Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OSPREY
Michael Whitby PUBLISHING
Essential Histories
OSPREY
Michael Whitby PUBLISHING
First published in Great Britain in 2002 by Osprey Publishing, For a complete list of titles available from Osprey Publishing
Elms Court, Chapel Way, Botley, Oxford OX2 9LP. UK please contact:
Email: info@ospreypublishing.com
Osprey Direct UK. PO Box 140,
2002 Osprey Publishing Limited Wellingborough. Northants, N N 8 2FA, UK.
Email: info@ospreydirect.co.uk
Ail rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose
of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under Osprey Direct USA, c/o MBI Publishing,
the Copyright, Design and Patents Act. 1988. no part of this PO Box 1, 729 Prospect Ave,
publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or Osceola.WI 54020. USA.
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrical, Email: info@ospreydirectusa.com
chemical, mechanical, optical, photocopying, recording or
www.ospreypublishing.com
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright
owner Enquiries should be made to the Publishers.
02 03 04 05 06 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I
Contents
Introduction 7
Chronology 10
Background to war
Warring sides
Outbreak
Creating crisis 27
The fighting
Challenges to empire 34
Portraits of soldiers
Brothers in arms 62
Impact of conflict 67
Portraits of civilians
Notable individuals 77
Roman legacies 86
Further reading 92
Index 94
Introduction
In the early third century AD the Roman the Balkans, with specific leaders emerging in
Empire stretched from Scotland to the Sahara certain areas: Bulgars in the north-east, Serbs
and to the northern River Tigris - an enormous and Croats in the north-west. In Italy the
imperial enterprise and the most powerful Lombard kingdom, based in the Po valley,
state in the world. Four centuries later the fragmented authority in the peninsula, and
Empire had shrunk to consist of Anatolia, the so it remained until reunification in the
Aegean fringes of the Balkans and limited 19th century. Franks controlled Gaul, though
territories in Italy around Rome and Ravenna. it was usually split between different branches
Still strong in Mediterranean terms, it was of the ruling Merovingian dynasty. In the
forced to confront and interact with a variety Iberian peninsula the Visigoths had
of new powers. To the east Arabs, inspired by established authority, sometimes tenuously,
Islam, had overrun the Levant and Egypt, as over the groups who had settled during the
well as the Persian kingdom. More than a fifth century; however, their switch from
millennium of conflict between Islamic east Arian to Nicene Christianity in the seventh
and Christian west was introduced as Arab
warriors pushed westwards through North The Emperor Theodosius and his family receive tokens
of submission from barbarians while seated in the
Africa and into Spain and regularly raided
imperial box at the hippodrome. From the base of
towards Constantinople. Slav tribes the obelisk at the Hippodrome in Constantinople.
established themselves throughout much of (Ancient Art and Architecture)
Essential Histories Rome at War
226 Ardashir overthrows Parthian dynasty. 395 Death of Theodosius; Empire divided
235 Murder of Severus Alexander by between Arcadius and Honorius.
troops. 406 German tribes breach Rhine frontier.
243/4 Gordian defeated by Shapur I of 408 Stilicho executed.
Persia. 410 Sack of Rome by Alaric and Visigoths.
251 Death of Decius in battle against 418 Establishment of Visigoths in
Goths. Aquitania.
260 Defeat and capture of Valerian by 429 Vandals cross into Africa.
Persians. 445 Attila becomes sole ruler of Huns.
Franks invade Gaul; Alamanni invade 451 Attila invades Gaul; defeated at
Italy; revolts in Balkans. Catalaunian Plains (near Troyes).
261-68 Odaenathus of Palmyra takes 453 Death of Attila.
control of eastern provinces. 455 Vandals sack Rome.
262-67 Goths invade Asia Minor. 476 Odoacer deposes Romulus Augustulus,
271 Aurelian withdraws Romans from Dacia. the last western emperor.
Circuit of walls built for Rome. 493 Theoderic captures Ravenna and kills
272 Aurelian defeats Palmyra. Odoacer.
275 Murder of Aurelian. 502 Kavadh invades eastern provinces and
284 Accession of Diocletian. captures Amida (Diyarbakir).
293 Tetrarchy with Maximian as co- 505 Truce on eastern frontier;
Augustus and Constantius and construction of Dara starts.
Galerius as Caesars. 507 Clovis and Franks defeat Visigoths at
305 Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian. Vouill.
312 Constantine captures Rome after 527 Renewed warfare in east. Accession of
battle of Milvian Bridge. Justinian.
324 Constantine defeats Licinius and 532 'Endless Peace' with Persia.
becomes sole emperor. 533 Belisarius defeats Vandals and
337 Death of Constantine at start of recovers Africa.
campaign against Persia. 540 Belisarius enters Ravenna and ends
353 Constantius II defeats usurper Ostrogothic kingdom.
Magnentius and reunifies Empire. Khusro I invades eastern provinces
355 Julian co-opted by Constantius as and captures Antioch.
Caesar. 542 Arrival of bubonic plague.
357 Julian defeats Alamanni at Strasburg. 546 Totila recaptures Rome.
361 Death of Constantius. 552 Narses defeats and kills Totila at Busta
363 Julian's invasion of Persia and death. Gallorum.
376 Goths cross the Danube. 562 50 Years Peace with Persia.
378 Defeat and death of Valens at 568 Lombards invade Italy.
Adrianople (Edirne). 572 Justin II launches new war on eastern
382 Theodosius settles Goths in Balkans as frontier.
federates. 578/9 Avar invasions of Balkans start.
394 Theodosius defeats usurper Eugenius 586/7 Slav raids reach Athens and Corinth.
and reunifies Empire. 591 Termination of war with Persia.
Chronology
Troops crossing a river by pontoon bridge, from a The second major European river frontier,
section ofTrajan's column. (AKG Berlin) along the Danube, was joined to the Rhine
frontier by linear defences, which protected a
control through naval squadrons and by triangle of territory to the south-east of
supervising recognised crossing-points. Argentoratum (Strasburg), always a sensitive
Beyond the Rhine were numerous tribal area. The Romans had reached the upper and
groups whose relationship with the Romans middle Danube during the reign of Augustus
was not always hostile: tribesmen served in (31 BC-AD 14), confirming their control over
Roman armies, Roman garrisons had the hinterland in the face of massive rebellions
considerable wealth (by local standards) to in Pannonia and Illyricum; further
spend on slaves, furs or basic foodstuffs, downstream the Danube became the frontier
while the Romans were a source of luxury during the first century AD. A process of
goods such as wine or spices. A symbiotic consolidation similar to that on the Rhine got
relationship could emerge: Romans wanted under way, but in this case the need to
tribal manpower and supplies, while tribal dominate the Dacian tribes of the lower
leaders relied on Romans for the wealth and Danube led to major campaigns across the
display goods to demonstrate superiority river under Trajan (98-117) in the early second
over their rank and file. A cyclical pattern to century and the creation of a new province
relations on the frontier can be seen: the within the arc of the Carpathian mountains.
Romans bolstered the authority of compliant In the eastern Empire the Romans
leaders whose expanding following encountered the Parthians during the first
generated greater demands; when these century BC, experiencing one of their worst
became excessive, conflict ensued between defeats in 53 BC when three legions were
Rome and a major tribal grouping; thereafter annihilated at Carrhae (Harran) in
the cycle would begin again. Mesopotamia. Until the mid-first century AD,
Background to war 15
small client kingdoms constituted buffer North Africa, which the Romans gradually
states for Roman territory in Anatolia and took over between the mid-second century
the Levant. Thereafter the upper and middle BC and the mid-first century AD, resembled
Euphrates provided a suitable line on which the southern portion of the eastern frontier.
to base legionary positions - though, as Desert, supplemented on occasion by linear
along the European rivers, the Romans barriers, played a significant part in marking
maintained a keen interest in events beyond. the boundaries of Roman authority. Tribal
Between the River Euphrates and the Arabian instability could pose threats, though, as
Gulf, desert offered a reliable buffer zone, along the European frontiers; 'outsiders' were
although tribes who knew how to operate in tied into the Roman system through military
this inhospitable terrain troubled Roman service and economic exchanges. The British
lands to the west intermittently. For the Isles, which the Romans invaded in the first
Romans the east was the prestigious area for century AD, stands in contrast to the other
conflict, ideally for expansion, with the major frontiers as a place where the Romans
renown of Alexander the Great's relied primarily on linear defences - the
achievements luring successive western rulers walls of Hadrian and Antoninus - to separate
to emulation: in the early second century the untamed tribes of Caledonia from
Trajan campaigned to the head of the Persian Roman areas.
Gulf, briefly establishing a province in It is ironic that the best-studied Roman
Mesopotamia; in the 160s Lucius Verus defences - the salient between the Rhine and
(161-9) fought energetically in lower Danube in south-western Germany and the
Mesopotamia, and in the 190s Septimius walls of north Britain - are not typical of
Severus (193-211) again defeated the Roman frontier areas overall. As a
Parthians and annexed new territory. consequence, however, we may fail to
understand how the frontiers operated. The
A view along part of Hadrian's wall (showing Chester's traditional view is that frontiers were
fort), another defensive structure which combined maintained to delimit and protect Roman
protection and propaganda. (Ancient Art and Architecture) territory by barring entry to foreigners. But
I6 Essential Histories Rome at War
frontiers are now seen as zones of contact, as maintain imperial control and ensure the
much as lines of exclusion: this is clearly smooth collection of taxation. They
true for the European river frontiers, and suppressed brigandage (which subsisted at a
even in the case of an apparent barrier, low level in many parts of the Empire),
scrutiny of the installations along Hadrian's regulated disputes between provincial cities
Wall reveals its purpose was to control, but and ensured their internal stability, and
not prevent, movement. It is also argued that oversaw communications between the
generals and emperors were more interested province and Rome, including the
in the rewards of conquest than in routine important annual expressions of allegiance
defence of the Empire's inhabitants, and that to the emperor.
from the military perspective the provinces
more often required subjugation than Taxes and trade
protection. Exchanges across frontiers, the Taxation was the lifeblood of the Empire,
significance of military glory, and the which depended upon a regular cyclical flow
preservation of law and order are all valid of wealth. The areas of greatest consumption
considerations, but the ideology of pax were Rome - where the imperial court and
Romana was also important: emperors were senatorial households spent lavishly - and the
believed to have a duty towards the civilian frontier armies whose salaries had to be paid
members of the Empire - or at least their to prevent the risk of mutiny. Most frontier
performance of this role was an issue which provinces could not support the full costs of
might be picked up in speeches of praise or the legions based in them, and so tax
defamatory tracts. surpluses had to be transferred from 'interior'
Within the frontier Roman territory was regions, for example Spain or Asia Minor
divided into provinces, of which there were where the inhabitants generated cash to meet
about 60 in the early third century AD. Most tax demands by selling produce: the Empire
provincial governors were drawn from the evolved quite a complex system which locked
senate, the council made up of former different areas together. The two most
magistrates, which had considerable important taxes were a poll tax and a land tax.
authority but little real power. Governors of The former was simpler, although its coverage
frontier provinces with substantial armies and rate varied. The latter was based on an
were chosen from among former consuls assessment of land value as determined by
(the most senior group within the senate) by agricultural use, for example arable as opposed
the emperor. In the 'interior' provinces the to vineyard or pastureland, and was levied as a
governors' primary functions were to fixed percentage of the valuation. These taxes
were not progressive, which meant that
financial burdens fell more heavily on
A panel from Constantine's arch at Rome showing the
emperor distributing largesse. This victory monument small-holders than grandees, who would also
depicts the emperor's civilian virtues as well as his have greater influence to secure exemptions.
military triumphs. (AKG London/Pirozzi) In addition there were customs duties at both
Background to war I7
imperial and provincial boundaries, and a enriched both the imperial exchequer
5 per cent tax for Roman citizens on through customs revenues and the
inheritances and the freeing of slaves. middlemen whose profits were invested in
Movement of produce, as both trade and Petra and Palmyra. The current view of the
tax revenue, was an important aspect of the Roman economy, based in part on the
Empire's economic system. Massive amounts increasing evidence from ship-wrecks, is that
of grain from Egypt and other parts of North trade played a minor but significant role in
Africa, and of oil and wine from Spain, were the Empire's prosperity: trade in luxury items
transported to supply Rome as taxation or was the tip of an iceberg of local, intra-
the produce of imperial estates; similarly regional and inter-regional exchange which
senators' provincial estates supported their was greatly facilitated by the existence of the
palatial households in the capital. Supplies roads, ports and other installations
for the army might also seem to be located established to service the crucial elements of
within this command economy and to an the imperial system, namely the capital and
extent they were, but the Vindolanda writing the armies.
tablets, which preserve correspondence of an Overall, the Empire was prosperous during
auxiliary cohort based in north Britain the first two centuries AD, as can be seen
c. AD 100 reveal that army units were also from the archaeological remains of provincial
supported by their own supply networks. cities where local elites competed to beautify
The best evidence for Roman trade their home towns. Wealth did flow out of the
inevitably relates to the exceptional needs of Empire, but this was balanced by the
the elite, who had an enormous appetite for
eastern 'luxuries': spices from eastern Africa, The colonnaded streets of Palmyra were evidence of the
and silks, gems and spices from India. The wealth derived by the city from its trading activities.
eastern trade was a substantial enterprise; it (Ancient A r t and Architecture)
18 Essential Histories Rome at War
conscription was probably always a feature, a horseman equipped with a composite bow
with manpower needs being apportioned in to represent the ideal contemporary soldier.
line with census records of citizens, but there But infantry remained the basis for most
was also some element of hereditary service armies, and Roman foot-soldiers, when
as units drew on veteran settlements. At properly trained and led, were capable of
times, perhaps often, military service offered defying all opponents.
a reasonably good and quite safe career for Another development in the late Roman
the young provincials, especially if they army was that, from the fourth century,
served close to home. distinctions were drawn, in terms of status
In the later Empire it is often alleged that as well as rewards, between limitanei and
the balance of the armies changed, with troops of the comitatus, i.e. between more
citizens being outnumbered by foreigners, static provincial units and those which
the traditional infantry backbone eclipsed accompanied the emperor or senior
by cavalry units, and frontier units generals. It is often claimed that limitanei
(limitanei) relegated to an inferior status. became soldier-farmers, losing their military
Romans were progressively demilitarised quality along with their professionalism,
and the increasingly un-Roman armies but that misrepresents the nature of the
declined in discipline and loyalty. These estates which helped to support them and
theories reflect developments in the later ignores their continuing use in conjunction
army, although they are all ultimately with mobile troops on major eastern
misconceptions. campaigns. It is noticeable that the limitanei
Roman armies did continue to rely on included more cavalry units than the
substantial units of non-citizens, especially comitatus, a reflection of the usefulness of
when troops had to be recruited quickly, as horses for local patrolling and of the greater
in civil war and after military defeat, or for ability of infantry to retain fighting
special expeditions. These 'outsiders' were strength when required to move long
often excellent troops who provided reliable distances quickly.
bodyguards for emperors and generals, There had been a gradual change in the
whose personal retinues of bucellarii deployment of Roman armies. In the early
(biscuit-men) might represent the elite part empire legions were quartered in major
of an army. There were also several senior bases near the frontier (e.g. Cologne), but
non-Roman commanders who played military need dictated that units were
important political roles, especially during detached for specific duties as frontier
the fragmentation of the western Empire in garrisons or in the interior. Later this ad hoc
the fifth century, but it is invalid to infer dispersal was consolidated so that troops
from their prominence that non-Romans were spread across provinces in numerous
also dominated the ranks of the army. forts and cities. Emperors, however, also
Infantry had always been the particular needed mobile forces for more rapid
strength of the Romans, and it is true that deployment. In the east there came to be
cavalry units performed a more important two armies 'in the presence' stationed near
role in late Roman armies, but there is little Constantinople, and others in the Balkans
evidence to support the popular notion and the east; in the west Gaul and Italy had
that the Romans switched to reliance on their own armies until imperial authority
heavy-mailed cavalry, an anticipation of contracted from the former.
medieval knights. The Romans had a few Overall, Roman armies changed between
units of mailed lancers (clibanarii or the third and seventh centuries, but the
boiler-boys) in imitation of Parthian and majority of troops were drawn from the
Persian units, but mounted archers on the Empire's inhabitants. Specific upland
Hunnic model were probably more common. regions had the reputation for producing
The sixth-century historian Procopius chose good recruits: the Balkan highlands,
22 Essential Histories Rome at War
Late Roman parade helmet (AKG London) looked quite barbaric and undisciplined,
but the same could often have been said
mountainous Isauria in southern Asia about early imperial armies.
Minor, and Armenia. Goths, Germans and The size of late Roman armies is a complex
Huns also made important contributions, game for which most of the pieces are missing.
but such soldiers often came from groups In the third century army units probably
who had been accepted into the Empire and numbered upwards of 350,000, with a further
given lands with the explicit purpose of 40,000 in the navy. Numbers increased
providing recruits. To educated observers significantly under Diocletian (284-305) and
from the cities, the people who wrote most Constantine (306-37), so that the total
of our evidence, Roman armies undoubtedly military establishment exceeded 500,000 -
Warring sides 23
perhaps even 600,000. But paper strength will Folio from the Notitia Dignitatum, depicting the
always have surpassed disposable strength, and responsibilities of the Master of Offices which included
the imperial weapons factories (fabricae). (MS Canon
many troops were committed to particular
Misc. 378, f. 141 r, Bodleian Library)
assignments so that only a small proportion of
the total establishment could be deployed for
individual campaigns. In the fourth century Empire, although it is probably correct that
an army of 50,000 was large, and by the sixth organisation, rather than basic military skill,
century mobile armies rarely exceeded 30,000. increasingly emerged as the way in which
In spite of complaints about discipline, Romans surpassed their opponents. The
Roman training appears to have remained Romans had the capacity to co-ordinate troops
tough. A succession of military manuals over long distances to build up complex
indicates that attention was devoted to armies, with artillery units as well as infantry
training and tactics, at least in the eastern and cavalry, and then keep these supplied on
24 Essential Histories Rome at War
the most strongly fortified positions. In the mobilise 10,000 warriors, and larger forces -
sixth century there was a substantial such as those that confronted Julian at
overhaul of the tax system as well as a Strasburg in AD 357 - could be produced
redistribution of land, which was intended through alliances. On rare occasions
to bolster royal power by permitting the German leaders commanded larger numbers -
payment of some permanent units, an the Amal-led Ostrogoths fielded
imitation perhaps of the Roman comitatus. 25,000-30,000 warriors after subsuming a
But the feudal link between king and rival Gothic group in the Balkans - but
nobility remained crucial, dictating that this was exceptional, the product of Roman
military prestige was essential for royal power which forced tribes to coalesce or
authority: kings might embark on foreign face defeat.
campaigns to acquire booty and prestige for The most powerful Roman enemies were
internal consumption. the supranational federations, represented by
the Huns in the fifth century and the Avars
in the sixth and seventh. These groupings
Enemies in Europe swallowed the variety of smaller tribal units
within their sphere of action, with terror and
The personal prestige of the war leader was booty providing the cement; their existence
also vital for Rome's various tribal enemies in required regular warfare, and their ruthless
Europe. These groups ranged from small war leaders had the manpower to overrun the
bands from an extended family or single defences of even major cities. Both Huns and
village, through more complex clan and Avars posed serious challenges to Roman
tribal bands into which the family units authority, but their inherent instability was
would be subsumed, to the occasional but their undoing: Attila's death in 453 led to
mighty international federation. At the fatal dissension among his potential heirs,
bottom of the scale were the Slav raiders who while the Avars never recovered from their
crossed the Danube in the sixth century; failure at Constantinople in 626, since
these might operate in groups of 200 or weakness at the top permitted constituent
300, perhaps accompanied by their families sub-groups to rebel. The image of the Huns is
in wagons as they sought land for settlement. of nomadic warriors whose attachment to
Most of the German and Gothic groups their horses was such that they could
who challenged the Empire were collections scarcely walk, and it is true that the various
of such smaller clan or village units, united warrior elites will have fought as cavalry,
under the authority of a king. The right to but all these groupings could also field
lead depended ultimately on success, substantial infantry forces which would
especially in warfare; although leading have been provided by less prestigious
families (such as the Gothic Balti and Amali) elements, for example the Slavs within the
attempted to create dynasties, these could not Avar federation.
survive the shock of prolonged failure or the Collectively Rome's enemies rivalled, or
absence of a suitable war-leader. There was surpassed, its military strength, but the
some instability in these groups, and units - Romans could usually hold their own, partly
such as the Carpi, who were prominent down through superior organisation and training,
to AD 300 - might disappear permanently; partly through strong defences, but above
others such as the Lombards are absent from all by the strategy of trying to avoid
our sources for several generations before re- simultaneous conflict on different frontiers.
emerging in the sixth century. Such changes Along the Danube or Rhine tribal groupings
did not represent the elimination of these might co-operate in the short term, but
people but their subjection to a different elite Roman diplomacy was adept at exploiting
which imposed its identity on its followers. potential splits. Wider collaboration was
Powerful German kings might be able to extremely rare, the only real instance
26 Essential Histories Rome at War
occurring in 626 when Persian troops which distinguished the Romans from all
encamped on the Bosporus attempted to join their opponents, with the exception of
the Avar attacks on Constantinople, only to Saxon raiders in the North Sea and the
be thwarted by the Roman fleet. Possession Vandal kingdom in North Africa which took
of a small but powerful navy was a factor over part of the western Roman fleet.
Outbreak
Creating crisis
The Valerian Wall at Athens, cutting across the agora. mouth; a decade later they swept across the
(Author's collection) north-eastern Balkans, and Emperor Decius
was killed and his army annihilated while
numerous lesser places such as Dura on the trying to force them back across the Danube
Euphrates, and the transport to Persia of in 251. Further ravaging occupied the 250s,
massive booty; Emperor Valerian was with the Goths commandeering shipping on
captured in battle at Edessa (Urfa) in 260 and the Black Sea to cross to Asia Minor and sail
taken back to Persia. For the next decade into the Aegean where they sacked Athens in
imperial authority in the east was limited, 268. Mining operations in Macedonia and
with the most effective resistance to the Thrace were inevitably disrupted.
Persians being provided by the ruler of This great movement of Goths naturally
Palmyra, Odaenathus. The east had become displaced other peoples who might find
an expensive military arena for the Romans, themselves squeezed against the Roman
and the substantial tax revenues of its frontier; this process could trigger the
provinces were jeopardised. formation of substantial federations as
The problem was compounded by events different tribes steeled themselves for the
on the Danube, where the Romans also had ultimate challenge of attacking the Romans.
to face a new enemy. Here change had been On the upper Danube the Vandals, Quadi
slow, the result of the gradual movement of and Marcomanni breached the frontier, and
Gothic peoples from northern Poland. The on the upper Rhine the Alamanni increased
first attested Gothic incursion came in 238, their strength to the extent that they twice
when they sacked Istria near the Danube invaded Italy in the 260s. On the lower Rhine
Outbreak 29
Porchester Castle. One of the late third-century Alexander, who had just campaigned
Saxon shore fortifications, built to protect southern and
unsuccessfully in the east, was overthrown
eastern Britain from raids across the North Sea.
(Ancient Art and Architecture)
by the Rhine armies who feared his
leadership. They proclaimed as their leader
Maximinus the Thracian (allegedly an
the Franks gradually came to dominate uneducated peasant risen from the ranks).
another large federation which threatened Maximinus made no attempt to conciliate
frontier defences during the latter half of the the senate, his control of the armies,
century, and Saxon pirates began to raid especially those in the east, was shaky in
across the North Sea and down the Channel. spite of a promise to double military pay,
Of the Roman world only Africa, the and the extensive confiscations needed to
Iberian Peninsula and, to a lesser extent, provide funds for his promises damaged his
Britain, were spared invasion. The reputation further. Maximinus survived until
cumulative nature of the frontier pressure is 238 when his failure to deal with rivals
evident, with emperors unable to divert supported or proclaimed by the senate
troops from one sector to another and caused his troops to mutiny. Seven emperors
instead constrained to confront invaders in within one year, fighting in North Africa and
conditions which led to defeat. The northern Italy, and disturbances in Rome
consequences for imperial prestige are were a foretaste of the anarchy to come; such
obvious, and by the late 260s the Empire was substantial internal upheavals naturally
virtually split into three units which afforded external enemies a chance to
attended separately to their own security. invade, which then increased the problems
Trouble began in 235 when Severus for whoever happened to occupy the throne.
30 Essential Histories Rome at War
Coin with legend Carausius et fratres, c.AD 286. Empire, it transpired that Pannonians, and
(Ancient Art and Architecture) other officers of Balkan extraction, became
prominent. These were professional soldiers,
Another consequence of crisis was the at whom civilian intellectuals might sneer
marginalisation of the senate and a for their lack of culture, but they proved
professionalisation of military command. In to be solidly committed to the idea of
238 the senate and armies had contested the Rome and its traditions, as well as
imperial succession, but under Gallienus effective generals.
senators were effectively removed from The crisis also had a religious impact, since
military commands. This development a natural inference from repeated misfortune
had begun earlier, since the Severans was that the gods had to be placated. At first
had sometimes preferred trustworthy this took the form of intensified supplication
non-senators for important commands, but to traditional deities: in 249 Decius issued a
the insecurity of emperors furthered the general instruction to all citizens to offer
change while troops also demanded reliable prayers and sacrifices on his behalf. A
leaders rather than aristocratic amateurs. consequence, probably unintended, of this
When Aurelian came to power with the order was that Christians were faced with the
backing of the upper Danube legions and choice of disobedience or apostasy; some
then used these troops to restore the abandoned the faith, many more probably
Outbreak 33
Challenges to empire
The arch of Galerius. Thessaloniki, showing fighting supply ships which could not be hauled
between Romans and Persians. (Author's collection) upstream. Treacherous guides led him astray
and then Shapur, whose army had not been
attempts to thwart his advance by breaching tied down effectively in the north, began to
their irrigation canals. However, he now harass; Julian was mortally wounded in a
realised that he had little chance of capturing skirmish, and his successor, the officer Jovian,
the city, and resolved to march back up the could only extricate his army by surrendering
Tigris; this entailed burning his fleet of territories to the east of the Tigris, plus
The fighting 39
Nisibis and Singara. Bitter opposition from experienced, a fact crucial for the eastern
the inhabitants of Nisibis who pleaded to Empire's survival during the fifth century.
continue their battle with the Persians was There were moments of tension, and two
overruled, and they were resettled in Amida. brief conflicts, but no prolonged warfare
Blame for the Roman reverse was until 502. Tension persisted for a time,
allocated in accordance with religious primarily over control of Armenia, but this
loyalties: for pagans the heroic Julian's was settled in 387 when the Armenian
success was squandered by the cowardly kingdom was suppressed and its territory
Jovian, whereas for Christians Jovian's piety partitioned between Rome and Persia. In
rescued the Romans from Julian's folly. The 421/2 war was provoked by the behaviour of
loss of Nisibis rankled, and its recovery was Christian activists in Persia against
still on the imperial agenda two centuries Zoroastrian shrines; the Christians fled west
later, but the agreement of 363 ushered in and Theodosius II refused to surrender his
the most prolonged period of peace which co-believers. In 440-42 conflict flared again,
the Roman eastern frontier had ever this time over Roman payments for the
40 Essential Histories Rome at War
Tne Baptistery at Nisibis with the lintels of the original position also became easier when doctrinal
doors just visible. Only a year after the building's questions separated them from Roman
dedication Nisibis was transferred to Persian control by
Christians. Attempts were made to regulate
Jovian (AD 363). (Author's collection)
the transhumant Arab tribes of the frontier,
construction of new fortresses was banned,
defence of the Caucasus; the Romans once the defence of key fortifications in the
more had the better of limited fighting. On Caucasus was accepted as a shared burden,
each occasion the Romans were prompted to and trade was funnelled through specific
agree peace because of Hunnic activity in the markets at Nisibis, Callinicum and
Balkans, while the Persians also had Artaxata. Rome and Persia came to see
distractions on their north-eastern frontier. themselves as the two lights of the world,
During these years there emerged a with a mutual obligation to help each
system of diplomatic arrangements, which other against disruptive and uncivilised
reduced the risks of disagreements spilling outsiders. There was even a story that
over into full-scale war. The rights of Emperor Arcadius appointed his Persian
minority religions were recognised, which counterpart Yazdgard as guardian for his
protected the Christians in Persia; their infant son Theodosius.
The fighting 41
Battle of Adrianople
44 Essential Histories Rome at War
consequent domino effect on the tribes intervene against usurpers, first in 387 and
there. The most powerful Gothic group, the then in 394: the destruction of these battles,
Greuthungi, who had been based between especially at the Frigidus River in 394,
the Dneister and Dneiper, was destroyed and certainly weakened the Goths, but more
the Tervingi were the next to be threatened: importantly they destroyed the best
the might of Rome appeared less daunting elements in the western armies. When
than the Hunnic scourge, and the Danube Theodosius died at Milan in AD 395 the
seemed to offer safety. Roman attempts to Empire was divided between his young sons,
control the Goths, by admitting only the Arcadius in the east and Honorius in Italy. It
Tervingi and removing their leaders failed, was the east which was in a much stronger
but thereafter they managed to contain position, as can be seen from the
the Gothic threat quite successfully by increasingly desperate legislation on
exploiting control of food and by harassing recruitment and other military matters
the Goths as soon as they dispersed to issued by Honorius' court over the next
seek supplies. dozen or so years.
In 378 it appeared that the Romans
would crush the Goths as Valens returned
from Antioch and Gratian marched from Ammianus reports the recognition by the
the Rhine to co-operate against them. victor of Adrianople that his men could not
However, Gratian's arrival was delayed attack cities (31.6.4).
when the Alamanni heard about his plans 'Fritigern realised that it was pointless
and decided to invade. Valens still felt for men without experience of siege-
confident of defeating the Goths, and on works to fight at such a disadvantage.
9 August 378 he led his army out of camp He suggested that the siege should be
at Adrianople towards the Gothic position. abandoned and a sufficient force left
The Romans probably outnumbered the behind to contain the enemy. He had no
Goths, but their deployment from the line quarrel, he said, with stone walls, and he
of march was confused and the battle was advised them to attack and pillage in
joined haphazardly, with the result that the perfect safety rich and fruitful regions
Roman wings were driven back. At this which were still unguarded.'
moment the Gothic cavalry, which had Ammianus (16.2.12) made the same
been absent foraging, returned and the point with regard to the Alamanni.
combination of their flank attacks, the 'They avoided the actual towns as if they
heavy fire of Gothic archers, and the heat were tombs surrounded by nets.'
of the long day gradually wore down the
Roman centre. Resistance was stubborn,
but two-thirds of the army, including
Valens, were killed.
The Huns
Adrianople is often seen as the turning
point for the Roman Empire, but it is The Huns began to arrive along the
necessary to remember that the eastern Danube in the early fifth century, but
forces survived the destruction of one of its until AD 395 their epicentre had been
field armies and the Gothic victors were further east as they had raided across the
successfully managed by the new eastern Caucasus. In 408/9 a Hunnic chief Uldin
Emperor, Theodosius, who gave them lands crossed the lower Danube but his followers
in Thrace in return for military service. They were seduced by Roman diplomacy. By
were a major nuisance, but their inability to the middle of the next decade the Huns
capture walled cities limited their impact. were established on the Hungarian plains,
Gothic help was fully exploited when and their approach should probably be
Theodosius was drawn westwards to connected with the construction of a
The fighting 45
Hunnic power depended upon the northern and central Balkans were repeatedly
personal authority of their leader, his ability crossed by Gothic groups in search of land
to dominate all members of his federation. and safety, while the Romans reverted to
This was achieved partly through the exercise reliance on fortifications and control of food
of patronage and the disbursement of the supplies, plus the incentive of imperial
rewards of military victory, but even more by military titles with their accompanying
the exercise of sheer terror: Attila repeatedly salaries, to hold the balance. The Goths
demonstrated that it was impossible to escape recognised the Roman strategy of playing off
his grasp, and potential rivals were painfully different groups, and on occasions tried to
killed. As a result the Romans could not counteract this, but the incompatible
operate their traditional diplomatic strategy ambitions of Gothic leaders played into
of divide and subvert: they were required to Roman hands. Only the opportune death of
hand back Huns, who were probably refugees one powerful leader permitted his main rival
from Attila's power, and so were denied the Theoderic the Amal to unite most of the
chance to cultivate alternative leaders. Attila Balkan Goths into an army whose strength
was also a skilled diplomat, with a wide was such that the Emperor Zeno
knowledge of the international scene: he commissioned them to invade Italy and
knew the invasion routes into Persia, timed reassert imperial control there.
his attacks on the Balkans to coincide with
an eastern military expedition to Africa, and
exploited tensions between Goths, Franks Two Gothic leaders (Theoderic Strabo - son
and Romans in the west; his reception of of Triarius - and Theoderic the Amal)
Roman envoys was a masterful reproach each other for playing into Roman
demonstration of psychological pressure. As hands. (Malchus, fr. 18.2.30-38)
his federation expanded he came to control 'But the son of Triarius kept riding up
vast military resources, which it was in his to the other's camp, insulting and
interest to exploit. His armies, spearheaded reproaching him and calling him a
by Hunnic cavalry, were capable of rapid swearer of useless oaths, a child and a
movement to anticipate defences, while the madman, an enemy and betrayer of his
masses of expendable subordinates could be own race, who did not know the
thrown at Roman walls to supplement the Romans' mind or recognise their
Huns' considerable skill at siegecraft. The intentions. "For they remain at peace,
threat was such that Constantinople was while the Goths wear each other down.
provided with a further set of fortifications, Whichever of us loses, they will be the
the Long Walls, which stretched from the winners without effort."'
Sea of Marmara to the Black Sea.
Salvation for the Romans lay in the fact
that the Hunnic federation could not stand
still: military success and booty were regular Loss of the west
requirements, and any interruption created
tensions within the international In 395 the young Honorius succeeded
conglomeration. Attila's attacks on the west Theodosius, but the west was controlled by
produced only limited success, and this jolt Stilicho, a general of Vandal descent. Stilicho
was compounded by his death: his sons claimed that the dying Theodosius had also
fought over the succession, and subordinate instructed him to protect the eastern emperor
tribes rebelled: in 454 the Gepids and then Arcadius, and that two Balkan provinces
the future Ostrogoths, Lombards, Heruls plus should be transferred to western authority.
others emerged from the shadow of Hunnic This rivalry drew Stilicho into Balkan affairs,
control to confront the Romans along the where imperial competition permitted the
Danube frontier. For the next generation the Goths (who had been weakened bv casualties
Essential Histories Rome at War
to Africa, although the precise cause was, daughter (Galla Placidia - the widow of
naturally, internal Roman conflict: Boniface, Athaulf), but died in 421. At Honorius' death
governor of Africa, invited the Vandals to help in 423, Constantius' widow appealed to
him to resist pressure from rivals at Ravenna. Constantinople on behalf of her infant son,
The Vandals' arrival in 429 condemned the Valentinian while a usurper at Ravenna
western Empire: within a decade they had sought help from the Huns. Valentinian III
taken over the north African provinces, was installed in 425, but the dispute brought
captured Carthage (in 439) and withstood the Huns into western empire affairs.
eastern empire attempts to repulse them. North Aetius emerged as the new patrician. His
Africa was the most prosperous part of the greatest achievements were in Gaul, where
west, and its wealth had escaped the impact of he contained the Visigoths - often with help
tribal invasion; its loss decisively reduced the from the Huns whom he also used to crush
resources on which emperors at Ravenna could the Burgundians. Aetius had been a hostage
call and, to compound the problem, the with the Huns and so was well connected,
Vandals used Roman ships at Carthage to but the culmination of his successes was the
dominate Sicily and Sardinia and to ravage repulse of Attila's invasion in 451 at the
Italy; they sacked Rome in 455, a much more battle of the Catalaunian plains, with the
destructive event than Alaric's entry in 410. help of an improbable coalition of Franks,
From the Roman perspective the priorities Burgundians and Visigoths (whose king
were to restore battered imperial authority, Theoderic died heroically). When Attila
stabilise the tribal groups, and then gradually turned to northern Italy in 452, Aetius could
weaken their independence. In the latter part not prevent the loss of northern cities
of his reign Honorius relied on the general including Aquileia. He could harass the Huns
Constantius, who was granted the title of but without bringing the Visigoths across the
patrician, which thereafter became the Alps he dared not attack directly - instead
designation for the senior western
commander. Constantius married Honorius'
The King of the Visigoths marries a
captured imperial princess in 414 in a
The Gallic chronicler Hydatius describes the ceremony intended to signal a
loss of Spain (Chronicle, 17). rapprochement between Romans and Goths
'When the province of Spain had been (Olympiodorus, 24).
laid waste by the destructive progress of 'Athaulf married Placidia at the
disasters just described, the Lord in his beginning of January in the city of
compassion turned the barbarians to the Narbo at the house of Ingenuus, one of
establishment of peace. They then the leading locals. There Placidia, dressed
apportioned to themselves by lot areas of in royal raiment, sat in a hall decorated
the provinces for settlements: the Vandals in Roman fashion, and Athaulf sat by
took possession of Gallaecia and the her side, wearing a Roman general's
Sueves that part of Gallaecia which is cloak and other Roman clothing. Amidst
situated on the very western edge of the the celebrations, along with other
Ocean. The Alans were allotted the wedding gifts Athaulf gave Placidia 50
provinces of Lusitania and handsome young men dressed in silk
Carthaginiensis, and the Siling Vandals clothes... Then nuptial hymns were
Baetica. The Spaniards in the cities and sung, first by Attalus, then by Rusticius
forts who survived the disasters and Phoebadius. Then the ceremonies
surrendered themselves to servitude under were completed amidst rejoicings and
the barbarians, who held sway celebrations by both the barbarians and
throughout the provinces.' the Romans amongst them.'
The fighting 5I
Pope Leo was deployed to encourage Attila Mosaic in S. Apollinare Nuovo. Ravenna, depicting the
palace of Theoderic. (Ancient A r t and Architecture)
to leave.
Like Stilicho and Constantius before him,
Aetius schemed to link his family to the
emperor by marriage, but this contributed to An appreciative assessment by a Latin
his downfall. In September 454 Valentinian author of Theoderic the Ostrogoth's regime
personally assassinated Aetius, only for in Italy (Anonymus Valesianus 59-60).
Aetius' bodyguards to take revenge in March 'Theoderic was a man of great
455. For the next two decades control was distinction and of good-will towards all
contested between the different power blocks men, and he ruled for 33 years. Italy for
with interests in the western state: the 30 years enjoyed such good fortune that
Visigoths, Vandals, the eastern Empire and his successors inherited peace, for
the Italian army under the patrician Ricimer, whatever he did was good. He so
backed a rapid succession of rulers. The governed two races, Romans and Goths,
problems are illustrated by the reign of that although he was an Arian, he
Majorian (457-61), Ricimer's appointee, who nevertheless did not attack the Catholic
curbed Vandal raiding in central Italy and religion; he gave games in the circus and
reasserted Roman authority in Gaul and amphitheatre, so that even by Romans
Spain; he appears to have been too successful he was called Trajan or Valentinian,
for when an attack on Africa was foiled, whose times he took as a model; and by
Ricimer had him executed. the Goths, because of his edict in which
One final attempt to crush the Vandals he established justice, he was judged in
and restore western resources was made in all respects to be their best king.'
468 when a massive naval expedition was
52 Essential Histories Rome at War
sent from Constantinople, but this was various fortresses and finally, after a fierce
thwarted by Vandal fireships. Failure was siege, Amida. The origins of the outbreak lay
ruinous for the eastern state - which spent much further east in Persian dealings with
64,000 pounds of gold (more than a year's the Hephthalites of central Asia, who had
revenue) - and fatal for the western state: in helped Kavadh regain his throne; they were
476, after a rapid turnover of rulers, the now demanding subsidies and Kavadh asked
army of Italy under Odoacer deposed the the Romans for financial help but the
young Romulus, who was derisively eastern emperor Anastasius refused, perhaps
nicknamed Augustulus ('little Augustus'), reviving the issue of Persian control of
and returned the imperial insignia to Nisibis or perhaps just reluctant to build up
Constantinople. Odoacer controlled Italy Persian strength.
until Theoderic the Amal took Ravenna in The Roman response was slow since
491 and established the 'Ostrogothic' (east Bulgar Huns were ravaging the Balkans in
Goth) kingdom. Theoderic in his long 502, but the position slowly stabilised, in
reign (491-526) created a successful spite of dissension between Roman
Romano-Gothic realm during which commanders; by 505 Kavadh was distracted
Italy prospered and a ruler at Ravenna by another Hephthalite invasion and
secured considerable power in southern agreed a truce for seven years. Anastasius
Gaul and Spain and intermittent influence interrogated his generals about their
in Vandal Africa. problems, and the lack of a secure base near
the frontier was identified as a key. Therefore
a site was chosen at Dara and construction
Sixth-century wars of a massive new fortress was undertaken;
financial responsibility was entrusted to
While the western Empire floundered Bishop Thomas of Amida. By 507 he had
towards disintegration, the eastern Empire raised the walls to a sufficient height to
prospered, in spite of repeated destruction in disregard Persian protests that the Romans
the Balkans, since the eastern frontier was had breached the agreement to ban new
quiet and the rich provinces of Asia Minor, frontier fortifications.
Syria and Egypt generated surpluses. Eastern In spite of this tension the truce persisted
rulers attempted to help the west, especially for a further 20 years, although competition
in the struggle against the Vandals, whose
maritime raiding threatened to affect the
The southern watergate at Dara showing the full height
eastern Mediterranean, but to no avail. of the wall (the upper half has now fallen), part of a
Conflict resumed with Persia in 502 when tower and the arches of a bridge over the stream.
King Kavadh invaded Armenia, capturing (The Bell Collection, University of Newcastle.)
The fighting 53
between the two superpowers of the ancient The southern Watergate at Dara. from inside the city,
world continued on the fringes of their showing the two stages of the construction of the
circuit wall. The first stage. 30 feet (10 m) high, was
spheres of influence, in sub-Caucasia and
constructed by Anastasius, while the thinner arcaded
Arabia where religious factors exacerbated superstructure is Justinianic. (The Bell Collection,
tensions. But the occasion for renewed University of Newcastle.)
conflict in 527 came from an incident which
reflected the continuing strength of the fifth-
century traditions of peaceful co-operation:
the elderly Kavadh asked Emperor Justin to An example of the international links
adopt his son Khusro and so guarantee his constructed by Theoderic, who here writes
succession in a mirror image of Arcadius' to the Burgundian king to accompany the
appeal to Yazdgard over a century before; gift of a clock and urge the benefits of
Justin was persuaded that full adoption 'civilisation'. (Cassiodorus, Variae 1.46)
might compromise the Roman succession 'Therefore I greet you with my usual
and so offered Khusro a lesser form of friendship, and have decided to send
adoption. you by the bearers of this letter the
The war began badly for the Romans with time-pieces with their operators, to
reverses in Armenia and upper Mesopotamia, give pleasure to your intelligence ...
but Justinian, who succeeded his uncle in Possess in your native country what
autumn 527, reorganised eastern defences by you once saw in Rome. It is proper that
creating a new military command for your friendship should enjoy my gifts,
Armenia, initiating major defensive works at since it is also joined to me by ties of
key sites, and appointed a new general for the kinship. Under your rule let Burgundy
eastern command, Belisarius. (Procopius, the learn to scrutinise devices of highest
main historian for Justinian's wars, joined ingenuity and to praise the inventions
Belisarius' staff). In 530 the Persians were of the ancients. Through you it lays
defeated in Armenia and Belisarius overcame aside its tribal way of life and, in its
the Persian army outside his base of Dara, but regard for the wisdom of its king, it
these victories were offset in 531 when properly covets the achievements of
Belisarius was defeated at Callinicum on the the sages.'
Euphrates. Justinian's main concern
54 Essential Histories Rome at War
throughout had been to stabilise the situation The Vandals came first: they were the
on the eastern frontier, and negotiations were more obnoxious to eastern Christians
now pursued to achieve the Endless Peace to because some mutilated refugees from their
which the new Persian king Khusro agreed in intermittent persecutions had reached
532: Justinian paid 11,000 pounds of gold, Constantinople. There had been two eastern
and agreed to withdraw the Roman expeditions against them during the fifth
commander and his troops from Dara. century, and the prospects for diplomacy
From the start of his uncle's reign in 518 were better in Ostrogothic Italy. In 533 an
Justinian had been interested in western expedition sailed in 500 transports escorted
affairs and had rapidly rebuilt links between by 92 warships and comprised 15,000
the Eastern Church and the Pope at Rome. Roman soldiers, 1,000 foreign allies and
This caused strain in Ostrogothic Italy where Belisarius' retainers, his bucellarii. The
the Goths, in spite of their heretical status, Vandal king, Gelimer, was distracted by
had sustained good relations with the papacy rebellion on Sardinia whereas Belisarius
because of tensions between Rome and received help with supplies from the
Constantinople. The death of Theoderic the Ostrogoths in Sicily, and the Romans landed
Amal in 526 and the struggle of his daughter without encountering the Vandal fleet.
Amalasuintha to retain the throne for her Belisarius advanced on Carthage, defeated a
son Athalaric upset the international scratch army raised by Gelimer, and captured
balances which had developed in the west the city; later that year, when their troops
during the previous generation. Peace with had returned from Sardinia, the Vandals
Persia provided Justinian with the attempted to recapture Carthage but they
opportunity to advance his grand idea. were heavily defeated just outside the walls.
The fighting 55
Justinianic defences at Martyropolis (modern Silvan, Vitigis, who moved to besiege Rome in
Turkey) built when the city became the base for the February 537; in spite of shortages of troops
new general of Armenia. (Author's collection)
and supplies Belisarius defended the massive
circuit, and gradually harried the besiegers so
Justinian reorganised the province, restoring that they were suffering as much as the
urban fortifications which the Vandals had defenders when the siege was ended in
slighted, reconstituted frontier defences, and winter 537/8. The arrival of reinforcements
returned property to the Catholic Church. permitted Belisarius to take the offensive and
Belisarius sailed to Constantinople with he secured Liguria, Milan and Rimini, but
several thousand Vandal captives, who were disagreements between Roman commanders,
enrolled in the eastern armies, and was especially those involving Narses, who did
permitted to celebrate a triumph, the first not recognise Belisarius' seniority, led to
non-imperial triumph for over 500 years. disaster when an invading army of
An opportunity now presented itself in Burgundians sacked Milan; allegedly
Italy where Athalaric had died and 300,000 of its male inhabitants were
Amalasuintha, imprisoned by her cousin massacred. Narses was recalled to
Theodahad, was killed. Justinian protested, Constantinople, and in 539 Belisarius drove
and sent expeditions to Dalmatia and Sicily. the Goths out of all Italy south of the Po
Negotiations with Theodahad about valley and began to close on Ravenna,
accepting Roman suzerainty broke down, whose surrender was negotiated in 540.
and Belisarius was ordered to invade Italy, So far the reconquest had been a
even though he had been sent to Sicily with spectacular success since with limited forces
only 7,000 Roman soldiers, 500 allies and his the eastern Romans had eliminated two
bucellarii: he captured Naples by siege - powerful western kingdoms, in spite of the
although some inhabitants supported the distraction of regular incursions into the
Goths - and then marched into Rome from Balkans by Bulgars and Slavs, and of
which the garrison had withdrawn. problems with mutinies and raiding Moors
Theodahad had now been replaced by in Africa. The key was peace in the east, but
56 Essential Histories Rome at War
The walls at Edessa (Urfa.Turkey) which withstood in defended cities until mobile units were
three Persian sieges during the sixth century. sent from Constantinople.
(Author's collection)
In 541 Khusro switched his attention to
Lazica in the north, while Belisarius, who
in 539 this was breaking down at the time had been recalled from Italy to handle the
Khusro, perhaps already jealous of Justinian's situation, raided into upper Mesopotamia. In
western victories, received an embassy from 542 Khusro intended to move on Palestine,
Vitigis urging him to act before Justinian but was dissuaded by improvements in
became too powerful. A quarrel over grazing Belisarius' army. Another factor may have
rights between allied Arabs gave Khusro an been bubonic plague, which was raging in
excuse to attack, and in 540 he marched up the Roman Empire. In 543 plague halted
the Euphrates to seek booty or protection Persian moves in the north, but in 544
money: cities on his route were stormed or Khusro returned to Mesopotamia with the
intimidated into buying protection, and specific target of Edessa. Religion appears to
Antioch was captured after a fierce siege; it have been the main cause, because Edessa
was systematically ransacked to the extent was believed to have received a guarantee of
that marbles and mosaics were transported protection from Christ in the form of a letter
to Persia, while the surviving inhabitants which was engraved over the city gates.
were marched off to found a city of New Khusro therefore deployed all the resources
Antioch near Ctesiphon. During his return of Persian siege technology, only to be
to Persia more cities were pillaged or coerced thwarted, and the story emerged that his
into buying safety. Khusro's successes are great siege mound had been destroyed
often cited as proof that Justinian neglected through the intervention of a miraculous
military matters, but the truth is that, icon of Christ - the start of the fame of the
although Roman defences were in a Mandylion of Edessa, the future Shroud of
reasonable state, scattered garrisons had no Turin. In 545 Khusro agreed a truce for five
chance of opposing a Persian royal army; years, in return for 5,000 pounds of gold and
there was little to be done except to hold out the provision that operations could continue
The fighting 57
The Greek historian Menander records the agreements had been entered in
ratification of peace with Persia in 561/2 the records they were compared to
(fr.6.1.304-19). establish the identity of their contents
'When these and other matters had and wording.
been thoroughly debated, the 50-year The first clause was written that
treaty was recorded in Persian and in through the pass at the place called Tzon
Greek, and the Greek was translated into and the Caspian Gates the Persians
Persian speech and the Persian into should not admit either Huns or Alans
Greek. Those of the Romans who ratified or other barbarians to gain access to the
the concordats were Peter the Master of Roman realm, and that the Romans
Offices and Eusebius and others, while of should not in that region or in other
the Persians Yazdgusnasp the Zikh and parts of the Median frontier send an
Surenas and others. When each side's army against the Persians.'
in Lazica; the truce was extended in 551 and they chose a new leader. Totila proved to
again in 557 before a peace agreement for be a dynamic commander: Roman forces
50 years was signed in 561/2. The treaty initially outnumbered him, but these were
contained very detailed provisions about dispersed and their individual commanders
frontier relations, as well as a guarantee from failed to co-ordinate their actions. As a
Khusro that he would not persecute his result Totila recovered much of southern
Christian subjects. Italy in 542 and starved Naples into
In Italy the Roman position soon submission in 543. Belisarius returned in
deteriorated. The Goths believed that
Belisarius had tricked them into surrender Mosaic of Justinian accompanied by Bishop Maximian,
by appearing to agree to become their ruler civilian dignitaries and bodyguards. From S.Vitale.
and so, although they had lost Ravenna, Ravenna. (Ancient A r t and Architecture)
58 Essential Histories Rome at War
544 to confront the crisis, with 4,000 new One criticism of Justinian's grand
recruits but little money, but he was unable reconquest is that it overstretched east Roman
to engage the Goths. Totila captured Rome resources, so that his successors struggled to
in 546 and, though Belisarius recaptured it cope with the various challenges of the late
the next year, his lack of resources led him sixth century. If hindsight makes this
to request a recall. When Totila regained apparent, the contemporary perspective needs
Rome in 550 and threatened Sicily, to be remembered: Justinian pacified the east
Justinian was eventually prompted to act. to the best of his ability before embarking on
Narses was sent to end the war, having his western ambitions and, even though
demanded the resources which he deemed Khusro broke the peace agreement, the
necessary. In 552 and 553 he twice defeated frontier was again stabilised after the losses of
the Goths; he then had to deal with a 540; bubonic plague exacerbated Roman
horde of Franks and Alamanni who had problems, but the prosperity of Africa in the
taken the opportunity to invade Italy, but late sixth century illustrates that peace could
in 554 peninsular Italy was firmly under have brought long-term dividends.
Roman control and at peace. Narses was
left in charge of the reorganisation of the Fortifications at Dara showing main horseshoe towers
country with combined civilian and and smaller intermediate square towers.The citadel is
military authority. visible in the middle distance. (Author's collection)
The fighting 59
seek a truce. In 576 Khusro campaigned into homeland on the Hungarian plains. But
Armenia, but failed to take any cities and constant fighting gradually took its toll, and
was outmanoeuvred in the mountains; the in 602 the army, already discontented over
royal baggage was captured and many changes to military pay (which reduced the
Persians were drowned when escaping across cost of equipment and horses) mutinied
the Euphrates. Thereafter the Romans when it was ordered to stay north of the
generally contained Persian attacks while Danube for winter campaigning. A march on
ravaging their territories so that Khusro and Constantinople toppled Maurice and
his successor Hormizd (578-90) were installed the officer Phocas in his place.
prompted to pursue negotiations. These, Phocas' accession would inevitably have
however, foundered on the Roman insistence reduced the intensity of Roman activity in
on recovering Dara and peace was only the Balkans, but it had more serious
restored in 591: Hormizd was overthrown consequences: Khusro II seized the excuse
following disagreements with his leading provided by the overthrow of his protector,
general Vahram, and his son Khusro II fled Maurice, to attack the Romans in order to
to the Romans when Vahram approached recover the possessions and prestige he had
Ctesiphon to beg for help. The Romans lost in 591. During Phocas' reign (602-10)
restored him to power, in return for the Persians gradually captured the Roman
concessions in the sub-Caucasian positions east of the Euphrates, often after
principalities and the restoration of Dara and prolonged sieges. In 609/10 Heraclius, the
other places captured in the war. son of the governor of Africa, revolted
Eastern campaigns traditionally took against Phocas, whose regime in
precedence over other theatres for the Constantinople had become increasingly
Romans, and during the 570s and 580s the unpopular and violent; the distraction of
Balkans and Italy were neglected: the main civil war once more proved the Romans'
impediment to Lombard progress were their undoing. Heraclius captured Constantinople
own disputes, while in the Balkans Tiberius in 610, but was not fully in control of the
had few troops with which to repel the Avars east until 611/12, by which time the Persians
when they turned their attentions south in had pushed on to Antioch and Caesarea
579. For the next decade the Romans had to (Kayseri) in Cappadocia.
rely on increased peace payments and urban Heraclius was no more successful than
defences, which the Avars - like the Huns Phocas in stemming their advance: in 614
before - captured. In the early 580s Slav Jerusalem fell to a Persian siege, its
bands pushed south - partly in conjunction inhabitants and the relics of Christ's passion
with the Avars and partly to escape their being taken into Babylonian captivity; Egypt
domination - ravaging Athens and Corinth, was invaded in 616 and captured completely
approaching the Long Walls of in 619, depriving Constantinople of its food
Constantinople in 584, and attacking supply and the Empire of its richest
Thessalonica in 586. province. In 622 Heraclius in desperation
Maurice, who succeeded Tiberius in 582, 'borrowed' the wealth of the
could do little until the eastern peace Constantinopolitan Church and embarked
permitted him to transfer troops. Thereafter on a series of campaigns which assumed the
he embarked on an energetic series of aspect of a crusade: Khusro II, who had
campaigns which gradually stabilised the flirted with conversion to Christianity in
Danube frontier from the Delta to 590/1, now showed himself to be an
Singidunum (Belgrade) and permitted the intelligent enemy of the orthodox, since he
Romans to reassert their authority in the favoured the Jews and tolerated heretical and
interior. The war was carried north of the dissident Christian groups. At least Heraclius
river, first in attacks on the Slavs across the could legitimately present himself as
lower Danube and then into the Avar defender of the faith. Heraclius abandoned
The fighting 61
Brothers in arms
proclaimed emperor and Attalus appointed the Visigothic kingdom was established in
Alaric as senior Roman general. Aquitania.
Tensions between Attalus and Alaric, plus
further unsuccessful negotiations with
Honorius, resulted in Alaric returning to Theoderic, Ostrogothic king
Rome, which was easily captured on 24 August
410. Occupation of the city for three days may Theoderic was born in the mid-fifth century
have relieved Alaric's frustrations, but did not into the Amal family which led one of the
satisfy his followers' needs for territory. Gothic groups in the northern Balkans. In
Thereafter he led his forces south, with North 461/2 he was sent as hostage to
Africa as his probable goal, but was thwarted Constantinople, where he remained for
while trying to cross to Sicily; as he withdrew 10 years, receiving his education. After
northwards he became ill and died. His succeeding his father in 474, he spent
brother-in-law Athaulf took over the army, 15 years attempting to establish a base for
which he led into southern Gaul in 412 where his people in the Balkans, either through
negotiation with or intimidation of the
eastern emperor Zeno. Theoderic's successes
Theodoric's mausoleum at Ravenna. Constructed from
Istrian marble, with the dome formed from a single block
were marked by appointments as Roman
weighing 300 tons, this projected Theoderic's ambition to general in 476/8 and again 483-87, when
create a lasting regime. (Ancient A r t and Architecture) Zeno employed him against other tribesmen
64 Essential Histories Rome at War
in the Balkans as well as Isaurian rebels in Theoderic's 33-year reign (493-526) came
the east. Rebuffs resulted in the sacking of to be regarded as a golden age in Italy,
cities, such as Stobi in 479, or the ravaging especially in contrast to the fighting of the
of provinces, for example Macedonia and 540s, and his first two decades were highly
Thessaly in 482. successful. Marital diplomacy built links with
the main tribal groups in the west, and from
507 brought the Visigothic kingdom in Spain
Theoderic writes to Emperor Anastasius under his control. The senate and Pope at
protesting his loyalty; the letter illustrates a Rome were courted by special treatment and
tribal warlord's attachment to the ideal of the carefully crafted Roman image of the
Rome (Cassiodorus, Variae 1.1). new regime; religious divisions between
'Our royalty is an imitation of yours, Rome and Constantinople facilitated this
modelled on your good purpose, a copy rapprochement. For Goths Theoderic
of the only Empire; and in so far as we remained the war leader, but this was now
follow you do we excel all other nations. only one facet of his complex public image.
Often you have exhorted me to love the Theoderic's last decade was less rosy. The
senate, to accept cordially the laws of absence of a son, and the early death of his
past emperors, to join together in one son-in-law raised the issue of succession,
all the members of Italy. How can you while Anastasius' death in 518 brought
separate from your august alliance one religious reconciliation between Rome and
whose character you thus try to make Constantinople and so made Theoderic more
conformable to your own? There is suspicious of leading Romans. Theoderic's
moreover that noble sentiment, love for death in 526 rapidly brought to the surface
the city of Rome, from which two the tensions within his kingdom, which
princes, both of whom govern in her Belisarius' invasion was to exploit.
name, should never be disjoined.'
The Barberini ivory probably showing Emperor Justinian. reinforcements to Belisarius in Italy. Narses
Above Christ blesses the emperor who is honoured by a
criticised Belisarius' conduct, and their
victory to his left while a defeated easterner stands
behind his spear and other easterners offer gifts below.
rivalry led to the loss of Milan. Narses was
To one side a general offers a statue of victory and recalled to Constantinople, to be followed by
Earth displays her bounty beneath the horse's hooves. the allied contingent of Heruls, who refused
(AKG London/Erich Lessing) to remain without him. In 541/2 Narses was
again employed on sensitive business, first to
In 538, at nearly 60 years old, Narses spy on an alleged plot that involved
embarked on what was to prove a highly Justinian's senior financial minister and then
successful military career by leading to investigate unrest in Constantinople. In
66 Essential Histories Rome at War
545 his contacts among the Heruls were Shahvaraz, Persian general
exploited to persuade their leaders to enrol and usurper
for service in Italy.
Narses' big chance came in 551, after Farrukhan was a Persian Christian, nicknamed
Belisarius had failed to stabilise the military Shahvaraz, 'wild boar', by King Khusro II for
position in Italy and Justinian's first choice as his energy in attacking the Romans. In 614 he
replacement (his nephew Germanus) had died. overran Palestine and captured Jerusalem after
Narses was now appointed supreme a bloody siege; he dispatched the surviving
commander in Italy, a post he accepted on Christian population into captivity in
condition that he was provided with the men Babylonia, along with the relic of the True
and money needed to finish the war. Assembly Cross, although other lesser relics such as the
of troops and other preparations detained Holy Sponge and Lance were presented to
Narses in the Balkans, and he did not arrive in Emperor Heraclius. Over the next three years
Ravenna until 6 June 552 after outmanoeuvring he organised the capture of Egypt, and then
Gothic contingents blocking the main routes. from 622 campaigned in Asia Minor as
Later that month Narses marched against the Heraclius marshalled the Roman counter-
Goths' leader Totila, whose various attempts at offensive. Heraclius had the better of their
deception he outwitted and whom he then manoeuvring and engagements, but in 626
crushed in battle through intelligent tactics. In Shahvaraz advanced to the Bosporus where he
July Narses rapidly recaptured Rome before attempted to assist the Avars' attack on
confronting the Goths near Naples. Clever Constantinople. Roman naval power
planning again secured victory, although prevented him from crossing to Europe, but
contemporaries also gave credit to Narses' after the Avar withdrawal he remained at
devotion to the Virgin Mary. Chalcedon. Apparently Khusro tried to have
For the next decade Narses was occupied in him assassinated at this time, but the plan was
reducing Gothic strongholds in central and uncovered (allegedly with Heraclius' help) and
northern Italy and defeating Frankish Shahvaraz refused to commit his army against
invasions. Meanwhile he was entrusted by the Romans.
Justinian with the massive task of returning In 628 Shahvaraz's sons supported the
Italy to civilian rule, as well as ensuring overthrow of Khusro, but in 630 he secured
adherence to the emperor's preferred religious Heraclius' support for a coup against the
doctrines. By 559 he had received the title of young Ardashir. Shahvaraz, whose army was
patrician, the Empire's highest honour, and by still occupying the eastern provinces, agreed
565 he had also become honorary consul, a to withdraw from Roman territory and
demonstration of his place in the traditional return the relic of the Holy Cross. Shahvaraz
Roman hierarchy. Justinian's death in 565 only survived for two months as king before
complicated Narses' last decade, as his being murdered. His son Nicetas, whose
relations with Justin II were naturally less close. name suggests an attachment to the family
The migration of Lombards into the Po valley of Heraclius, commanded Roman troops
from 568 posed new military challenges, against the Arabs in Syria in the 630s, but
but he remained in post until his death in was executed by the caliph Umar in 641 after
573/4, at the age of almost 95. offering to subdue Persia for the Arabs.
The world around war
Impact of conflict
Warlords
However complex the economic and
administrative problems which protracted
warfare caused, the Empire managed to
survive the crisis of the third century to
flourish for much of the fourth century. In
the east this prosperity continued into the
sixth century, but the western Empire relapsed
into a cycle - ultimately fatal - of shrinking
revenues and declining power during the fifth
Folio from the Notitia Dignitatum showing the office of century. Invaders ravaged and depopulated
the Count of the Sacred Largesses, displaying, in addition large areas, but this time the damage
to the standard letter of appointment, different forms
extended much deeper into the Empire. The
of wealth for distribution. (MS Canon Misc. 378, f. I42v,
Bodleian Library) inability of the imperial government to repel
groups such as the Visigoths led to their
settlement, with official agreement, in
thorough reassessment of even one province productive provinces: south-western Gaul,
was such a major undertaking that the much of Spain and finally, and most crucially,
crucial lists could not remain accurate. In North Africa, passed out of Roman control.
practice the easiest way to make up for In some cases, such as the allocation of
shortages in revenue was to squeeze south-west Gaul to the Visigoths, the Empire
accessible producers harder, both through in theory gained a powerful contingent of
increasing the standard tax demand and by soldiers; in practice this resource could only
imposing supplementary superindictions. be used when it suited the Visigoths
In some parts of the Empire the tax themselves, as for example in a series of
burden at times was probably excessive, campaigns into Spain which ultimately
which encouraged people to try to evade benefited the Visigoths, and on other
their dues. The richest and most powerful occasions emperors had to act against their
could ignore demands, while waiting for an nominal allies.
emperor to announce one of the periodic One important consequence of reductions
cancellations of arrears. The poor and weak in imperial power, perceived as well as real,
did so either by placing themselves under was the emergence of local warlords who
the protection of a rich neighbour who would control and defend particular areas
might (in return for payment or service of against external pressures, both central and
some sort) exercise his powers of foreign. On occasions this happened with
obstruction for these new clients, or by imperial consent: in the fifth century western
moving to a new region to escape official emperors relaxed legislation against the
notice. These developments prompted carrying of arms by private individuals, an
imperial legislation that attempted to tie admission that taxation no longer bought
people to their places of work: thus many safety. The Roman 'withdrawal' from the
types of urban craftsmen and shopkeepers British Isles in 410 was probably such an
became, in legal theory, hereditary incident, with the removal of the last official
70 Essential Histories Rome at War
Ankara citadel. (Authors collection) command than the secular fields in which
they usually operated. Within months of his
Julian the apostate led a massive army to victory at the Milvian Bridge, Constantine
disaster in Persia, while his own death in a was invited to adjudicate in the Donatist
skirmish was attributed by some to the dispute - which originated in challenges to
miraculous intervention of St Mercurius; the the legitimacy of North African clergy who
pagan usurper Eugenius was overwhelmed by had not stood up to persecution in the third
the orthodox Theodosius at the Frigidus century - and a year after defeating Licinius
River; and Constantinople was delivered and acquiring the eastern Empire he presided
from the threat of an alleged Gothic plot by at the universal council of Nicaea, which
the intervention of an angel. Heretical attempted to resolve the Arian dispute about
Christians might be as unsuccessful: Emperor the relationship of God the Father and
Valens, an opponent of Nicene Christianity, Christ the Son. In each case the dispute was
died after the catastrophe of Adrianople. still unresolved a century later.
Everything conspired to demonstrate the Emperors used their full military might
power of the true Christian God and the and political power to uphold their authority
importance of correct worship, an issue over the Church, but it was difficult to
which had already exercised Constantine: he achieve the intended results. Justinian had
urged the importance of Christian unity to Pope Vigilius brought to Constantinople and
achieve efficacious supplications to God and then forcibly wrenched from the altar where
provided support for clergy attached to the he had taken refuge to attend a church
correct, orthodox, group. As a result, council in 553, but the Emperor's doctrinal
emperors became closely involved in the statement which resulted was not widely
agreement and enforcement of what was accepted in the west for over 50 years. In
doctrinally right, and in ecclesiastical Constantinople occasional tensions between
discipline, although these areas of belief emperor and bishop exacerbated the
proved much more resistant to Imperial perennial problems of maintaining order in
The world around war 73
major conurbations: when Arcadius had to settle in the city and removed the keys
Bishop John Chrysostom arrested in 404, from the imperial prefect to entrust them to
the attendant rioting resulted in the burning the bishop; in 594 the bishop of Asemus
of S. Sophia and the Senate; Bishop near the Danube prevented the local
Chrysostom died in exile in 407, but a militia from being conscripted into the
generation later he was accepted as one of mobile army commanded by Emperor
the pillars of the Greek Church. Maurice's brother.
Alexandria was even more out of control, Communities might come to look to
since the city's bishops financed an living saints or relics as well as bishops to
enormous clerical establishment, including protect them in the absence of imperial
hundreds of monks in the nearby desert who help. In the fragmenting western Empire of
could be brought into the city and mobilised the fifth century, St Genevieve was credited
as needed. Emperors did not regularly keep with saving Paris from Attila, while at
enough troops in Egypt to confront this Clermont Ferrand in the 470s Bishop
potent combination of force, bribery and Sidonius introduced new devotions to
patronage, and it was easier to come to an sustain local morale during a protracted
accommodation with the preferred leader of blockade. The development of the story of
the Egyptian Church. Even when emperors Christ's protection for Edessa in
resolved to intervene, the authority of their Mesopotamia has already been noted (see
ecclesiastical nominees rarely extended page 56). Thessalonica is another place
beyond the city of Alexandria, and their where one can see the local church
opponents were always awaiting the developing its supernatural assistants when
opportunity to strike back: Proterius was imperial protection was lacking. In the early
sustained as bishop with Emperor Marcian's seventh century the city's bishop produced a
backing, but on Marcian's death he was collection of miracles performed by the
dragged from the baptistery of his church city's patron saint Demetrius, which
and publicly dismembered by supporters of particularly stressed his ability to save his
his rival, Timothy the Cat. city from capture by Avars and Slavs; the
Although Christianity often confirmed collection was designed for public recitation
imperial prestige, the Church could not fail during a renewed bout of Avar pressure.
to be involved also in the fragmentation of Later in the century, when the city was
authority in the Empire. This was partly virtually cut off from Constantinople and
because of the power of the bishop in local imperial support, the collection was
society. The bishop of Alexandria was expanded with further examples of
exceptional in absolute terms, but in most Demetrius' miraculous intervention in sieges
of the Empire's cities the local bishop was a and blockades. Demetrius was capable of
leading property owner and patron, as well humbling imperial prefects who did not
as a person of education. As such they were recognise his superior authority or attend to
often trusted to represent their cities: in 481 the interests of his city, and of challenging
the bishop of Heraclea in Macedonia saved the emperor by redirecting food supplies
his people by providing food for Theoderic's bound for Constantinople.
Goths; during Khusro I's invasion of Syria in As long as the Empire flourished the close
540 bishops attempted to negotiate limits to connection of Christianity and war
Persian depredations; and requests to an strengthened imperial authority, and even
emperor for tax remission after a natural the occasions of tension when secular power
disaster might well be articulated by the was fragmenting reflected rather than
bishop. This authority, however, could also caused imperial decline. There are, however,
threaten imperial interests: at Thessalonica ways in which the Church has been
in 481, the inhabitants rioted at a rumour criticised for contributing to the Empire's
that Emperor Zeno intended to allow Goths collapse, through the appropriation of
74 Essential Histories Rome at War
The walls of Nicaea, (modern Iznik,Turkey); the precious resources and the inculcation of an
column bases and other reused material at the bases unwarlike or defeatist spirit.
of the towers reflects their rapid construction.
The Church did require the service of
(Author's collection)
numerous clergy, and the growing monastic
The world around war 75
of Christ, how the divine and human Walls of Thessalonica, the fourth-century defences of
elements were fused within his single being Galenus' capital. (Author's collection)
Notable individuals
professorships in Constantinople, probably in patriciate in the 530s; even after the start of
the 540s, and combined this with work in the the Justinianic reconquest he continued to
prefecture until his retirement after 40 years serve as praetorian prefect, organising supplies
and four months of service in 551/2. He is best for Ostrogothic forces. With the collapse of the
known for his work 'On Magistracies', which Ostrogothic regime he embraced the religious
included a study of the praetorian prefecture life, and was in Constantinople in 550,
that aired his own jaundiced views on probably as a refugee from the war-torn chaos
administrative innovations and the declining of Italy. In the mid-550s he returned to found
importance of traditional qualities, such as a monastery at Squillace in his native Calabria,
literary ability and skill at Latin. where he lived until his death in about 580.
He was a prolific writer. Apart from the
12 volumes of letters which underpin our
Cassiodorus, Roman in knowledge of the Ostrogothic kingdom, he
Ostrogothic service composed panegyrics on King Theoderic and
his son-in-law, accepted a royal request to write
Three generations of Cassiodori had been a history of the Goths which proclaimed the
important public officials in Italy for Roman antiquity of the Gothic race and the ruling
and tribal rulers when the young Flavius Amal family, and produced several
Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator was philosophical and religious works. At his
selected by his father, the praetorian prefect, as monastery he hoped that secular learning
advisor in 503-07. Thereafter he regularly could be sustained as an aid to religious
served the Ostrogoths at Ravenna as legal understanding; to this end he compiled two
expert and composer of official correspondence books of 'Divine and Human Institutes', works
in elegant Latin, along the way securing the on grammar, etymology and figures of speech,
honours of a consulship in 514 and the which were intended to assist his monks in
their role as scribes, and commentaries on the
Folio from the Notitia Dignitatum showing the office of
Psalms and other books of the Bible. In
the praetorian prefect with ceremonial four-horse carriage, addition he commissioned other works, such
ink stand, candlesticks, and imperial letter of appointment. as a Latin translation of the main Greek church
(MS Canon Misc. 378, f. 90, Bodleian Library) historians of the fourth and fifth centuries. His
monastery scarcely survived his death, but his
writings had a profound influence on the
direction of western monasticism and its role
in the preservation of classical learning.
Promotion for Belisarius and friendship preferences. When Belisarius was disgraced in
with Justinian's wife, Empress Theodora - 542/3 Antonina worked to recover imperial
another product of the entertainment world - favour, and then accompanied him on his
brought Antonina considerable influence; at reappointment to Italy in 544. She returned to
some point she was granted the exalted Constantinople to plead for reinforcements,
patrician rank. She accompanied Belisarius on but the death of Theodora in 548 persuaded
his western campaigns, helping to improve the her to press instead for Belisarius' recall; she
expedition's water supply on the voyage to also terminated the marriage of her daughter
Africa in 533, organising a fleet and supplies to Theodora's grandson to prevent the
for Belisarius during the siege of Rome in 537, imperial house from acquiring the family's
and allegedly dominating her husband. On wealth. She may have outlived Belisarius, who
behalf of Theodora she helped to oust Pope died in 565.
Silverius in 537, secure the downfall of
Justinian's former financial officer John the
Ravenna mosaic of Theodora, wife of Justinian I, with her
Cappadocian in 541, and persuade Pope entourage. Mosaic from the Basilica of S.Vitale. Ravenna.
Vigilius to espouse Theodora's theological (Ancient Art and Architecture)
How the war ended
search of safety in the mountains, while in the east. We have no detailed knowledge
repeated disaster challenged the stability of of the sequence of events after Maurice's
religious convictions. At Constantinople, death in 602, when Roman authority had
however, in the 670s, the Arabs eventually been superficially restored over much of the
stumbled decisively: the capital's substantial peninsula. Phocas and Heraclius both gave
walls and the Roman navy (with its secret precedence to eastern campaigns; troops
weapon of Greek fire) were underpinned by were progressively removed from the
the city's divine defenders, among whom the Balkans, which permitted Slav groups to
Virgin was prominent through the relics of move unhindered across the countryside.
her robe and girdle, and the Arabs were The Avars occasionally invaded to extend
compelled to retreat. their authority over the Slavs and surviving
Over the next generation a new order was Romans, but even their humiliation outside
created in Roman territory: the old social Constantinople in 626 brought no lasting
system based on the grand provincial cities respite. As the Avar federation disintegrated,
had been swept away so that villages and smaller tribal groups emerged to dominate
rural markets came to the fore, while particular areas, the Bulgars in the
administrative organisation was directed north-east, and Croats and Serbs in the
towards sustaining the military units north-west. By the latter part of the seventh
responsible for frontier defence. Only century only the hinterland of
Constantinople survived as a recognisable Constantinople and isolated enclaves at
city, and even its population had probably Thessalonica, Athens, Corinth and other
shrunk to a tenth of what it had once been. places accessible by sea remained under
Continued failure to reverse Arab successes Roman authority.
contributed to religious upheaval: for much In the western state, the deposition of the
of the eighth century the rump of the last Roman emperor in 476 had brought one
eastern Empire was riven by disputes about sort of end, with Vandals in control of
the validity of images in Christian worship, Africa, Visigoths in Spain and southern Gaul,
with iconoclast emperors supporting the Merovingian Franks in northern Gaul and
Muslim view that images were idolatrous. the Ostrogoths soon to arrive in Italy.
In the Balkans the Romans experienced Justinian's reconquest threatened to turn
losses which, if less spectacular in terms of back the clock, but in the later sixth century
military action, were almost as complete as it was the Romans who were being squeezed
by the arrival of the Lombards in Italy and
the reassertion of Visigothic power in Spain.
At Pergamum in 716 the defenders resorted The west was even lower down the list of
to desperate measures, intended to avert an imperial priorities than the Balkans, and
apocalyptic scourge (Theophanes, little could be done to influence events: in
Chronographica p.390). 578 Emperor Tiberius had recognised this
'Maslamah ben Abd al-Malik came to when he returned the gold which the Roman
Pergamum, which he besieged and senate had sent as a gift for his accession
captured by God's dispensation, through with the advice that they should use this to
the Devil's machinations. For at a purchase allies among the newly arrived
magician's instigation the city's Lombards. By the 590s Roman rule in Italy
inhabitants procured a pregnant woman was confined to Ravenna in the north,
and cut her up; after removing the infant which was precariously joined to another
and cooking it in a pot, all those about to area around Rome, and from there to larger
fight dipped the sleeves of their right arm enclaves of the extreme south and Sicily. In
in the loathsome sacrifice. Accordingly the seventh century even the visit to Rome
they were delivered to the enemy.' of Emperor Constans II did not conclusively
re-establish Roman authority. Eventually a
How the war ended 85
Roman legacies
The four centuries of war during which the Rhomaioi. This beleaguered state, which saw
Roman Empire was torn apart provided the itself as the guardian of the Roman political,
basis for a new political map of Europe, the religious and cultural inheritance, found the
Middle East and North Africa. Instead of a resources to survive the intense Arab pressure
collection of provinces whose different of the late seventh and early eighth centuries
peoples, cultures and traditions were and then to embark on substantial
gradually transformed through contact with reconquests in the Balkans and Asia Minor in
Roman power so that acceptance of a central the tenth. Although the arrival of the Seljuk
authority was accompanied by a display of Turks in the eleventh century curtailed its
some common features, a fragmented world resources and power again, the fabled wealth
emerged; in different areas diverse elites of the east attracted Viking mercenaries to
came to the fore, a process whose results still travel south through Russia, and then the
dominate the modern map. treacherous Fourth Crusade sacked
The Roman Empire did not end, since the Constantinople in 1204. But a Roman state
rump of the eastern provinces continued to survived on the Bosporus until Ottoman
be ruled from Constantinople by emperors artillery blasted its way through the Roman
who regarded themselves and their people as walls of Constantinople in 1453.
In the Middle East, however, a
The walls of Ankara showing the pentagonal tower. millennium of control by Greeks and
(Ancient A r t and Architecture) Romans terminated and the region changed
Conclusions and consequences 87
of the Roman population. The most The struggle to define orthodoxy generated
important units to emerge were the Bulgar important excluded groups. In the fourth
kingdom in the north-east, and the Serb and century Christians loosely associated with the
Croat kingdoms in the north-west. In each views of Arius (that the Son was subordinate
case the ruling elite developed a complex to the Father) had converted Germanic tribes
relationship with Constantinople, eager for north of the Danube. These tribes had
the benefits (cultural as well as economic) of remained unaffected by the final triumph
Roman recognition, but also wary of too within the Empire of Nicene over Arian
close a dependence upon a potential Christianity in the 380s; as a result the
imperial master. Constantinople's authority successor kingdoms of Visigoths, Vandals and
waxed and waned, and the best Ostrogoths all subscribed to Arian views and
characterisation of the region is as a were regarded as heretical by Catholics.
commonwealth: its members acknowledged In the east the identification in the 420s of
strong ties, but there were also rivalries the Nestorian heresy, over the status of the
between potential rulers and the ruled, while Virgin Mary and the place of the divine in
the existence of alternative sources of Christ, had led to a rift: expulsion of Nestorians
support such as Holy Rome ensured that from the Empire had helped them to
tensions thrived. consolidate their domination in Sassanid
Persia, where they became accepted as the
national Church with their own spiritual
Slavs attempt to encourage the Avars to leader, catholicus, whose appointment usually
assist in an assault on Thessalonka required royal sanction. Nestorian missionaries
(Miracles of St Demetrius 197). exploited Sassanid diplomatic and trading
'They said that all the cities and networks to make converts in India, central
regions in its vicinity had been Asia and China. An inter-related dispute about
depopulated by them, and that it alone Christ's nature generated the Monophysite
held out in their midst, while it had schism in the eastern Empire from the mid-
received all the refugees from the fifth century. Attempts at reconciliation failed,
Danubian regions, and Pannonia, Dacia, partly because doctrinal concessions to eastern
Dardania and the remaining provinces Monophysites provoked disagreements with
and cities.' Rome and the western Church, partly because
intermittent coercion served to harden
attitudes; the textual bases for the arguments
became swamped by propaganda, and their
Religious divisions precise distinctions vanished because of the
difficulty of translating complex arguments
Competition for religious allegiance was one accurately between the languages involved -
of the disrupting factors in the Balkans as Latin, Greek, Coptic, Syriac, Armenian. In the
Rome and Constantinople vied to convert mid-sixth century a separate Monophysite
different groups, and systems of belief are hierarchy of bishops emerged to control much
one of our major inheritances from the of Egypt, Syria and Armenia. After the Arab
period of late-Roman warfare. The emergence conquests a new division of Christianity crys-
of Christianity as a world faith was the first talised, with the orthodox or Chalcedonians
and most obvious, since it was through dominant within the Roman Empire, while
warfare that Christianity triumphed within Nestorians and Monophysites were the main
the Empire. But the Roman Empire also groups in areas ruled by Arabs, where the
shaped the nature of Christianity's limited numbers of Chalcedonians came to be
development and helped to ensure that this known as Melkites, or emperors' men.
universal religion existed in a variety of Inside the Empire Rome and Constantinople
competing guises. emerged as the two centres of religious power.
Conclusions and consequences
Doctrinal dissension almost generated civil war the Christian message stimulated purists to
in the 340s, over the exile of Bishop Athanasius seek a more authentic response to the Gospel:
of Alexandria, and eastern attempts to resolve in different parts of the Empire individuals
the Monophysite issue produced schisms in the attempted to pursue a more rigorous regime,
late fifth, the mid-sixth, and for much of the and some of these ascetics, or 'trainees', came to
seventh century. Successive emperors believed be organised into groups of monks. During the
that they had the right to determine what was fourth century rules of conduct were developed
correct doctrine, and then the duty to see this in Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor and these soon
accepted throughout their realm. Popes, whose spread west, so that by the time the Empire in
independence was encouraged by Rome's the west was faltering in the mid-fifth century
decline as an imperial capital, saw themselves monasteries were sufficiently established to
as the true guardians of Christian belief and transmit Roman religious and cultural traditions.
relished occasions when eastern bishops Jews, however, were a victim of Christian
appealed to the west for decisions. Emperors zeal. In the pre-Christian Empire, Jews had
were prepared to use force to secure papal usually been tolerated as an eccentric but
obedience, but this could only work if Rome acceptable group whose religious commitment
itself was safely under eastern control. The was hallowed by antiquity, whereas for
basis for a split between Greek and Latin Christians they were the murderers of Christ.
Christianity was established in late antiquity. In the third-century persecutions, emperors
had respected Jewish beliefs and not required
sacrifice. In theory Jews continued to be
The church historian Evagrius laments the protected by imperial legislation, but in
narrow disagreement between practice this could not be upheld against
Chalcedonians ('in two natures') and enthusiastic Christian mobs: synagogues were
Monopyhsites ('from two') which bitterly destroyed, graveyards ransacked and
divided the Church (2.5). congregations even forcibly converted. Such
'The envious and God-hating Devil pressures produced a backlash and on occasions
thus wickedly devised and misinterpreted Jews sided with the Empire's enemies, most
a change of a single letter, so that, whereas notoriously after the Persian siege of Jerusalem
the utterance of one of these absolutely in 614. Suspicions against Jews increased and
thereby introduces the other, by most popular anti-Semitism came to be reinforced
people the difference is considered to be by official tolerance and legislation.
great and their meanings to be in outright The other great religious change, generated
antithetical opposition and to be exclusive by the wars of late antiquity, was Islam, which
of each other. For he who confesses Christ spread over the Near East and North Africa
in two natures openly declares Him to be through armed conquest. Holy war, jihad,
from two, in that by confessing Christ spurred expansion, while the privileged position
jointly in Divinity and humanity he of warriors in the early conquest communities
declares in confessing that He is composed in Iraq, Syria and Egypt, coupled with extra tax
from Divinity and humanity.' burdens on unbelievers, encouraged conversion.
The Arab capture of Jerusalem and the Holy-
Land placed the sacred places of both Christians
Christianity's triumph eliminated pagan and Jews under alien authority and created a
beliefs at a formal level, but numerous desire for retaliation. The east-west political
pre-Christian practices were subsumed into rivalry of Sassanids and Romans had now been
the new religion in the process in spite of some complicated by a potent religious factor.
condemnation. Christianity's secular power Such far-reaching political and religious
also caused contamination as episcopal office developments were accompanied by
in the right city became a desirable route to significant social and cultural changes. The
power and wealth. The consequent dilution of corner-stone of the Roman Empire had been
90 Essential Histories Rome at War
S. Sophia (Hagia Sophia), Istanbul, Turkey. (Ancient Art centuries. Population centres naturally suffered
and Architecture) severely, since plague-bearing fleas needed a
reasonable density of hosts in order to
the city, which functioned as the centre for flourish; cities were particularly hard hit, but
diffusing government, the religious focus for so were armies, and even rural areas such as
an area, and the social magnet for the local Palestine (which supported a dense network of
elite. In the same way as the growth of villages). For the rich, also, the obligations of
imperial prosperity was followed by the urban life had already begun to outweigh the
spread of urban institutions, so the retreat of benefits. As a result cities became depopulated.
Empire was accompanied by their shrinkage In some areas, such as the north Balkans, there
or disappearance. During the fourth and fifth was a vertical move away from exposed
centuries rural wealth and urban vitality had lowland sites to the fortified hill-tops used by
contracted away from the northern and the pre-Roman inhabitants. Elsewhere the
western provinces, so that by the sixth remnants of urban populations clustered
century the most thriving cities were located around a place of refuge, perhaps a church or
in Asia Minor and Syria. The Arab conquests monastery, or a fortification built out of
undermined urban institutions in those areas one of the massive remains of a Roman city
which remained under Roman control. such as a theatre or amphitheatre.
Paradoxically perhaps, cities continued to
flourish under Arab authority as diverse,
commercial social, and intellectual Cultural changes
communities. By contrast, in the surviving
Empire and the post-Roman west there had These shrunken settlements were now
been a substantial fall in population levels, dominated by their clergy, and perhaps a few
due to a combination of warfare, general powerful local families, but it was the Church,
insecurity, and disease. Bubonic plague had above all, which gave stability to these
struck the Mediterranean in the 540s, and societies and determined their priorities. This
then returned with regularity for two is particularly evident in the case of education,
Conclusions and consequences 91
which had been an important unifying badge important principles of Roman law were trans-
for the elite of the Roman world. In the west mitted to medieval western kingdoms, and hence
monasteries became the guardians of knowledge to serve as the base for much European law.
as other sources of learning faded away, while Diplomacy was another area of continuing
in the east the clerical establishment in development, driven by practical concerns. In
Constantinople provided the best opportunities the early Roman Empire there had been no
for advanced study within the Empire. tradition of systematic acquisition and
As a result the balance of what was known compilation of information about neighbours
inevitably shifted, with the priorities of the and possible threats, but this had begun to
Church dominating: some aspects of the change as the Empire came under increasing
standard classical education in grammar and pressure. In the fifth century, when Attila's
rhetoric survived, since clerics still had to Huns were threatening the eastern Empire,
participate in debates on doctrine and Constantinople developed a system for
discipline, but the broad knowledge of the regulating relations with Sassanid Persia in an
classical literary tradition possessed by leading effort to ensure stability, and also appreciated the
writers in the fourth century had slipped, and advantages of detailed knowledge about other
the intellectual speculation encouraged by neighbours. In the sixth century these practices
philosophical study also ceased. Of practical continued, so that eastern rulers were presented
import was the decline in knowledge of with information about the rulers of Axum in
languages, which meant that very few in the Ethiopia and the Turks in central Asia, all as part
west outside Byzantine Italy could understand of Roman competition with Persia. The ability
Greek and there were shortages of Latin to play off possible enemies against each other
speakers in the east. The intellectual centre of became a hallmark of 'Byzantine' diplomacy, as
the Mediterranean world transferred to the the progressively weaker Empire relied more on
lands conquered by Arabs: they ruled non-military means to secure its survival.
Alexandria, the most important university
city of the Roman world, there was sufficient Emperor Theodosius as a lawgiver. Frontispiece from
wealth in other cities to encourage families to Visigoth recension of the Codex of Theodosianus.
finance the expense of higher education, and (Ancient A r t and Architecture)
there was a curiosity to unlock the secrets of
Hellenistic learning. Greek texts, especially of
medicine, logic and philosophy, were translated
into Arabic and studied, and in some cases it
was the Islamic schools in Spain which acted
as the conduit for the western rediscovery of
this knowledge - Latin translations were made
of Arabic versions of the Greek originals.
One aspect of ancient learning that
continued to develop was law. In the 430s
Theodosius II had presided over a major
compilation of imperial law, and a century
later Justinian had overhauled the law code
and texts for legal education. Organised laws
could contribute to the more effective exercise
of power, and even the publication of a code
bolstered authority. It is noticeable that rulers
of post-Roman states in the West saw the
advantages in publishing their own codes
which combined Roman and Germanic law in
differing proportions; this ensured that
Further readin*
Haldon, J.F., Recruitment and Conscription Matthews, J.F., Western Aristocracies and
in the Byzantine Army c.550-950, Imperial Court AD 364-125, Oxford (1975)
Vienna (1979) Millar, F., The Roman Near East, 31 BC -
Haldon, J.F., Byzantium in the Seventh Century, AD 337, Cambridge, MA (1993)
the Transformation of a Culture, Cambridge Moorhead, J., Theoderic in Italy, Oxford (1992)
(1990) Nicasie, M.J., Twilight of Empire: the Roman
Harries, J., Sidonius Apollinaris and the Fall of Army from the Reign of Diocletian until the
Rome, Oxford (1994) Battle of Adrianople, Amsterdam (1998)
Heather, P.J., Goths and Romans 332-489, Nixon, C.E.V., & Rodgers, B.S., In Praise of
Oxford (1991) Later Roman Emperors, The Panegyrici
Heather, P.J., The Goths, Oxford (1996) Latini, Berkeley (1994)
Holum, K., Theodosian Empresses: Women and Obolensky, D., The Byzantine Commonwealth,
Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity, London (1971)
Berkeley (1982) O'Flynn, J.M., Generalissimos of the Western
Isaac, B., The Limits of Empire, The Roman Roman Empire, Edmonton (1983)
Army in the East, Oxford (1990) Rich, J., and Shipley, G., War and Society in the
James, E., The Origins of France: from Clovis to Roman World, London (1993)
the Capetians 500-1000, London (1983) Southern,P., & Dixon, K.R., The Late Roman
James, E., The Franks, Oxford (1988) Army, London (1996)
Jones, A.H.M., The Later Roman Empire Thompson, E.A., Romans and Barbarians, the
284-602, A Social, Economic and decline of the Western Empire, Madison
Administrative Survey, Oxford (1964) (1982)
Jones, A.H.M., Martindale, J.R., & Morris, J., Thompson, E.A., The Huns, Oxford (1995)
(eds.) The Prosopography of the Later Roman Treadgold, W., The Byzantine Army, Stanford
Empire 1, Oxford (1971) (1995)
Kaegi, W.E., Byzantine Military Unrest, 471-843: Treadgold, W., A History of the Byzantine State
An Interpretation, Amsterdam (1981) and Society, Stanford (1997)
Kaegi, W.E., Byzantium and the Early Islamic Van Dam, R., Leadership and Community in
Conquests, Cambridge (1992) Late Antique Gaul, Berkeley (1985)
Lee, A.D., Information and Frontiers, Roman Watson, A., Aurelian and the Third Century,
foreign relations in late antiquity, Cambridge London (1999)
(1993) Whitby, L.M., The Emperor Maurice and His
Liebeschuetz, J.H.W.G., Barbarians and Bishops, Historian, Theophylact Simocatta on Persian
Army, Church and State in the Age of Arcadius and Balkan Warfare, Oxford (1988)
and John Chrysostom, Oxford (1990) Whittaker, C.R., Frontiers of the Roman Empire,
Luttwak, E.N., The Grand Strategy of the Roman a Social and Economic Study, Baltimore
Empire from the First Century AD to the (1994)
Third, Baltimore (1976) Whittow, M., The Making of Orthodox
MacMullen, R., Soldier and Civilian in the Later Byzantium, 600-1025, London (1996)
Roman Empire, Cambridge, MA (1963) Wickham, C, Early Medieval Italy, Central Power
MacMullen, R., Corruption and the Decline of and Local Society 400-1000, London (1981)
Rome, New Haven (1988) Williams, S., Diocletian and the Roman Recovery,
McCormick, M., Eternal Victory, Triumphal London (1985)
Rulership in Late Antiquity, Byzantium and Williams, S., & Friell, G., The Rome That Did
the Early Medieval West, Cambridge (1986) Not Fall: the survival of the East in the Fifth
Mango, C.A., Byzantium: The Empire of New Century, London (1999)
Rome, London (1980) Wolfram, H., History of the Goths, Berkeley
Martindale, J.R.(ed.), The Prosopography of the (1988)
Later Roman Empire IIIII, Cambridge Wood, I.N., The Merovingian Kingdoms,
(1980, 1992) 450-751, Harlow (1994)
94 Essential Histories Rome at War
Index
Essential Histories
A multi-volume history of war seen from political,
strategic, tactical, cultural and individual perspectives