonly met in practice are found by calculating 4, in terms of the given dimensions of A, and A; and substituting in formula 6-12. (Note: A, is not the mean of A, and 43, but its dimensions are the means of corresponding dimensions at the end sections.) For a solid having triangular end areas the result is (A; ~24q+ Aa) (12) ea th = (6-13) G 12x27 6-19, PRISMOIDAL VOLUMES AND CORRECTIONS 181 Formula 6-13 can be made to fit any type of end area by dividing it into triangles. However, the prevalence of three-level sections makes the following formula valuable: L = Fp gs — Padler - ex) (6-14) Cs Although formula 6-14 is derived from the dimensions of three-level sections, it also fits a solid having level-section end areas and a solid having a triangular section at one end, ‘The prismoidal correction is applied with the sign indicated in formula 611; that i, itis normally subiracted from the average-end-area volume. In ‘ase the sign of Cy or C; should happen to be negative (rare, but possible), the prismoidal correction is added The corrections to the three volumes computed in section 6-12, in cubic yards, ae: su @s000 62200: 6, - 1 Fo Fyl628 ~ 60.1)7.6 — 68) = 07 Si Lento 2400:c, = 75 Hat 2468-A1)= 56 1 2 Sta. 61436 to 61448: Cy =? _ 47.2 — on $48: Cy = 55 (472 — 239K - 00) = 35 Prismoidal corrections can also be determined by means of Table XVII. ‘The tabulated values come from formula 6-9, which may be written in the following general form: 50 Vou = % (product of tw ities 34 * (Product of two quantities) When L = 100 the prismoidal-correction formulas 6-13 and 6-14 may also be written as follows: “, AND) x (product of two quantities Consequently, the prismoidal correction for sectiors 100 ft apart is one-third the value found by entering Table XVIIE with (v7; —w3) and (iy ~ hy), oF (Dy ~D;) and (cy ~e3), as the given height and width, The three corrections previously computed are verified by Table XVIII to be: $x 200 $052 x 3225 = 4x 012 x 885 35 ‘The foregoing corrections are 0.05%, 1.2% and 9.2% of the respective average-end-area volumes. It is evident that prismoidal corrections are in- significant, except at transitions between cut and fill. Since, normally, these 182 EARTHWORK of the total yardage, it is locations account for only a small percentage t ‘obvious that volumes determined by the average-end-area method are ade- quate for all but rare situations. 6-14, Correction for Curvature Whee contonswatnt elation of prsmodel cores, they sy The justly soning te pmol alums on es for the ah zr Inve in ssuning ths eter net estght. On aves, cos eeone retaken rail The eu volume eteen two sh scons 8 cued SS wth plane nonpall endh, portage by Fi 60). Bat when

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