!"#$%&#'())$*+,-.

#'$/,+$0123#'2$,/$4,)2#+5(3&,)$6(72$

!"#$!80123#'$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
9)3+,:;<3&,)$
$
9)$3"&2$=(=#+>$7#$7&..$-#$#?=.,+&)@$&:#(2$.#(:&)@$;=$3,$()$()(.12&2$,/$3"#$!82123#'>$($
2123#'$,/$"1=#+-,.&<$<,)2#+5(3&,)$.(72>$,/$7"&<"$7#$7&..$2",7$3"#$<,'=.#3#$
2,.;3&,)A$B,)#$,/$3"#2#$&:#(2$(+#$'1$,7)>$9$+#(:$(-,;3$3"#'$&)$C,#.$0',..#+D2$-,,E>$
0",<E$F(5#2$():$%#(<3&,)8G&//;2&,)$HI;(3&,)2>$():$3"#$!82123#'$()(.12&2$<()$-#$
/,;):$&)$4"(=3#+$JK>$LMA$,/$"&2$-,,EA$N()1$,/$3"#$7,+:2$&)$3"&2$=(=#+$(+#$),3$'1$
,7)>$():$(+#$3(E#)$/+,'$0',..#+D2$-,,E$23(3#:$(-,5#A$93$&2$'1$2,.#$&)3#)3&,)$3,$
<,'=&.#$),3#2$/+,'$"&2$-,,E$():$,+@()&O#$3"#'$&)$($'())#+$9$3",;@"3$7,;.:$
=+,5&:#$3"#$-#23$;):#+23():&)@$3,$2,'#,)#$7",$&2$)#7$3,$<,)2#+5(3&,)$.(72$P(2$9$
7(2$'12#./QA$$
$
!"&2$=(=#+$&2$'#()3$3,$-#@&)$3"#$23;:1$,/$#I;(3&,)2$,/$3"#$/,+'$
$
ut + f (u) x = 0 $
$
7"#+#$ u = (u1,...,un ) " Rn >$ n "1>$():$ (x,t) " R # R + >$3"#$2;-2<+&=32$ ut,x $:#),3#$=(+3&(.$
:#+&5(3&5#2>$():$7#$(22;'#$3"#$5#<3,+85(.;#:$/;)<3&,)$
! f $&2$ C 2 $P37&<#$<,)3&);,;2.1$
:&//#+#)3&(-.#Q$&)$2,'#$,=#)$2;-2#3$ " # Rn A$N,+#$2=#<&/&<(..1>$3"#$!82123#'$:#(.2$
! 7&3"$($2=#<&/&<$<(2#$7"#)$
! n = 2 A$!"#2#$#I;(3&,)2$(+#$<,'',).1$<(..#:$"#$%&'()*+#$,
! !
-).%$-#<(;2#$'()1$2123#'2$,/$#I;(3&,)2$&)$2<&#)<#$(+&2#$3"(3$(+#$,/$3"&2$/,+'A$F#$
!
!
7&..$2",7$2,'#$-(<E@+,;):$&)/,+'(3&,)$&)$7#(E$2,.;3&,)2>$3"#$R;'=$<,):&3&,)>$():$
!
<"(+(<3#+&23&<2>$-#/,+#$2",7&)@$3"#$2,.;3&,)$3,$3"#$2&)@.#$<,)2#+5(3&,)$.(7>$():$
!
/&)(..1$3"#$!82123#'A$
$
0"()#$M;23&)
 LMA$F#(E$0,.;3&,)2$,/$4,)2#+5(3&,)$6(72$
$
S/3#)$3&'#2>$2,.;3&,)2$3,$<,)2#+5(3&,)$.(72$<,)3(&)$:&2<,)3&);&3&#2$&)$3"#'>$():$3";2$
=,2#$($=+,-.#'$-#<(;2#$:&2<,)3&);,;2$/;)<3&,)2$<()),3$-#$:&//#+#)3&(3#:A$!";2>$7#$
/&+23$-#@&)$-1$#?=.,+&)@$#?(<3.1$7"(3$&3$'#()2$/,+$($/;)<3&,)$3,$-#$<(..#:$($T2,.;3&,)AU$$
$
4,)2&:#+$3"#$&)&3&(.85(.;#$=+,-.#'$$
$
$ $ $ $ ut + f (u) x = 0 >$$ u(x,0) = u0 (x) $ PJAJQ$
$
6#3$;2$2;==,2#$3"(3$/$&2$($<.(22&<(.J$2,.;3&,)$3,$PJAJQA$6#3$ " $-#$($ C1$P:&//#+#)3&(-.#Q$
/;)<3&,)$3"(3$5()&2"#2$,;32&:#$,/$($<,'=(<3$2;-2#3$&)$ t " 0 >$&A#A$ (spt" ) # (t $ 0) % D >$
! !
7"#+#$0$&2$($+#<3()@.#$ 0 " t " T >$ a " x " b >$<",2#)$2,$3"(3$ " = 0 $,;32&:#$,/$G$():$,)$
3"#$.&)#2$ t = T >$ x = a >$ x = bA$$ !
!
$ ! !
! ! !
! ! !

W&@;+#$JAJ$

9/$7#$';.3&=.1$PJAJQ$-1$ " $():$&)3#@+(3#$,5#+$ t > 0 >$3,$@#3$

$
b T

## (ut + f x )"dxdt = ## (ut + f x )"dxdt = # # (u t + f x )"dxdt = 0 $

t>0 ! D ! a 0
$
B,7$&)3#@+(3&)@$-1$=(+32$@&5#2$$
$
! b T b T b T

# # (ut + f x )"dxdt = # # ut "dxdt + ## f x "dxdt $

a 0 a 0 a 0
$
b T b T b T b b T
$ # # ut "dxdt = # u" dx $ # # u"t dxdt = $ # u0 (x)" (x,0)dx $ # # u" dxdt $
t
! a 0 a 0 a 0 a a 0
b T T b b T b T
$ ## f x "dxdt = # f" dt $ ## f" x dxdt = $ # # f" x dxdt $
a 0 0 a a 0 a 0

!
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
J$F"(3$#?(<3.1$&2$($<.(22&<(.$2,.;3&,)V$
!
 $ ():$/&)(..1$
b
$ %% (u + f )"dxdt = # % u (x)" (x,0) # %% (u" + f" )dxdt = 0 $
t x 0 t x
t$0 a t$0
$ ## (u" + f (u)" )dxdt + # u "dx = 0 $$
t x 0 PJAXQ$
t$0 t =0
$
! !";2>$&/$;$&2$($<.(22&<(.$2,.;3&,)$3,$PJAJQ>$3"#)$PJAXQ$",.:2$/,+$(..$ " # C1 A$Y;3$PJAXQ$
0
'(E#2$=#+/#<3$2#)2#$&/$ u >$ u0 $(+#$'#+#.1$-,;):#:$():$'#(2;+(-.#A$F#$3";2$:#/&)#Z$
!
$
G#/&)&3&,)Z$M$-,;):#:>$'#(2;+(-.#$/;)<3&,)$ u(x,t) $&2$<(..#:$($7#(E$2,.;3&,)$,/$3"#$
!
&)&3&(.$5(.;#$=+,-.#'$PJAJQ$7&3"$-,;):#:$():$'#(2;+(-.#$&)&3&(.$:(3($
! ! u0 >$=+,5&:#:$
PJAXQ$",.:2$/,+$(..$ " # C0 A$
1

$ !
!"&2$'(1$),3$"(5#$(2$-&@$,/$($=;+=,2#$&)$($=+(<3&<(.$2#)2#>$2&)<#$7"#)$7#$2,.5#$3"#$
!
!82123#'$7#$)#5#+$(<3;(..1$<"#<E$3,$2##$&/$,;+$2,.;3&,)$2(3&2/&#2$PJAXQ>$",7#5#+$&3$
!
:,#2$2",7$;2$3"(3$:&2<,)3&);&3&#2$&)$($2,.;3&,)$(+#$)(3;+(.$():$&)$/(<3$=,22&-.#$3,$
:#(.$7&3"A$
$
LYA$C;'=$4,):&3&,)$
$
F#$2"(..$),7$#?=.,+#$7"(3$($:&2<,)3&);&31$&)$($2,.;3&,)$.,,E2$.&E#A$B,3$(..$
:&2<,)3&);&3&#2$(+#$(<<#=3(-.#>$(2$7#$2"(..$2##A$$
$
6#3$ "$-#$($2',,3"$<;+5#$
(<+,22$7"&<"$ u $"(2$($
R;'=$:&2<,)3&);&31A$&A#A$ u $
"(2$7#..$:#/&)#:$.&'&32$
!
,)$-,3"$2&:#2$,/$ "A$6#3$ P $
!
-#$()1$=,&)3$,)$ ">$():$.#3$
!
D$-#$($2'(..$-(..$
<#)3#+#:$,)$ P A$F#$
! !
(22;'#$3"(3$&)$ D>$ "$&2$
!
@&5#)$-1$ x = x(t) A$6#3$ D1$
!
():$!D2 $-#$3"#$
<,'=,)#)32$,/$
! ! D>$7"&<"$
(+#$:#3#+'&)#:$-1$ "A$6#3$
W&@;+#$JAX$
! !
" # C10 (D) A$
!
$ !
W+,'$PJAXQ>$7#$2##$3"(3$$ !
$
!
0 = ## (u" t + f" x )dxdt = ## (u" t + f" x )dxdt + ## (u" t + f" x )dxdt $
D D1 D2

$
B,7$;2&)@$3"#$/(<3$3"(3$ u $&2$:&//#+#)3&(-.#$&)$ Di >$3"#$:&5#+@#)<#$3"#,+#'$@&5#2$
!

! !
 $
## (u" t + f" x )dxdt = ## (u" ) t + ( f" ) x dxdt = # " ($udx + fdt) $
Di Di %D i
$
0&)<#$ " = 0 $,)$ "D>$3"#2#$.&)#$&)3#@+(.2$(+#$),)O#+,$,).1$(.,)@$ "A$!";2$&/$
ul = u(x(t) " 0,t) $():$ ur = u(x(t) + 0,t) >$3"#)$7#$"(5#$
!
$
Q2
! ! $ " (#udx + fdt) = $ " (#u dx + f (u )dt ) $ !
l l
! %D1 ! Q1
Q2

% " (#udx + fdt) = # % " (#u dx + f (u )dt) $

r r
$D2 Q1

!$
!"#+#/,+#$
$
! Q2 Q2

0 = $ " (#ul dx + f (ul )dt) # $ " (#ur dx + f (ur )dt) = $ " (#(ul # ur )dx + ( f (ul ) # f (ur ))dt) $
Q1 Q1 %

= % " (#[u]dx + [ f (u)]dt) $

$
$
! 7"#+#$ [u] = ul " ur $():$ [ f (u)] = f (ul ) " f (ur ) A$B,7$/+,'$3"#$=+#5&,;2$#I;(.&31>$
$
! 0 = "[u]dx + [ f (u)]dt $
[u]dx = [ f (u)]dt $
! dx !
[u] = [ f (u)] $ $ PJA[Q$
dt
!$
! !";2>$2&)<#$ " $7(2$(+-&3+(+1>$7#$<,)<.;:#$3"(3$ s[u] = [ f (u)] $(3$#(<"$=,&)3$,)$ ">$
dx
! 7"#+#$ s = A$F#$<(..$ s$3"#$2=##:$,/$3"#$:&2<,)3&);&31$P3"#$+#<&=+,<(.$,/$3"#$2.,=#$,/$
dt
"QA$!"&2$&2$<(..#:$3"#$TR;'=$<,):&3&,)>U$():$&/$(..$:&2<,)3&);&3&#2$&)$,;+$2,.;3&,)$
!
! !
2(3&2/1$3"&2$<,):&3&,)>$3"()$3"#$:&2<,)3&);&3&#2$(+#$(<<#=3(-.#$():$,;+$2,.;3&,)$&2$
5(.&:A$ !
!$
!
L4A$4"(+(<3#+&23&<2$
$
4"(+(<3#+&23&<$<;+5#2$(+#$#22#)3&(..1$<;+5#2$,/$3"#$/,+'$ x = x(t) $7"#+#$3"#$=(+3&(.$
:&//#+#)3&(.$#I;(3&,)2$-#<,'#$($2123#'$,/$,+:&)(+1$:&//#+#)3&(.$#I;(3&,)2A$F#$
<"()@#$<,,+:&)(3#2$/+,'$ (x,t) $3,$ (x 0 ,s) >$(.,)@$7"&<"$7#$<()$&)3#@+(3#$3"#$2,.;3&,)$
/+,'$2,'#$&)&3&(.$:(3($3,$,-3(&)$($2=#<&/&<$2,.;3&,)$3,$,;+$,+&@&)(.$*GHA$F#$<,'=;3#$
!
$
d "u dx "u dt dx dt
(u(x(t),t))
! = ! + = ux + ut $ $ PJA\Q$
ds "x ds "t ds ds ds
$

!
 W,+$#?('=.#>$<,)2&:#+$3"#$(:5#<3&,)$#I;(3&,)$
$
ut + aux = 0 $ x " R >$ t " 0 $ $ $ PJA]Q$
$
9/$7#$<,'=(+#$PJA\Q$3,$PJA]Q>$7#$#I;(3#$P7"(3$(+#$<(..#:$3"#$<"(+(<3#+&23&<2Q$
$ ! !
! dx dt
= a >$ = 1$
ds ds
$
!"#)>$(22;'&)@$ t(0) = 0 >$7#$2##$3"(3$ t = s $(): x(t) = at + const A$N,+#,5#+>$7#$),3#$
3"(3$(.,)@$3"#$<;+5#2$ x(t) " at = const >$ u $23(12$<,)23()3$-#<(;2#$$
! !
$
du "u "u dx
! = + = ut !+ aux = 0 $!
dt "t "x dt !
$ !
B,7>$/,+$#?('=.#>$&/$7#$<,)2&:#+$W&@;+#$JA[P-Q>$7#$<()$2##$3"(3$&/$7#$"(5#$2=#<&/&#:$
3"#$&)&3&(.$<,):&3&,)$ u(x,0) = u0 (x) $3"#)$3"#$2,.;3&,)$7&..$-#$ u(x,t) = u0 (x " at) >$():$
!
3"#$5(.;#2$,/$ u $(3$#(<"$=,&)3$(.,)@$3"#$?8(?&2$7&..$=+,=(@(3#$(.,)@$3"#$<"(+(<3#+&23&<$
.&)#2A$!";2$&/$7#$E),7$3"#$&)&3&(.$<,):&3&,)>$7#$E),7$3"#$2,.;3&,)$/,+$(..$,/$3&'#A$
$
!
B,7$&/$7#$<,)2&:#+$3"#$/,..,7&)@$-,;):(+1$=+,-.#'$ !
!
$
ut + aux = 0 >$$ x > 0 >$ t > 0 >$ u(x,0) = u0 (x) $&)$ x " 0 >$ u(0,t) $&)$ t " 0 $$
$
7"#+#$ u $&2$:#/&)#:$,)$3"#$=,2&3&5#$I;(+3#+$=.()#>$3"#)$<,)2&:#+&)@$W&@;+#$JA[P-Q$
P7"#)$ a > 0! >$3";2$3"#$2,.;3&,)$=+,=(@(3#2$3,$3"#$+&@"3Q>$7#$<()$2##$3"(3$7#$7,;.:$
! ! !
! "(5#$3,$2=#<&/1$),3$,).1$3"#$&)&3&(.$<,):&3&,)$(.,)@$
! !
t = 0 >$-;3$3"#$-,;):(+1$<,):&3&,)$
(.,)@$ x = 0 A$9/$,).1$3"#$&)&3&(.$<,):&3&,)$&2$2=#<&/&#:>$7#$,).1$"(5#$3"#$2,.;3&,)$/,+$
!
"(./$,/$3"#$I;(+3#+$=.()#>$2&)<#$3"#$&)/,+'(3&,)$&2$',5&)@$3,$3"#$+&@"3A$^,7#5#+>$&/$7#$
!
!
!

W&@;+#$JA[$

2=#<&/1$3"#$-,;):(+1$<,):&3&,)>$3"#)$3"#$#)3&+#$I;(+3#+$=.()#$7&..$-#$/&..#:A$S)$3"#$
,3"#+$"():>$<,)2&:#+&)@$W&@;+#$JA[P(Q$P7"#)$ a < 0 $():$3"#$2,.;3&,)$=+,=(@(3#2$3,$
3"#$.#/3Q>$7#$2##$3"(3$,).1$3"#$&)&3&(.$<,):&3&,)$(.,)@$ t = 0 $&2$)#<#22(+1$3,$2,.5#$/,+$ u $
&)$3"#$#)3&+#$=.()#A$!"&2$&:#($7&..$=+,5#$;2#/;.$&)$3"#$)#?3$2#<3&,)A$
!
! !
 $
LGA$0",<E$F(5#2$9)#I;(.&3&#2$
$
F#$7&..$),7$3(E#$($','#)3$3,$<,)2&:#+$($@#)#+(.$:&2<,)3&);&31$&)$($2,.;3&,)>$
31=&<(..1$<(..#:$($T2",<E$7(5#UA$$
$
B,7$2;==,2#$7#$"(5#$($"1=#+-,.&<X$2123#'$P:#/&)#:$,)$3"#$=,2&3&5#$I;(+3#+$=.()#Q$
$
ut + Aux = 0 >$$ u " Rn $$ $ PJA_Q$
$
7"#+#$ A $&2$($<,)23()3$ n ? n $'(3+&?$7&3"$#&@#)5(.;#2$ "1 < ... < "k < 0 < "k +1 < ... < "n A$
6#3$ P $-#$($),)2&)@;.(+$'(3+&?$2;<"$3"(3$
! P "1 AP = diag( #1,..., #n ) $ % A$9/$7#$:#/&)#$
!
u = Pv >$3"#)$ ux,t = Pv x,t >$():$PJA_Q$-#<,'#2$
!$ ! ! !
! Pv t + APv x = 0 $
!
! P "1
(Pv t + APv x = 0) $$
$ ! v t + "v x = 0 $ $ $
$
!
():$3"#$2123#'$:#<,;=.#2$&)3,$ n $2<(.(+$#I;(3&,)2$
!$
!
v ti + "iv xi = 0 >$ i = 1,2,...,n $
$ !
!";2>$&/$ i " k $():$ "i < 0 >$3"#)$ v i (0,t) $P3"(3$&2>$3"#$2,.;3&,)$(.,)@$3"#$.&)#$?`aQ$&2$
:#3#+'&)#:$-1$3"#$&)&3&(.$:(3($P2&'&.(+$3,$3"#$=+#5&,;2$#?('=.#$&)$L4$&/$
! a < 0 >$2&)<#$
!
3"#$&)/,+'(3&,)$7&..$=+,=(@(3#$&)3,$3"#$.&)#$?`aQA$^,7#5#+>$&/$ i > k $():$ "i > 0 >$7#$
!';23$2=#<&/1$
!
v i (0,t) >$!i = k +1,...,n $P2&'&.(+$3,$L4$&/$ a > 0 >$2&)<#$3"#$&)/,+'(3&,)$
=+,=(@(3#2$(7(1$/+,'$3"#$.&)#$?`aQA$$ !
$ ! !
B,7$#(<"$ v i $&2$($.&)#(+$<,'-&)(3&,)$,/$3"#$ ui D2>$2,$7#$2##$7#$';23$2=#<&/1$
! ! !
(n " k) <,):&3&,)2$,)$3"#$<,'=,)#)32$,/$ u $,)$3"#$-,;):(+1$ x = 0 A$
$
N,+#$@#)#+(..1>$&/$7#$:,)D3$"(5#$($I;(+3#+$=.()#$=+,-.#'$-;3$($-,;):(+1$3"(3$',5#2$
! !
7&3"$2=##:$ s>$():$&/$ "1 < ... < "k!< s < "k +1 < ... < "n >$3"#)$7#$)##:$3,$2=#<&/1$ (n " k) $
! !
-,;):(+1$<,):&3&,)2$&)$,+:#+$3,$2=#<&/1$3"#$2,.;3&,)$&)$3"#$+#@&,)$ x " st > 0 >$ t > 0 A$
$
B,7$&/$3"#$-,;):(+1$&2$($:&2<,)3&);&31$,/$3"#$"1=#+-,.&<$2123#'$,/$<,)2#+5(3&,)$
! ! !
.(72>$3"#2#$+#'(+E2$<()$#(2&.1$-#$#?3#):#:A$
! !
$
!";2>$.#3$ "1 (u) < ... < "n (u) $-#$3"#$#&@#)5(.;#2$,/$ df >$():$.#3$ ul >$ ur $+#2=#<3&5#.1>$-#$
3"#$5(.;#2$,/$ u $,)$3"#$.#/3$():$3"#$+&@"3$2&:#2$,/$3"#$:&2<,)3&);&31>$7"&<"$',5#2$7&3"$

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
! ! ! !
X$M$T"1=#+-,.&<U$2123#'$&2$($2123#'$7"#+#$3"#$C(<,-&()$'(3+&?$"(2$,).1$+#(.$():$
!
:&23&)<3$#&@#)5(.;#2A$
 2=##:$ sA$0;==,2#$3"(3$ "k (ur ) < s < "k +1 (ur ) A$!"#)$/+,'$3"#$(-,5#$+#(2,)&)@>$7#$
2",;.:$2=#<&/1$ (n " k) $<,):&3&,)2$,)$3"#$+&@"3$-,;):(+1$,/$3"#$:&2<,)3&);&31A$
0&'&.(+.1>$,)$3"#$.#/3>$&/$ " j (ul ) < s < " j +1 (ul ) >$7#$';23$2=#<&/1$ j $<,):&3&,)2$,)$3"#$.#/3$
! -,;):(+1A$$ !
$ !
B,7$3"#$R;'=$<,):&3&,)2$ s(ul " ur ) = f (ul ) " f (ur ) $(+#$ n $#I;(3&,)2$<,))#<3&)@$3"#$
! !
5(.;#2$,)$-,3"$2&:#2$,/$3"#$:&2<,)3&);&31$7&3"$ s A$Y;3$2&)<#$ (ul " ur ) # 0 >$7#$<()$
#.&'&)(3#$ s $/+,'$3"#2#$#I;(3&,)2$3,$@#3$ (n "1) $#I;(3&,)2$P,+$<,):&3&,)2Q$-#37##)$ ul $
():$ ur A$ ! !
$ ! !
!";2$7#$+#I;&+#$3"(3$
! (n " k) + j = n "1 >$,+$ j = k "1A$$
! !
$
!
F#$<()$3";2$<,)<.;:#$3"(3>$&)$5&#7$,/$3"#2#$<,)2&:#+(3&,)2>$($:&2<,)3&);&31$ (ul ,ur ;s) $
&2$=#+'&22&-.#$=+,5&:#:$3"(3$/,+$2,'#$&):#?$ k >$ 1 " k " n >$3"#$/,..,7&)@$&)#I;(.&3&#2$
! !
",.:Z$$
$
$ "k (ur ) < s < "k +1 (ur ) $ !
! !
$ "k #1 (ul ) < s < "k (ul ) $ $ $ PJAKQ$
$
F#$<(..$2;<"$($:&2<,)3&);&31$($ k 82",<E$7(5#>$,+$($ k 82",<EA$!"#$&)#I;(.&3&#2$PJAKQ$(+#$
!
<(..#:$3"#$&$*'#!1,+$&2/)-+*+&%>$,+$3"#$34)56,%7#"8,"#$9+*+#$%A$$
!$
F#$<()$@,$,)#$23#=$/;+3"#+$():$+#7+&3#$PJAKQ$&)$3"#$/,+'$
! !
$
"k (ur ) < s < "k (ul ) $
"k #1 (ul ) < s < "k +1 (ur ) $
$
N,+#,5#+>$&/$ n = 1>$3"#)$3"#$2",<E$<,):&3&,)2$-#<,'#$2&'=.1$ "(ur ) < s < " (ul ) A$Y;3$
!
2&)<#$ ut + f (u) x = 0 >$3"#)$ ut + f '(u)ux = 0 $():$ "(u) = f '(u) >$3"#)$3"#$&)#I;(.&31$
!
-#<,'#2$ f '(ul ) > s > f '(ur ) A$9)$,3"#+$7,+:2>$3"#$<"(+(<3#+&23&<$2=##:2$,)$#&3"#+$2&:#$
,/$3"#$:&2<,)3&);&31$(+#$',5&)@$+$*#$3"#$:&2<,)3&);&31>$():$3"#$5(.;#$,/$3"#$2=##:2$
! !
';23$R;'=$:,7)$(<+,22$3"#$-,;):(+1$/+,'$.#/3$3,$+&@"3A$$
! ! !
$
!
!"#2#$2",<E$&)#I;(.&3&#2$7&..$-#$5#+1$;2#/;.$&)$2,.5&)@$3"#$%&#'())$=+,-.#'>$-,3"$
/,+$($2&)@.#$<,)2#+5(3&,)$.(7$():$/,+$3"#$!82123#'A$
$
LHA$!"#$%&#'())$*+,-.#'$/,+$($0&)@.#$
4,)2#+5(3&,)$6(7$
$
4,)2&:#+&)@$3"#$%&#'())$=+,-.#'$/,+$($2&)@.#$<,)2#+5(3&,)$.(7$7&..$@&5#$;2$($-+&#/$
&:#($,/$7"(3$2,.;3&,)2$3,$3"#$!82123#'$<,;.:$.,,E$.&E#A$4,)2&:#+$3"#$/,..,7&)@$
$
ut + f (u) x = 0 >$$ t > 0 >$ x " R $ $ PJAbQ$

! ! !
 $
F&3"$&)&3&(.$:(3($@&5#)$-1$
$
" ul , x < 0,
u0 = # $
$ ur , x > 0,
$
F"#+#$ ul $():$ ur $(+#$<,)23()32$():$ f '' > 0 A$S;+$@,(.$&2$3,$#?=.,+#$(..$=,22&-.#$
2,.;3&,)2$3,$3"&2$=+,-.#'A$$
!
$
9/$ u(x,t) $&2$($2,.;3&,)$,/$PJAbQ>$3"#)$/,+$#5#+1$<,)23()3$ " > 0 >$3"#$/;)<3&,)$$
! ! !
$
u" (x,t) = u( "x, "t) $
$
! !
&2$(.2,$($2,.;3&,)>$(2$7#$<()$2##$-1$3"#$/,..,7&)@$<(.<;.(3&,)Z$
$
!
6#3$ " = #x $():$ " = #t A$!"#)$3"#$/;)<3&,)$ u(",# ) $2,.5#2$PJAbQ$-#<(;2#$
"u d# "f "u d$
ut + f (u) x = + = u# % + f (u)$ % = %(u# + f (u)$ ) = 0 $
"# dt "u "$ dx
$! ! !
!";2>$2&)<#$7#$2##E$3"#$;)&I;#$2,.;3&,)>$&3$&2$)(3;+(.$3,$<,)2&:#+$,).1$2,.;3&,)2$3"(3$
:#=#):$,)$3"#$+(3&,$ x /t A$$
!$
!"#$2,.;3&,)2$ u = u(") >$ " = x /t >$7&..$"(5#$3"+##$31=#2$,/$2,.;3&,)2A$
$
!
P(Q 4,)23()3$03(3#2Z$&A#A$ u(") = const.$!"#2#$(+#$@#);&)#$P<.(22&<(.Q$2,.;3&,)2A[$
P-Q 0",<E$F(5#2Z$&A#A$2,.;3&,)2$,/$3"#$/,+'$
! !
$
" u , x < st,
u(x,t)! =# 0 $
$ u1, x > st,
$
F"#+#>$,/$<,;+2#>$ s(u0 " u1 ) = f (u0 ) " f (u1 ) A$9)$(::&3&,)>$7#$+#I;&+#$3"(3$3"#$
#)3+,=1$&)#I;(.&31$",.:2>$ f '(u0 ) > s > f '(u1 ) $P2##$3"#$#):$,/$LGQA$$
!
P<Q %(+#/(<3&,)$F(5#2Z$!"#2#$(+#$<,)3&);,;2$2,.;3&,)2$ u = u(") >$ " = x /t $,/$PJAbQA$
^#)<#$3"#1$';23$2(3&2/1$3"#$,+:&)(+1$:&//#+#)3&(.$#I;(3&,)$
!
$
$ "#u# + f (u) ! = 0 $$
#
! !
$
:;#$3,$3"#$/,..,7&)@$<(.<;.(3&,)Z$
$
! #" #" % $x ( % 1( % 1(
ut + f (u) x = u" + f (u)" = ' 2 *u" + ' * f (u)" = ' *( $"u" + f (u)" ) = 0 $
#t #x & t ) &t) &t)
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
[$N#()&)@$3"#1$2&'=.1$=+,=(@(3#$3"+,;@"$3&'#>$3"#+#$(+#$),$:&2<,)3&);&3&#2$,+$

+(+#/(<3&,)$7(5#2A$
!
 $
!"#$SGH$<()$-#$+#7+&33#)$(2$ ( f '(u) " #) u# = 0 A$$
$
!";2>$&/$ u" # 0 >$3"#)$ f '(u(")) = " $P,+$5&<#$5#+2(QA$F#$,-2#+5#$3"(3$3"#$#I;(3&,)$
f '(u(")) = " $:#/&)#2$($;)&I;#$/;)<3&,)$ u(") >$2&)<#$ f '' > 0 A$
!
$
F#$2(1$3"(3$ ! u1 $&2$<,))#<3#:$3,$ u0 $,)$3"#$+&@"3$-1$($+(+#/(<3&,)$7(5#$&/$
!
f '(u1 ) > f '(u0 ) $():$ f '(u(")) = " $&/$ f '(u1 ) > " > f '(u0 ) A$
! ! !
$
B,7>$3,$<,'=.#3#.1$2,.5#$3"#$
! !
=+,-.#'>$3"#+#$(+#$,).1$37,$
! <(2#2$3,$<,)2&:#+Z$P&Q$ ! u <u $ !
l r
():$P&&Q$ ul > ur A$
$
P&Q$0;==,2#$ ul < ur c$3"#)$
!
2&)<#$ f '' > 0 >$7#$"(5#$
!
f '(ur ) > f '(ul ) $():$3"#$
#I;(3&,)$
! f '(u(")) = " $"(2$($
W&@;+#$JA\$
! 2,.;3&,)$ u(") $7"#+#$
f '(ur ) > " > f '(ul ) A$M22;'&)@$
!
3"(3$ f ''(ul ) > 0 >$3"#$2,.;3&,)$<()$-#$:#=&<3#:$(2$&)$W&@;+#$JA\Z$$
!
!$
9)$3"#$T/()8.&E#U$+#@&,)>$ f '(ur ) > x /t > f '(ul ) $():$3"#$2,.;3&,)$&2$@&5#)$#?=.&<&3.1$-1$
!
2,.5&)@$3"#$#I;(3&,)$ f '(u(x /t)) = x /t $/,+$ u $P7"&<"$&2$=,22&-.#$2&)<#$ f '' > 0 QA$
!
$
P&&Q$B,7$&/$ ul > ur >$7#$2#3$
!
! f (ul ) " f (ur )
! s= ! >$3"#)$
ul " ur
f!'(ul ) > s > f '(ur ) >$2,$3"#$2,.;3&,)$&2$
($2",<E$7(5#$,/$2=##:$ s>$<,))#<3&)@$
3"#$37,$23(3#2$ ul >$ ur $P2##$W&@;+#$JA]QA$$
!
$
!
!"#2#$(+#$3"#$,).1$37,$2&3;(3&,)2>$
!
W&@;+#$JA]$
():$3";2$7#$"(5#$<,'=.#3#.1$2,.5#:$
! !
3"#$=+,-.#'A$$
$
$
LWA$!"#$!82123#'$
$
!"#$!82123#'$&2$()$&'=,+3()3$<.(22$,/$#I;(3&,)2>$#2=#<&(..1$&)$@(2$:1)('&<2A$93$
&)<.;:#2>$(2$($2=#<&(.$<(2#>$3"#$#I;(3&,)2$,/$&2#)3+,=&<$():$&2,3"#+'(.$@(2$:1)('&<2>$
(2$2##)$&)$3"#$/,..,7&)@$#I;(3&,)2$
$
 #k&
$ v t " ux = 0 >$ ut + % " ( = 0 >$$ t > 0 >$ x " R A$
$ v 'x
$
F#$:#/&)#$3"#$!82123#'$(2$3"#$/,..,7&)@$@#)#+(.&O#:$2123#'$,/$#I;(3&,)2Z$
!$ ! !
$ !
v t " ux = 0 >$$ ut + p(v) x = 0 >$$ t > 0 >$ x " R $ $ PJAdQ$
$ $
7"#+#$ p' < 0 >$():$ p'' > 0 A$
$ ! !
! !
"v % # "u &
9/$7#$.#3$ U = $ ' >$ F(U) = % (>$3"#)$PJAdQ$-#<,'#2$$
! ! # u& $ p(v)'
$
$ U t + F(U) x = 0 $ $ $ PJAJaQ$
$
! !
!"#$C(<,-&()$
$
! # "F1 "F1 &
" (F1,F2 ) % "v "u ( # 0 )1&
$ dF = =% ( =% ($
" (v,u) % "F2 "F2 ( $ p'(v) 0 '
$ "v "u '
$
"(2$+#(.$():$:&23&)<3$#&@#)5(.;#2$
$
! $ "# "1'
$ det& ) = # + p'(v) = 0 >$2,$ "1 # $ $ p'(v) < 0 < $ p'(v) # "2 $
2
PJAJJQ$
% p'(v) " # (
$
!";2>$3"#$!82123#'$&2$($"1=#+-,.&<$2123#'A$$
$ !
! !"#$%&#'())$*+,-.#'$/,+$PJAJaQ$&2$3"#$&)&3&(.$5(.;#$=+,-.#'$7&3"$:(3($$
$
"U l = (v l ,ul ), x < 0,
$ U(x,0) = U 0 (x) = # $ $ PJAJXQ$
$U r = (v r ,ur ), x > 0.
$
B,7$7#$7&..$<,)2&:#+$2",<E$7(5#$2,.;3&,)2$3,$PJAJaQ>$PJAJXQA$!"#+#$(+#$37,$31=#2$,/$
2",<E$7(5#2$/,+$PJAJJQ>$)('#.1$J82",<E2$():$X82",<E2A$$
!$
%#<(..$PJAKQ$
$
"k (ur ) < s < "k +1 (ur ) $
$ "k #1 (ul ) < s < "k (ul ) $ $
$
!"#)$3"#$J82",<E$';23$2(3&2/1$P7"#)$ k = 1Q$
!
$
!

!
 $ s < "1 (ul ) >$ "1 (ur ) < s < "2 (ur ) $ $ PJAJ[Q$
$
7"&.#$3"#$X82",<E2$2(3&2/&#2$
$
!$ "!
1 (ul ) < s < "2 (ul ) >$ "2 (ur ) < s $ $ PJAJ\Q$
$
2&)<#$ "1 < 0 < "2 >$7#$2##$3"(3$ s < 0 $/,+$J82",<E2$P(.2,$<(..#:$-(<E82",<E2Q$():$ s > 0 $
/,+$X82",<E2$P(.2,$<(..#:$/+,)382",<E2QA$$
! !
$
9)$5&#7$,/$PJAJJQ$7#$2##$3"(3$PJAJ[Q$<()$-#$7+&33#)$
! !
! $
$ "1 (ur ) < s < "1 (ul ) >$2,$ " " p'(v r ) < s < " " p'(v l ) $ -(<E$ PJAJ]Q$
$
():$PJAJ\Q$<()$-#$7+&33#)$
$
! !
$ "2 (ur ) < s < "2 (ul ) >$2,$ " p'(v r ) < s < " p'(v l ) $ /+,)3$ PJAJ_Q$
$
B,7$<,)2&:#+$3"#$/,..,7&)@A$e&5#)$($23(3#$ U l = (v l ,ul ) >$7"(3$(+#$3"#$=,22&-.#$23(3#2$
! U = (v,u) $3"(3$<()$-#$<,))#<3#:$3,$
!
U l $,)$3"#$+&@"3$-1$($-(<E82",<E$P',+#$
2=#<&/&<(..1>$($2&)@.#$-(<E82",<EQV$
$
!
F#$E),7$3"(3$3"#1$';23$2(3&2/1$3"#$R;'=$<,):&3&,)2$$
! !
$
$ s(v l " v) = ("ul " ("u)) $ s(ul " u) = p(v l ) " p(v) >$
$ "s(v " v l ) = "("u + ul ) $ "s(u " ul ) = " p(v) + p(v l ) >$():$/&)(..1$
$
$ s(v " v l ) = "(u " ul ) $ $ s(u " ul ) = p(v) " p(v l ) $ $ PJAJKQ$
! !
$
! !
0&)<#$ s " 0 >$7#$<()$#.&'&)(3#$ s $/+,'$3"#$#I;(3&,)2$():$,-3(&)$
$
! (u " ul ) p(v) " p(v ! )
" = l
>$
! (v " v l ) !(u " u l )
(u " ul ) 2 = "(v " v l )( p(v) " p(v l )) >$():$/&)(..1$
$
! u " ul = (v " v l )( p(v l ) " p(v)) $ $ $ PJAJbQ$
!$
!,$:#3#+'&)#$3"#$2&@)>$7#$E),7$3"(3$PJAJ]Q$';23$",.:>$2,$2&)<#$
" " p'(v) < " " p'(v l ) >$7#$<()$<,)<.;:#$3"(3$ p'(v) < p'(v l ) >$():$2&)<#$ p'' > 0 >$7#$"(5#$
!
v l > v A$0&)<#$ s < 0 $P-#<(;2#$&3$&2$($-(<E82",<EQ>$3"#$/&+23$#I;(3&,)$,/$PJAJKQ$&'=.&#2$
3"(3$ u " ul < 0 >$2,$ u < ul A$!";2$7#$';23$3(E#$3"#$'&);2$2&@)$/,+$PJAJbQA$!";2$3"#$2#3$ S $
! ,/$23(3#2$3"(3$<()$-#$<,))#<3#:$3,$ U!$-1$($J82",<E$P-(<E82",<EQ$,)$3"#$+&@"3$';23$.&#$
!
,)$3"#$<;+5#$
!
!
$ !
! !
!
 $ S1 : u " ul = " (v " v l )( p(v l ) " p(v)) # s1 (v;U l ) >$ v l > v $ $ PJAJdQ$
$
!"&2$&2$<(..#:$3"#$-(<E82",<E$<;+5#>$,+$3"#$J82",<E$<;+5#A$$
! !

W&@;+#$JA_$

$
ds1
B#?3$7#$<(.<;.(3#$ Z$
dv
$
1
ds1 1 "
$ = " ((v " v l )( p(v l ) " p(v))) 2 [ p(v l ) " p(v) + (" p'(v)(v " v l ))] $
dv
! 2
v " vl # p(v l ) " p(v) &
$ $ =" % " p'(v) + ($
2 (v " v l )( p(v l ) " p(v l )) $ v " vl '
! v " vl # p(v l ) " p(v) &
$ $ = % p'(v) + ( > 0$
2 (v " v l )( p(v l ) " p(v)) $ vl " v '
$ !
M$3#:&,;2>$-;3$23+(&@"3/,+7(+:$<(.<;.(3&,)>$2",72$3"(3$3"#$<;+5#$ u " ul = s1 (v;U l ) $&)$
3"#$+#@&,)$ v l > v $&2$23(+.&E#$7&3"$+#2=#<3$3,$3"#$=,&)3$ U l c$&A#A$()1$+(1$3"+,;@"$ U l $
!
'##32$3"&2$<;+5#$&)$(3$',23$,)#$=,&)3A$!";2$7#$<()$:#=&<3$3"#$-(<E82",<E$<;+5#$(2$&)$
W&@;+#JA_P(QA$9/$ U r $&2$()1$=,&)3$,)$3"&2$<;+5#>$3"#)$3"#$%&#'())$=+,-.#'$/,+$PJAJaQ$
!
7&3"$&)&3&(.$:(3($PJAJXQ$<()$-#$2,.5#:$-1$($-(<E$2",<E>$(2$&)$W&@;+#$JA_P-QA$!"#$2=##:$
! ! !
s $,/$3"#$2",<E$<()$-#$,-3(&)#:$/+,'$3"#$#I;(3&,)$ s(v r " v l ) = "(ur " ul ) >$(2$/,..,72$
/+,'$PJAJKQA$N,+#,5#+>$-1$<,)23+;<3&,)>$7#$E),7$3"(3$PJAJ[Q$&2$5(.&:$/,+$3"&2$
!
2,.;3&,)A$$
! $
F&3"$($2&'&.(+$()(.12&2>$7#$<()$<,)23+;<3$3"#$<;+5#$! S2 >$<,)2&23&)@$,/$(..$3",2#$23(3#2$
3"(3$<()$-#$<,))#<3#:$3,$3"#$23(3#$ U l $-1$($X82",<E$P,+$/+,)382",<EQ$,)$3"#$+&@"3A$F#$
/&):$$
$
!
S2 : u " ul = " (v " v l )( p(v l ) " p(v)) # s2 (v;U l ) >$$ vl < v $ $ PJAXaQ$
!

! !
 $
7#$<(..$3"&2$3"#$:'#$*;%7#"8,"/'(&>$,+$3"#$<;%7#"8,"/'(&A$M$<(.<;.(3&,)$(2$(-,5#$2",72$
3"(3$ ds2 /dv < 0 >$():$3"(3$3"#$<;+5#$ u " ul = s2 (v;U l ) $&2$(.2,$23(+.&E#$7&3"$+#2=#<3$3,$ U l $
&)$3"#$+#@&,)$ v l < v A$F#$<()$3";2$:#=&<3$3"#$/+,)382",<E$<;+5#$(2$&)$W&@;+#$JAKP(QA$M2$
-#/,+#>$&/$ U r $&2$()1$=,&)3$,)$3"&2$<;+5#>$3"#)$3"#$%&#'())$=+,-.#'$/,+$PJAJaQ$7&3"$
! :(3($PJAJXQ$&2$2,.5(-.#$-1$($X82",<E>$(2$:#=&<3#:$&)$W&@;+#$JAKP-QA$!"#$2=##:$,/$3"#$
! !
2",<E$&2$,-3(&)#:$(2$(-,5#$/+,'$3"#$#I;(3&,)$ s(v r " v l ) = "(ur " ul ) >$():$PJAJ\Q$&2$
!
5(.&:$/,+$3"&2$2,.;3&,)A$$
!
$
!

W&@;+#$JAK$

F#$7&..$),7$<,)2&:#+$3"#$+(+#/(<3&,)87(5#$2,.;3&,)2$,/$PJAJaQA$F#$+#<(..$/+,'$LH$
3"(3$($')'&:)"*+#$,.)(&$&2$($<,)3&);,;2$2,.;3&,)$,/$PJAJaQ$,/$3"#$/,+'$ U = U(x /t) A$
!"#+#$(+#$37,$/('&.&#2$,/$+(+#/(<3&,)$7(5#2>$<,++#2=,):&)@$3,$#&3"#+$<"(+(<3#+&23&<$
/('&.1$ "1 $,+$ "2 A$!";2$($88+(+#/(<3&,)$7(5#$';23$2(3&2/1$3"#$(::&3&,)(.$<,):&3&,)$3"(3$
3"#$83"$<"(+(<3#+&23&<$2=##:$&)<+#(2#2$(2$ x /t $&)<+#(2#2>$ k = 1,2 A$9)$,3"#+$7,+:2>$7#$
!
+#I;&+#$3"(3$ "k (U(x /t)) $&)<+#(2#2$(2$ x /t $&)<+#(2#2A$$
$
! !
B,7$&/$7#$.#3$ " = x /t >$3"#)$7#$2##$3"(3$
! U = U(x /t) $2(3&2/&#2$3"#$,+:&)(+1$:&//#+#)3&(.$
!
#I;(3&,)$ !
!
$
$ "#U# + F(U)# = 0 $ $ P2##$LHAP<QAQ$
! !
$
,+$
$
!$ (dF " #I)U# = 0 $
$
9/$ U" # 0 >$3"#)$ U" $&2$()$#&@#)5#<3,+$,/$ dF $/,+$3"#$#&@#)5(.;#$ " A$0&)<#$ dF $"(2$+#(.$
():$:&23&)<3$#&@#)5(.;#2$ "1 < "2 >$3"#+#$(+#$37,$31=#2$,/$/('&.&#2A$
!
$
=;')'&:)"*+#$,.)(&%>$,+$>)"8;')'&:)"*+#$,.)(&%>$"(5#$3"#$#&@#)5#<3,+$
! ! ! U" = (v" ,u" ) t $
! !
7"&<"$2(3&2/&#2$!
$
!
 $ "#1 "1 '$ v* ' $0'
$ & )& ) = & ) $ 7"&<"$@&5#2$
% p'(v) "#1 (% u* ( %0(
$
u" du /d" du
$ "#1v$ " u$ = 0 >$,+$2&)<#$ v" # 0 >$ = = = #$1 (v,u) = # p'(v) $
v" dv /d" dv
!
$
du
F#$<()$&)3#@+(3#$ = " p'(v) $3,$,-3(&)$$
! dv !
$ !
v
$ R1 : u " ul = $ " p'(y)dy # r1 (v;U l ) >$$ v > v l $ $ PJAXJQ$
! vl

$
!"#$+#I;&+#'#)3$3"(3$ "1 (U) > "1 (U l ) $P"#+#D2$7"1Z$2&)<#$ "1 < 0 >$7#$E),7$3"(3$3"&2$&2$($
!
-(<E8+(+#/(<3&,)>$():$3"#+#/,+#$7#$)##:$3"#$.#/3$2&:#$3,$-#$',5&)@$/(23#+$3"()$3"#$
!
+&@"3>$-;3$2&)<#$(..$3"#$2=##:2$(+#$)#@(3&5#>$7#$7()3 "1 (U) $3,$-#$.#22$)#@(3&5#>$
3"#+#/,+#>$7#$7()3$ "1 (U) > "1 (U l ) Q$@&5#2$$
! !
$
$ " " p'(v) > " " p'(v l ) >$2,$ p'(v) > p'(v
! l ) $():$ v > v l $2&)<#$ p'' > 0 A$
$ !
W&)(..1$-1$:&+#<3$<(.<;.(3&,)>$$
$
! ! ! !
dr1 d 2 r1 " p''(v)
= " p'(v) > 0 $():$ 2 = < 0$
dv dv 2 " p'(v)
$
!";2>$7#$<()$:#=&<3$3"#$<;+5#$ u " ul = r1 (v;U l ) $(2$&)$W&@;+#$JAbP(QA$!"#$2,.;3&,)$5(+&#2$
! !

W&@;+#$JAb$

2',,3".1$&)$3"#$T/()U$(+#(>$():$#5#+1$5(.;#$,/$ U $-#37##)$ U l $():$ U r $,)$3"#$<;+5#$ R1$

',5#2$7&3"$2=##:$ "1 (U) A$
$
W&)(..1>$3"#$<;')'&:)"*+#$,.)(&$<;+5#$&2$@&5#)$-1$
! ! ! !
$
!
 v
$ R2 : u " ul = " $ " p'(y)dy # r2 (v;U l ) >$ v l > v $ $ PJAXXQ$
vl

$
():$ dr2 /dv < 0 >$ d 2 r2 /dv 2 > 0 A$!"&2$<;+5#$&2$:#=&<3#:$&)$W&@;+#$JAdP(QA$
!
!

! !

W&@;+#$JAd$

$
$
F#$<()$=;3$(..$,/$3"#2#$<;+5#2$3,@#3"#+$&)$3"#$ v " u $=.()#$3,$,-3(&)$($=&<3;+#$(2$&)$
W&@;+#$JAJaA$!"&2$2",72$3"(3$3"#$ v " u $=.()#$&2$:&5&:#:$&)3,$/,;+$:&2R,&)3$,=#)$
+#@&,)2$!>$!!>$!!!>$
():$!"$(2$
!
:#=&<3#:A$$
!
$
B,7$<,)2&:#+$
3"#$@#)#+(.$
%&#'())$
=+,-.#'$PJAJaQ>$
PJAJXQA$F#$ W&@;+#$JAJa$
<,)2&:#+$ U l $(2$
-#&)@$/&?#:>$():$(..,7$ U r $3,$5(+1A$9/$ U r $.&#2$,)$()1$,/$3"#$(-,5#$<;+5#2>$&A#A$&/$
ur " ul = ri (v r ;U l ) $,+$ ur " ul = si (v r ;U l ) >$ i = 1,2 >$3"#)$7#$"(5#$2##)$",7$3,$2,.5#$3"#$
=+,-.#'A$F#$3";2$(22;'#$3"(3$
! U r $.&#2$&)$,)#$,/$3"#$/,;+$,=#)$+#@&,)2$!>$!!>$!!!>$,+$!"A$
F#$:#/&)#>$/,+$ !U " R >$ !
2

$ !
! !
$ Si (U ) = {(v,u) :! u = si (v,U )} >$$$ i = 1,2 $
$ !
$ Ri (U ) = {(v,u) : u = ri (v,U )} >$ $ i = 1,2 $
!$ !
():$ W i (U ) = Si (U ) " Ri (U ) >$ $ i = 1,2 A$
$ !
!
F#$<,)2&:#+$3"#$/('&.1$,/$
<;+5#2$
! !
F = {W 2 (U ) :U "W1 (U l )}
A$6#3D2$(22;'#$/,+$3"#$

W&@;+#$JAJJ$
 ','#)3$3"(3$3"#$ v " u $=.()#$&2$<,5#+#:$;)&5(.#)3.1$-1$3"#$/('&.1$,/$<;+5#2$ F >$&A#A$
3"+,;@"$#(<"$=,&)3$ U r $3"#+#$=(22#2$#?(<3.1$,)#$<;+5#$ W 2 (U ) $,/$ F A$!"#)$3"#$
2,.;3&,)$3,$3"#$%&#'())$=+,-.#'$PJAJaQ>$PJAJXQ$&2$@&5#)$(2$/,..,72Z$F#$<,))#<3$ U $3,$
U l $,)$3"#$+&@"3$-1$($-(<E7(+:$P2",<E$,+$+(+#/(<3&,)Q$7(5#>$3"#)$<,))#<3$
! U r $3,$ U $,)$
!
3"#$+&@"3$-1$($/,+7(+:$P2",<E$,+$+(+#/(<3&,)Q$7(5#A$!"#$31=#$,/$7(5#$:#=#):2>$,/$
!
! !
<,;+2#>$,)$3"#$=,2&3&,)$,/$ U r A$$ !
$ !
! !
W,+$#?('=.#>$&/$ U r $.&#2$&)$+#@&,)$!!!>$3"#)$<,)2&:#+$W&@;+#$JAJXP(QA$W,+$#(<"$2;<"$ U r >$
3"#+#$&2$($;)&I;#$=,&)3$ U >$/,+$7"&<"$3"#$<;+5#$ W 2 (U ) $&2$&)$ F $():$=(22#2$3"+,;@"$
!
U r A$0&)<#$ U " S1 (U l ) >$ U $$&2$<,))#<3#:$3,$ U l $,)$3"#$+&@"3$-1$($-(<E$2",<EA$0&)<#$
U r " R!2 (U ) >$ U r $&2$<,))#<3#:$3,$ U $,)$3"#$+&@"3$-1$($/+,)3$+(+#/(<3&,)$7(5#A$0##$
!
W&@;+#$JAJXP-QA$$ ! !
!
$ !
! ! !
! ! !

W&@;+#$JAJX$

W&@;+#$#$%&'()*+,(-./010+21*3$&..;23+(3#2$(..$3"#$=,22&-&.&3&#2A$93$+#'(&)2$3,$
:#3#+'&)#$7"#3"#+$3"#$<;+5#2$,/$ F $<,5#+$3"#$ v " u $=.()#$;)&5(.#)3.1A$F#D..$2=.&3$
3"#$=+,,/$;=$&)3,$37,$<(2#2c$&)$3"#$/&+23$<(2#$7#$(22;'#$ U r $&2$&)$3"#$,=#)$+#@&,)2$!>$
!!>$,+$!!!c$&)$3"#$2#<,):$<(2#>$7#$(22;'#$ U r $.&#2$&)$+#@&,)$!"A$$
$ ! !
0;==,2#$3"(3$ U r $.&#2$&)$+#@&,)$
!
!A$6#3$3"#$5#+3&<(.$.&)#$ v = v r $
!
'##3$ W1 (U l ) $(3$ A >$():$.#3$&3$
'##3$!W 2 (U l ) $(3$ B A$F#$
,-2#+5#$3"(3$3"#$2;-/('&.1$,/$
!
<;+5#2$&)$
! F $<,)2&23&)@$,/$3"#$
!
2#3$ !
!
{W 2 (U) " W 2 (v ,u ) : v l # v # v 0} >$
&):;<#2$($<,)3&);,;2$
!
W&@;+#$JAJ[$
!
'(==&)@$ p " # ( p) $/+,'$3"#$(+<$ U l A $
3,$3"#$.&)#$2#@'#)3$ AB A$!"&2$/,..,72$
/+,'$3+()25#+2(.&31>$2&)<#$#(<"$,/$3"#$
! !
!

W&@;+#$JAJ\$
 S2 $<;+5#2$"(5#$)#@(3&5#$2.,=#2A$B,7$&)$3"#$+#@&,)$ U l AB >$3"#$2.,=#2$,/$3"#2#$<;+5#2$
(+#$-,;):#:c$3";2$7#$2##$3"(3$=,&)32$ P $2;//&<&#)3.1$<.,2#$3,$ A $';23$'(=$&)3,$=,&)32$
(-,5#$ U r A$0&)<#$ U l $'(=2$&)3,$ B >$7"&<"$&2$-#.,7$ U r >$7#$2##$-1$<,)3&);&31>$3"(3$3"#+#$
';23$-#$($=,&)3$ U $,)$3"#$(+<$ U l A $7"&<"$'(=2$&)3,$ U r A$!"&2$2",72$3"(3$+#@&,)$!$&2$
! !
<,5#+#:$-1$<;+5#2$&)$ F A$0&)<#$($2&'&.(+$(+@;'#)3$7,+E2$&/$
! ! U r $.&#2$&)$+#@&,)2$!!$,+$
! !!!>$7#$2##$3"(3$+#@&,)2$!>$!!>$():$!!!$(+#$<,5#+#:$-1$'#'-#+2$,/$
! ! ! F A$!"&2$=+,5#2$3"#$
#?&23#)<#$,/$($2,.;3&,)$,/$3"#$%&#'())$=+,-.#'$PJAJaQ>$PJAJXQ>$&/$
! U r $.&#2$&)$+#@&,)2$!>$
! !
!!>$,+$!!!$7&3"$+#2=#<3$3,$
! U l A$$
!
$ !
F#$2"(..$),7$2",7$3"(3$3"#$<;+5#2$&)$ F $<,5#+$+#@&,)2$!>$!!>$():$!!!>$;)&5(.#)3.1c$&A#A$
!
3"(3$3"+,;@"$#(<"$=,&)3$ U r $-#.,)@&)@$3,$()1$,/$3"#$+#@&,)2$!>$!!>$():$!!!>$3"#+#$=(22#2$
!
&5)"*-1,#$&$#.#'#)3$,/$ F A$
$
!
M@(&)>$.#3D2$2;==,2#$3"(3$ U r $.&#2$&)$+#@&,)$!A$%#/#++&)@$3,$W&@;+#$JAJ\>$7#$2#$3"(3$&3$
!
2;//&<#2$3,$2",7$3"(3$ "u /"v > 0 A$B,7$;2&)@$3"#$37,$#I;(3&,)2$
!
$
v
$ # " p'(y)dy $$
u = ul + ! ():$$ u = u " (v r " v )( p(v ) " p(v r )) >$
! l v

$
7#$<,'=;3#$
$ !
! "u "u 1
$ = # {(v # v ) p'(v ) # ( p(v ) # p(v r ))} $
"v "v 2 (v r # v )( p(v ) # p(v r )) r
(v r " v ) # p(v ) " p(v r ) &
$ $ = " p'(v ) " $ p'(v ) + ' > 0$
2 (v r " v )( p(v ) " p(v r )) % v " vr (
!$
!"&2$&'=.&#2$3"#$;)&I;#)#22$&)$+#@&,)$!c$3"#$=+,,/2$/,+$+#@&,)2$!!$():$!!!$(+#$2&'&.(+A$$
$
!
F#$3;+)$,;+$(33#)3&,)$),7$3,$3"#$<(2#$7"#+#$ U r $.&#2$&)$+#@&,)$!"A$93$&2$=#+"(=2$
2;+=+&2&)@$3"(3$),3$#5#+1$=,&)3$&)$3"&2$+#@&,)$<()$(.7(12$-#$<,5#+#:$-1$()$#.#'#)3$,/$
F A$W,+$#?('=.#>$&/$
$
$ !
$ u0 " % # p'(y)dy < $ >$ $ PJAX[Q$
! vl

$
3"#)$&3$&2$#(21$3,$2##$3"(3$3"#$<;+5#$
$
! v
$ u = r1 (v;v l ,ul ) = ul + # " p'(y)dy $
vl

!
 W&@;+#$JAJ]$

$
"(2$($",+&O,)3(.$(21'=3,3#c$)('#.1>$3"#$.&)#$ u = ul + u0 A$%#/#++&)@$3,$W&@;+#$JAJ]>$7#$
3(E#$ U r = (v l ,ur ) $3,$-#$&)$+#@&,)$!">$7"#+#$ ur $&2$<",2#)$2,$.(+@#$3"(3$ ur > ul + 2u0 A$6#3$
U = (v ,u ) $-#$()1$=,&)3$,)$ W1 (U l ) c$3"#)$
$ !
v
! $ u = ul + # " p'(y)dy $ ul +!u0 A$ !
! vl !

$
!"#$=,&)3$ U"$,)$ W 2 (U ) $7&3"$(-2<&22($ v l >$"(2$,+:&)(3#$
$
! vl v &
$ u" = u # $ # p'(y)dy = u + $ # p'(y)dy % u + $ # p'(y)dy % ul + 2u0 < ur $
! ! v ! vl vl

$
!";2$ U r $<()),3$.&#$,)$()1$<;+5#$&)$ F f$
$
!
F#$"(5#$2",7)$3"(3$&/$PJAX[Q$",.:2>$3"#)$3"#$+#@&,)$!"$&2$),3$<,5#+#:$-1$<;+5#2$&)$
F A$e#)#+(..1$2=#(E&)@$",7#5#+>$PJAX[Q$&2$3+;#$&)$3"#$&)3#+#23&)@$#?('=.#2A$!";2>$
! /,+$3"#$<(2#$7"#+#$ !
$
k
! $ p(v) = " >$$ " #1$P k = const. > 0 Q$
v
$
()$#(21$<(.<;.(3&,)$2",72$3"(3$PJAX[Q$",.:2$&/$():$,).1$&/$ " > 1$P3"#$="12&<(..1$
+#.#5()3$+()@#QA$$
! !
!$
!"#$<,)5#+@#)<#$,/$3"#$&)3#@+(.$PJAX[Q$<()$-#$@&5#)$($)&<#$="12&<(.$&)3#+=+#3(3&,)c$
!
)('#.1>$&3$<,++#2=,):2$3,$3"#$(==#(+()<#$,/$($5(<;;'A$W,+$#?('=.#>$&)$3"#$2",<E8
3;-#$=+,-.#'>$&/$3"#$+#.(3&5#$5#.,<&3&#2$,)$-,3"$2&:#2$,/$3"#$'#'-+()#$&)$3"#$2",<E$
3;-#$(+#$2;//&<&#)3.1$.(+@#>$3"#)$($5(<;;'>$,+$($+#@&,)$5,&:$,/$@(2$&2$/,+'#:A$9)$3"&2$
<(2#>$ " = 0 >$,+$#I;&5(.#)3.1>$ v = " #1$&2$&)/&)&3#A$!,$2##$3"&2$'(3"#'(3&<(..1>$),3#$3"(3$
3"#$ R2 $<;+5#$3"+,;@"$ U r $&2$@&5#)$-1$
$
! !
! !
 v
$ u " ur = " # " p'(y)dy = r2 (v;U r ) >$
vl

$
():>$(2$(-,5#>$ u $"(2$($",+&O,)3(.$(21'=3,3#$&)$3"#$+#@&,)$ u < ur $P2##$3"#$:,33#:$
! <;+5#$&)$W&@;+#$JAJ]QA$!";2>$(.,)@$3"&2$<;+5#$ " " p'(v) = #1 >$3#):2$3,$O#+,$(2$ v "# >$
2&)<#$ p'' > 0 A$0&'&.(+.1>$ "2 = # p'(v) $0 $(2$ v "# >$&/$ v $.&#2$,)$3"#$ R1 8<;+5#$3"+,;@"$
!
U l $P2##$W&@;+#$JAJ]QA$M$T2,.;3&,)U$,/$3"#$=+,-.#'$PJAJaQ>$PJAJXQ$&)$3"&2$<(2#$&2$@&5#)$
!
&)$W&@;+#$JAJ_>$7"#+#$7#$ ! !
<,))#<3$ U l $,)$3"#$+&@"3$-1$($ ! !
! ! !
"#?!-&*&$-(<E8+(+#/(<3&,)$
!
7(5#>$():$7#$<,))#<3$ U r $,)$
3"#$.#/3$-1$($"#?!-&*&$/+,)38
!
+(+#/(<3&,)$7(5#A$!"#$
2,.;3&,)$&2$;):#/&)#:$,)$3"#$
! v = +" $P&A#A>$
.&)#$ x = 0>$2&)<#$
" = 0 Q$3"#+#>$():>$,/$<,;+2#>$
u $&2$;):#/&)#:A$$
$ !
! W&@;+#$JAJ_$
S)$3"#$,3"#+$"():>$#5#)$&/$
!
!

W&@;+#$JAJK$

PJAX[Q$",.:2>$3"#$5(<;;'$:,#2$),3$)#<#22(+&.1$(==#(+>$():$&3$&2$=,22&-.#$3,$2,.5#$3"#$
%&#'())$=+,-.#'$&/$ U r $&2$&)$+#@&,)$!">$=+,5&:#:$3"(3$ U l $():$ U r $(+#$<.,2#c$&A#A>$
=+,5&:#:$3"(3$ U l " U r $&2$2'(..A$!"&2$2,.;3&,)$&2$:#=&<3#:$&)$W&@;+#$JAJKA$$
$
F#$"(5#$2",7)$",7$3,$2,.5#$3"#$%&#'())$=+,-.#'$/,+$3"#$!82123#'$PJKAJQ>$&)$3"#$
! ! !
<.(22$,/$P(3$',23$3"+##Q$<,)23()3$23(3#2$2#=(+(3#:$-1$2",<E2$():$+(+#/(<3&,)$7(5#2A$
$ !
93$&2$&)3#+#23&)@$3,$),3#$3"(3$&)$3"#$<(2#$7"#+#$ p(v) = k /v" >$ " = 1c$&A#A>$3"#$&2,3"#+'(.$
@(2$<(2#>$3"#$5(<;;'$:,#2$),3$(==#(+>$2&)<#$3"#$&)3#@+(.2$
$
#
$ $ vl
" p'(y)dy $ ! !
$
(..$:&5#+@#A$
!
 $
9/$3"#$2,.;3&,)$,/$3"#$%&#'())$=+,-.#'$:,#2$),3$(22;'#$3"#$5(<;;'$23(3#>$3"#)$()$
#?('&)(3&,)$,/$(..$3"#$=,22&-.#$<(2#2$2",72$3"(3$3"#$&)3#+'#:&(3#$23(3#$&)$3"#$
2,.;3&,)2$.&#2$-#37##)$3"#$+(+#/(<3&,)87(5#$<;+5#2$:#3#+'&)#:$-1$3"#$&)&3&(.$23(3#2A$
!"(3$&2>$3"#$2,.;3&,)$2(3&2/&#2$3"#$&)#I;(.&3&#2$
$
$ r " min(rl ,rr ) # min(r(v l ,ul ),r(v r ,ur )) >$
$
$ s " max(sl ,sr ) # max(s(v l ,ul ),s(v r ,v r )) >$
$
!
7"#+#$
$
! v
$ r(v,u) = u " # " p'(s)ds >$
v
$
v
$ s(v,u) = u + # " p'(s)ds A$
! v
$
g),7&)@$",7$3,$2,.5#$3"#$%&#'())$=+,-.#'$#)(-.#2$;2$3,$(<3;(..1$2,.5#$<#+3(&)$
31=#2$,/$+$*&')"*+#$%A$W,+$#?('=.#>$2;==,2#$3"(3$7#$<,)2&:#+$3"#$#I;(3&,)2$PJKAJQ$
! 7&3"$3"#$/,..,7&)@$&)&3&(.$:(3(Z$
$
# (v l ,ul ), x < x1,
%
$ (v,u)(x,0) = $(v m ,um ), x1 " x " x 2 , $
%
& (v r ,ur ), x > x 2,
$
():$2;==,2#$3,,$3"(3$3"#$:&2<,)3&);&31$ (v l ,ul ) >$ (v m ,um ) $&2$+#2,.5#:$-1$($/+,)3$2",<E$
S $,/$2=##:$ s1>$():$3"(3$3"#$:&2<,)3&);&31$ (v m ,um ) >$ (v r ,ur ) $&2$(.2,$+#2,.5#:$-1$($/+,)3$
! 1
2",<E$ S2 $,/$2=##:$ s2 c$2##$W&@;+#$JAJbA$W+,'$PJAJ\Q>$7#$/&):$ 0 < s2 < "2 (v m ,um ) < s1 >$
/+,'$7"&<"$&3$/,..,72$3"(3$ S1$,5#+3(E#2$! ! S2 $(3$2,'#$3&'#$ T > 0 A$B,3&<#$3"(3$(3$ t = T >$
! 7#$(@(&)$"(5#$($%&#'())$=+,-.#'$7&3"$:(3($
! ! ! (v l ,ul ) >$ (v r ,ur ) A$9)$,+:#+$3,$2,.5#$3"&2$
! =+,-.#'>$7#$';23$:#3#+'&)#$&)$7"(3$TI;(:+()3U$
! ! r ,ur ) $.&#2$&)$7&3"$+#2=#<3$3,$
(v
(v l ,ul ) c$2##$W&@;+#$JAJdA$$
! ! ! !
$ ! !
!
!

W&@;+#$JAJb$
 S;+$<.(&'$&2$3"(3$ (v r ,ur ) $.&#2$&)$3"#$/&+23$I;(:+()3$P),3$3"#$2#<,):Q>$2,$3"(3$3"#$
%&#'())$=+,-.#'$&2$+#2,.5#:$-1$($-(<E8+(+#/(<3&,)$7(5#$():$($/+,)382",<E>$(2$
:#=&<3#:$&)$W&@;+#$JAJbA$!,$2##$3"&2>$),3#$3"(3$ (v m ,um ) $.&#2$,)$3"#$/+,)382",<E$<;+5#$
S2 $23(+3&)@$(3$ (v l ,ul ) >$():$ (v r ,ur ) $.&#2$,)$3"#$/+,)382",<E$<;+5#$ S 2 $23(+3&)@$(3$ (v m ,um ) A$
!
9/$7#$<()$2",7$3"(3$ S 2 $(.7(12$.&#2$(-,5#$ S2 $P(2$:#=&<3#:$&)$W&@;+#$JAJdQ>$7#$7&..$
"(5#$=+,5#:$,;+$<.(&'A$!,$3"&2$#):>$7#$2"(..$=+,5#$3"(3Z$P&Q$3"#$2.,=#$,/$
! S 2 $(3$ (v m ,um ) $
! &2$@+#(3#+$3"()$3"#$2.,=#$,/$
! ! S2 $(3$ (v m ,um ) >$2,$3"(3$ S 2 $T-+#(E2$&)3,U$3"#$:#=&<3#:$
! !
+#@&,)c$():$P&&Q>$ 2 $)#5#+$'##32$ S $/,+$ v > v A$$
S
! ! 2 m
$ ! !
!,$2",7$P&Q>$),3#$3"(3$ S2 $&2$@&5#)$-1$3"#$#I;(3&,)$
! ! !
$
! ! !
$ u " ul = " (v " v l )( p(v l ) " p(v)) $
$ !
2,$3"(3$3"#$2.,=#$,/$ S2 $(3$ (v m ,um ) $&2$
$
! p(v l ) " p(v m )
p'(v m ) +
v " vm p'(v m ) + p'(#)
$ ! ! l = >$ vl < " < vm $
p(v l ) " p(v m ) 2 " p'(# )
2 "
vl " vm
$
!
!"#$2.,=#$,/$ S 2 $(3$ (v m ,um ) $&2$ " " p'(v m ) $2&)<#$
! 3"#$P),+'(.&O#:Q$+&@"3$#&@#)5#<3,+$(3$ (v m ,um ) $&2$
(1, " p'(v m )) t A$!";2>$2&)<#$
$ ! ! !
p'(v m ) + !
p'(#)
$ " " p'(v m ) > >$$
2 " p'(# )
!
$
23(3#'#)3$P&Q$/,..,72A$!,$=+,5#$P&&Q>$7#$:#/&)#$($
W&@;+#$JAJd$
)#7$/;)<3&,)$ " (x, y) = (x # y)( p(y) # p(x)) A$93$
!
&2$),3$"(+:$3,$2",7$3"(3$&/$ x > y > z >$3"#)$
" (x,z) > " (x, y) + " (y,z) A$!";2>$&/$3"#+#$7#+#$($=,&)3$ (v,u) " S2 # S 2 >$7&3"$ v > v m >$3"#)$
v > v!m > v l >$():$$
$ !
$ u " um = "# (v,v m ) >$$ u " ul = "# (v,v l ) A$
! ! !
$
!
!"&2$@&5#2$
$
!$ " (v l ,v m ) = ul!# um = " (v,v l ) # " (v,v m ) > " (v m ,v l ) $
$
7"&<"$&2$($<,)3+(:&<3&,)>$():$3"#$=+,,/$&2$<,'=.#3#A$$
!