2.13 & 2.

14 Alpha Beta Pruning

Pruning in simple terms is what you do to your rose plant in the garden cut off
excess and those branches that do not lead to success.

2.15 imperfect real time decision

2.16 games that include an element of chance.

Tic Tack Toe: The element of chance depends on the other players ability.
Foot Ball: Element of chance can be a pit in the ground (like marker points in Lawn
Tennis), opponent getting cramps due to lack of salt in his/her body, rain favoring
the chip player against the top spin player in tennis and so on and so forth.

3.0 UNIT III KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION 10

3.0 Introduction to Knowledge Representation

Knowledge representation centers around the AI research field of knowledge
engineering and ontological reasoning. The machine or artifact cannot solve the
problem without full and through knowledge of the world that it is expected to
tackle. AI will be expected to represent objects, relations between them, types,
happening s or events, the situation that causes the event, the cause and effect,
time and states, meta data (data about data or knowledge about knowledge), upper
and lower ontology.)

Definition of knowledge according to ontology:

As per ontology, knowledge is represented as the set of concepts and notions
with in a domain and the relationship and correlations between the concepts under
study.

Knowledge Representation (KR) research: (Pg 348, Ch 10, Part III)

The goal of KR Research is to use a set of symbols to represent a set of
facts within a knowledge domain. For example, a mammal is represented as the animal
with 4 legs and a neck within the knowledge domain of animal kingdom. A fish is
represented as a life force that can swim in water with in the knowledge domain of
aquatics. Now when we design a spotter agent, who is assigned to identify animals
accurately on his Zoo trip, the knowledge representation plays a vital role to
succeed.

Expressivity or the ability to express precisely is the key parameter in

choosing an existing KR ar creating a new one. The easier and compact way to
express a fact or an element of knowledge within the semantics, syntax and lexical
grammars of KR is to make it more expressive. But expressive languages need complex
logic and algorithms for building the corresponding inferences. But once the KR
becomes highly expressive, it becomes incomplete and inconsistent. Hence it is a
good idea to keep a KR abstract or less expressive so that it would be complete and
consistent.
Example for highly expressive KR: Auto epistemic encompasses meaningful
portions of knowledge made up of small, simple sequences of symbols called
sentences.
Autoepistemic is a formal logic for representing and reasoning meta knowledge
(knowledge about knowledge). Autoepistemic can express knowledge about facts and
also the lack of knowledge about facts if any. For example, in our case of Zoo
animal spotter agent, to differentiate between a giraffe and a cheetah, mere
sentences like it is a mammal, has 4 legs, has spots on skin, has a neck, has two
eyes will represent lack of knowledge. This is because the agent needs uniquely
identifying knowledge like has a long neck then can infer that as a giraffe
or has sharp teeth, meat eater then can infer that as a cheetah.

Autoepistemic becomes stable model semantics in a simplified form, as it

gives semantics(meanings) to logic programming with positive as success and
negation as failure.John McCarthy used advice-taker proposal logic as a declarative
representation language. For problem solving, theorem-prover or model-generator
was used.

Example for abstract, less expressive KR: Propositional logic consistent,

complete, well known for efficiently producing inferences with non complicated
algorithms. Propositional logic can only express facts. We have already told you on
page 7 that if you are trying to make the machines to think (part of meaning
representation not knowledge representation) then, let us focus on ONTOLOGICAL
ENGINEERING.