Pcog Lab

Family Rutaceae
Kalamansi
Citrus x microcarpa Bunge
CHINESE ORANGE
Gan
Scientific names Common names

x Citrofortunella microcarpa (Bunge) Wijnands Aldonisis (Tag.)
x Citrofortunella mitis (Blanco) J. Ingram & H.E. Moore Calamonding (P. Bis.)
Citrofortunella mitis (Blanco) J. Ingram & H.E. Moore Calamunding (Pamp.)
Citrus x microcarpa Bunge Kalamondin (Tag.)
Citrus x mitis Blanco Chinese orange (Engl.)
Citrus x mitis f. gekkitsu Hayata Calamondin (Engl.)
Citrus x mitis f. shikikitsu Hayata Calamondin orange (Engl.)
Kalamansi lime (Engl.)
Panama orange (Engl.)
Philippine lime (Engl.)
Citrus microcarpa Bunge is an unresolved name The Plant List
Other vernacular names

CHINESE: Jin ju, Si ji ju, Yue ju, Gan.
DANISH: Stueappelsin.
FINNISH : Kalamondiini.
GERMAN : Zwergapfelsine.
JAPANESE: Karamonjin, Shiki kitsu, Tou kin kan.
MALAY : Limau chuit, Limau kesturi, Jeruk kasturi, Jeruk peres, Jeruk potong (Indonesia).
THAI: Manao wan, Som chit, Som mapit.
VIETNAMESE : Tc, Hanh.
Botany
Kalamansi is a smooth and slightly spiny plant, growing to a height of 3 to 5 meters. Leaflets are elliptic
to oblong-elliptic, 4 to 8 centimeters long. Petioles are very narrowly or scarcely winged, about 1
centimeter long. Flowers are axillary, solitary, rarely in pairs, white, and short-stalked. Fruit is yellow
when ripe, nearly spherical, 2 to 3.5 centimeters diameter, 6- to 7-celled, and thin-skinned. The skin or
peel is green to yellowish green or yellow, loosely adhering to the flesh. The flesh contains a few light
orange seeds.
Distribution
- Widely cultivated in the Philippines.
- The species is native to the Philippines.
Constituents
- Leaves yield volatile oil, 0.9 to 1.06%.
- Rind yields aldehydes; sesquiterpenes; beta-pinene; linalool; linelyl acetate; tannin; glucoside;
cyanogenetic substances.
- Study on the volatile constituents of calamondin peel or whole fruit essential oil yielded 54 compounds,
including 13 monoterpenes, 7 monoterpene alcohols, 1 monoterpene oxide, 4 monoterpene aldehydes, 2
monoterpene ketones, 4 monoterpene esters, 12 sesquiterpenes, 3 alipathic alcohols, 6 alipathic
aldehydes, and 2 alipathic esters, with limonene and -myrcene as major compounds. (see study below)
(15)
Properties
- Aromatic, antiseptic, antiphlogistic, carminative, deodorant, refrigerant.
- Studies have suggested antimicrobial, antianxiety, antidepressant, hepatoprotective, expectorant,
antioxidant properties.
Parts used
Fruit, leaves, roots.
Uses
Culinary / Nutrition
- It is fairly sour and is a popular seasoning for many local food.
- Served with iced-tea, seafoods and meats.
- Also used for making juice and marmalade.
- Kalamnsi-ade is a rich source of vitamin C
- Condiment: Use rind and fruit.
Folkloric
- For an aromatic bath, juice mixed with gogo.
- Warm kalamansi-ade drunk for cough, colds and sore throat.
- For nausea and fainting, rind is squeezed near nostril to inhale.
- Applied externally for itching.
- Higaonon tribe of Mindanao use decoction of leaves to lower hypertension. Juice from partly roasted
fruits used for coughs and colds. (10)
- Fruits crushed with bark of Entada phaseoloides used as hair shampoo, for itching and to stimulate hair
growth.
- Juice of fruit used for Acne vulgaris and Pruritis vulvae.
- In Malaysia, used as an antidote for poison.
- Poultice of pandanus leaves, mixed with salt and juice of citrus microcarpa, for abscesses.
- In Malaya, combined with pepper to help expel phlegm.
- Root used at childbirth.
- Leaf oil used as carminative, with a effect stronger than peppermint oil.
- Fruits crushed with bark of Entada phaseoloides used as hair shampoo, for itching and to stimulate hair
growth.
Others
- Bleaching agent: Cut fruit and apply directly on freckles.
- Stain Remover / Shampoo: Juice is used to remove ink stains from clothes and washing women's
hair. Also used for bleaching freckles.
- Insect repellent: The Ayta people of Porac, Pampanga burn the leaves as insect repellent.
Studies
Antimicrobial: Antimicrobial properties of tropical plants against 12 pathogenic bacteria isolated from
aquatic organisms: A study on the antibacterial activity of 9 tropical plants against 12 clinical and
pathogenic bacterial strains including Vibrio cholera, Escherichia coli, Vibro parahemolytics, Salmonella
and Streptococcus sp. showed activity against one or more species of bacteria. Citrus microcarpa was
one of the most active. (1)
Antimicrobial: Paper described the potential of A. sativum and Citrus microcarpa extracts as
alternative antimicrobial agents for local edible frog culture industry.
Antimicrobial / Aquaculture: Study isolated 2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid from the crude
extract of C microcarpa. The study results suggest that both the crude extract and its bioactive
component might have potential as an antimicrobial in aquaculture use. (2)
Antianxiety / Antidepressive: Study provides evidence that the smelling of essential oils of C hystrix
and C microcarpa confer anxiolytic effect. It concludes that essential oils of the Citrus family may affect
behavior. (3)
Hepatoprotective: Kalamansi peel extract exhibited hepatoprotective activity against Acetaminophen-
induced liver disease in male SD rats, comparable to commercially available silymarin preparations. (5)
Expectorant / Seeds: Seeds yield alkaloid, carbohydrates and protein. An alkaloidal extractive was
incorporated to the formula of the final product which is an expectorant syrup was based on the ipecac
syrup. (7)
D-Limonene / Seeds: Study tested the effectiveness of citrus oil d-limonene extracted from
calamansi(Citrus microcarpa) rind in dissolving expanded polystyrene foam. (9)
Musk Lime Seeds / Oil: Study showed musk lime seeds are a rich source of oil, unusual in having
linoleic, ol3ci and palmitic acids dominating the fatty acid composition. The oil is relatively stable to
thermal oxidation due to its high concentration of unsaturated fatty acids. (8)
Citrus Antioxidants: Study showed C. microcarpa contained a high amount of phloretin-3,5-di-C-
glucopyranoside that was shown to possess a high Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Ratio (TEAR) value
due to its 2,4,6-trihydroxyacetophenone structure. Essential oils obtained from all citrus fruits showed
very high radical-scavenging activity against the DPPH radical, well in excess that in leaves. (11)
Comparative Antimicrobial Activity / Citrus Peels: Study compared the antibacterial properties of
methanol extracts of five varieties of citrus peels (Citrus aurantifolia, C. reticulata, C. microcarpa, C.
limon, and C. sinensis) against Streptococcus pyogenes, S. aureus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa. At 20
mg/ml, the methanol extract of Citrus microcarpa, C. reticulata and C. sinensis showed better inhibition
against S. aureus and E. coli compared to C. auratifolia and C. limon. Citrus peel extracts showed better
antifungal activity than antibacterial activity. (12)
Larvicidal Against Dengue Virus Vector Ae. aegypti: Study evaluated four Philippine plants species,
Citrus microcarpa (calamansi), Chromolaena odorata (hagonoy), Nephelium lappaceum (rambutan), and
Jasminum sambac (sampaguita) for larvicidal activity against third instar larvae of dengue mosquito,
Aedes aegypti. C. microcarpa, the 500 ppm ethanolic extract from C. microcarpa provided 24-hr mortality
of 80%, slightly lower than 100% mortality obtained in black pepper. C. microcarpa may be considered
as a possible larvicide substitute to Ae. aegypti if other biological means are not available. (13)
Potential Hemostatic / Extracted Pectin / Peels: Study evaluated the production of potential
hemostatic agents from extracted pectin of calamansi peels blended with polyethylene oxide. Results
suggest the pectin/polyethylene oxide blends exhibits hemostatic properties. Also, as radiation dose and
pectin concentration increased, the blood clotting ability of the samples also increased. (14)
Essential Oils / Whole Fruit and Peel: Study evaluated the volatile constituents of calamondin peel or
whole fruit by cold pressing, steam distillation, or hot water treatment. Hot water heating increased the
yields of essential oils from both whole fruit and peel. Whole fruit oil yielded higher levels of monoterpene
alcohols, such as linalool, terpinen-4-ol, and a-terpineol, which may contribute to the aroma profile of fruit
tea. Peel oil yields higher contents of sesquiterpenes, such as germacrene D. (see constituents above)
(15)
Availability
Wild-crafted.
Perennial market produce.
Godofredo U. Stuart Jr., M.D.
Last Updated July 2016

Kamias
Averrhoa bilimbi L.
BILIMBI TREE
Huang gua shu

Averrhoa bilimbi L. Iba (C. Bis., P. Bis., Sul., Tag.)
Ibag (Mbo.)
Ibe (Yak.)
Kamias (Tag.)
Kolonanas (Tag.)
Kolonauas (Tag.)
Kalamias (Tag.)
Kalingiwa (Bis.)
Kiling-iba (Bik.)
Pias (Ilk.)
Puis (Ig.)
Bilimibi (Engl.)
Bilimbi tree (Engl.)
Cucumber tree (Engl.)
Tree sorrel (Engl.)
Huang gua shu (Chin.)

CHINESE: Ma hu gua, Xiang yang tao.
CREOLE: Bimbling plum, Blimblin.
FRENCH : Carambolier bilimbi, Cornichon des Indes, Zibeline.
GERMAN : Bilimbinaum, Gurkenbaum.
HINDI: Bilimbi.
JAPANESE: Birinbi, Nagabanogorenshi.
KHMER: Tralong tong.
MALAY : Belimbing asam, Belimbing besu, Belimbing buloh, Belimbing wuluh.
RUSSIAN: Bilimbi.
SINHALESE: Bimbiri.
SPANISH : Grosella china, Pepino de Indias, Mimbro, Vinagrillo.
THAI: Tling pling, Kaling pring.
VIETNAMESE : Kh? ng?t , Kh? tu.
Botany
Kamias is a small tree, growing 5 to 12 meters high. Leaves are pinnate, 20 to 60 centimeters long, with
hairy rachis and leaflets. Leaflets are opposite, 10 to 17 pairs, oblong, 5 to 10 centimeters in length.
Panicles growing from the trunk and larger branches are hairy, 15 centimeters long or less. Flowers are
about 1.5 centimeters long, and slightly fragrant. Fruit is green and edible, about 4 centimeters long,
subcylindric, or with 5 obscure, broad, rounded, longitudinal lobes.
Distribution
- Cultivated and semi-cultivated throughout the Philippines.
- Introduced from tropical America.
- Now pantropic.
Parts utilized
Leaves, fruit, juice.
Constituents
Study on volatile components of fruits showed 6 mg/kg of total volatile compounds; 62 compounds were
identified, nonanal and (Z)-3-hexenol were dominant.
Fruit contains potassium oxalate.
Chemical constituents include amino acids, citric acid, cyanidin-3-O-b-D-glucoside, phenolics,
potassium ion, sugars, and vitamin A. Fruit extracts yield flavonoids, saponins, and triterpenoid. Bark
yields alkaloids, saponins, and flavonoids. (15)
100 gms of edible portion yields: Thiamine, 0.010 mg; ascorbic acid, 15.6 mg; moisture, 94.2-94.7 g;
protein, 0.61 g; fiber, 0.6 g; ash, 0.31-0,4 g; calcium, 3.4 g; phosphorus, 11.1mg; iron, 1.01mg, carotene,
0.035mg; riboflavin, 0.030 mg, niacin, 0.030mg. (15)
The oxalic acid in bilimbi ranged between 10.5 and 14.7 mg/g in green fruit and 8.45 to 10.8 mg/g in
ripe fruit, levels comparable to those reported from tea leaves. (see study below) (20)
Properties
Considered antibacterial, astringent, antiscorbutic, febrifuge, antidiabetic, stomachic, refrigerant.
Fruit considered astringent, refrigerant, and stomachic.
Studies haves shown antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, antioxidant, antifertility, and
antibacterial activities.
Uses
Nutrition
- Eaten raw.
- Prepared as a relish and food flavoring.
- Made into sweets and jams; used in making pickles.
Folkloric
Skin diseases, especially with pruritus: Reduce the leaves to a paste and apply tolerably warm to areas
of affected skin.
Fruit juice used as eye drops.
Post-partum and rectal inflammation: Infusion of leaves.
Mumps, acne, and localized rheumatic complaints: Paste of leaves applied to affected areas.
Warm paste of leaves also used for pruritus.
Used for boils, piles, rheumatism, cough, hypertension, whooping cough, mumps and pimples.
Cough and thrush: Infusion of flowers, 40 grams to a pint of boiling water, 4 glasses of tea daily.
For fevers, fruit made into syrup used as a cooling drink.
The fruit has been used for a variety of maladies: beriberi, cough, prevention of scurvy.
Infusion of leaves also drank as a protective tonic after childbirth.
In Malaysia, leaves are used for venereal diseases.
In Java, a conserve of fruit used for beriberi, biliousness, coughs.
In Indonesia, leaves used for boils, diabetes, mumps, fever.
In French Guyana, fruit decoction or syrup use for hepatitis, diarrhea, fever and other inflammatory
conditions.
Others
Stain remover: Because of high oxalic acid content, fruit used to remove stains from clothing and for
washing hands, removing rust and stains from metal blades. (18)
Studies
Hypoglycemic / Hypotriglyceridemic / Anti-Atherogenic / Anti-Lipid Peroxidative: Effects of
Averrhoa bilimbi leaf extract on blood glucose and lipids in streptozotocin-diabetic rats: Study showed
that AB extract has hypoglycemic, hypotriglyceridemic, anti-lipid peroxidative and anti-atherogenic
properties in STZ-diabetic rats. (1)
Antioxidant / Antimicrobial Activities: The scavenging of NO by the extract of AC fruits was
dependent on concentration and stage of ripening. Extracts showed antimicrobial activity against E coli,
Salmonella typhi, staph aureus and bacillus cereus. (3)
Phytochemicals / Antimicrobial: Phytochemical screening of fruit extracts yielded flavonoids,
saponins and triterpenoids but no alkaloids. The chloroform and methanol fruit extracts were active
against Aeromonas hydrophilia, E coli, K pneumonia, S cerrevisiae, S aureus, Strep agalactiae and B
subtilis. In conclusion, AB fruits possess potential
antibacterial activities that warrants further studies. (4)
Anti-Diabetic: Study showed the aqueous fraction
was more potent than the butanol fraction in the
amelioration of hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia in a
high fat diet-fed STZ diabetic rats and suggests the AF
as the potential source for isolation of the active
principle for oral antidiabetic therapy. (5)
Antibacterial: Study of the aqueous extract of AB
leaves and fruits showed antibacterial activity against
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The
antibacterial activity could be associated with the
presence of bioactive compounds of the flavonoids
type, like luteolin and apigenin. The results suggest
further studies to isolate and identify the responsible
compounds. (7)
Anti-Hyperlipidemic: Study showed the fruit and its
water extract, but not the alcohol and hexane extracts,
to have remarkable antihypercholesterolemic activity.
Results suggest the fruit can be used as a dietary
ingredient to treat hyperlipidemia. (8)
Hepatoprotective / Antioxidant: Study of a
methanolic extract of leaves in carbon tetrachloride
intoxicated rats showed significant inhibition of biochemical alterations, comparable to the standard drug.
(10)
Antifertility: Study in mice showed the kamias fruit as a potential source of antifertility drug. A butanol
fraction of the ethanol extract exhibited a higher reduction in fertility rate. The activity may be due to
either or both of the steroidal glucosides and potassium oxalate constituents. (11)
Antidiabetic Properties: Study evaluated the antidiabetic activity of ABe in STZ-induced diabetic
Sprague-Dawley rats. ABe increased glucose tolerance in OGTT testing and showed potent
hypoglycemic, hypotriglyceridemic, and anti-lipid peroxidative and anti-atherogenic activities. (12)
Cytotoxic Activity / Fruits: Study evaluated a crude methanolic extract of fruit and its various fractions
for in vitro cytotoxic potential using the brine shrimp lethality bioassay. Results showed a significant
cytotoxic potential and a potential source for the isolation of active principle/s for cancer therapy. (13)
Anticoagulant Activity: Study evaluated an ethanolic extract for anticoagulant activity in diabetic male
wistar rats. The high level of oxalic acid in A. bilimbi could provide the anticoagulant effect since oxalic
acid is a metal cation chelator. Oxalate presumbly binds to blood calcium, removing calcium ions from
the blood, and inhibiting the clotting process. (16)
Natural Source of Ethylene for Ripening Bananas: Study showed bilimbi fruits produced relatively
high amounts of ethylene which effectively induced the ripening of mature green 'Saba' bananas. Results
suggest a natural source of ethylene for Saba ripening. (17)
Acute Oxalate Nephropathy Attributed to A. bilimbi Fruit Juice: Study reports a series of 10 cases
from five Keral hospitals who developed acute oxalate nephropathy and acute renal failure after intake of
Irumban puli fruit juice. Seven of the patients required hemodialysis. (19)
Oxalic Acid Content: Study determined the range of oxalic acid and total free acid in carambola and
bilimbi. Oxalic acid is a food toxicant which may decrease the availability of dietary calcium by forming
poorly absorbed calcium oxalate complex. The oxalic acid in bilimbi ranged between 10.5 and 14.7 mg/g
in green fruit and 8.45 to 10.8 mg/g in ripe fruit, levels comparable to those reported from tea leaves. The
oxalic acid levels in bilimbi were higher than csrambola. (20)
Radical Scavenging / Phenolic Content: Study investigated a methanolic extract and various solvent
soluble fractions for free radical scavenging activity and phenolic content. Extractives yielded significsnt
phenolic compounds. Crude methanolic extract exhibited significant DPPH free radical scavenging
activity. (21)
Availability
Wildcrafted.
Seasonal fruiting.
Last Update September 2014

Kasuy
Anacardium occidentale Linn.
CASHEW
Ji yao guo

Acajuba occidentalis (L.) Gaertn. Balogo (Ilk.)
Anacardium microcarpum Ducke Balubad (Tag., Pamp.)
Anacardium occidentale Linn. Balubag, Baluban (Tag.)
Cassuvium pomiferum Lam. Balubat, Batuban (Tag.)
Cassuvium reniforme Blanco Balugo (Ilk.)
Cassuvium solitarium Stokes Kachui (Tag.)
Kasul (Sul.)
Kasul (Sul.)
Kasuy (Tag.)
Kosing (Ig.)
Sasoi (Ibn., Tag.)
Sambalduke (Ilk.)
Cashew (Engl.)
Cashew apple (Engl.)
Anacardium occidentale L. is an accepted name The Plant List

ARABIC: Kaju
ASSAMESE: Kajubadam
ARABIC: Kaju
BENGALI: Hijli badam, Kaju.
BOSNIAN: Beli mahagoni, Indijanski kau-orah, Pipak.
BURMESE: Sihosayesi, Thee hot.
CHINESE: Jia ru shu, Yao guo li, Yao guo shu, Yao guo, Ji yao guo.
CROATIAN:Beli mahagoni, Indijanski kau-orah, Pipak, Pipci.
CZECH: Ke o?ky.
DANISH: Acajound.
DUTCH: Cashewnoot, Kasjoe, Kasjoeboom, Mereke.
FRENCH: Acajou pommes, Anacardier, Cajou, Noix-cajou, Noix de cajou, Pomme d'acajou.
GERMAN: Akajoubaum, Kaschubaum, Kaschunu, Kaschunubaum, Westindische Elefantenlaus.
GREEK: Anakardia, Eidos fistikiou, Fistiki kasious, Kasious.
HINDI: : Hijlibadam, Kaajuu, Kaju, Kajubadam, Khajoor.
INDONESIA: Jambu mortyet, Jambu monyet
ITALIAN: Acaji, Anacardio.
JAPANESE: Anakarudiumu okushidentare, Kashuunatto no ki.
KANNADA: Geru, Gerumara, Godambi
KHMER: Svaay chantii.
MALAY: Gajus, Jambu golok, Jambu mede
MALAYALAM: Kashukavu, Kasumav, Parangi mavu, Parankimaav.
MARATHI: Kaju, Kajugola.
NEPALESE: Kaajuu.
PERSIAN: Badame pharangi.
POLISH: Nerkowiec.
PORTUGESE: Caj, Caj do camop, Cajueiro, Cajueiro-do-campo.
PUNJABI: Kaju
RUSSIAN: Anakardium zaladnyi, Derevo kesh'iu, Vrkkaphalah.
SERBIAN: Beli mahagoni, Indijanski kau-orah, Pipak.
SLOVENIAN: Epatca, Epatka.
SPANISH: Anacardo, Cashu, Maraon, Maran, Merey (Venezuela).
THAI: Mamuang him maphan, Mamuang letlor, Yaruang
Botany
Kasuy is a small tree with a usually small and crooked trunk. Leaves are simple, smooth, alternate, ovate
or obovate, 10 to 20 centimeters long, 7 to 12 centimeters wide, with slightly rounded, emarginate apex.
Flowers are small, 5 to 6 millimeters in diameter, crowded at the tips of the branches, and yellow to
yellowish-white, the petals usually with pink stripes. The fruit, a nut, is ash-colored, kidney-shaped and
about 2 centimeters long. The mesocarp is soft, corky, and oleoresinous; and the epicarp is leathery.
Seed is kidney-shaped. Torus (receptacle) is fleshy, juicy, yellowish, pear-shaped, and 5 to 7 centimeters
long.
Distribution
- Throughout the Philippines in settled areas at low and medium altitudes, cultivated, and in some places,
naturalized, or at least persistent after abandoned cultivation.
- Introduced from tropical America in the early colonial period.
- Now pantropic.
Constituents
Kernel yield of fixed oil, 45-47.2%;
starch; sitosterin, 8%; cardol;
anacardic acid; lignoceric acid.
Oil contains linolic acid, 7.7%;
palmitic acid, 6.4%; stearic acid,
11.24%; lignoceric acid, 0.5%; and
sitosterin.
Plant yields two oils: (1) a light-
yellow oil from the pressed kernels,
of which the finest quality is
comparable to almond oil; and (2)
Cardole, from the shell of the nut,
an acrid and powerful fluid useful
for preserving carved wood, books,
etc. against white ants.
Cashew nut oil yields: oil, 16.12%;
moisture, 2.37%; ash, 3.94%;
protein, 31.67%; nitrogen, 5.70%;
crude fiber, 0.44%; and
carbohydrates, 45.46%.
Bark yields a gum also obnoxious
to insects.
The kernel contains 7.6-16%
moisture, 18-24% protein, 43-57%
fats,19-21% carbohydrates.
Anacardic acids, the by-product of
cashew processing, have medicinal
uses.
Pericarp (shell) of the fruit yields a
toxic principle, cardol oil, and
anacardic acid.
Trunk yields a gum, anacard-
gummi or cashew gum, with arabin,
used similarly as gum arabic.
Wood yields catechin.
A study yielded anacardic acid, cardanol, cardol, and 2-methyl cardol. Immature nut oil contains
triglycerides, fatty acids, alkyl-substituted phenols and cholesterol. The main constituents of the free fatty
acids were palmitic and oleic acids.
Study of aqueous and methanol extracts of leaf, bark and root of cashew yielded bioactive principles,
i.e., tannin-15.38mg/g, total polyphenolics-2.00, alkaloid-39.90 and oxalate-8.13. (30)
Study of aqueous and ethanol extracts of leaves yielded carbohydrates, proteins, saponin glycosides,
flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, and phenolic compounds.
Properties
Kasuy is a very peculiar fruit consisting of two parts: Below, a large, soft, yellow, fleshy, juicy, pear-
shaped structure which is derived mostly from the receptacle of the flower, edible, with the characteristics
of a fleshy fruit, slight sweet, at times very acrid and irritating to the throat and tongue. Above, the kidney-
shaped nut, the kernel of which has an excellent flavor when roasted.
Phenolic content with antioxidant activities.
Bark considered alterative.
Fruit considered acrid sweet, digestible, aphrodisiac, anthelmintic, rubefacient.
Juice of fruit considered diuretic, sudorific, and antisyphilitic.
Bark and leaves considered astringent.
Fumes arising from the nuts during roasting may be irritating to the face, nostrils, and throat. The oil
exuding from the nuts is very caustic and may cause skin brown marks like warts, swelling, and
inflammation.
Parts used and preparation

Bark, leaves, oil, and ripe fruit.
Uses
Nutrition
- Ripe fleshy portion of fruit may be eaten; sweet, although
sometimes acrid and irritating to the throat and tongue. Often
eaten with salt. Wine is made from it.
- The kernel has an excellent flavor when roasted, makes an
savory candy nut and a popular snack food.
- Young leaves eaten as vegetable, a fair source of calcium and
iron.
Folkloric
Astringent and mouth wash: Gargle dilute infusion of bark and
leaves and retain in mouth for a few minutes to relieve toothache,
sore gums, or sore throat. Do not swallow.
Receptacle boiled in sweetened water used by Filipinos as
remedy for dysentery.
Bruised nut used as irritant to cause abortion.
Decoction of bark used for diarrhea, syphilitic swelling of the
joints, and for diabetes.
Bark, rich in gallic acid, used as decoction against aphthae and
mouth ulcerations.
Bark and leaves considered astringent; infusion used to relieve
toothaches and sore gums, and as a lotion and mouthwash, also
used internally for dysenteric conditions.
Spirit distilled from the fruit is considered rubefacient. Used as diuretic.
Pear-shaped receptacle eaten as cure for scurvy.
Oil from pericarp used as anesthetic in leprosy and psoriasis, and as a blister for warts, corns, and
ulcers. Also applied to cracks in the feet. In the Philippines, oil used as a powerful escharotic and
vesicant.
Tincture of pericarp used as vermifuge in Europe.
Kernel oil is a mechanical, as well as chemical, antidote for irritant poisons. Also, it is a good vehicle for
liniments and other external applications.
Oil from the kernel is nutritious and emollient; used as demulcent in form of an emulsion.
Juice of receptacle is acid and astringent; used for uterine troubles and dropsy.
In Guyana, decoction of bark used as antidiarrheal. Powdered seeds used as antivenom for snake
bites. Nut oil used as antifungal and for healing cracked heels.
In Sierra Leone, Aku people use the young leaves for dysentery, diarrhea, piles, etc.
In western Nigeria, used for arthritis and other inflammatory conditions. In some parts of Nigeria, bark
used to treat diabetes.
In Cameroon traditional medicine, used for diabetes and hypertension.
In Malay folklore medicine, decoction of vein and leaves used to lower blood pressure of diabetic
patients.
Others
- Oil from the pericarp effective against white ants.
- Oil from the kernel is a chemical antidote for irritant poisons and a good vehicle for liniments and other
external applications.
- The bark yields a gum that repels insects.
- Cardole, the oil from the
shell of the nut, is effective
for preserving wood, books;
also, against white ants.
- Cardanol, from anacardic
acid, is used for resins,
coatings and frictional
materials.
Studies
Antibacterial: (1)
Anarcardic acids effective
against gram-positive
bacteria, used in vivo for
tooth abscesses. (2) In vitro
study of different fractions
of leaf extract of AO
showed Staph aureus and
P aeruginosa to be most
sensitive to the chloroform
extracts. (3) Study
confirmed the traditional claim of false fruit of Anacardium occidentale as an antimicrobial. (11) (15)
Antiinflammatory: Potentiation of the antiinflammatory effect of Anacardium occidentale (Linn.) stem-
bark aqueous extract by grapefruit juice: Study results showed the plant extract possess
antiinflammatory activity, supporting folkloric use of the plant for arthritis and other inflammatory
conditions. (2)
Hypoglycemic: The experimental animal study showed AO extracts to possess hypoglycemic activity
supporting its folkloric use. Although the mechanisms are highly speculative, the hypoglycemic effect of
the plant extracts could be due, in part, to their terpenoid and/or coumarin contents. (3)
Antioxidant: Effects of immature cashew nut-shell liquid (Anacardium occidentale) against oxidative
damage in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity. Study showed
immature cashew nut-shell liquid (iCNSL), a source of unsaturated long-chain phenols, and may have a
potential role in protecting DNA against oxidative damage. (4)
Antioxidant / Anti-acetylcholinesterase Activity Study on immature cashew nut shell liquid showed
antioxidant and anticholinesterase activities. Study yielded anacardic acid, cardanol, cardol, and 2-
methyl cardol.
Brain and Kidney Benefits: Microstructural study of the effect of ethanolic extract of Cashew stem
bark of Anacardium occidentale on the Brain and Kidney of Swiss albino mice showed no toxic effects
with enhancement of functions and suggests a potential for its use in certain brain and kidney
ailments. (5)
Antibacterial / Periodontal Benefit: Activity of Some Thai Medicinal Plants against Porphyromonas
gingivalis: In a study that screens Thai medicinal plants for antibacterial activity against Porphyromonas
gingivalis, AO was one of several tested. Of the studied plants, AO bark and leaves showed the best
inhibition of Porphyromonas gingivalis and Terminalia bellerica and suggests its potential for use
in therapy. (6)
Anti-diabetic: Protective role of Anacardium occidentale extract against streptozotocin-induced
diabetes in rats: Study showed a protective role of AO extract against the diabetogenic action of STZ. (7)
Antioxidant: Comparisons between the Antioxidant Activities of the Extracts of Anacardium occidentale
and Piper betle: The methanolic extract of AO can be an alternative source of polyphenolics with potent
antioxidant activities. (8)
Acute and Subchronic Toxicity Studies: Study of leaf hexane extract of A. occidentale in mice
showed no toxicity on acute administration with doses less than 6 g/kg. At high doses, signs of toxicity
were asthenia, anorexia, diarrhea, and syncope. Liver and kidney parameters were significantly
abnormal with correlating histopathological changes. Study concludes toxic effects of AO hexane leaf
extract occurred at higher doses than those use in Cameroon folk medicine.
Antihyperglycemic / Renal Protective: Study showed the efficacy of AO hexane extract in reducing
diabetes-induced functional and histological alterations in the kidneys. (9)
Antitumor Activity: Cashew gum polysaccharide, combined with water soluble, branched b-galactose
and other oligosaccharides and proteins exhibited an antitumor activity with a high inhibitory activity
against an implanted sarcoma 180 solid tumor in mice. (10)
Antioxidative / Anti-Atherogenesis: Study suggested the aqueous extract of AO possessed
antioxidative properties and attenuates the initial stage of atherogenesis in vitro possibly through
inhibition of NF-kB activation. (12)
Anti-Ophidian: Study evaluated the ability of A. occidentale bark extract to neutralize enzymatic and
pharmacological effects induced by Vipera russelii venom. Results suggest it may be used as an
alternative treatment to serum therapy and may also be a rich source of potential inhibitors of hydrolytic
enzymes involved in several physiopathological diseases. (13)
Gum as Gelling Agent: Study indicated the extracted mucilage may be a good source of a
pharmaceutical adjuvant, specifically as a gelling agent. (14)
Toxicity Screening / Hypocholesterolemic Effect:Study in hypercholesterolemic rabbits evaluated
the toxicity properties and hypocholesterolemic effects. Aqueous extract was found to be non-toxic and
possess cholesterol-lowering effects. (16)
Anthelmintic: AC was evaluated for anthelmintic activity against earthworm Pheretima posthuma. Both
alcohol and aqueous extracts of the whole plant exhibited significant anthelmintic activity at highest
concentration of 500 mg/ml. Albendazole was the reference drug. (17)
Aphrodisiac / Seed Oil: Seed oil yielded saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, and terpenoids.
The seed oil, test on male albino rats for sexual behavior, showed increase in mount and frequency of
intromission, with decrease in mount latency. Results suggest the seed oil may be used to manage
impotency in male humans. The seed shell oil, tested for toxicity, can be used to kill mice by application
on foods eaten by mice. (20)
Gum as Tablet Binder: Seed evaluated the binding efficacy of cashew nut tree gum in tablet
formulation (paracetamol) compared with standard binders such as acacia of polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP
K-30). Results suggest cashew nut tree gum can be used as an alternative binder with good mechanical
strength and dissolution profile. (21)
Differences in Constituents and Medicinal Properties of Different Extracts: Folkloric use of herbals
involves the use of plants without the isolation of particular phytochemicals, hoping for synergy of
combined substances and dilution of toxicity, while modern pharmacy prefers single ingredients for
dosage quantification, requiring detailed analysis of phytochemical constituents. In this study with guava,
the highest concentration of bioactive principles were detected in ethanol extracts. The study justified the
use of alcohol in folkloric extraction. (22)
Improved Renal Clearance: Study investigated the effects of a crude ethanolic extract of stem bark on
renal clearance of Sprague Dawley rats. Results showed improvement of renal clearance on high dose
of EAO. The study does not confirm or suggest the possible mechanisms of increased renal
clearance. (23)
Antifeedant / Anthelmintic: Study compared the antifeedant and anthelmintic activities of crude
extracts of shells of Anacardium occidentale with the activity of Azadirachta indica, a commercial
standard. Results showed the test extracts of A. occidentale in petroleum ether,
dichlormethane:methanol showed better activities. Phytochemical analysis yielded phenols--cordol,
cardanol, and anacardic acid. (24)
Hypoglycemic / Antioxidative / Leaves: Study of leaf extract in a diabetic rat model showed
hypoglycemic activity. Observations suggest the extract could improve and protect the islet Langerhan
cells from oxidative degeneration. The preventive effects may be due to inhibition of lipid peroxidation by
its antioxidant properties. (25)
Larvicidal / Nut Shell Liquid: Study reveals Aedes aegypti larvae and pupae are highly susceptible to
12 ppm CNSL (cashew nut shell liquid). Results suggest further studies conducted in different
ecosystems to observe the larvicidal effect of CNSL on different vectors of malaria, dengue, and
filariasis, as CNSL is is cheap, easily available, eco-friendly, non-toxic, and biodegradable. (26)
Hypoglycemic / Stem Bark Extract: Study of stem bark extract in STZ-induced diabetic rats showed
antihyperglycemic property with a positive effect on weight gain. (27)
Anthelmintic / Antifeedant: Study evaluated crude extracts of shells of Anacardium occidentale for
antifeedant and anthelmintic activities. Test extracts showed better activity compared to A. indica. The
addition of piperine to the formulation significantly enhanced the anthelmintic activity. (28)
Antimicrobial / Antifeedant: Study evaluated the extract of A. occidentale against S. aureus and S.
epidermis and then developed cosmetic formulations from those extracts. Although promising, the
formulation gradually darkened when stored at temperatures between 40 and 60C. (29)
Anthelmintic: Study evaluated alcohol and aqueous extracts from whole plant of A. occidentale for
anthelmintic activity. Both extracts showed significant anthelmintic activity at highest concentration of 500
mg/ml. Albendazole was used as standard reference. (31)
Negative Effect on Pregnancy Outcome: Study evaluated the effect of a leaf extract of A. occidentale
on reproductive outcome of Wistar rats. Study revealed low birth weight and low crown-rump length
effect, suggesting serious implications with consumption of leaf extract during pregnancy. Low birth
weight has a major influence on neonatal morbidity, neurocognitive deficiencies, neurobehavioral effects
and mortality. The author warns that the extract should not be taken by pregnant women. (32)
Antibacterial / Leaf and Bark: Study evaluated the inhibitory effect of a methanolic extract of leaf and
bark of Anacardium occidentale against Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus mutans from burn
and dental caries patients. The extracts inhibited all clinical isolates, and the leaf extract inhibited to a
higher extent than the bark. (33)
Anti-Diabetic / Increased Glucose Uptake: Study evaluated the anti-diabetic properties of cashew
plant parts using differentiated C2C12 myoblasts and rat liver mitochondria. Results showed the extract
and its active component, anacardic acid, stimulated glucose transport into C2C12 myotubes in a
concentration-dependent manner. Also, the dysfunction of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation may
enhance glycolysis and contribute to increase glucose uptake. (34)
Antidiarrheal / Leaf Extract Enriched with Zinc: Study evaluated the antidiarrheal activity of zinc,
aqueous leaf extract and zinc enriched leaf extract. Results showed good antidiarrheal effect in all three
formulations but the cashew leaf extract enriched with zinc exhibited the best antidiarrheal activity. (35)
Cytoprotective / Testes of STZ-Induced Diabetic Rats / Improved Spermatogenesis: Study
evaluated the protective effects of methanolic leaf extract on testes of STZ-induced diabetic rats. Results
showed significant increases in levels of testosterone, FSH and LH. AOLE improved the structural
integrity of the testes, promoted spermatogenesis, and improved the profile of reproductive
hormones.(36)
Anti-Hyperglycemic / Beta Cell Regeneration: Study of methanolic extract in streptozotocin-induced
diabetes in male Wistar rats showed reduction in hyperglycemia and regeneration of beta cells. (37)
Hypotensive / Cardio-Inhibitory Effects: Study evaluated the effects of A. occidentale extract (ANOE)
on cardiovascular parameters in animal models. ANOE bark extract produced significant dose-
dependent decrease in blood pressure of previously normotensive rabbits. On isolated rat heart
preparations, the ANOE induced negative inotropic and chronotropic effects. (40)
Antidiabetic / Inner Bark: Study evaluated the hypoglycemic effect of inner bark extract of Anacardium
occidentale in normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Alloxan-diabetic rats showed significant
reduction in plasma glucose after treatment with ethanolic extract fractions. (41)
Antimicrobial / Leaves / Periodontal Disease: Study evaluated the antimicrobial effect of A.
occidentale leaf extract on Porphyromonas gingivalis and Prevotella intermedia. Results showed efficient
antimicrobial activity and suggest potential for utilization in the preparation of chemical plaque control
formulations. (42)
Antidepressant / Leaves: Study evaluated the antidepressant-like effects of Anacardium occidentale
leaves in the mouse Forced Swim Test and Tail Suspension Tests. Results showed significantly
decreased immobility periods in a dose dependent manner in both TST and FST. The antidepressant
activity was probably mediated through interaction with adrenergic, dopaminergic, serotonergic and
GABAergic systems. (43)
Haemostatic / Stem Bark: Study evaluated a methanolic bark extract for possible haemostatic effect in
an albino rat model. Results showed a significant decrease in bleeding time, prothrombin time, clotting
time, and activated PTT in a dose dependent manner. There was also a significant increase in platelet
count (p<0.05). (44)
Hypotensive / Anti-Curare Effect: A 1987 thesis evaluated the possible hypotensive and anticurare
effect of Anacardium occidentale. Results showed a hypotensive effect attributed to adrenergic and
serotonergic mechanisms. AO exerted an anticurare effect on the curarized skeletal muscle, an effect
probably mediated through the presence of potassium. Further research was suggested to ascertain the
mechanism of hypotensive and anticurare effect. (45)
Availability
Wildcrafted.
Small and large scale commercial production.
Essential oil in the cybermarket.
Last Update January 2016

Kintsay
Apium graveolens L.
CELERY
Fan qin cai

Apium celleri Gaertn. Apyo (Tag.)
Apium decumbens Eckl. & Zeyh. Guichae (Tag.)
Apium dulce Mill. Kinchai (Tag.)
Apium graveolens Linn. Kintsay (Tag.)
Apium integrilobum Hayata Quichay (Tag.)
Apium lobatum Gilib. [Invalid] Celery (Engl.)
Apium lusitanicum Mill.
Apium maritimum Salisb.
Apium palustre Thore
Apium rapaceum Mill.
Apium vulgare Bubani
Carum graveolens (L.) Koso-Pol.
Celeria graveolens (L.) Britton
Selinum graveolens (L.) E.H.L.Krause
Seseli graveolens (L.) Scop.
Sium apium Roth
Sium graveolens (L.) Vest
Apium graveolens L. is an accepted name The Plant List

ARMENIAN: Lakhod garos.
AZERBAIJANI: Karaviz.
BENGALI : Chanu, Chiluri, Randhuni.
CHINESE: Qin, Fan qin cai, Ch'in-nst'ai
CROATIAN: Celer.
CZECH: Celer.
DANISH: Strandselleri, Vild selleri.
DUTCH: Bladselderij, Groene selder.
FINNISH: Ruokaselleri, Selleri.
GERMAN: Echte sellerie, Eppich, Sellerie.
GUJARATI: Ajamoda, Bodi ajamoda.
HEBREW : Carpas reychani, Kerfes rihani, Karpass rehani, Seleri.
HINDI: Ajmud, Bari ajmud.
HUNGARIAN: Zeller.
ITALIAN: Sedano, Sedano comune.
JAPANESE: Oranda mitsuba, Serori.
KOREAN: Sel-reo-ri, Sel-reo-ri si-deu, Selleori, Sellori.
LAOTIAN: Si sang.
LATVIAN: Selerijas.
MALAY: Daun sop, Elderi.
MALTESE: Krafes.
MARATHI: Ajmoda, Bodiajamoda, Ahmud.
NEPALI: Jangali jwanu.
NORWEGIAN: Hageselleri, Selleri.
PERSIAN: Karafs.
POLISH: Seler, Selery zwyczajne.
PORTUGUESE: Aipo, Salsao.
ROMANIAN: Telina.
RUSSIAN: Sel'derei, Selderej.
SANSKRIT : Ajmoda, Ajamoda, Ugragandhika, Vastamoda, Hayagandha, Brahmakoshi.
SLOVAKIAN: Zelerov semen (seeds), Zeler.
SLOVENIAN: Zelena.
SPANISH: Apio, Apio borde, Apio de agua, Api (Catalan).
SWEDISH: Blekselleri, Selleri.
TAMIL: Ajmod.
TELUGU: Ajumoda.
THAI: Khuen chai (Khen chaai), Phak khao puen, Phak puem, Phak puen
TURKISH : Kereviz, Yaban kerevizi.
URDU Ajmod (Ajmud).
VIETNAMESE: Can tay.
Botany
Kintsay is an erect herb, seldom growing over 30 centimeters in height. The Chinese variety has short
stems. Leaves are pinnate, with large, deeply-lobed segments, on long petioles. Peduncles are short,
less than 1 centimeter in length, and borne opposite the leaves. Flowers are borne in umbels, very small,
and greenish white. Fruit is very small, with narrow ridges.
Distribution
- A biennial of Europe and northern Asia which has been cultivated from fairly remote times.
- Introduced in the Philippines.
- Two forms are cultivated in the Philippines: (1) In the lowlands, the small Chinese form, known as
"kinchai," raised extensively by the Chinese and common in the Manila markets. (2) Baguio kind has a
thicker and larger leaf stalk and is blanched, much smaller than the high-grade celery cultivated in
temperate zones.
Properties
- Considered anti-inflammatory, deobstruent, diuretic, resolvent, pectoral, tonic, carminative,
emmenagogue, diuretic, adjunct to purgatives, lithotriptic, stimulant, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac.
- Possible antioxidant.
- In Unani system of medicine, considered stimulant, cardiac tonic, carminative,diuretic and antiseptic.
Constituents
- The plant yields a glucoside, apiin; a volatile oil, mannite and inosite.
- Bulb yields a volatile oil, 0.009%; glutamine; asparagine; tyrosine; mannitol.
- Fruit contains a volatile oil, 2.5-3%; apigenin; protein, 1.3%; choline, linase.
- Volatile oil: d-limonene; a-pinene; cineole; cymene; a-terpineol.
- Seeds are a rich source of phenolic constituents such as flavonoids, anthrons, xanthons and tannins.
- Study yielded two phthalide compounds, 3-n- butylphthalide and sedanenolide. (17)
- The major components of volatile oil were -pinene, camphene, cumene, limonene, -thuyene, -
pinene, -phellendrene, p-cymene, -terpinene, sabinene and terpinolene. (26)
- Study isolated two phthalide compounds, 3-n-butylphthalide and sedaneolide. (34)
- Nutrient analysis of 1 cup diced and raw celery (101.00 grams) yield 16 calories, vitamin K 33%DV,
molybdenum 11%, folate 9%, potassium 8%, fiber 6%, manganese 5%, vitamin B2 5%, pantothenic acid
5%, copper 4%, calcium 4%, vitamin C 4%, vitamin B6 4%, magnesium 3%, vitamin A 3%. (37)
- Proximate analysis yielded 50% moisture in aerial parts and seeds of the plant. Leaves yielded vitamin
C 60.35 mg/100gm; seeds, 1.34 mg/100gm. Elemental analysis of roots yielded K 5100 g/g, P 4099
g/g, Ca 674 g/g, Ni 4.41 g/g, Cd 1.94 g/g, Se 0.41g/g. Maximum K was found in the roots,
followed by stems. Phytochemical screening of seeds yielded steroids, flavonoids, saponins, and
tannins. (38)
Parts used
Entire plant, roots, leaves, seeds.
Uses
Culinary / Nutritional
- Petioles and leaves are used for seasoning local dishes, especially pansit, chop suey, bachoi, etc.
- Excellent source of calcium and iron; contains vitamins A, B, and C.
- Seeds are rich in iron and vitamins, including A, B and C.
- Celery juice before meals as appetite suppressant; after meals as a digestive.
Folkloric
- In the Philippines, plant decoction is used as a diuretic and emmenagogue.
- Poultice of plant with barley meal used as deobstruent and resolvent.
- Used as a tonic and carminative adjunct to purgatives.
- Used as diuretic, lithontriptic and alexipharmic.
- Root used as alterative and diuretic, given in anasarca and colic.
- Antiasthmatic (bronchodilation): Pound seeds, wrap in thin cloth and inhale frequently.
- Used for hypertension, flatulence, indigestion.
- Decoction of seeds for bronchitis and asthma; also for liver and spleen diseases.
- Seeds used as stimulant and cordial.
- Arthritic and rheumatic disorders.
- Seed infusions used for rheumatoid arthritis and gout.
- Celery roots used as aphrodisiac.
- In Unani medicine, considered diuretic and lithotriptic.
- In Mexico, decoction of root used to diminish milk.
Others
Perfumery use: The volatile oil is of value in perfumery, where it is used in combination with various
perfumes, both as fixative and/or as additional scent.
Studies
Hepatoprotective: Hepatoprotective activity
of Apium graveolens and Hygrophila
auriculata against paracetamol and
thioacetamide intoxication in rats: Study
showed both extract of seeds to possess
significant hepatoprotective activity. (1)
Antioxidant / Carbon Tetrachloride-
Induced Oxidative Stress: Effect of celery
(Apium graveolens) extracts on some
biochemical parameters of oxidative stress in
mice treated with carbon tetrachloride: Study
of both extract of roots and leaves are showed
antioxidant activity probably involving
flavonoids and other antioxidant compounds.
(2)
Anti-Toxicity / Apigenin: Pretreatment with
Ag extract effectively alleviated most of the
VPA-induced effects suggesting a protective
role against experimental VPA toxicity.
Apigenin was a major factor of the Ag extract.
(3)
Nematicidal / Antifungal /
Mosquitocidal:Study of AG seeds isolated
and characterized compounds sedanolide,
senkyunolida-N and senkyunolide-J which
showed nematicidal, antifungal, and
mosquitocidal activities. (4)
Mosquito Repellent / G10: (1) A
comparative evaluation of G10, a celery-based
topical mosquito repellent product, with Insect
Block 28 and standard 25% DEET showed
G10 and IB28 exhibited similarly powerful
repellent activities with 100% protection, DEET was effective with 99.68% protection. (2) Study showed
AG offers a potential against Ae. aegypti, particularly in its markedly repellent effect.
Antipyretic: Antipyretic effect of celery (Apium graveolens) extracts in mice: Study showed extracts of
celery leaf decreased the pyrogenic effect of 12% yeast suspension. (5)
Essential Oil / Cercaricidal: Essential oil of the fresh aerial parts of Ag at its flowering stage yielded:
a- and B-pinene, myrcene, limonene, cis-B-ocimene, g-terpinene, cis-allo-ocimene, trans-farnesene,
humulene, apiol, B-selinene, senkyunolide and neocnidilide. Study showed a cercaricidal and
chemotactic effect. (6)
Hypolipidemic: Study of the ethanol extract of A. graveolens in adult male albino rats showed
significant decrease of total cholesterol, trigylcerides and LDL, and a significant increase in HDL
cholesterol. (7)
Hypolipidemic / No Hypoglycemic Effect: Study on the intraperitoneal effects of AG on serum
glucose and lipid levels of diabetic rats showed no significant hypoglycemic effect but could possibly
lead to appropriate changes in blood lipid profiles. (8)
Antinociceptive / Anti-Inflammatory: Study of the aqueous and hexane extracts of AG showed both
fractions exhibited remarkable anti-inflammatory effect supporting is traditional use in diseases
associated with inflammation. (10)
Hepatoprotective / Anti-Inflammatory: Methanolic extract of A. graveolens seeds tested against Di-
(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) induced hepatotoxicity in rats showed hepatoprotective activity with a
significant recovery of biochemical parameters. (12)
Learning / Memory Benefits in Diabetic Rats: Study showed chronic oral administration of AG could
enhance consolidation and recall capability of stored information only in diabetic animals and did not
affect spatial memory of diabetic animals. (13)
Anti-Mosquito Potential / Aedes aegypti: A crude seed extract of Apium graveolens was investigated
for anti-mosquito potential, including larvicidal, adulticidal, and repellent activities against Aedes aegypti,
the vector of dengue hemorrhagic fever. Results showed larvicidal activity against fourth instar larvae,
slight adulticidal activity and repellency. (15)
Anticancer / Apoptosis Induction / Cytotoxic Activities: Study evaluated a methanolic extract of
Apium graveolens seeds for antiproliferative effect in vitro on two human cell lines (DLA, Dalton's
lymphoma ascites; L929, Mouse lung fibroblast). The methanolic extract of seed showed cytotoxicity and
provoked DNA fragmentation, a sign of induced apoptosis. Results suggest a potential candidate for an
anticancer drug. (18)
Vasorelaxant / Antihypertensive Effect: Study investigated the vasorelaxant effect of organic
extracts from Apium graveolens. All the extracts caused concentration-dependent relaxation in
precontracted aortic rings, attributed to secondary metabolites and probably mediated by
calcium antagonism. Results suggest an ideal source for lead compounds to design potential
vasorelaxants and antihypertensive agents. (19)
Adaptogenic Activity: Study investigated the adaptogenic activity of ethanolic and aqueous extracts
of Apium graveolens in experimentally induced stress models in mice and rats. The extracts showed
increased increase in anoxia stress tolerance time and swimming endurance time. Results showed the
ethanolic extract with greater adaptogenic property than the aqueous extract. (20)
Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitory and Antixoxidant Activity: Study of a methanolic seed
extract of Apium graveolens showed significant in vitro ACE inhibitory potency and strong antioxidant
activity. (21)
Carbon Tetrachloride induced Hematotoxicity: Study investigated the role of aqueous extract of A.
graveolens seeds against hematotoxicity induced by CCl4 in female rats. Results showed two-week
consumption to be safe at tested doses, and caused improvement in hematological parameters and
protection of hematopoietic cells from the damaging effects of CCl4. (22)
Carbon Tetrachloride induced Hematotoxicity: A crude ethanol extract of seed yielded phototoxic
compounds which offer potentials activity against Aedes aegypti, particularly through toxic and growth
disruptions activities. Results suggest a promising candidate for commercial bioinsecticide
development.
(23)
Nephrocalcinosis / Increase Urinary Ca++ Excretion: Study evaluated the effect of A. graveolens in
reducing calcium deposits from renal parenchyma in rabbit models with induced nephrocalcinosis by a
large dose of oxalic acid. Results showed significant reduction in calcium deposition in the renal
parenchyma, a significant diuretic effect that accentuates urinary calcium excretion. (24)
Effect on Protease Inhibitor (Ritonavir) Induced Dyslipidemia: Study investigated the protective
effect of an ethanolic extract of A. graveolens (celery seeds) on protease inhibitor induced dyslipidemia
in mice. Results suggest the ethanolic extract showed potential for improving the lipid profile ad liver
lipids deranged by ritonavir, with a efficacy approaching fenofibrate. (25)
Antiulcerogenic / Antibacterial: Study investigated the antiulcerogenic and antibacterial activities of
Apium graveolens extracts of aerial parts. Results showed dose-dependent inhibition of gastric lesions,
similar to omeprazole. The essential oil was strongly inhibitory against E. coli and moderately inhibitory
against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. (26)
Effect on Reproductive Hormones: Study evaluated a hydroalcoholic extract of leaves on the
pituitary-gonad axis in young male mice of Balb/C. Results showed a dose-dependent negative effect of
celery extracts in the pituitary-gonad axis in male mice, with significant decrease in FSH and decrease in
LH and testosterone concentrations. (27)
Insecticidal: Musca domestica, the housefly, breeding in human and animal excreta and a wide
variety of domestic rubbish, can act as a vector for many diseases .Study showed an Apium graveolens
extract to have insecticidal activity against Musca domestica. A. graveolens contains flavonoid and
saponin believed to have potential as insecticide. (28)
Hypotensive / Cardioinhibitory: Study evaluated aqueous and ethanol extracts of celery for effects
on mean blood pressure of anesthetized rabbits and contractility of isolated rat atria. Results showed
hypotensive, negative inotropic and chronotropic effects, which could be partially mediated through
stimulation of muscarinic receptors. The ethanol extract exhibited greater inhibitory effect than the
aqueous extract. (30)
Antibacterial / Cardioinhibitory: Study of water and alcoholic extracts of leaves in vitro showed
antibacterial activity against pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus. Findings showed significant
antibacterial, diuretic and attenuating effect in correcting the urinary system affection and damage
resulting from intraperitoneally induced Staphylococcus aureus infection. (31)
Antiulcer / Antisecretory / Cytoprotective: Study evaluated an ethanol extract for antigastric ulcer
activity using various experimental gastric ulcer models in rats. Pretreatment with celery extract
produced dose dependent reduction in all experimentally induced gastric lesions, with ability to replenish
depleted levels of gastric wall mucus and gastric mucosal non-protein sulfhydryl, with increase in gastric
mucosal malondialdehyde. Results suggest AG extrat significantly protects gastric mucosa and
suppresses basal gastric secretion, possibly through its antioxidant potential. (32)
Protection Against DOX-Induced Toxicities / Leaves and Stalks: Study showed potential protective
effect of A. graveolens against cumulative DOX-induced cardiac, hepatic, and hematologic toxicity in
male rabbits probably through a mechanism related to direct and indirect antioxidant effects. (33)
Increased Spermatogenesis / Leaves: Study evaluated the effects of hydroalcoholic extract on
histological properties of testis and number of sexual cells in male rats. Results showed increased
spermatogenesis in male rats, with no destructive effects on testicular tissue. (35)
Increased Spermatogenesis / Leaves: Study showed a hydroalcoholic extract of celery improved the
destructive effects of propylene glycol on the testes and sexual cells. Celery is a strong antioxidant due
to its flavonoids, and antioxidants can directly or indirectly impact on the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular
axis to increase sperm count and fertility. Findings suggest celery can be considered a medicinal herb
for infertility. (36) Study evaluated the effect of an aqueous extract of leaves on testicular tissue and
spermatogenesis in healthy male rats. Results showed a remarkable increase in seminiferous tubules
diameter, testes volume, and number of spermatogonia, primary spermatocytes and spermatozoa.
Results indicate celery leaf extract may improve the spermatogenesis process and sperm fertility
parameters. (40)
Protective Against Doxorubicin-Induced Toxic Effects: Study evaluated the potential protective
effect of A. graveolens against cumulative DOX-induced toxic effects to the heart, liver, and blood
components in male rabbits. The cardiotoxic, hepatotoxic, and hematotoxic effects of DOX may be
attributed to the combination of free radical oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation. Results showed a
protective effect through a direct and indirect antioxidant property, and suggests a supportive care agent
during anticancer treatment. (41)
Mosquito Repellent Activity: Study evaluated the mosquito repellency of ethanolic preparation of
hexane-extracted A. graveolens and compared with 15 commercial mosquito repellents including the
widely used DEET. Commercial repellents, except DEET formulations, showed lower repellency than
that of A. graveolens extract. Applied on human skin under field conditions, the extract plus 5% vanillin
showed strong repellent action against a wide range of mosquito species belonging to various genera.
Apium graveolens is a potential candidate for development of a commercial repellent that may be an
alternative to conventional synthetic chemicals, especially in community vector control applications. (42)
Availability
Wild-crafted.
Small scale commercial production.
Last Update April 2016

Labanos
Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. sativus (L.) Domin
RADI8H
Lai fu

Raphanus gayanum Fisch. & C.A.Mey. Labanos (Tag.)
Raphanus acanthiformis Morel ex L.Sisley Rabanos (C. Bis., Span.)
Raphanus acanthiformis J.M. Morel ex Sasaki Radish (Engl.)
Raphanus candidus Vorosch.
Raphanus chinensis Mill.
Raphanus gayanus (Fisch. & C.A.Mey) G.Don
Raphanus macropodus H.Lv.
Raphanus niger Mill.
Raphanus orbicularis Mill.
Raphanus radicula Pers.
Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. sativus (L.) Domin
Raphanus rotundus Mill.
Raphanus sativus Linn.
Raphanus taquetii H.Lv.
Raphanus sativus L. is a synonym of Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. sativus (L.) Domin. The Plant List
Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. sativus (L.) Domin is an accepted name The Plant List

ARABIC: Fijil, Fujl.
BENGALI: Mul.
BURMESE: Monla
CHINESE: Luo bo, Lai fu, Lai-fu-tzu ts-ao, Ou zhou luo bo.
CROATIAN: Rotkva, Rotkvica.
CZECH: edkvika.
DANISH: Raeddike.
DUTCH: Radijs.
FINNISH: Retiisi, Retikka, Ruokaretikka.
FRENCH: Radis.
GERMAN: Rettich, Garten-Rettich, Radieschen.
GREEK: Rapani.
HEBREW: Tznonit.
HINDI: Mulla, Mooli, Muli, Ml.
HUNGARIAN: Retek.
ICELANDIC: Raefla.
ITALIAN: Rafano, Ravanello.
JAPANESE: (Yas) Hatsuka daikon, Radeisshu.
KHMER: Chhaay thaaw.
KOREAN: Mu.
LAOTIAN: Kaad khaaw.
MALAY: Lobak.
MARATHI: Mlaka.
NEPALESE: Mulo.
NORWEGIAN: Reddik.
PERSIAN: Torobcheh.
POLISH: Rzodkiew, Rzodkiewka.
PORTUGUESE: Rabanete.
PUNJABI: Ml.
RUSSIAN: ed'ka ogorodnaia, Red'ka posevnaia.
SANSKRIT: Muulaka.
SERBIAN: Rotkvica.
SLOVANIAN: Retkvica.
SPANISH: Rbano, Rabanito.
SWEDISH: Rdisa.
TAMIL: Muulam, Mullangki.
THAI: Hua phak kat khao, Hua chai to,
URDU: Ml.
VIETNAMESE: C ci , C dn , Radi.
Botany
Labanos is a coarse, annual crop plant. Roots are fleshy, pungent and variable in size and form. Leaves
are roughly hairy, the lower ones lyrate. Flowers are variable, about 1.5 centimeters long, usually white
or lilac, with purple veins, sepals erect, lateral ones saccate at the base. Pod is indehiscent, lanceolate,
cylindrical, and 2 to 2.6 centimeters in length, and terminates in a long beak. Seeds are separated by
pith.
Distribution
- Widely cultivated in the Philippines at all altitudes.
Properties
Considered anthelmintic, antifungal, antibacterial, antiscorbutic, diuretic, laxative, tonic, carminative,
corrective, stomachic, cholagogue, lithotriptic, emmenagogue.
The juice of the fresh root is considered powerfully antiscorbutic.
Roots considered carminative and corrective.
Flowers considered becnic and cholagogue.
Seeds considered diuretic, laxative, stimulant, and lithotriptic.
In Iranian traditional medicine, seeds are considered diuretic carminative, anti-fever, antitussive and
gastric tonic. Study yielded ten isothiocyanates, seven aliphatic hydrocarbons and some volatile
substances.
Constituents
Phytochemical study yielded triterpenes, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponin and coumarins.
Study for volatile constituents yielded 10 isothicyanates, seven aliphatic hydrocarbons and some other
volatile substances.
Root yields raphanol, rettichol, volatile oil, methylmercaptan, vitamins B1, sinapin and oxydase.
Seeds yield fatty oil (30%), ash (3.5%), volatile oil, sulphuric acid, erucic acid and C8H15NS2.
Methanol extraction yielded two new compounds identified as -sitosterol and 1-O-(-D-
glucopyranosyl)-(2S, 3S, 4R, 8E)-2-[(2'R)-2'-hydroxyltetracos-15'-enoylamino]-8-octa-decene-1, 3, 4-
triol. (28)
Fractionation of methanol extract of seeds yielded seven 4-methylthio-butanyl derivatives, viz., sinapoyl
desulfoglucoraphenin (1), (E)-5-(methylsulfinyl)pent-4-enoxylimidic acid methyl ester (2), and (S)-5-
([methylsulfinyl)methyl]pyrrolidine-2-thione (3), together with four known compounds, 5-(methylsulfinyl)-4-
pentenenitrile (4), 5-(methylsulfinyl)-pentanenitrile (5), sulforaphene (6), and sulforaphane (7). (see study
below) (31)
Fresh vegetable yields 91.00% moisture; seeds on extraction with petroleum ether yield albuminoids
18.00%, soluble carbohydrates 52.66%, woody fiber 9.34%, and ash 16.00%. (Nadkarni, 1954) (32)
Parts utilized
Whole plant.
When seeds are ripe, harvest the whole plant, sun-dry, remove the seeds and dry again. Crush on use.
Roots can also be sun-dried for use.
Uses
Edibility / Nutrition
- Leaves, flowers, roots, and seeds are
edible.
- A popular, common, and inexpensive
vegetable, eaten raw or cooked.
- Young leaves are also eaten raw or
cooked.
- Excellent source of iron, ascorbic acid,
folic acid, and potassium; a good source of
vitamin B6, riboflavin, magnesium, copper
and calcium.
Folkloric
For diarrhea: boil the fresh leaves to
concentrated decoction and drink.
Juice of leaves increases the flow of urine
and promotes bowel movements.
Juice of fresh leaves also used as
laxative; also for dropsy and general
anasarca.
Root considered stimulant; also used for
piles and stomach pains.
Juice used to expel wind from the bowels.
Juice of fresh roots considered
antiscorbutic.
Roots are crushed and applied locally as
dressing or poultice for burns, scalds,
ecchymoses, or fetid or smelly feet.
Decoction of root used for fevers.
Decoction of roots used to bring out the rash in eruptive fevers.
Coughs: Decoction of flowers; or, boil 6 to 15 gms seed preparation to decoction and drink.
Seeds promote the flow of urine, bowel movements, and menstruation.
Seeds used for cancer of the stomach.
For patients with edema, bloated belly (ascites), pale yellowish face, and oliguria: used dried root
preparation with citrus rind preparation (5:1 proportion). Boil to a concentrated decoction and drink.
In Mexico, black radish has been used for treatment of gallstones and for decreasing blood lipids.
In India, plant used as purgative, stimulant, antiscorbutic, diuretic and lithotryptic. Roots used for piles,
gastric pains, dysuria and strangury. Seeds used as expectorant, diuretic, laxative, and carminative. (32)
Others
Repellent
Studies
Histaminergic / Spasmolytic: Pharmacological basis for the gut stimulatory activity of Raphanus
sativus leaves: A study on the crude extract of RS leaves showed the presence of a histaminergic
component plus a weak spasmolytic factor supporting its traditional use for constipation. (1)
Toxicity Report: Severe Toxic Hepatitis Provoked by Squeezed Black Radish (Raphanus Sativus)
Juice - Case Report: Cited in phytotherapy literature as a plant with hepatoprotective properties, this
reports a severe toxic hepatitis from use of black radish extract to dissolve bile duct stone. (2)
Hepatoprotective: Studies on Raphanus sativus as Hepatoprotective Agents (Thesis): Results showed
the ethanolic extract of RS contain hepatoprotective constituents. (3)
Hepatoprotective: Study of crude powder of Raphanus sativus leaves reduced the risk of liver damage
by paracetamol.
Antiurolithiatic Activity / Diuretic: Study of aqueous extract of the bark of RS on rats showed a
significant decrease in the weight of stones. Study also showed an increase in 24 hour urine volume
compared to control. (4)
Water Phenol Decontamination: Decontamination of Water Polluted with Phenol Using Raphanus
sativus Root: Plant materials have been used in decontamination of water polluted with phenolic
compounds. The study used RS roots (root juice and pieces). Results showed good phenol removal from
aqueous solutions with cut R sativus root and juice. (5)
Antioxidant / Lipid Peroxidation Inhibition: Study of methanol extract of RS showed inhibition of lipid
peroxidation in vivo and in vitro, providing protection by strengthening antioxidants like glutathione and
catalase. Results suggest inclusion of the plant in every day diet may be beneficial. (6)
Phytochemicals / Toxicity Study / Hepatoprotective Activity: Study of showed carbon tetrachloride
induced hepatotoxicity was reduced by the plant as showed by inhibition of increased liver enzyme
activities and bilirubin concentration together with histopath changes. Toxicity study showed no adverse
effect on livers. Phytochemical studies yielded triterpenes, alklaoids, flavanoids, tannins, saponins and
coumarins. (7)
Phytochemicals / Gastroprotective: Study of the freshly squeezed radish juice for its anti-gastric
ulcer activity in experimental models showed it possessed gastroprotective potential related to mucus
secretion stimulation and an increase in nonproteinsulfhydryl (NP-SH) concentration, probably due to
prostaglandin-inducing abilities mediated through antioxidant activity. Phytochemicals study yielded
flavonoids, anthocyanins and sulfurated constituents. (8)
Antioxidant / Choleretic: Study of extract from radish sprouts in rats showed antioxidant properties
and significantly induced bile flow. (10)
Anti-Diabetic: Study showed that the sprouts of Japanese radish has the potential to alleviate
hyperglycemia and may serve i the primary prevention of diabetes mellitus. (13)
Spasmogenic Effect: In vitro study was done to evaluate the effects of crude extracts of roots on
isolated rat trachea. Results showed significant cholinergic spasmogenic effects.
Hepatoprotective / Carbon Tetrachloride Toxicity: Study of a crude extract of seed showed
hepatoprotective effect against liver damage induced by CCl4. (16)
Antilithiasic / Hypolipidemic Effect: Study evaluated the effect of juice squeezed from black radish
root in cholesterol gallstones and serum lipids in mice. A lithogenic diet induced cholesterol gallstones
and increased cholesterol and triglyceride levels. Juice treatment caused significant eradication of
cholesterol gallstones, together with decrease in cholesterol and triglycerides., with an increase in
HDL. (17)
Antimicrobial / Root Juice: Study evaluated R. sativus root juice for antimicrobial potential against five
bacterial strains, viz. Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Enterococcus faecalis, and Escherichia. Results showed considerable antimicrobial activity against all
tested microorganisms. (18)
Antibacterial / Seed Extract: Study evaluated the potentiality of different solvent extracts against
various pathogenic strains, viz. E coli, K pneumonia, P vulgaris, P aeruginosa, Shigella sonnie, S typhi
and S paratyphi. The highest activity was seen in ethanol and methanol extracts. The effect could be
secondary to extracted active compounds like flavonoids, phenolic compounds, saponins, and other
secondary metabolites. (19)
Anti-Inflammatory / Root Extract: Study evaluated the effect of a root extract on anti-inflammatory
activity in rats using a carrageenan induced paw edema model. The hydroalcoholic extract showed
potent anti-inflammatory activity which may be due to the presence of flavonoids, phytosterols, and
tannins and also inhibition of inflammatory mediators ( histamine, serotonin, prostaglandins, bradykinin,
substance P, etc.)
(20)
Hepatoprotective / CCl4-Induced Toxicity: Study evaluated the hepatoprotective activity of radish
enzyme extract in vitro and in vivo test. Results showed the enzyme extract can significantly diminish
hepatic damage by toxic agents such as tacrine or CCl4. (21) Study of crude extract of seeds in doses of
600 and 800 mg/kg may be protective against liver damage caused by CCl4. (22)
Antidiabetic / Root Juice: Study of R. sativus root juice for glycemic attributes showed good
hypoglycemic potential coupled with antidiabetic efficacy. (23)
Laxative / Leaf: Study evaluated aqueous extract and fresh juice for laxative action using wistar albino
rats in various experimental models such as loperamide induced constipation, laxative activity test,
gastrointestinal motility test and water and electrolyze secretion test. Results showed significant laxative
activity at higher dose of 750 mg/kg. (24)
Anti-Inflammatory / Leaf and Root Juice: Study evaluated freshly squeezed leaf and root juice in for
anti-inflammatory activity in albino rats. While both leaf juice and root juice significantly reduced
carrageenan and formalin induced paw edema in rats, the root juice produced more significant anti-
inflammatory effects in both acute and chronic models of inflammation. However, the effect was less than
standard drug diclofenac sodium. (25)
Antinociceptive / Roots: Study evaluated the antinociceptive potential of methanolic extract of roots in
intraperitoneally administered acetic acid induced pain model in mice. Results showed significant
antinociceptive activity, with the highest extract dose nearly comparable to the highest dose of aspirin.
(26)
Triglyceride Effect: Study of aqueous extract showed lowering of plasma triglyceride, but had no effect
on plasma glucose or cholesterol. (27)
- Amylase and - Glucosidase Inhibitory Activity: Study of ethanolic extract and fractions showed
dose dependent inhibition of -amylase and -glucosidase enzyme, exhibiting lower inhibitory activity
than acarbose. Results suggest potential for antidiabetic therapy and development of medicinal
preparations, nutraceuticals, and function foods for diabetes. (29)
Glucocerebroside / Anti-Cancer: Methanol extraction yielded two compounds determined to be 1-O-
(-D-glucopyranosyl)-(2S, 3S, 4R, 8E)-2-[(2'R)-2'-hydroxyl-tetracos-15'-enoyl amino]-8-octa-decene- 1, 3,
4-triol (glucocerebroside). The glucocerebroside could inhibit the growth of BEL-7402 cancer cells and
induce apoptosis in these cells. (30)
4-Methylthio-butanyl Derivatives / Seeds / Anti-Cancer / Anti-Inflammatory: Study evaluated seed
extracts for anti-inflammatory and antitumor activities. Fractionation yielded seven 4-methylthio-butanyl
derivatives. Compound 1 (sinapoyl desulfoglucoraphenin) inhibited nitric oxide production. All
compounds showed antiproliferative activities against four human tumor cell lines. (see constituents
above) (31)
Cardioprotective / Antioxidant: Study evaluated water and ethanolic extracts of fruit powder for
cardioprotective activity in Cyclosporin-induced ischemia in rabbits. The powder and aqueous extract
significantly decreased (P<0.001) the uric acid and activity of enzymes (SGOT and LDH) in treated
rabbits. Both fruit powder and aqueous extract showed dose-dependent in vitro free radical scavenging
effect on DPPH assay. (33)
Antifertility Effects: Study on R. sativus showed antifertility activity. In male rates, study showed a
decrease in sperm count, motility, and weight of testis and epididymis. In female rats, it disturbed the
estrous cycle and decreased the number of implantation, average number of pups delivered, average
weight of the pups, number of corpus lutea, and weight of ovary. Results suggest a potential as
antifertility agent. (34)
Phytoremediation / Copper: Based on bioaccumulation coefficient (BAC) analysis, mustard and
radish can be considered high accumulator plants for Cu. Radish has been shown to produce 10 times
more biomass than the other three plant studies, and accumulation of copper was higher in the root
tissue of radish and mustard. (35)
Analgesic / Anti-Inflammatory / Leaves: Study evaluated the analgesic (hot plate and tail immersion)
and anti-inflammatory (carrageenan) activities of R. sativus leaves in animal model. Results showed
significant (p<0.05) dose-dependent analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities. (36)
Phytoremediation / Lead: Pot culture experiments using radish investigated lead (Pb) phytotoxic
effects on antioxidant enzymes and other early warming biomarkers of soil Pb exposure. Results showed
radish is a hyperaccumulator plant that can concentrate heavy metals in different parts, with potential use
for remediation of polluted areas. (37)
Anticarcinogenic / Galactan / Colon Cancer: Study evaluated the anti-carcinogenic effect of
Raphanus sativus in combating chemically (DMH) induced colon cancer. Results showed RS
significantly reduced serum CEA (p<0.01) and CA19-9 (p<0.01) as evidence of anticarcinogenic
effect. Results showed the galactan polysaccharide of RS has pronounced cytotoxic effects on colon
cancer cell line and might be a suitable candidate as chemopreventive and adjuvant therapy for colon
cancer.(38)
Availability
Wild-crafted.
Commercial cultivation; ubiquitous in market places.

Langka
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.
JACKFRUIT
Mu bo luo

Artocarpus brasiliensis Ortega Lanka (Ilk.)
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Langka (Ilk., Tag., Bis.)
Artocarpus maximus Blanco Nangka (Bis. Tag., Ibn.)
Artocarpus nanca Noronha [Invalid] Nanka (Bis., Sul.)
Artocarpus philippensis Lam. Jack fruit (Engl.)
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. is an accepted name The Plant List

ASSAMESE: Konthal, Konto phol, Kontok phol, Kontoki.
BENGALI: Kathal.
CHINESE: Shu bo luo, Niu du zi guo, Bo luo mi, Mu bo luo.
DANISH: Jackfrugttrae.
DUTCH: Nangka.
FRENCH: Jacquier.
GERMAN: Indischer Brotfruchtbaum, Jackfrucht, Jackfruchtbaum.
GUJARATI: Phannasa.
HINDI: Cakki, Katahal, Kathal, Kanthal.
ITALIAN: Falso albero del pane.
JAPANESE: Nagami pannoki, Paramitsu.
KANNADA: Halasina hannu, Halasu, Panasero.
KHMER: Khnor.
KOREAN: Baramil
LAOTIAN: Mai mi, Mak mi, Mi.
MALAY: Nangka (Indonesia, Bali), Nangka bubor, Keledang (Timor).
MALAYALAM: Chakka.
MARATHI: Phanas.
NEPALESE: Rukh kutaherr.
ORIYA: Panasa.
PERSIAN: Derakhte nan.
PORTUGUESE: Jaca.
SANSKRIT: Panasah, Panasam.
SINHALESE: Jak, Kos.
SPANISH: Arbol del pan, Fruta del pobre, Jaca, Jaka, Jaqueiro.
SWAHILI: Fenesi.
SWEDISH: Jacktrad.
TAMIL: Palaa, Palavu.
THAI: Khanun, Makmee, Maak laang.
VIETNAMESE: Mit.
Botany
Langka is a smooth tree reaching a height of 8 to 15 meters. Leaves are alternate, leathery, elliptic-
oblong to obovate, entire or sometimes 3-lobed, 7 to 15 centimeters long, the apex and base both
pointed. Female heads are embraced by spathaceous, deciduous, stipular sheaths, 5 to
8 centimeters long. Sepals are two. Spike is 5 to 15 centimeters long. Fruit is green to greenish-yellow
when ripe, fleshy, hanging on short stalks from the main stem or from large branches in old trees, oblong
with pyramidal projections, 25 to 60 centimeters long. Seeds are numerous, oblong, 2.5 to 4 centimeters
long. The testa is thin, coriaceous, surrounded by an edible luscious pulp.
Distribution
- Cultivated throughout the Philippines at low and medium altitudes.
- In some regions, spontaneous.
- Prehistoric introduction from Malaya or tropical Asia.
- Also occurs in India to Malaya, and is now cultivated in most tropical countries.
Constituents
Jackfruit contains morin
and a crystalline
constituent,
cyanomaclurin.
Cyanomaclurin reported
to contain a phoroglucinol
group and is probably
isomeric with catechins.
Phytochemical screening
yielded alkaloids, tannins,
phenolic compounds,
flavonoids, and saponins.
Chemical analysis yields
moisture 28.50%, sugars
(saccharose, fructose,
glucose) 5.48%, fixed oil
6.64%, essential oil
0.15%, other extracts
22.39%, protein 18.85%,
cellulose 14.47%,
inorganic matter 3.52%.
Pulp (lamukot) of the fruit
contains vitamin C.
Good source of provitamin A
carotenoids.
Of the components of essential oil,
piperonal is noted.
Study yielded a new flavonone, a
new prenylflavone, a novel phenolic
compound, heterophylol and nine
known flavonoids.
Study of seeds showed a high
carbohydrate content; oil content
was 11.39%. Elemental analysis
yielded high potassium content of
2470.00 ppm, followed by sodium,
magnesium and calcium. (27)
Evaluation of ethyl acetate extract
of leaves yielded ursolic content of
376.5 mg/g. Elemental analysis
yielded calcium 39.4%, potassium
29.6%, magnesium 2.06^, iron
0.99%, sulphur 1.83%, zinc 0.08%,
strontium 0.23%, manganese
0.13%, and aluminum 0.0005%.
(see study below) (29)
Chemical analysis of A. heterophyllus wood yielded: ashes 15.5 g/kg, sodium nitrate-alcohol cellulose
467.6 g/kg, holo-cellulose 709.8 g/kg, pentosan 212.6 g/kg, acid-soluble lignin 44.9 g/kg, acid insoluble
lignin 237.4 g/kg, organic solvent soluble lignin 248.3 g/kg. Phenolic hydroxyl content of organic solvent
yielded soluble lignin 0.25 mmol/g. Trace element contents yielded: Fe 959 g/ g, Mn 9.37 g/g, Cu 5.60
g/g, Zn 17.1 g/g, Ca 2.26 mg/g, Mg 433g/g, Na 28.1g/g, K 1.05 mg/g, Al 46.2 g/g, and Pb 0.603
g/g. (31)
- Nutritonal assesment of a jackfruit meal (flesh/80% available carbohydrate and seeds/20%
carbohydrate) showed a high moisture content of boiled jackfruit flesj (82% FW); seeds yieled 4.7%
proteine (FW), 11.1% dietary fiber (FW) and 8% resistant starch (FW). The jackfruit meal yielded a GI
(glycemic load) of 75. (see study below) (22)
Properties
Root is considered antiasthmatic.
Ripe fruit is sweet, cooling,
demulcent, nutritive, laxative,
aphrodisiac.
Unripe fruit is acrid, astringent,
carminative and tonic.
Pulp or flesh surrounding the seed
is aromatic, cooling and tonic.
Seeds are sweet, diuretic,
aphrodisiac.
Bark is considered sedative.
Parts utilized
Leaves, fruit, bark, seeds
Uses
Nutrition / Edibility
- The young fruit is also a
vegetable.
- Fruit has a high carbohydrate
content.
- Seeds are very rich in starch, but a poor source of calcium and iron.
- The pulp or flesh (lamukot) surrounding the seeds is rich, yellow, sweet and aromatic, rich in vitamin C,
eaten fresh or cooked or preserved.
- The seeds are boiled or roasted.
- The unripe fruit can be pickled.
- In India, the unripe fruit used in the preparation of pickles.
Folkloric
Skin diseases, ulcers and wounds: Ash of burnt leaves applied on wounds and ulcers as cicatrizant.
Burnt ashes of leaves (preferably fresh) with coconut oil, and as ointment, also used for ulcers and
wounds.
Diarrhea, fever and asthma: A decoction of the root (preferably chopped into small pieces before
boiling) of the tree, three to four cups daily.
Glandular swelling and snake bites: Apply the milky juice of the tree.
When mixed with vinegar, it is especially beneficial for glandular swelling and abscesses, promoting
absorption and suppuration.
Leaves used for fever, wounds, abscesses,
The ripe fruit is laxative; in large quantities, it produces diarrhea.
The roasted seeds believed to have aphrodisiac properties.
Pulp envelopes or arils of seeds considered cooling, tonic and nutritious China.
In India, the leaves and bark of Artocarpus heterophyllus and Mangifera indica, boiled in water, are
used as postpartum bath, to rejuvenate the mothers after delivery.
Starch of seeds given in bilious colic.
In China, roasted seeds used as aphrodisiac.
Root extract used for asthma , fever and diarrhea.
Bark is considered sedative.
In Sri Lanka and India, extracts of mature leaves used for treatment of diabetes.
In China, pulp of fruit also considered useful in suppressing alcohol in the body.
In Indian medicine, bark used in fever, boils, wounds, skin diseases.
In Mauritius, used for diabetes.
In Ayurvedic medicine, hot water extract of mature leaves used for treatment of diabetes.
Others
Lambanog additive: Fruit used to flavor and age lambanog; locals believe it increases alcohol
potency.
Adhesive: Tree latex is used as bird lime; and when heated makes a good cement for china.
Rope: Bark sometimes used for making rope and cloth.
Dye: Wood has limited use as source of yellow dye.
Studies
Anti-Inflammatory: Study isolated
flavonoids including: 1-cycloartomunin, 2-
cyclomorusin, 3- dihydrocycloartomunin, 4-
dihydroisocycloartomunin, 5- cudraflavone A,
6- cyclocommunin, 7-artomunoxanthone, 8-
cycloheterohyllin, 9- artonin A, 10- artonin-B,
11- artocarpanone, 12- artocarpanone A, 13,
14, 15 -heteroflavanones A, B and C. Many
of the compounds exhibited varying degrees
of antiinflammatory activitiesinhibitory
effects on chemical mediator release from
mast cells, neutrophils and macrophages. (1)
Inhibition of Melanin Biosynthesis /
Artocarpanone: Study showed the extract of
AH to be one of the strongest inhibitor of
tyrosinase activity. Study isolated
Artocarpanone, which inhibited both
mushroom tyrosinase activity and melanin
production in B16 melanoma cells and presents as a potential as a remedy for hyperpigmentation in
human skin. (2)
Inhibition of Melanin Biosynthesis / Melanoma Cells: Structure-Activity Relationship of Prenyl-
Substituted Polyphenols from Artocarpus heterophyllus as Inhibitors of Melanin Biosynthesis in Cultured
Melanoma Cells: Study isolated flavone-based polyphenols which were found to be active inhibitors of
the in vivo melanin biosynthesis in B16 melanoma cells. (3)
Antibacterial: Multibeneficial natural material: Dye from heartwood of Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk:
Material isolated could be used as a direct dye for wool and silk; with antibacterial activity against B.
subtilis, B. cereus, S. aureus, E coli, K pneumonia.
Source of Provitamin A carotenoids: Analysis of carotenoids in ripe jackfruit (Artocarpus
heterophyllus) kernel and study of their bioconversion in rats: Study showed jackfruit to be a good source
of provitamin A carotenoids (not as good as papaya). (5)
Antioxidant activity / Scavenging Activity: Study showed prenylated flavonoid with more antioxidant
than non-prenylated flavonoid. () Study isolated prenylflavones cycloheterophyllin and artonins A and B
which inhibited iron-induced lipid peroxidation and also show radical scavenging activity. (6)
Hypoglycemic / Anti-Diabetic: Screening of traditional antidiabetic medicinal plants of mauritius for
possible -amylase inhibitory effects in vitro: Of several medicinal plants studied in Mauritius, only
Artocarpus heterophyllus significantly inhibited a-amylase activity in vitro indicating that AH could act as
a starch blocker to decrease post-prandial glucose peaks. (7) Study in male Wistar rats showed the
flavonoid fraction of the leaf of AH to have a higher hypoglycemic effect than the sulfonylurea drug
tolbutamide with no significant effects on the liver, kidney and heart. (8) Study of jackfruit extract showed
potential as antidiabetic agent with antioxidant activity and inhibition of hemoglobin glycation lowering
HbA1c. (30)
Sexual Competence Inhibition: Study sought to resolve the conflicting beliefs on the roasted seeds of
AH - its aphrodisiac activity vs the claim that use of the seeds prior to coitus disrupts sexual function.
Study in rats utilizing a seed suspension markedly inhibited libido, sexual arousal, sexual vigor and
performance while also causing mild erectile dysfunction. The results suggest that AH seeds do not have
aphrodisiac activity, at least, in rats.(10)
Cytotoxicity / Anti-Tumor: Study showed the methanol extract to have maximum cytotoxicity on HEp2
cells with cell aggregation, cell rounding and cell death. Results suggest a potential use of the crude
extract from the tegmen of AH as an antitumor agent. (12)
Anti-Inflammatory / Bark: Study of a methanolic extract of A. heterophyllus on a carrageenan-induced
model in albino rats showed dose-dependent anti-inflammatory activity. (13)
Hypoglycemic / Hypolipidemic / Leaves: Study of ethyl acetate fraction of A. heterophyllus leaves in
STZ-induced diabetic rats showed significant lowering of serum glucose, cholesterol and triglyceride
levels. Study concludes the EA fraction contains one or more hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic principles
with a potential for further development for diabetes treatment. (14)
Improved Glucose Tolerance / Type-2 Diabetes: Study showed the extracts of both Artocarpus
heterophyllus and Asteracanthus longifolia significantly improved glucose tolerance in both normal
subjects and diabetic patients.
Hypoglycemic / Hypolipidemic / Antioxidant Pathway: Ethanol and butanol extracts showed
hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects in STZ-diabetic rats through an oxidative pathway that may be
attributed to flavonoid contents. (18)
Jacalin / Seed-Derived Lectin / Immunobiologic Applications: Jacalin, a major lectin protein from
the jackfruit seed has been found strongly mitogenic for human CD4+ T lymphocytes. It has been found
to have diverse applications: as a tool for evaluation of immune status in HIV-1, isolation of hum plasma
glycoproteins, investigation of IgA -nephropathy, and detection of tumors. (19)
Seed Starch Binding Property: Study showed the starch obtained from A. heterophyllus fruit seeds
showed comparable binding properties. (20)
Latex / Protease 48-kDa / Antimicrobial: A protease isolated and purified from crude latex of a
jackfruit tree, designated as antimicrobial protease-48 kDa or AMP48 inhibited the growths of
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC27853 and clinical isolated Candida albicans. (21)
Nutritional Assessment of Jackfruit Meal/ Protease / Antimicrobial: In Sri Lanka, the jackfruit is
consumed either as main meal or supplement. A nutritional assessment of a meal composed of flesh
(80% available carbohydrate) and seeds (20% available carbohydrate) showed it to be a good source of
starch (22%) and dietary fiber, and categorized as a low GI meal. (see contituents above) (22)
Antitumor / Tegmen: Study evaluated crude extracts from the tegmen of Artocarpus heterophyllus for
in vitro antitumor activity. A methanol extract yielded the maximum polyphenol content and showed
maximum cytotoxicity on HEP2 cells, with cell aggregation, cell rounding, and cell death. Results suggest
a potential as an antitumor agent.
(23)
Cytotoxicity / A549 Cell Line: A methanolic extract of A. heterophyllus showed excellent cytotoxicity
against A549 cell line, but had no activity against HeLa and MCF-7 cell lines. Results showed potential
cytotoxicity against lung cancer, with no toxicity to normal cells (HEK293 cell line) as compared to
methotrexate. (24)
Wound Healing / Leaves: Study of a methanol leaf extract on excision would healing model showed
significant wound healing activity, comparable with standard (Betadine). The period of epithelization of
the extract treated group was higher than the control group. (25) Study showed ex-vivo wound healing
activity of flavonoid rich fraction of an ethyl acetate extract of leaves using porcine skin wound healing
model. (see constituents above) (29)
Cartotenoid Composition / Bioconversion: Study of fruit kernels yielded six carotenoids: -carotene,
-carotene, -zeacarotene, -zeacarotene and -carotene-5,6-epoxide and a dicarboxylic carotenoid,
crocetin. Serum retinol concentrations in rats supplemented with jackfruit carotenoids were significantly
higher than control. Study suggest a satisfactory biological conversion of provitamin A in jackfruit kernel.
(28)
Adsorbent for Methylene Blue: Methylene blue is the most common of dyes in its category, generally
used for dyeing cotton and silk. Study evaluated removal of methylene blue in batch sorption
experiments using jackfruit leaf powder. Results showed JLP can be effectively used for the removal of
MB from aqueous solutions. The desorption increased by decreasing the pH of the solution (32)
Mucilage / Sustained Release Tablets: Study evaluated the release modifying potential of mucilage
extracted from A. heterophyllus in the formulation of oral sustained release tables of diclofenac sodium.
Results showed AH mucilage can be used as drug release modifier in a particular concentration range
and as binding agent in formulating sustained release tablets. (33)
Adsorbent / Activated Carbon from Peel: Study evaluated the effectiveness of an adsorbent
prepared from jackfruit peel, an agricultural waste, for removal of phenol, 2chlorophenol, 4chlorophenol,
2,4dichlorophenol from aqueous solutions. Results showed the activated carbon can be economical for
removal of phenols. (34)
Latex / Antimicrobial / Dental Application: Study evaluated the potential use of different components
of jackfruit in dental health. Results showed the antibacterial and antifungal activities of protease isolated
from jackfruit latex. Potential less expensive dental applications are presented i.e., as cementing
medium, irrigation solution, denture cleaning solution, and use for dental microbiology. (35)
Gold Nanoparticles / Antimicrobial / Fruit: Study reported on the cost-effective end ecofriendly
synthesis of gold nanoparticles using aqueous fruit extracts of AH. The gold nanoparticles showed
antimicrobial activity against investigated microbes, esp. E. coli and Streptobacillus. (36)
Jacalin / Seed Lectin / Anticancer: Study evaluated jacalin, a protein extract from AH seed, against
human breast cancer (MCF7) and non-small cell lung carcinoma (H1299). Results showed jacalin was
more effective than crude protein and was more active against MCF7 compared to H1299 cancer cells.
(37)
Hepatoprotective / Inhibition of FeCl3 induced Hepatic lipidperoxidation / Peel: Study evaluated
three vegetables viz., A. heterophyllus, Colocasia esculenta (taro) and Cucurbita pepo (pumpkin) for in-
vitro inhibition of FeCl3 induced LPO. Jackfruit peel showed the maximum inhibition at lowest
concentration. The hepatoprotective potential was attributed to polyphenol and flavonoid contents. (38)
Silver Nanoparticles / Antimicrobial / Leaves: Study reports on a simplistic method for synthesis of
colloidal silver nanoparticles using a leaf extract. The silver nanoparticles demonstrated potent
antibacterial activity against E. coli, S. aureus, and Bacillus subtilis and antifungal activity against A. niger
and the yeast, Pichia pastoris. (39)
Pectin from Jam: Study reports that jackfruit is a promising industrial source of pectin which can be
successfully applied in food gel system such as fruit jams. It can significantly reduce wastage and waste
disposal problems associated with handling jack fruits.(40)
Jackfruit Wine: Study reports on the process optimization for the fermentation of wine from Jackfruit.
The wine also showed good antioxidant activity while also exuding a sweet aroma Wine production
provides value addition while decreasing post harvest loss. (41)
Jackfruit Seed Starch as Thickener and Stabilizer: Study showed jackfruit seed starch is suitable as
a thickener and useful as a stabilizer in a high acid sauce. (42)
Toxicity Study: Study evaluated various leaf extracts of A. heterophyllus on hepatic, hematological, and
reproductive parameters and histology of heart, kidney, lung, intestines, and pancrease on experimental
rat models. Admistration of extracts to rats for one months no toxic effects of importance, with no
significant histological effects. AH appears to be free of any major toxic or unacceptable effects. (43)
Availability
- Wildcrafted.
- Commercial fruiting.
Updated June 2017 / October 2015

Lansones
Lansium parasiticum (Osbeck) K.C.Sahni & Bennet
LANGSAT
Da guo lan sa
Aglaia aquea (Jacq.) Kosterm. Boboa (Bis.)
Aglaia domestica (Correa) Pellegr. Buahan (Mbo., Sul.)
Aglaia dookoo Griff. Bulahan (Bis.)
Aglaia intricatoreticulata Kosterm. Buan (Mbo.)
Aglaia merrillii Elmer [Invalid] Bukan (Bis.)
Aglaia sepalina [Kosterm] Kosterm. Kalibogan (Mbo.)
Aglaia steenisii Kosterm. Lansones (Tag., Bik.)
Aglaia merrillii Elmer Lanzones (Tag.)
Amoora recemosa Ridl. Tubua (Bag.)
Lachanodendron domesticum (Correa) Nees Langsat (Engl.)
Lansium domesticum Correa Longkong tree (Engl.)
Lansium parasiticum (Osbeck) K.C.Sahni & Bennet
Melia parasitica Osbeck
Lansium parasiticum (Osbeck) K.C.Sahni & Bennet is an accepted name The Plant List

BURMESE: Duku.
CHINESE: Lan sa, Lan sa guo, Da guo lan sa.
DANISH: Sd duku. Langsat, Langsep.
DUTCH: Doekoe , Kokosan.
FRENCH: Duku Doux Large Fruit, Duku Doux Petit Fruit, Langsep.
GERMAN: Ser Duku, Dukubaum.
INDIA: Longkong.
ITALIAN: Duku dolce, Lansio.
JAPANESE: Duku, Ransa.
KOREAN: Long kong, Long sat.
MALAY: Ceroring, Dookkoo, Duki, Duku, Kokosan.
PORTUGUESE: Arbol-do-duku, Duku-doce.
SPANISH: Arbol de duku, Duku dulce, Lanson.
THAI: Duku, Langsat waan, Long gong, Longkong.
VIETNAMESE: Bn bon.
Botany
Lansones is a tree growing to a height of 4 to 15
meters. Leaves are alternate, 20 to 40 centimeters
long, with 5 to 7 leaflets, oblong to oblong-elliptic,
7 to 18 centimeters in length, and pointed at both
ends. Flowers are small, yellow and borne on
spikes, solitary or fascicled on the trunk or larger
branches. Fruit is yellowish-white, occurring in
bunches on a single stem, ellipsoid or globose, 2
to 4 centimeters long, with bitter seeds that are
surrounded by a translucent pulp (arillus). The
outer skin is thin and tough, abundant in a milky
juice. The pulp occurs in five sections with one
well-developed seed.
Distribution
- Cultivated for its fruit in Luzon, particularly the
Quezon and Laguna Provinces, and occurs wild in
Mindanao and Basilan.
- Also occurs in Indo-China, and the Malay
Peninsula and Archipelago, in general cultivation.
Constituents
The rind yields 6% lansium acid which is toxic.
The fresh peeling yielded a volatile oil, a resin, and some reducing acids.
The resin is believed to be nontoxic and protective to the stomach against alcohol.
The outer skin of the fruit is rich in tannin.
From the seeds, two toxic and bitter substances and traces of an alkaloid.
The fruit pulp contains sucrose, saccharose, fructose and glucose.
Bark is astringent.
Study isolated a new tetranortriterpenoid (Source)
Study yielded five tetranoterpenoids, domesticulide A-E (1-5) from the seed. The seed extract was rich
in limonoids.
Yields triterpenoid lansiolides with antimalarial activity.
Seeds yielded two tetranortriterpenoids, kokosanolide A (1) and C (2), together with 3 onoceranoid-type
triterpenoid: kokosanolide B (3), 8,14-secogammacera-7,13-diene-3,21-dione (4) and a mixture of 8,14-
secogammacera-7,14(27)-diene- 3,21-dione (5) and compound 4 isolated from the bark. (see study
below) (13)
Food value per 100 g of edible portion: Moisture 86.5 g; protein 0.8 g; carbohydrates 9.5 g, fiber 2.3 g;
calcium 20 mg; phosphorus 30 mg; vitamin A 13 IU; thiamine 89 mcg; riboflavin 124 mcg; ascorbic acid 1
mg.
Properties
- Bark is considered antipyretic and anthelmintic.
- Studies have shown anti-malarial, antioxidant,
antimelanogenesis, antibacterial, anticancer,
antipyretic, repellent properties.
Parts utilized
Bark, fruit, leaves, seeds.
Uses
Nutritional
-The fruit pulp is succulent and delicious, and may
be candied or preserved in syrup.
Folkloric
- Decoction of bark and leaves used for dysentery.
- Peel, rich in oleoresin, used for diarrhea and
intestinal spasms.
- Crushed seeds used for fevers.
- Astringent bark used for dysentery and malaria.
- Powdered bark used for scorpion stings.
- Bark resin used for flatulence and
gastrointestinal colic, for swellings, and as
antispasmodic.
- Grounded seeds mixed with water as vermifuge
and antipyretic.
- Tincture prepared from the dried rind used for
diarrhea and abdominal colic.
- In Java. seeds are used as vermifuge and antipyretic.
- In Indonesia, used for malaria.
Cosmetics
- Cosmeceutical value from its antioxidant, moisturizing, whitening and lightening effects. Dry extract of
fruit, re-dissolved in propylene glycol is used for skin depigmentation and as a moisturizer.
Others
- Repellent: The dried fruit skins when burned emit an aromatic smell which repels mosquitoes. It also
makes a pleasant room inhalant.
- Poison: The juice of the bark and fruit is recorded as used for poison arrow.
Studies
Anti-Malarial / Skin and Leaf
Extracts: Lansium domesticum: skin and
leaf extracts of this fruit tree interrupt the
life cycle of Plasmodium falciparum, and
are active towards a chloroquine-
resistant strain of the parasite (T9) in
vitro: Study indicates extracts of LD are a
potential source for compounds with
activity against chloroquine-resistant
strains of P. falciparum. (1)
Anti-Malarial /
Tetratriterpenoids: Study yielded five
tetratriterpenoids domesticulide A-E
from the seeds of Lansium domesticum
together with 11 known triterpenoids.
Eight of the compounds showed
antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum. (6)
Antioxidant: Extract of LD was shown to have antioxidant activity against DPPH free radical and anti-
tyrosinase activity.
Skin Moisturizing / Lightening Effect: Study showed LD extract can significantly increase skin
moisture and decrease the skin melanin index. (3)
Antimelanogenesis: LD methanol extract was one of the study extracts that showed strong inhibition
of melanin production of B16 melanoma cells without significant cytotoxicity, presenting as a potential
ingredient for skin-whitening cosmetics if their safety can be confirmed. (4)
Antibacterial: The air-dried fruit peel of LD yielded five onoceroid triterpenes; the air-dried seeds
yielded one onoceroid triterpene (lansionic acid) and germacrene D. Studies of the compounds showed
varying degrees of activity against P. aeruginosa, B subtilis, C albicans, A niger among others. (5)
Anti-Skin Tumor / Cycloartanoid Triterpene / Leaves: Study isolated a new cycloartanoid triterpene
from the leaves of LD. Some of the natural product derivatives show significant inhibitory activity on skin-
tumor promotion on the basis of Epstein Barr virus activation. (7)
Onoceramoid Triterpenes / Cytotoxicity: Study isolated three new natural onoceranoid triterpenes
from the fruit peel of LD together with two known triterpenoids. The triterpenoids exhibited mild toxicity
against brine shrimp (Artemia salina). (8)
Onoceranoid-type Triterpenoids / Antibacterial: Study yielded a rare class of onoceranoid-type
triterpenoids, lamesticumin a, lamesticumins B-F, lansic acid 3-ethyl ester and ethyl lansiolate and four
known analogues from the twigs of LD. Compounds 1-9 exhibited moderate antibacterial activity against
Gram-positive bacteria. (9)
Fruit Peels / Nutrition and Medicinal Potential: Study evaluated the phytochemicals present in peels
of selected fruits from Manila. All studied fruit peels (rambutan, lanzones, pomelo, longgan, mangosteen)
showed the presence of reducing sugars and glycosides. In phytochemical screening, lanzones yielded
highest in alkaloids and sugars. (11)
Anticancer / Young Fruit Extract: Study evaluated the antiproliferative activities and
phytoconstituents of Longkong extracts. Highest total phenolic and flavonoid content were seen in the
cold and hot methanol extract of stalks. Hot and cold chloroform young fruit extracts exhibited cytotoxic
effect against cancer cells. Cold chloroform young fruit extracts showed the highest apoptotic effect
against KB cells. (12)
Antifeedant / Triterpenoids: Study isolated two tetratriterpenoids and three onoceranoid-type
triterpenoids. Triterpenoids 1-5 exhibited moderate to strong antifeedant activity against 4th stage instar
larvae of Epilachna vigintioctopunctata. (see constituents above) (13)
Mosquito Repellent: Study evaluated the repellant effect of Lansium domesticum (lanzones) peel on
mosquitoes. Results revealed that the effect of Lanzones peel as repellant is comparable to
commercially available "katol," a popularly used insecticide vaporizer. (14)
Non-Genotoxic / Antioxidant: Study investigated the antioxidant and genotoxicity property of L.
domesticum fruits, particularly seeds and skins. Results showed the skin of fruits possessed higher
antioxidant potential than seeds. On genotoxicity study on TK6 human lymphoblasts using cytokinesis-
blocked micronucleus assay, the ethanol extract of seeds were non-genotoxic to TK6 cells. (15)
Antipyretic: Study investigated the antipyretic activity of LD seed extract on male rabbits with Brewer's
yeast induced fever. Results showed a dose dependent antipyretic effect. (16)
Lansioside D / Antibacterial: Study isolated a major antimicrobial compound, lansioside D, from the
fruit peel of L. domesticum. Evaluation showed remarkable activity against Gram-positive bacteria
Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis and moderate activity against Gram-negative bacteria E.
coli. (17)
Repellency of Peels to Nilaparvata lugens on Oriza sativa: Study evaluated the repellent potential
of various concentrations of Lansium domesticum peel extract (0.1% to 0.5%) to Niloparvata lugens on
Oryza sativa. Results showed repellent activity with the highest repellent activity was at 0.2% and the
lowest, at 0.1%. (19)
Antioxidant / Seed: Study evaluated the antioxidant potential of L. domesticum seed extract
in while male rats. On measures of glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA), Lansium
domesticum seed extract showed antioxidant potential with the optimum dose of 100 mg/kg. (20)
Adsorption of Methylene Blue / Peel: Wastewater discharge from textile industries includes residual
dyes which are no bio-degradalbe. Acute exposure to methylene blue may cause some harmful side
effects. Study showed Lansium domesticum peel has good potential as adsorbent for methylene blue
dye removal from aqueous solution. (21)
Availability
Commercial cultivation.
Linga
Sesamum indicum
SESAME
Hei Chih-ma

Dysosmon amoenum Raf. Ajonjoli (Span.)
Sesamum africanum Tod. Gingely-oil plant (Engl.)
Sesamum indicum Linn. Laga (Bik., Tag., Ibn., Bis.)
Sesamum occidentalis Heer & Regel Lagis (Pamp.)
Sesamum oleiferum Sm. Lega (Ilk.)
Sesamum orientale L. Liga (Tag.)
Volkameria orientalis (L.) Kuntze Linga (Sbl.)
Ligo (Tag.)
Logis (If.)
Luga (Bis., Sul.)
Benne seeds (Engl.)
Gingelly (Engl.)
Sesame (Engl.)
Sesamum indicum L. is an accepted name. The Plant List

ARABIC: Sim sim.
ARMENIAN: Shooshma.
BENGALI: Til.
BULGARIAN: Susam.
BURMESE: Hnan zi.
CHINESE: Hu ma, Zhi ma (Taiwan), Hei Chih-ma.
CROATIAN: Sezam.
CZECH: Sezam.
DANISH: Sesamfr.
DUTCH: Sesamzaad.
ESTONIAN: Harilik seesam.
FINNISH: Seesami.
FRENCH: Graines de ssame, Graines de ssame blanc, Graines de ssame blanches, Ssame.
GERMAN: Sesam.
GREEK: Sesami.
HEBREW: Shomshom, Shumshum, Sumsum.
HINDI: Gingli, Safed til, Til.
HUNGARIAN: Szzmfi, Szzmmag.
ICELANDIC: Sesam, Sesamfr.
ITALIAN: Sesamo.
JAPANESE: Goma, Shiro goma.
KANNADA: Yallu.
KOREAN: Cham kkae.
LAOTIAN: Man nga, Nga.
MALAY: Bijan, Wijen.
MARATHI: Tila.
NIGERIAN: Benne.
PERSIAN: Konjed.
POLISH: Sezam indyjski.
PORTUGUESE: Gergelim, Ssamo.
PUNJABI: Til.
RUSSIAN: Kunzhut indiiskii, Sezam.
SANSKRIT: Tila.
SINHALESE: Thel.
SLOVAKIAN: Sezam.
SLOVENIAN: Sezama.
SPANISH: Ajonjol, Semilla de ajonjol, Ssamo.
SWAHILI: Ufuta.
SWEDISH Sesam.
TAMIL: Cirrel, El, Ellu, Illu, Tilam.
TELUGU: Tillu.
THAI: Nga, Nga dam, Nga khao.
TURKISH: Susam.
UKRAINIAN: Sezam.
URDU: Til.
VIETNAMESE: M, Vng.
Botany
Linga is an erect, annual, hairy herb, 50 to 80
centimeters in height. Leaves are oblong or
ovate, 3 to 10 centimeters long, the lower ones
lobed, the middle ones toothed, and the
uppermost subentire. Leaf stalks are from 1 to 5
centimeters long. Sepals are lanceolate, 6 to 7
millimeters long and imbricate. Corolla is about
3 centimeters long, hairy and whitish, or with
purplish, red, or yellow marks. Stamens are 4,
inserted. Fruits are capsules, 2- or 4-celled,
oblong, about 2.5 centimeters long, erect, and
splitting halfway or quite to the base at maturity.
Seeds are small and black.
Distribution
- Cultivated here and there throughout the Philippines.
- Often occurs in open waste places as an escape plant.
- Native of tropical Asia.
- Now pantropic.
Properties
- The white or yellow-seeded varieties provide the best grade of oil, while the dark red, brown, or black-
seeded varieties give an inferior grade of oil.
- Has a high percentage of fixed oil which can be used as an antirheumatic in massage treatment.
- Sesame oil, also known as pil or gingelly, has a pale yellow color, a pleasant odor and taste.
- Neither warming nor cooling.
- Seeds are considered emollient, nourishing, tonic, diuretic, and lactagogue.
- Oil considered demulcent, emollient, diuretic, emmenagogue, lactagogue and laxative.
Constituents
Seed contain fixed oil, 47-59%; saccharose, pentosan, lecithin; choline; phytine; globuline, 22%;
sesamin.
The oil consists of olein, linolein, palmitin, and stearin; fatty acids consist of oleic, linoleic, linolenic,
palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, eicosenoic.
Study on the chemical constituents of the flowers of Sesamum indicum yielded six flavones: apigenin,
ladanetin, ladanetin-6-O-beta-D-glucoside, apigenin-7-O-glucuronic acid, pedalitin, and pedalitin-6-O-
glucoside.
Seeds yield lignan, lignan glycosides, and sterols; phenylethanoid glycosides from the whole plant, and
phenolic acids from the leaves and seeds.
A petroleum ether fraction of an alcoholic extract yielded sesamin, sesamolin, stigmasterol, -sitosterol,
and stigmasterol-3-O--D-glucoside. A butanol fraction yielded ferulic acid, rhamnetin, verbascoside,
kaempferol-3-O--D-glucorunide, and mequelianin (quercetin-3-O--D-glucuronide).
Study for nutritional value of sesame seeds (S. indicum) yielded: carbohydrates 23.45 g, protein 17.73
g, total fat 49.67 g, dietary fiber 11.8 g, carbohydrates 23.45 g, copper 4.082 mg, iron 14.55 mg,
magnesium 351 mg, manganese 2.460 mg, phosphorus 629, selenium 34.4 g, zinc 7.75 mg, copper
4.082mg. Phytochemical screening of seeds yielded saponin, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, glycosides.
(26)
Study evaluated proximate, phytochemical, and mineral compositions of seeds, leaves, root and whole
plant of S. indicum. Roots yielded appreciable levels of moisture (6.60 4.39%), crude fiber (12.80
8.53%), and total carbohydrate (67.90 45.26%). Protein content was highest (21.44 14.29%) in the
whole plant. Percentage flavonoids, alkaloids, and tannins of the samples ranged between 16.20-4.80,
10.04-1.96, and 3.32-1.18%, respectively. (33)
Ethanol extract of sesame seeds yielded phenols, tannins, saponins, glycosides, alkaloids, coumarins,
and flavonoids, with an absence of terpenes and steroids. (see study below) (40)
Parts used
Seeds, leaves.
Collect seeds as soon as the fruits ripen, harvest the above ground portion, sun-dry and collect the
seeds, dry again.
Uses
Edibility / Culinary
Whole seeds used by bakers in making cakes and
sweetmeats.
Used for cooking; for margarine; also used to adulterate
olive oil.
Folkloric
For chronic constipation, roasted seeds are taken alone,
with honey, or mixed liberally with other foods.
Oil extracted from seeds used as antirheumatic in
massage therapy.
Burned stalks applied to hemorrhoids.
Leaves, which abound in the gummy matter, mixed with
water to form a bland mucilage used for infantile cholera,
diarrhea, dysentery, catarrh, cystitis, and strangury.
Plaster of ground seeds applied to burns and scalds.
Leaves with equal parts of sesame oil and lime water
are a popular dressing for burns and scalds.
Decoction of seeds with linseed used for coughs and as
aphrodisiac.
Lotion made from roots and leaves used as a hair wash;
also used to promote hair growth and make it black.
Decoction of seeds laxative for children.
The oil of seed used for treatment of ulcers and
suppurating wounds.
White seeds promote menstruation.
Diseases of the kidney or liver associated with dizziness,
tinnitus, and haziness of vision: get see preparation from
8 to 14 gms and mix with equal volume of Morus leaf
preparation. Powder, add honey and water and drink.
Seeds ground to a paste with water, given with butter, for bleeding piles.
In large quantities, seeds capable of producing abortion.
Alopecia (baldness) due to prolonged illness: fry seeds, crush and add sugar, then eat 1 to 2 tbsp daily.
In Sierra Leone the mucilaginous juice of the plant is used by women to destroy headlice.
In India, seeds used for wound healing.
In Yucatan, seeds given as laxative to children.
Seeds and oil used as emmenagogue.
Malays use the oil in tonics.
In Africa, decoction of leaves used as aphrodisiac. Decoction of plant used for malaria. Leaves chewed
as alternative to tobacco. Powdered leaf applied to snake bites. Decoction of seeds used for
hemorrhoids and regulation of the menstrual cycle.
In European medicine the oil was once used pulmonary tuberculosis.
Others
Perfumery: Oil use in perfumery in Europe, North America and India.
Hair uses: Lotion from leaves and roots used for healthy hair growth and color restoration.
Studies
Free Radical Scavenging / Antioxidant: Study evaluated the free radical scavenging capacity of
antioxidants from sesame cake extract using a DPPH kinetic model. (1)
Antioxidant / Analgesic: Study observed antioxidant and analgesic activity of the ethanol extract of
seeds of SI with inhibition of writhing response comparable to ibuprofen. Study also showed an
antioxidant activity compared to standard antioxidant ascorbic acid. (7)
Antioxidant / Neuroprotective: Lignans and tocopherols, identified as major antioxidants in Sesamum
indicum have also been reported to have protective effects against neurodegenerative disease. Sesame
seeds and its antioxidants may be a potent natural agent with both therapeutic and preventive
applications in neurodegenerative diseases in humans. (9)
Lipid Effects: Effect of Sesame Oil on Serum Lipids in Rats: Sesame oil increased S cholesterol and
LDL-C in hypercholesterolemic diet fed rats, with no significant effects on serum lipids of
normocholesterolemic rats. (2)
Acetylcholine-like Substance: Alcoholic extract of seeds of Sesamum indicum caused hypotensive
effects in anesthetized rats. It also caused decreased rate and force of atrial contractions; contractile
responses in rat uterus. The results indicate that the alcoholic extract of SI contain acetylcholine-like
constituents that explains its folkloric use. (3)
Wound Healing: Sesamum indicum seeds and oil applied topically showed wound healing activity with
significant reduction in period of epithelization and wound contraction. (4)
Health Effects of Sesame Oil: Study on the effect of SI in hypertensive diabetics on atenolol and
sulfonylurea showed reduction in systolic and diastolic BP, decrease in glucose, HbA1C, LDL and TC,
with increase in activities of enzymic and non-enzymic levels of antioxidants. (5)
Fertility Effects: Study of the ethanolic extract of Sesamum indicum, vitamin C and SI+VC promote
fertility from their testosterone-increasing effects and their antioxidant effects. (10)
Insecticidal: Sesamin has been shown to be insecticidal and is synergistic to pyrethrum.
Physiochemical Properties of Sesame Oil: Study showed (1) the acid value which is the index of free
fatty acid content due to enzymatic activity was very low (2) No potential for soap making (3) High
peroxide value (4) seed oils were cyanide free (5) seeds are a good source of oil, with a seed content of
50% light yellow crude oil with a pleasant smell. (12)
Residual Aerial Parts Composition / Antihyperglycemic / Antioxidant: A petroleum ether fraction of
an alcoholic extract yielded sesamin, sesamolin, stigmasterol, -sitosterol, and stigmasterol-3-O--D-
glucoside. A butanol fraction yielded ferulic acid, rhamnetin, verbascoside, kaempferol-3-O--D-
glucorunide, and mequelianin (quercetin-3-O--D-glucuronide). Tested extracts exhibited a reductive
effect on blood glucose of diabetic rats, attributed to possible inhibition of free radicals and inhibition of
tissue damage induced by alloxan. -sitosterol and ferulic acid may have contributed to the
hypoglycemic activity of the alcoholic extract. The alcoholic extract has a potential as an alternative
natural antioxidant, antihyperglycemic and anticoagulant. (13)
Antihyperlipidemic: Study investigated the anti-hyperlipidemic effect of sesame in a high-fat fed rabbit
model. Results showed supplementation with sesame oil, but not sesame seed, can ameliorate serum
levels of lipids and hepatic enzymes in rabbits under a high-fat diet. (15)
Toxicity Study: Study investigated the toxic effect of an ethanolic leaf extract of Sesamum indicum on
the histomorphology of adult Wistar rats liver. The leaf extract caused an phased architectural pattern
with atrophic hepatocytes and dilated sinusoid suggesting toxicity to the liver of Wistar rats. (16)
Ardeh / Anti-Atherogenic / Decreased CVD Risks: Study investigated the effects of Ardeh, paste of
ground unhulled sesame seeds, on lipid profiles and atherogenic lipid parameters on 41 patients with
type 2 diabetes mellitus. Results showed significant decrease in serum triglycerides and atherogenic
index of plasma (AIP) with slight decreases in other atherogenic lipid parameters and a mild increase in
HDL-C. Results suggest Ardeh could have favorable effects in decreasing CVD risk factors in T2DM.
(17)
Hepatoprotective / Seeds / CCl4-Induced Hepatic Damage: Study of ethanolic extracts of S. indicum
seeds showed potent hepatoprotective action against carbon tetrachloride induced hepatic damage in
rats. (18)
Plant Gum / Formulation and In Vitro Release Properties: Study evaluated the properties of a plant
gum obtained from S. indicum. Moisture content was found to be low. All formulations released the drug
in the hydrated matrix through polymer relaxation. The findings suggest the gum can be used for
intestinal drug delivery. (19)
Antioxidant / Seeds: Study evaluated ethanol extracts of white and black varieties of S. indicum.
Results showed sesame seed extracts possess high antioxidant activity and that the white variety elicit
better antioxidant activity than the black one. (20)
Seed and Seed Oil: Seeds yield two unique substances, sesamin and sesamolin, reported to prevent
high blood pressures and have a cholesterol lowering effect in humans. Oil is reported to increase HDL
and lower LDL. Seed oil has reported antibacterial activity Staphylococcus and Streptococcus and
common fungi (athlete's foot fungus). (22)
Prophylactic Effect on Ethanol Induced Toxicity: Study evaluat3d the prophylactic effect of aqueous
extract of of S. indicum on ethanol induced hepatotoxicity in rats. S. indicum possesses antioxidant and
hepatoprotective properties that eliminate the deleterious effects of toxic metabolites of ethanol. SI
treatment simultaneous with ethanol exhibited similar effects to those of SI pretreated groups, while SI
post-treatment group did not show the same level of protection. (23)
Reduction in Severity of Post-Traumatic Pain / Topical Sesame Oil: Study evaluated the effects of
topical sesame oil on pain severity and frequency of NSAIDs patients with trauma. Results showed
topical application of sesame oil could reduce pain severity and frequency of NSAIDs treatment in
patients with upper and lower extremity trauma. Results recommend complementary use of the oil for
relief of pain with its low cost, easy usage, and lack of side effects. (24)
Antibacterial / Leaves: Study evaluated ethanol and aqueous leaf extracts for anti-microbial activities
on bacterial pathogens viz., K. pneumonia, S. typhii, E. coli, and S. aureus. The ethanolic extract strongly
inhibited E. coli growth with mild inhibition of of K. pneumonia and S. typhi. The aqueous extract showed
no activity on the test pathogens. (25)
Herbal Treatment of Oligomenorrhea: Single-blind clinical trial in 56 women evaluated the efficacy of
S. indicum in inducing menstrual bleeding in women with oligomenorrhea (infrequent menstrual flow at
intervals of 36 days to 6 months or 5-7 cycles in a year). Results showed S. indicum was well-tolerated
and partially effective in inducing and maintaining regular bleeding, and can be considered as an
alternative therapy for patients who are not suitable candidates for hormone therapy. (27)
Anti-Diabetic Synergism with Glibenclamide / Sesame Oil: Studies have reported blood pressure
and antioxidant benefits with sesame oil. Open-label study evaluated the effectiveness of sesame oil with
anti-diabetic (glibenclamide) medication as combination therapy in mild to moderate diabetes. Results
showed sesame oil exhibited synergistic effect with glibenclamidea safe and effective option for
combination therapy for the treatment of diabetes. (28)
Effect on Hepatic and Renal Mineral Concentrations on Hypercholesterolemic Rats / Seed
Oil: Hypercholesterolemia reduced both hepatic and real concentrations of sodium, potassium,
phosphorus, magnesium and calcium but reduced the hepatic and not renal concentrations of
magnesium and zinc. 5% supplementation with sesamum indicum seed oil reversed the effects and
restored reduced ion concentrations. (29)
Antioxidant / Antibacterial / Roots, Leaves and Seeds: Study evaluated methanol and aqueous
extracts of leaves, seeds, and roots of S. indicum for antibacterial and antioxidant (DPPH, TBA)
activities. The methanol extract showed promising antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. (30)
Anthelmintic / Seeds: Study evaluated the anthelmintic activity of methanolic extract of seeds of
sesame (S. indicum) and fruits of Capsicum frutescens on aquarium worms Tubifex tubifex. Results
showed both alcoholic extracts exhibited significant anthelmintic activities at 10mg/ml concentration.
Levasimole was used as standard. (31)
Silver Nanoparticles / Antibacterial / Seed: Study reports on the simple, green, eco-friendly synthesis
of silver nanoparticles from S. indicum seed extracts. The AgNPs showed inhibitory activity against multi-
drug resistant Klebsiella pneumonia. (34)
Preservative Effects on Mashed Potatoes / Seed Oil: Study evaluated the biopreservative
efficiencies of different levels of sesame seed oil on mashed potatoes. Results showed sesame seed oil
was more efficient in preserving stored potato paste than sodium benzoate. Organisms found associated
with spoilage of stored potatoes included fungi Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus, A. niger and Fusarium
spp. and bacteria such as Bacillus coagulant. (35)
Effect of S. indicum and Vitamin C in Promoting Fertility in Male Wistar Rats: Study showed an
ethanolic extract of S. indicum + vitamin C as well as ESS and VC promote fertility due to both their
testosterone-increasing effects and their antioxidant effects. (36)
Nephroprotective in STZ-Induced Diabetic Rats / Seeds: Study evaluated the effect of ethanolic
extract of S. indicum on kidney function in STZ-nicotinamide induced diabetic rats. Results showed a
significant decrease in levels of serum total protein, albumin, and globulin, and significant increase in
blood urea, serum creatinine and uric acid when compared to normal rats. Normalization of marker
enzymes in the serum and histopathological results revealed the protective effect and potential to control
hyperglycemia in STZ induced diabetic rats. (37)
Prevention of Chemotherapy-Induced Phlebitis / Sesame Oil: Study evaluated the effect of external
use of sesame oil in the prevention of phlebitis in 60 patients with colon or rectal cancer. Results showed
external use of SO is effective, safe, and well tolerated prophylaxis for phlebitis. (38)
Sesamin / Plant Lignan / Seed: Study evaluated whether plant lignans in sesame seeds, particularly
sesamin, could me metabolized to the mammalian lignans. Some plant lignans may have a protective
effect against hormone-related diseases such as breast cancer. Study showed sesame seed is a rich
source of mammalian lignan precursors and sesamin is one of them. (39)
Cytotoxicity / Seeds: Study evaluated the active constituents in an ethanolic extract of S. indicum
defatted seeds and its effect on lipid and cytogenetic changes in bone marrow in laboratory mice, and
cytotoxic effects on three types of cancer cell lines. Concentration of sesamin the the ethanolic extract
was 79.9% ethanolic extract. Results showed significant in vitro growth inhibition against the tested
cancer cell lines (Hep-2, AMN-3, and RD). (40)
Availability
Wild-crafted.
Cultivated for culinary use.
Last Update March 2017

Updated April 2014
Luya
Zingiber officinale Roscoe
GINGER
Lao jiang

Amomum angustifolium Salisb. [Illegitimate] Agat (Pamp., Pang.)
Amomum zingiber Linn. Baseng (Ilk.)
Amomum zinzibaa Hill . [Spelling variant] Gengibre (Span.)
Curcuma longifolia Wall. Laial (Sbl.)
Zingiber cholmondeleyi (F.M.Bailey) K.Schum. Laiya (If.)
Zingiber majus Rumph. Laya (Ilk., Bon., Ibn., It.)
Zingiber missionis Wall. Luy-a (Bis.)
Zingiber officinale Roscoe Luya (Tag.)
Zingiber sichuanense Z. Y. Zhu, S.L.Zhang & S.X.Chen Common ginger (Engl.)
Zingiber zingiber (L.) H.Karst. [Invalid] Ginger (Engl.)
Zingiber officinale Roscoe is an accepted name. The Plant List
Other vernacular names (35)

ARABIC: Sknzhbr (Morocco), Zanjabil.
ASSAMESE: Aadaa.
BENGALI: Aadaa (plant), Ada, Adrak.
BOSNIAN: Crni ingver, umbir, Gingibar, Isiot, Isnot, Mrki ingver, Pravi ingver, Vrua trava, Zinefil.
BULGARIAN: Dzhindzhifil.
BURMESE: Gyin.
CHINESE: Qiang jiang, Zi jiang, Lao jiang.
CROATIAN: Cencer, Crni ingver, umber, Gingibar, Ingver, Isjet, Mrki ingver, Pravi ingver, Zenzer.
CZECH: Dumbr, Zzvor, Zzvor koen.
DANISH: Ingefaer.
DUTCH: Gember.
ESTONIAN: Harilik ingwer.
FINNISH: Inkivri.
FRENCH: Gingembre, Gingembre commun, Gingembre officinal, Gingembre traditionnel.
GERMAN: Inbwer, Ingwer.
GREEK: Tzintzer, Piperoriza, Ziggiveris.
HEBREW: Zangvil.
HINDI: Adaraka, Sonth.
HUNGARIAN: Gymbr.
ITALIAN: Zenzero, Zenzevero, Pepe zenzero.
JAPANESE: Jinjaa, Shouga.
KANNADA: Alla.
KHMER: Khnehey, Khnhei phlung .
KOREAN: Saeng gang.
LAOTIAN: Khing.
MALAY: Halia, Haliya, Haliya merah, Kunyit terus, Aliah, Jae, Jahe, Jahya, Lahya..
MALAYALAM: Inchi, Chuku.
NEPALESE: Aduvaa, Sutho.
NORWEGIAN: Ingefr.
POLISH: Jembier.
PORTUGUESE: Gengibre, Ingever.
PUNJABI: Adrak, Sund.
RUSSIAN: Imbir', Imbir' lekarstvennyi.
SINHALESE: Inguru.
SPANISH: Anchoas, Jengibre.
SWEDISH: Ingefra, Ingefoera.
THAI: Khing, Khing daeng, Khing klaeng, Khing phueak, Sa e.
TURKISH: Zentzephil, Zencefil, Zencebil.
VIETNAMESE: Cy gng, Gng, Sinh khng.
Botany
Luya is an erect, smooth plant arising from thickened, very aromatic rootstocks. Leafy stems are 0.4 to 1
meter high. Leaves are distichous, lanceolate to linear-lanceolate, 15 to 25 centimeters long, and 2
centimeters wide or less. Scape arising from the rootstocks is erect, 15 to 25 centimeters high, and
covered with distant, imbricate bracts. Spike is ovoid to ellipsoid, about 5 centimeters long. Bracts are
ovate, cuspidate, about 2.5 centimeters long, and pale green. Calyx is 1 centimeter long or somewhat
less. Corolla is greenish yellow, and its tube is less than 2 centimeters long, while the lip is oblong-
obovate and slightly purplish.
Distribution
- Widely cultivated in the
Philippines.
- Nowhere naturalized.
- Now pantropic.
Constituents
A methanol extract yielded the
presence of terpenoids,
flavonoids, alkaloids, and tannins.
(See study below) (40)
* Pungent principles, mainly
zingerone and shogaol, provides
the characteristic taste.
The most biologically active
phenolic compounds, gingerols
and shogaols, are found in the
root.
Volatile oil, 1.23 to 3% -
gingerol, zingerone, zingiberene,
cineol, borneol, phellandrene,
citral, zingiberene, linalool, geraniol, chavicol, vanillyl alcohol, camphene; resin.
Study on concentrations (%) of essential oil and phenols in fresh (F) and dried (D) gingers yielded:
essential oils: 0.267 0.027 (F) and 0.147 0.034 (D); phenols: 0..249 0.027 (F) and 1.605 0.068
(D). Main constituents of essential oils in fresh and dried ginger were: -bisabolene 4.140 and 2.755;
bornel 2.415 and 3.040; camphene 17.365 and 12.635; 1,8-cineole 5.083 and16.910; -curcumene
6.210 and 4.427; geranial 6.613 and 4.513; limonene 12.708 and 16.720; v-muurolene 9.476 and 9.025;
Neral 4.140 and 0.000; -pinene 5.405 and 3.534;-sesquiphellandrene 5.750 and 4.275; and -
zingiberene 9.476 and 8.930, respectively. (see study below) (54)
Properties
Extracts and active constituents have shown potent antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antimutagenic,
antimicrobial and possible anticancer activities.
Considered adaptogenic, anodyne, anthelmintic, antiallergenic, antibacterial, anticoagulant,
anticonvulsant, antidepressant, antifungal, antithrombotic, antitumore, antiulcer, aphrodisiac,
carminative, diuretic, rubefacient, anti-platelet aggregation, hypolipidemic, thermoregulatory.
Pungency is attributed to the pungent principle, zingerone and shogaol, while the aroma is imparted by
the volatile oil.
Considered stomachic, carminative, stimulant, diaphoretic, sialagogue, and digestive.
Parts utilized
Tops, leaves and edible roots.
Uses
Nutritional
- One of the most popular flavoring agents.
- Used as flavoring for confectioneries, ginger ale, ginger beer, ginger champagnes, and other
beverages.
- Tahu or salabat, a native beverage, is prepared from the rhizomes.
- A prominent condiment in Filipino cuisine.
- Taken with rock salt before meals is cleansing to the tongue and throat and increases the appetite.
- In Malaya fresh ginger is an important ingredient in curry.
Folkloric
- In the Philippines, pounded rhizome, alone or mixed with oil, used as revulsive and antirheumatic.
- As antiseptic, tincture of dried rhizome prepared with 70% alcohol (not rubbing alcohol) and applied on
superficial cuts and wounds; or, juice from fresh rhizome used similarly.
- As digestive aid and for flatulence and tympanism, decoction of the rhizome drunk as tea.
- Ginger juice rubbed on and around the navel is said to cure all kinds of diarrhea.
- For rheumatism, roasted rhizome is pounded and mixed with oil and applied locally.
- For sore throat and hoarseness, warm decoction of the rhizome is drunk as ginger tea (salabat); piece
of small rhizome chewed for the same.
- Rhizome used as cough remedy, rubefacient, carminative and diuretic.
- Also used for hangovers.
- For chronic rheumatism, ginger infusion ( 2 drams in 6 ounces of boiling water and strained) is taken at
bedtime
- Poulticed of pounded and warmed leaves applied to bruises.
- Ginger taken with rock salt before meals is said to clean the tongue and throat and increase the
appetite.
- Chewing ginger is said to diminish biliousness and delirium, relieve sore throat, hoarseness and
aphonia, and increases the flow of saliva.
- Dried ginger used as corrective adjunct to purgatives to prevent nausea and intestinal pain.
- Juice from fresh ginger in gradually increasing doses is a strong diuretic in cases of general dropsy.
- For headaches: Ginger plaster (bruised ginger in water to the consistency of poultice) is applied to the
forehead. Same preparation may be helpful for toothaches and facial pain.
- Hot infusion used for stoppage of menses due to cold.
- In Indo-China, cataplasm used for furuncles; when mixed with oil is antirheumatic. Rhizomes also used
for tuberculosis, general fatigue and uterine affections.
- In Perak, rhizomes used as vermifuge.
- In the Antilles powdered rhizome used as revulsive for pleuritis.
- In Ayurvedic medicine, used for inflammation and rheumatism.
- In India, used as carminative adjunct along with black pepper and long pepper.
- In Chinese folk medicine, pulverized fresh ginger used for baldness and vitiligo. Juice from fresh root
used for treatment of burns.
New uses
Motion Sickness / Pregnancy-related Nausea: Antiemetic properties. Used for Nausea, motion
sickness (1 gm taken 1/2 hour before the voyage). Stimulates digestion. Possibly antiinflammatory.
Preparations
Ginger tea
Ginger tea preparation, the Chinese way : Bring one cup of water to boil. Add one teaspoon of the
roasted (parched and browned) rice and a small piece of ginger root. Boil for one minute. Let stand to
cool for drinking. (Preparation of dried rice: Pour enough water to cover 1/2 cup white rice in a flat dish;
and let stand overnight. In the morning, drain off the excess water. Roast the rice in a dry pan, stirring
constantly until parched and brown. Store in a glass jar for future use, tightly covered to keep moisture
out.)
Ginger lozenges
Wash and peel the ginger, then mince.
Spread and air-dry for a day or oven-dry at 250 C.
Grind and strain the dried ginger.
* In a mortar, mix 1 cup ground ginger
and 1 cup confectioner's sugar.
Pound and mix while gradually adding
water until a pulp is formed.
Level the pulp on a board lined with
wax paper.
Using a mold, make balls from the pulp
and wrap each lozenge in aluminum foil.
Studies
Prokinetic: Pharmacological basis for
the medicinal use of ginger in
gastrointestinal disorders: Study
confirmed prokinetic activity of the
extract. Spasmolytic constituents may
explain its use in hyperactive states as
in colic and diarrhea.
Antidiarrheal: Study results indicate
that in the absence of antimicrobial
action, Z officinale exhibits its
antidiarrheal activity by affecting
bacterial and host cell metabolism.
Antibacterial: (1) Antibacterial Activity
Of Allium cepa (Onions) And Zingiber
officinale (Ginger) On Staphylococcus
aureus And Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Isolated From High Vaginal Swab: The
study showed both plants had
antibacterial activity on the test
organisms, ginger having more
inhibitory effect, and confirming their
folkloric use. (2) In a study on the
comparative effect of ginger and some
antibiotics on two pathogenic bacteria,
results showed the ginger extract of
both plant and root showed the highest antibacterial activity against S. aureus and Strep pyogenes while
three antibiotics showed less extent of activity compared to the ginger extract.
Anti-inflammatory / Anti-thrombotic:The use of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) as a potential anti-
inflammatory and antithrombotic agent: Study suggests ginger can be used as a cholesterol-lowering,
anti-thrombotic and anti-inflammatory agent.
Antioxidant / Anticancer: Study showed Zingiber officinale may exert its anticancer effect by
replacing the action of superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase in removing
superoxide radicals and hydrogen peroxide causing oxidative damage to cells.
Antibacterial (Garlic/Ginger) Synergism: Study investigated the therapeutic effects of ginger and
garlic against Klebsiella pneumonia, whether the combined extract could be synergistic or antagonistic in
rats. Study showed a synergistic relationship, garlic ameliorating the efficacy of ginger only against
Klebsiella infection.
Anti-Inflammatory / Anti-Arthritis / Prostaglandin Inhibition: Study suggests one of the
mechanisms by which ginger shows ameliorative effects could be through inhibition of prostaglandin and
leukotrine biosynthesis - as a dual inhibitor of eicosanoid biosynthesis.
Gastroprotective: Study results suggest cytoprotective and anti-ulcerogenic effects with significant
protection against ethanol-, HCl-, NaOH-induced gastric lesions and prevention of the occurrence of
gastric ulcers induced by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and hypothermic restrain stress.
Decreased Sperm Motility: Study results conclude that ginger can induce toxic effects on sperm
parameters, ie, a lower percentage of motility and grading when methanolic ginger is added to semen
fluid.
Hepatoprotective: Study of the ethanol extract of Z officinale showed protective effect against
paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity with better protective effect at higher dose levels.
Anti-Aging: Study in mice showed ginger extract significantly reduced the development of
atherosclerotic lesions and lowered LDL-cholesterol.
Anti-Inflammatory / Analgesic: Study of rhizome extract in Swiss mice showed anti-inflammatory and
analgesic properties with significant inhibition of carrageenan-induced paw edema and reduction of
writhing induced by acetic acid.
Pregnancy-Related Nausea: Reasonable evidence suggests that ginger roots is effective in reducing
pregnancy-related nausea. However, there is conflicting data on its efficacy for preventing motion
sickness or post-operative nausea.
Anti-Inflammatory / Antibacterial / Hypoglycemic / Analgesic: Study of ethanol extract showed (1)
reduction of carrageenan-induced paw swelling and yeast-induced fever (2) blood glucose lowering (3)
inhibition of gram- and gram+ bacteria (4) dose-dependent prostaglandin release inhibition.
Analgesic: Study demonstrated the daily consumption of raw and heat-treated ginger resulted in
moderate to large reduction in muscle pain following exercise-induced muscle injury. The findings agree
with findings of ginger's hypoalgesic effects in osteoarthritic patients.
Antiarthritic: Study of the alcoholic extract of ZO can ameliorate inflammatory processes in rat
collagen-induced arthritis, together with reduction of serum levels of interleukins, TNF, and anti-CII
antibodies. It also showed to be superior to indomethacin 2 mg/kg/d at most measured parameters. The
extract presents an alternative to NSAID use in RA.
Hypoalgesic Effect on Exercise-Induced Muscle Pain: Study on healthy volunteers showed daily
consumption of raw and heat-treated ginger resulted in moderate to large reductions in muscle pain
following exercise-induced muscle injury. (18)
Anticancer / Anti-Inflammatory: Ginger extract significantly reduced the expression of NFkB and
TNF-a in rats with liver cancer. It may act as an anticancer and anti-inflammatory by inactivating NFkB
through suppression of proinflammatory TNF-a.
Delayed Diabetic Cataract Progression: Results showed ginger was effective against the
development of diabetic cataracts in rats, mainly through its antiglycating potentiation, and also, through
an inhibition of the polyol pathway. As such, dietary sources, such as ginger, can be explored for its
potential in preventing or delaying diabetic complications. (23)
Neuroprotective / Memory Benefits: Study showed cognitive function and neurons density in rat
hippocampus receiving ginger rhizome extract were improved white the brain infarct volume decreased.
The effect may be through antioxidant activity of the extract. Results demonstrate the beneficial effect of
ginger rhizome in protecting against focal cerebral ischemia. (24)
Anti-Ulcerogenic Effect / Acetic Acid Induced Colitis: Study in a model of acute colitis showed
ginger hydroalcoholic extract was effective in protecting against experimental colitis. (25)
Antidiabetic / Amylase and Glucosidase Enzyme Inhibitory Effect: Studies have targeted digestive
enzymes as targets for modulation of glucose concentration through inhibition of enzymatic breakdown
of complex carbohydrates. In this study, glucosidase and amylase activities on rice were inhibited by the
addition of ginger with consequent significant reduction in glucose percentages. Results were
comparable to Acarbose on glucosidase activity. (26)
Antimicrobial / Anticancer: Study has showed many diarylheptanoids and gingerol-related
compounds from the rhizome of ZO possess significant antiproliferation activity on HL-60 cells, probably
through induction of cell apoptosis. Another study has shown ginger extract and 6-gingerol to both
directly interfere with colon cancer proliferation. Results show ginger's phytochemical potential for
chemoprevention and therapy. In this study, the ethanol and chloroform extracts were found to possess
antibacterial properties against 8 microorganisms.(27)
Antidiabetic / Hypolipidemic: Study evaluated an aqueous extract of raw ginger for hypoglycemic
potential of ginger in STZ-induced diabetic rats. Raw ginger was significant effective in lowering serum
glucose, cholesterol, triacylglycerol levels. Results indicate hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic potential.
Raw ginger was also effective in reversing diabetic proteinuria in diabetic rats. (30)
Cytotoxicity / Toxicity / Anticancer Activity / Cholangiocarcinoma: Study evaluated a crude
ethanolic extract of ginger against CCA in mice. Results from in vitro and in vivo studies showed
promising anticancer activity with an absence of any significant toxicity. However, MDR1 and MRP3 may
be involved in CCA resistance to the ginger extract.(31)
Cognitive Enhancer / Middle-Aged Women: Study evaluated the effect of ginger extract on cognitive
function of middle-aged, healthy women. Ginger-treated groups have significant decrease in P300
latencies, increased N100 and P300 amplitudes, with enhanced working memory. Results suggest
ginger to be a potential cognitive enhancer for middle-aged women. (32)
Anti-Liver Fibrosis: Extracts of ginger, particularly the ethanolic one, showed potential benefits for the
treatment of liver fibrosis induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). Evaluation was done using antioxidant
parameters, liver markers and liver function enzymes, and cholestatic markers. (33)
Cardiovascular Toxic Effects: Study evaluated the acute and subacute cardiovascular toxicity of
ginger in adult male albino rats. In high doses (500mg/kg) for 28 days, ginger produced both
hypotension and bradycardia with degenerative changes in cardiac myocyte fibers. The effects may be
partially due to vasodilatation with increased nitric oxide release or synthesis and partly from a calcium
channel blocking effect, and perhaps, a cholinomimetic effect.(34)
Ginger Benefits in Acute Chemotherapy-Induced Nausea: In a double-blind, multicenter trial using
placebo and various doses of ginger, results showed all doses of ginger significantly reduced acute
nausea compared to placebo. Results suggest ginger supplementation at a daily dose of 0.5 g to 1.0 g
significantly helps in reducing the severity of acute chemotherapy-induced nausea. (35)
Ginger Essential Oil for Post-Operative Nausea and Vomiting: A 5% solution of essential oil of
ginger in grape seed carrier oil, applied naso-cutaneously, can be administered safely for prevention and
management of nausea in general anesthesia patients at high risk for post-operative nausea and
vomiting.(36)
Synthesis of Nanoparticles: Study synthesized silver nanoparticles using Zingiber officinale extract
which acts as reducing agent as well as a stabilizing agent. The nanoparticles were stable at physiologic
conditions and were blood compatible. Z. officinale is reported to be a more portent antiplatelet agent
than aspirin. Its use as vectors for applications in drug therapy, gene delivery or as biosensors, where
there is direct blood contact is justified by the study. (37)
Pro-Fertility Reproductive Functions: Study investigated the effects of an aqueous extract of Z.
officinale in male reproductive functions in rats. Treatment cause a significant increase in testes and
epididymis weight, with dose and duration dependent increases in sperm count and motility, a significant
increase in testosterone level, and significant reduction of malonhydialdehyde levels. Results suggest
pro-fertility properties which may be due to its potent antioxidant properties and androgenic activities.
(38)
Hepatoprotection / Heavy Metals: Study evaluated the protective activity of Z. officinale against
mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd) accumulation in the liver. Z. officinale affected bioavailability,
elimination and uptake of the metals in a time-dependent manner with highest benefit in reducing Cd,
followed by Hg and least protection to Pb in the liver. (39)
Antibacterial: Study evaluated crude aqueous and organic extracts of rhizome of Z. officinale against
both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. The pattern of inhibition varied with solvent used for
extraction and organism tested. Extracts from organic solvents showed more consistent antibacterial
activity. Staphylococcus aureus was significant inhibited by almost all the extracts. (40)
Chemopreventive Against Aspartame Induced Testicular Toxicity / Roots: Study evaluated the
chemopreventive effect of Z. officinale roots against aspartame induced rat testicular toxicity.
Pretreatment with ginger extract produced a detectable decrease in lipid peroxidation level. Natural
components may have chemopreventive effects against aspartame related testicular toxicity. (41)
Terpenoids Induce Apoptosis in Endometrial Cancer Cells: Study showed terpenoids in steam
distilled extract of ginger are potent inhibitors of proliferation of endometrial cancer cells. Terpenoids
from SDGE mediate apoptosis by activating p53. (42)
Anti-Inflammatory in Type 2 Diabetes: Study evaluated the effect of ginger on pro-inflammatory
cytokines (IL-6 and TNF-a) and the acute phase protein hs-CRP in type2 diabetic patients. Results
showed ginger supplementation significantly reduced the levels of TNF-a, IL-6, and hs-CRP. It can
reduce inflammation in type 2 diabetic patients and may potentially diminish the risk of some chronic
complications of diabetes. (43)
Anti-Ulcerogenic / NSAID Induced Gastric Damage: Study evaluated the anti-ulcerogenic activity of
an extract of Z. officinale in indomethacin (NSAID) induced gastric damage in an animal model. The
ginger root significantly the gastric damage induced by indomethacin with an efficacy comparable to
omeprazole. (44)
Gingerol / Anti-Diabetic: Study investigating active constituents of the rhizome of Z. officinale
identified pungent phenolic gingerol constituents, of which (S)-[6] Gingerol was the most abundant
component. (S)-[8]-gingerol was the most potent on glucose uptake, the activity of which was found
associated primarily with an increase in surface distribution of GLUT4 in L6 muscle. The increase
glucose uptake in L6 rat skeletal muscle cells by gingerol pungent principles support the potential for the
use of ginger and its pungent components in the prevention and management of T2DM. (45)
Antioxidant on Formalin-Induced Testicular Toxicity: Study investigated the possible antioxidant
activity of Z. officinale ethanol extract on formalin-induced testicular toxicity in rats. A 10% formalin
triggered oxidative stress in testicles with a significant increase of MDA concentration. Rats exposed to
formalin and treated with the ginger extract significantly increased catalase (CAT) activity. Z. officinale
showed protective neutraceutical capacity to help overcome the oxidative stress induced by the
formalin. (46)
Antifungal / Synergism: Study evaluated the effect of an ethanolic extract of ginger on candida
albicans in vitro. Results showed pronounced activities against Candida albicans. Although ethanol in
itself has antifungal activity, the ethanol extract of ginger has synergistic activity. (47)
Improvement of Growth and Enhanced Immunity in Aquaculture: Review focuses on the use of
ginger as growth promoter, antimicrobial agent, and antioxidant and as immunostimulant in aquaculture.
(49)
Potential Use in Rheumatoid Arthritis: Zingiber officinale has been traditionally used as alternative
medicine for rheumatoid arthritis. Review discusses variious phytochemical constituents of ginger with
potential therapeutic roles in amelioration of RA symptoms and possibly RA itself. (50)
Homeopathic Z. officinale in the Treatment of Acne Vulgaris: A prospective, non-randomized open-
llabel study evaluated the effectiveness of homeopathic Z. officinale for the treatment of acne vulgaris in
32 participants. Results showed statistically significnt (p<0.001) changes in lesion counts, GAGS scores
and Acne-QoL scores were observed. (52)
Effects of Ginger on Nausea and Vomiting in Early Pregnancy / Meta-Analysis: A meta-analysis of
clinical trials was conducted on the use of ginger for NVEP. Criteria selected were: (1) randomized
placebo-controlled design; (2 use of ginger or Z. officinale; and (3) extractable data on improvement in
NVEP. Meta-analysis concludes that ginger is an effective nonpharmacological option for the treatment
of NVEP. (53)
Differences in Active Compounds between Fresh and Dried Gingers: Studies have shown
differences in the chemical compositions between fresh and dried gingers. There are two groups of
active compounds: volatile essential oils and fragrant or harsh phenol compounds. Fresh ginger yielded
38 compounds while dried ginger yielded 43 compounds. Dried ginger yielded seven more compounds:
linalool, terpinen-4-ol, a-terpineol, citronellol, -neral, o-elemene, and neryl acetate. By contrast, neral
and trans-farnesal in fresh ginger are not detected in dried ginger. (see constiituents above) (link to
study for details on constituents) (54)
Antispasmodic: Study evaluated the antispasmodic effect of ginger on rat intestine in vitro. The
antispasmogenic effect of ginger was apparent in the in vitro experiment on rat jejunum as eviidenced by
reduction in magniture of ACh induced contraction. (55)
Effect on Salivation: Study evaluated the effect of systemic administration of seven different herbal
extracts on the rate of salivation in rats. Of the seven, the salivation induced by ginger was significantly
higher (p<0.01). Further studies are suggested to identify the responsible constituent for stimulation of
saliva secretion. (56)
Renoprotective Effects in Glycerol Induced Damage: Study evaluated the protective effects of
ginger extract on glycerol-induced acute renal failure in Sprague-Dawley rats. The ginger extract
significantly decreased the markedly increased serum creatinine, Na+ and BUN in glycerol-treated rats.
All adverse effects were reversed by ginger supplementation. Results suggest ginger can be used as a
nephroprotective nutrient. (57)
Acute and Subacute Cardiotoxicity: Study evaluated the acute and subacute cardiovascular toxicity
of ginger in adule male albino rats. In acute toxicity study, a single dose of 2500 mg/kg can be toxic by
causing severe hypotension and bradycardia with induction of prenecrotic changes in the cardiac tissue.
In subacute toxicity testing, a daily dose of 50 mg/kg for 28 days produced bradycardia with waviness in
the cardiac muscle fibers; 500 mg/kg for 28 days produced hypotension and bradycardia with
degenerative changes in cardiac myocyte tissue. The hypotensive and bradycardic effects may be
partially due to induction of vasodilatation by increasing NO release or synthesis and partially due to
calcium channel blocking effect. (58)
Antimicrobial: Study evaluated various extracts of onions (Allium cepa) and ginger (Z. officinale)
against E. coli, S. typhi, and B subtilis, common causes of gastrointestinal infects. The ethanolic extract
of ginger gave the widest zone of inhibition against two of the three test organisms. Although both plants
had antiimicrobial activities on the two gram negative test organisms but not effective on the gram
positive test organism, ginger showed more inhibitory effect. (59)
Anti-Parasitic on Limnatis nilotica: Study evaluated the anti-parasitc effect of Z. officinale on
Limnatis nilotica leech population. Results showed antiparasitic and disinfectant activities causing less
toxic effects than chemical drugs. (60)
Effect on Platelet Aggregation: Review did a systematic review on results of clinical and
observational studies on the effect of gnger on platelet aggregation. Review concludes that the evidence
that ginger affects platelet aggregation and coagulation is equivocal and further study is need to address
the question. (61)
Anti-Inflammatory: Study evaluated the anti-inflammatory activity of aqueous extract of ginger in adult
albino rats in acute and chronic inflammatory settings. Results showed decreased signs of both acute
and chronic inflammation and was comparable to standard anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac sodium.
(62)
Effect on Fatty Liver Induced by Oxytetracycline: Study evaluated the potential therapeutic and
protective effects of Z. officinale against oxytetracycline induced fatty liver in albino rats. Treatment with
ginger ameliorated most of the abnormal biochemical parameters and improved the induced
degenerative histopathological changes. Pretreatment with ginger prior to induction of fatty liver gave
some protection against factors that experimentally induced fatty liver. (63)
Antiparasitic / Anti-Toxoplasmosis / Roots: Study evaluated the antiparasitic effect of ginger root
extract and GE/F1 fraction against Toxoplasma gondii in vitro and in vivo. The GE/F1 strongly inhibited
the proliferation of T. gondii-infected C6 cells and T. gondii in a dose-dependent manner compared to
sulfadiazine. The GE/F1 not only induces anti-T. gongii effects causing inactivation of apoptotic proteins
in infected hos cells through direct inhibition of T. gondii but also has antiparasitic properties which inhbit
inflammatory cytokine secretion in vivo. (64)
Effect on Serum Lipids: Study evaluated the lipid lowering activity of ginger in male rabbits. Results
showed highly significant reduction in cholesterol together with highly significant reduction of
triglycerides and LDL. The ginger extract was more efficient than atorvastatin in lowering of lipids. (65)
Anti-Emetic in Cancer Chemotherapy / Review: Review presents the anti-emetic observations and
variability in response of the anti-emetic effects of ginger in cancer chemotherapy. Preclinical studies
with experimental animals (dogs and rats have shown various extracts and ginger juice possess anti-
emetic effects against chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. Gingerl, the active principle, has
been shown to possess anti-emetic effects in minks. In humans, while most studies have been
supportive of preclinical observations, s few have beenn contradictory. While the exact anti-emetic
mechanism is unknown, ginger phytochemicals, especially 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, 10-gingerol, and 6-
shogaol, may function as 5-HT3 antagonist, NK1 antagonist, antihistamiic, and possess prokinetic
effects. (66)
Antidepressant: Study evaluated the effect of Z. officinale hydroalcoholic extract as well as its
interaction with conventional anxiolytic and antidepressant drugs usiing tail suspension and forced swim
tests. Results showed antidepressant activity comparable to standard drug. The antidepressant effect
seem to be mainly associated with activation of dopaminergic system. (67)
Extraction of Z. officinale Oil by Soxhlet Distillation: Zingiberene is the main compound of ginger.
Study reports on the extraction of ginger oil by Soxhlet distillation. Of four solvent types, methanol gave
the highest yield of ZO oil at 8 hours extraction time which is 27.33% of mass yield. (68)
Concerns / Drug Interactions

The German Commission E recommends that it be avoided during pregnancy due to possible inhibition
of testosterone binding in the fetus.
The use in pregnancy for hyperemesis gravidarum is controversial. Some suggest it should not be
recommended for nausea during pregnancy. Caution is given to use by pregnant women with a history
of bleeding disorders and miscarriages. (see meta-analysis study above 53)
Anticoagulant concerns: Ginger can have moderate Interactions with medications that slow blood
clotting (anticoagulants) and drugs that can decrease platelet adhesiveness (antiplatelet drugs) with
increased potential for bruising and bleeding. Other medications that may slow blood clotting are
clopidogrel, diclofenac, ibuprofen, naproxen, dalteparin, enoxaparin, heparin, warfarin, and others. (51)
Minor interactions: Medications for diabetes may interact with ginger and cause lowering of blood
sugar (glimepiride, glyburine, insuln, pioglitazone, glipizide, etc.). Ginger can also interact with medicines
that lower blood pressure such as calcium channel blockers (nifedipine, diltiazen, felodipine, amlodipine,
and others.) (51)
Availability
Wild-crafted.
Popular condiment and perennial market produce.
Candied ginger and lozenges.
Dried powdered gingeroot.
Tinctures, tablets, capsules, syrups and teas in the cybermarket.
Updated June 2017 / April 2014

Mais
Zea mays
CORN
Pao mi
Scientifica names Common names
Zea mays L. Gahilang (Ig.)
Yu shu shu (Chin.) Igi (Bon.)
Mait (It.)
Maize (Engl.)
Magi (Ibn.)
Tibi, (Bon.)
Tigi (Bon.)
Corn (Engl.)
Pao mi (Chin.)

ARABIC: Dhurah, Dhurah shamiyah, Surratul makkah.
CHINESE: Yu mi xu, Zhen zhu mi, Bio gu, Bio lu.
CROATIAN: Kukuruz.
DANISH: Majs.
DUTCH: Mas, Korrelmas, Turkse tarwe, Turkse koren.
ESTONIAN: Mais.
FINNISH: Maissi.
FRENCH: Mas, Bl turc, Bl d'Egypte, Bl des Indes, Bl de Turquie.
GERMAN: Krnermais, Echter Mais, Trkisches Korn, Tuerkisher Mais, Tuerkisher Weizen.
HINDI: Anaaj, Makka, Makaa'i, Makaa.
ITALIAN: Granturco, Granoturco, Formentone, Grano di Turchia, Mais.
JAPANESE: Toumorokoshi (Tmorokoshi), Fiirudo koon.
KHMER: Pt.
KOREAN: Ok soo soo.
LAOTIAN: Khauz ph':d, Khauz sa:li:.
MALAY: Jagong, Jagung (Indonesia).
PERSIAN: Gaudume makka.
PORTUGUESE: Milho, Milho forrageiro.
RUSSIAN: Kukuruza obyknovennaia.
SPANISH: Maz, Maz comun, Mijo turquesco.
SWEDISH: Majs.
TAMIL: Makka cholam, Mokkaiccoolam.
THAI: Khaaophot (Khaophot).
TURKISH: Kokoroz
URDU: Anaaj.
VIETNAMESE: Ng
ZAPOTEC: Lox yela'
Botany
Mais is a very coarse, erect, tall grass, 1.5 to 2 meters high. Stem is solid, with a soft and spongy center.
Leaves are numerous and close together, 30 to 100 centimeters long and 2 to 10 centimeters wide,
linear lanceolate. Male inflorescence is erect and terminal; the female inflorescence on the axils of the
leaves, cylindric and large. The individual fruit (grain) is is roundish or reniform, compressed, smooth,
shining, yellow, white, reddish or even purplish-black.
Distribution
- Extensively cultivated in most parts of the Philippines. In some islands and provinces, it is a staple
article of food.
- Native of America.
- Extensively grown in the tropics and temperate regions of the world.
Constituents
- Analysis showed percentage of
carbohydrate is high, with a good content of
protein and fat, with a higher percentage of
protein and fat than any other cereal.
- Corn lacks gluten.
- Constituents: Flavonoids, chlorogenic
acid, saponins, volatile alkaloid, allantoin,
tannins, resin.
- Corn silk yields maizeric acid, 2%; fixed
oil; resin; sugar; mucilage and salts.
Properties
Considered anodyne, antilithic, antiseptic,
cholagogue, demulcent, diuretic,
hypoglycemic, hypotensive, lithotriptic,
tonic, vasodilator.
Parts used
Hairs and cobs.
Uses
Edibility / Nutritional
Edible parts: Pollen, seed (raw or cooked), stem.
Good source of carbohydrates, B vitamins (riboflavin and thiamine), vitamin A and C, potassium and
zinc; rich in protein.
Corn syrup is used in the manufacture of jams, jellies and other sweets.
Corn syrup is often used in combination with cane sugar and maple syrup.
Corn starch is well known for its many uses.
Edible oil is obtained from the seed, used for salads or cooking.
Roasted seed use as a coffee substitute.
Folkloric
Diuretic: Take decoction of hairs or cobs as tea.
Decoction of pith of cob as tea is used for stomach complaints.
Decoction of roots, leaves, and corn silk used for dysuria, bladder complaints, and bed-wetting.
The water in which unhusked corn is boiled is a pleasant tasting remedy for urinary tract infection. The
corn silk decoction is also thought to be diuretic.
Good emollient poultice used for ulcers, rheumatic pains and swellings.
Decoction of parched corn (burned or roasted) taken as tea for nausea and vomiting.
Infusion of parched corn allays the nausea and vomiting of many diseases.
Kidney stones: Infusion of corn hair in hot water, 3x daily.
Poultice of corn silk for wounds and sores.
In Europe, corn silk (stigma) used for genitourinary diseases. Also used for similar purposes in French
Guinea, India, Spain and Greece.
In China, corn silk is used for fluid retention and jaundice.
Others
The embryo is rich in oil and used widely for cooking, manufacture of soaps.
Sticky gum containing dextrin used for sealing envelops and gummed labels.
Corn syrup is used in the manufacture of jams, jellies and other sweets.
Corn starch is well known for its many uses.
Glue made from the start in the seed.
Used for making alcohol.
Cobs used to supply potash and by distillation can yield acetic acid and acetone. By controlled
fermentation, may also yielded nitro-cellulose lacquers.
Starch used in cosmetics.
Stem fiber used in making paper.
Corn spathe used for making straw hats and baskets.
Preparation
Corn silk infusion, fresh or dried: cystitis, 1 cup 3x daily.
As tincture: 3 cc (50 drops) 3x daily for cystitis.
Studies
Diuretic / Histopathological Studies: Three indigenous medicinal plants were studied: C citratus, R
sativus, and Zea mays. No morphometrical or histological changes were noted in the liver and kidney of
rats. Study concludes that the common use of these indigenous diuretic plants is safe.
Diuretic / anti-lithiasis effect: The influence of Zea mays on urinary risk factors for kidney stones in
rats: The study suggests the possible antilithiatic effect of ZM infusion is probably through some diuretic
activity.
No Diuretic Effect: In a study of four traditional Vietnamese herbal remedies (Z mays, I cylindrica,
Plantago major, O stamineus) claiming to increase diuresis, no diuretic effect was seen in a placebo-
controlled double-blind crossover model.
Anti-Diabetic: The Favorable Effect of Style of Zea mays L. on Streptozotocin Induced Diabetic
Nephropathy: Study indicates the WE of ZM suppressed the progression of diabetic glomerular sclerosis
in ST-induced diabetic rat.
Anti-Tumor Necrosis Factor: Interfering with leukocyte adhesion is important in the treatment of
bacterial sepsis and inflammatory diseases. Study of the crude methanolic extract of Zea mays exhibited
significant TNF antagonistic activity and concludes that corn silk has potential for TNF- and LPS-
mediated leukocyte adhesion and trafficking.
Renal Effects: In water-loaded conscious rats (2.5 cc/100 body wt), corn silk aqueous extract was
found to be diuretic at 500 mg KBW and kaliuretic at 300 and 500 mg KBW. At 5.0 cc/100 g BW, CSAE
is kaliuretic at 500 mg KBW but glomerular filtration and filter load decreased without affecting proximal
tubular function, sodium or uric acid excretion.
Antibacterial Activity: Zea mays alcoholic extract showed activity against Klebsiella pneumonia, E
coli, Salmonella paratyphi A, Salmonella typhi and B. subtilis.
Dissecting Tocopherols Content: Study identified QTLs (quantitative trait loci) with major effects in
the natural variation of tocopherols in maize grain. Study provides a guideline for breeders to improve
traits that can minimize the risk of malnutrition, especially in developing countries.
Mays Hair Extracts / Phytochemicals and Phenolic Content: Study screening mays hair extracts for
bioactive compounds yielded saponins, flavonoids, tannins, phlobatannins, phenols, alkaloids, and
cardiac glycosides in both aqueous and methanolic extracts. Findings suggest potential applications as
therapeutic and antioxidative agents in pharmaceuticals, food, and other related industries.
Nutritional Evaluation of Baby Corn: Study showed baby corn is a good source of various nutrients
like protein, carbohydrates, crude and dietary fibers, and is a par or even superior in nutritional qualities
to many other commonly used vegetables.
Availability
Corn silk, tea extracts in the cybermarkets.

Makabuhay
Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook.f. & Thomson
HEAVENLY ELIXIR
Fa leng teng

Menispermum crispum Linn. Makabuhai (Tag., Bis., Ilk.)
Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson Makabuhay (Tag., Ilk.)
Tinospora gibbericaulis Hand.-Mazz. Paliaban (Bis.)
Tinospora mastersii Diels Paliahan (Bis.)
Tinospora thorelii Gagnep. Panauan (Bis.)
Pagiauan (Bis.)
Pagiauban (Bis.)
Sagaunau (Bag,)
Taganagtagua (Bis.)
Taganagtagwag (Tag., Bis.)
Tagua (Bis.)
Heavenly elixir (Engl)
Tinospora rumphii Boerl. is a synonym of Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson The Plant List
Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson is an accepted name The Plant List

CHINESE: Bo ye qing niu dan, Fa leng teng.
FRENCH: Liane-quinine.
INDIA: Giloya.
MALAYSIA: Akar patawali, Akar seruntum.
THAI: Bora phet, Chung ching, Kuakhohoo (Don Daeng), Wan kab hoi yai.
Botany
Makabuhay is a climbing,
dioecious vine reaching a height
of 4 to 10 meters. Stems are up to
1 centimeter thick and somewhat
fleshy, with scattered
protuberances. Leaves are thin,
ovate, 6 to 12 centimeters long,
and 7 to 12 centimeters wide, with
pointed and truncate or somewhat
heart-shaped based, smooth and
shining. Petioles are 3.5 to 6
centimeters long. Racemes are
solitary or in pairs arising from
axils of fallen leaves, pale green,
slender, 10 to 20 centimeters
long. Flowers are pale green and
short pedicelled. Fruit is 8
millimeters long, in long clusters.
Additional info
- Classified in Ayurvedic medicine
as a rasayana herb, meaning
"circulation of the nutrient" in
Sanskrit, considered to enhance
longevity, promote intelligence
and prevent
disease.(www.prevention.com)
- Propagated by stem cuttings or
seeds. Support needed for
climbing.
Distribution
- In and nearby towns in thickets,
in most or all islands of the
Philippines.
- Perhaps an introduced species.
- Occurs in Malaya.
Chemical constituents
Plant contains a bitter principle, colombine (2.22%); traces of an alkaloid; and a glucoside. Also
contains a amorphous bitter principle, picroretine and traces of berberine.
A study showed that the bitter extract of the stem does not contain an alkaloid.
Leaves yielded picroretine, traces of an alkaloid, and a substance similar to glyzirrhizin.
Bitter principle is glucosidal in nature.
Study reported two alkaloids, tinosporine and tinosporidine. (Later studies failed to confirm these.)
Study yielded two new diterpenes along with known compounds tinotufolin D and vitexilactone. (7)
Ethanol extract of vines yielded three new diterpenoids, 2-O-lactoylborapetoside B (1), 6-O-
lactoylborapetoside B (2), and tinocrispol A (3), and nine known diterpenoids (412). (see study below)
(28)
Prozimate analysis of stem (S) and leaves (L) yielded: protein 4.7% (L) 1.2% (S), fat 1.5% (L) 0.43%
(S), carbohydrate 11.8% (L) 19.4% (S), ash 2.7% (L) 1.1% (S), moisture 79.3 (L) 77.9% (S), fiber 1.59%
(L) 0.65% (S). (see study below) (37)
Properties
- Considered febrifuge, vulnerary, tonic, antimalarial, parasiticide, and insecticidal.
- Studies suggest cardiotonic, antioxidant, antidiarrheal, antimicrobial, antidiabetic,
antiproliferative, hypolipidemic, antimalarial, antinociceptive properties.
Parts utilized
Stems and leaves.
Uses
Edibility
The basis of a popular preparation used as cordial, tonic, or ingredient in cocktails.
Folkloric
Decoction of leaves and stems used for malaria and fever and as a tonic (40 gms to
pint of boiling water).
Scabies: Crush fresh stem and apply juice over the affected.
Tropical ulcers and wound healing: Decoction of the stem as wash, or crush stem,
soak in oil for 12 hours and apply oil extract on affected areas.
Pounded stem, mixed with coconut oil, has been used for a variety of rheumatic and
arthritic complaints; also for abdominal colic.
Used for athlete's foot.
Used for fertility regulation.
Preparation with coconut oil use as cure for rheumatism; also for flatulence (kabag) in
children.
Decoction or powder form of plant used as febrifuge. Decoction of stem used as
vulnerary for itches, ordinary and cancerous wounds.
Aqueous extract used for treatment of stomach trouble, indigestion, and diarrhea.
Rheumatism and flatulence: mixture of the vine with oil. Cut 100 gms of the vine in
small pieces, mix with 3 ounces of coconut oil. Place in bottle and "cook" under the sun
for 5-7 days.
For stomach ulcers: stem is pounded inside a plastic bag, water is added, strained,
and drank once daily. Also, stems are dried, thinly sliced, decocted, then drank.
Used by nursing mothers to assist in weaning infants off breast-feeding. The bitter
juice of the stem is applied to the nipple area causing the infant's aversion to breast-
feeding and facilitating transfer to breast feeding.
Internally, used as tonic and antimalarial; externally, as parasiticide.
In Malaysia, extract taken orally to treat hyperglycemia. Also, used for treatment of malaria.
In Thailand, wood decoction used for diabetes, fever and to reduce thirst; also used as appetizer.
Others
As pesticide (rice blackbugs, rice green leafhoppers, rice stem borers) using pounded chopped vines
stirred in one liter of water and sprayed on seedlings before transplanting or soaking the seedlings
overnight before transplanting.
Makabuhay, with madre de cacao and hot red pepper extract in water sprayed on rice plants at weekly
intervals.
New applications
- Being studied for it possible stimulant effect on the immune system. Anecdotal benefits for a variety of
HIV-related complaints.
Recent uses and preparations
Used Preparation of ointment: Wash and chop 1/2 glass of stem. Saut chopped stem on low fire for
about five minutes in one glass of coconut oil. Remove the stems then add half a glass of grated white
candle wax. When the wax is melted, pour
into clean bottle and label. Use the ointment over the whole body, save the face area, for three
consecutive nights.
Caution
Should not be used by pregnant women. Some caution use by patients with cardiac disorders.
Studies
Hay Fever / Allergic Rhinitis: A study in the Indira Ghandi Medical College showed it effective in
relieving symptoms of hay fever or allergic rhinitis. The study used the supplement Tinofend 300 mg
three times a day.
Anti-scabies: Tinospora rumphii Boerl. (Makabuhay) in the Treatment of Scabies: The study
established the acaricidal property of Tinospora rumphii. A concomitant antimicrobial action could not be
ruled out.
Furanoid Diterpenes: Study yielded cleordane type furanoid diterpenes: a new rumphioside I and
known borapetodies C and F, plus three other compounds. (6)
Clerodane Diterpenes: Study yielded two new diterpenes (1 and 2) from the leaves of Tinospora
rumphii, along with known compounds tinotufolin D and vitexilactone. (7)
Swine Diarrhea Control: Study showed reduction of diarrhea with use of 25% fresh makabuhay
decoction from day 15-35 in piglets with diarrhea. (8)
Antifertility Effect: Study on Sprague-Dawley rats investigated the effect of T rumphii on the activity of
3-B-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity in the ovary. (9)
Hypoglycemic / Hypolipidemic: Study on the extract of Tinospora cordifolia roots for 6 weeks resulted
in a significant reduction of blood and urine glucose and lipids in serum and tissues in alloxan diabetic
rats. (10)
Antimicrobial / Diterpenes: Study on chloroform extract of air-dried leaves yielded a new clerodane
diterpene, B2, and known diterpenes B1, tinotufolin D (B5) and vitexilactone (B3). B2 was found to have
antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger and T. mentagrophytes, and antibacterial activity against P.
aeruginosa and Bacillus subtilis. (11)
Hypoglycemic / Insulinotropic Activity: Study of aqueous extract on alloxan-diabetic rats showed
significant reduction of blood glucose and higher levels of serum insulin levels. The insulinotropic effect
was also evident in perfused human and rat islets and HIT-T5 B cells. Results suggest the hypoglycemic
effect is associated with increased insulin secretion. (14)
No Diabetic Benefits / Human Study: Study of dry powder capsule of Tinospora crispa in healthy and
type 2 diabetic patients showed no effect on serum glucose and insulin levels. The result was
inconsistent with other studies in animal model and metabolic syndrome subjects. (15)
Anti-TNF-a / Prevention of Atherosclerosis-related Cardiovascular Diseases: Study investigated
an aqueous and methanol extract on Tumor Necrosis Factor induced inflammation on Human Umbilical
Vein Endothelial cells in vitro. Results showed T. crispa extracts have an inhibitory effect in vitro on the
levels of inflammation signaling molecules and may have potential in the development of nutraceuticals
for the prevention of atherosclerosis-related cardiovascular diseases. (16)
Toxicity Study / Hepatic and Renal Toxicity / Prolonged Use Concern: Results of chronic toxicity
study of ethanolic extract showed hepatic and renal toxicity potential in rats. Results suggest prolonged
use of high doses of T. crispa in humans should be avoided or discontinued immediately if signs of liver
or renal toxicities occur while using T. crispa. (17)
Antimicrobial / Cytotoxicity / Antioxidant: Various extracts showed very significant cytotoxicity on
brine shrimp lethality bioassay. Strong antioxidant activity was seen on DPPH assay. A chloroform
soluble fraction of the methanolic extract showed significant activity against tested organisms on
antimicrobial screening. (18)
Borapetoside C / Improved Insulin Sensitivity: Study isolated the hypoglycemic actions of
borapetoside C isolated from T. crispa. Results showed borapetoside C can increase glucose utilization,
delay the development of insulin resistance and enhance insulin sensitivity. (19)
Antioxidative / Antiatheroslcerosis: Study investigated the effect of T. crispa stem aqueous extract in
hypercholesterolemic-induced rabbits. Results showed improvement in lipid profile (decreased total
cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL, and increased HDL). Extract also showed strong antioxidative properties
and markedly reduced atheroslcerotic lesion formation. Results suggest a potential for incorporation of T.
crispa as part of therapeutic regimens in the prevention of atherosclerosis. (20)
Hepatotoxin Concerns: Study evaluated the effect of an ethanolic extract of dried stems of T. crispa i
a male rat model of hepatic fibrosis caused by the hepatotoxin, thioacetamide. Results showed a
significant increase in the activity of liver enzymes. The in vivo study establishes the extract contains
hepatotoxins and suggests reliance on data from in vitro methodologies may lead to erroneous
conclusions. (21)
Antioxidative / Anti-Proliferative: Study evaluated the cytotoxicity potential and antioxidant activity of
various extracts. A methanol extract showed the highest flavonoid and phenolic content, with highest
scavenging activity in a dose-dependent manner. T. crispa also showed dose-dependent antiproliferative
activity against many types of cancer cells. (22)
Cardiotonic / Cycloeucalenol and Cycloeucalenone: Study isolated two triterpenes from the stems,
namely, cycloeucalenol and cycloeucalenone. Results showed mild cardiotonic effects: cycloeucalenol
slightly increased right atrial force contractions and reduction in left atria of rat in vitro, while
cycloeucalenone showed slight change from control on right and left atrial force. (23)
Borapetol B / Antidiabetic: Study evaluated the antidiabetic properties of borapetol B (C1) isolated
from T. crispa in normoglycemic and spontaneous type 2 diabetic rats. Results showed 2-fold increase in
plasma insulin levels in treated rats. C1 dose-dependently increased insulin secretion in isolated islet
cells. Results suggest borapetol B has antidiabetic effects due to its stimulation of insulin release. (25)
Antimalarial / Plasmodium berghei: Study evaluated the antimalarial activity of T. crispa methanol
extract of dried stem powder against P. berghei infection in mice. The crude extract exhibited dose-
dependent antimalarial activity with strong inhibitory effect when used in combination with
pyrimethamine. (26)
Anti-MRSA Activity: Study evaluated the antibacterial effect and interaction between Tinospora crispa
and S. mahagoni extracts against Methicillin-resistant strains of S. aureus (MRSA). Both extracts were
effective against MESA strains. However, no interaction or synergism was found in the two-plant
combination. (27)
Hypoglycemic Diterpenoids / Borapetoside C: Study of EtOH extract of vines yielded three new
diterpenoids and nine known diterpenoids. Compounds 4-6 (borapetosides A-C) were examined for in
vivo hypoglycemic activities. Results showed significant lowering of plasma glucose levels in normal and
STZ-induced type 1 diabetic mice. Borapetoside C exhibited a hypoglycemic effect with increased
peripheral glucose utilization and reduced hepatic gluconeogenesis. (see constituents above) (28)
Immunomodulatory / Antioxidant: Study evaluated the immunomodulatory effect of T. crispa.
Findings showed T. crispa had higher antioxidant potential than ascorbic acid. T. crispa exhibited an
immunomodulatory effect through stimulation of INF-, IL-6, and IL-8 expressions. The
immunomodulatory effect might be due to cordioside, quercetin, and eicosenoic acid from the T. crispa
fraction. (29)
Effect on Blood Pressure and Heart Rate / Stems: Study evaluated the effects and mechanism of
action of an n-butanol extract of stems on blood pressure and heart rate in anesthetized rats. Findings
suggest T. crispa possesses at least three different cardiovascular-active components that act via (1) 2-
adrenergic receptors to cause a decrease in blood pressure, and 1 - and 2 -adrenergic receptors to
cause an increase in heart rate, (2) -adrenergic receptors to cause an increase in blood pressure and
heart rate, and (3) a non-adrenergic and non- cholinergic pathway to cause a decrease in MAP and heart
rate. (30)
Alpha-Glucosidase Inhibitory Activity of Endophytic Actinomycetes: Study isolated and selected
alpha glucosidase inhibitor-producing endophytic actinomycetes from various diabetic medicinal plants.
Of fourteen studied plants, the highest inhibition activity to alpha-glucosidase was shown by BWA65
found from Tinospora crispa. Production of alpha-glucosidase inhibitor compounds in the plant was
largely due to the contribution of actinomycetes endophytes. Findings suggest any plant can contain
several endophytic microbes that can produce compounds or secondary metabolites. (31)
Antimetastatic / Head & Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma Cell Line: Study investigated the effect of
T. crispa extract on matrix metalloproteinase-13 (MMP-13) expression and cell migration. Findings
suggest T. crispa could be considered a potential therapeutic drug to prevent metastasis of HNSCC
(head and neck squamous cell carcinoma). (32)
Anti-Atherogenic / Antioxidant: Study evaluated the lipid lowering and antioxidant effects of T. crispa
in rabbits fed with a high cholesterol diet. Results suggest the supplementation with T. crispa extract can
reduce or retard the progression of atherosclerotic plaque development induced by high cholesterol diet.
The antiatherogenic effect could be due to enhanced serum HDL, increase antioxidant status and
flavonoid composition. (33)
Wound Healing / Stem: Study evaluated the effect of Tinospora crispa on wound healing in diabetic
albino mice given intraperitoneally and with local ointment application. Results showed potential benefits
as remedy for diabetic wound healing, possibly through reduction of blood glucose level and prevention
of microbial infection in the affected area. The addition of the ointment did not significantly contribute to
wound healing with regards wound healing time and percent wound contraction. (35) Study evaluated a
methanol and chloroform extract of stems of T. crispa for healing efficiency on excision wound model in
albino rats. The methanol and chloroform fractions showed significant wound healing effect comparable
with standard drug use. The methanol fraction ointment showed greater activity than the chloroform
fraction. (48)
Protective Against Malaria-Induced Renal Damage and Hemolysis / Stem: Study of Tinospora
crispa stem extract showed protective effects on renal damage and hemolysis during Plasmodium
berghei infection. Potent antioxidant activity of the extract may play a central role in protecting against
oxidative stress induced by malaria. T. crispa stem extract has also been reported to have antimalarial
activity against P. yoelii infection in mice. (36)
Antiproliferative / Stem: Study evaluated the antioxidant and anti-proliferative activity of aqueous
crude extract of T. crispa stem. No significant toxicity was recorded, with IC50 value of more than 1000
g/ml. Extract exhibited moderate anti-proliferative activity on selected human cancer cell lines (IC50
MCF-7 107 g/ml, HeLa 165 g/ml, Caov-3 100 g/ml, and HepG2 165 g/ml. (see constituents
above) (37)
No Benefit as Additional Treatment in T2 Diabetes / Clinical Trial: A randomized double-blind
placebo controlled trail evaluated the efficacy of T. crispa as additional treatment in patients with T2
diabetes mellitus who did not respond to oral hypoglycemic drugs and refused insulin injection therapy.
Results showed no antidiabetic benefit. Patients on T. crispa had significant weight reduction and
cholesterol elevation. Moreover, study suggests an increased risk of hepatic dysfunction with T. cripa
treatment supplementation. (38)
Antimicrobial / Roots: Study evaluated various extracts of roots of T. crispa for in vitro antimicrobial
activity against gram positive bacterial strains of Streptococcus pneumonia, gram negative strains of E.
coli, and fungal strains of Candida albicans. A methanol extract exhibited moderate zone of inhibition
against the bacterial strains used. An ethanol extract showed maximum inhibition against growth of
Candida albicans. (39)
Antioxidant / Stem: Study evaluated the antioxidant activity of T. crispa. Stem extract showed high
antioxidant activity in the following order: DPPH > reducing power > metal chelating,98.8%, 0.957,
81.97%, respectively. The high antioxidant activity was attributed to apigenin and magnoflorine. There
was high correlation with total phenolic content and DPPH free radical scavenging activity of T. crispa.
(40)
Hepatoprotective / Thioacetamide Hepatotoxicity: Study evaluated an ethanolic extract of dried
stems of T. crispa in a male rat model of hepatic fibrosis caused by the hepatotoxin, thioacetamide. (41)
Mechanisms of Anti-Hyperglycemic Action / Review: The mechanisms of anti-hyperglycemic
actions are due to stimulation of insulin secretion, enhancement of glucose utilization in peripheral
tissues and reduction of hepatic gluconeogenesis. Borapetoside A and C are active ingredients for
lowering plasma glucose. In human studies, the anti-hyperglycemic effect shown in metabolic syndrome
is not evident in type 2 diabetes mellitus. (42)
Hepatoprotective in Malarial Infection: One of the major causes of death in malaria is organ damage
to the liver. In the study, liver damage during malarial infection was evidenced by significant (p<0.05)
increase in AST and ALT with markedly increased albumin. Study in mice showed T. crispa extract
exhibited hepatoprotective effect during malarial infection. at dose of 500 mg/kg. (43)
Anti-MRSA Activity / No Synergism with S. mahagoni: Study showed the extracts of T. crispa and
S. mahagoni were effective against MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) strains.
However, the combination of the two plants showed no synergism against MRSA strains. (44)
Antimalarial / Plasmodium yoelii: Study evaluated the in vivo antimalarial effect of crude extract of
Tinospora crispa in mice inoculated with Plasmodium yoelii. Results showed dose-dependent anti-
malarial effect. (45)
Antimalarial / Plasmodium falciparum / Stem: Study evaluated the anti-plasmodial activity of T.
crispa stem extract against P. falciparum 3D7 strain in vitro. Results showed anti-plasmodial activity with
IC50 between 0.27 mg/ml and 0.29 mg/ml. The effective dose to inhibit growth of P. flaciparum 3D7
strain is 2.0 mg/ml. The reduction in parasitemia degree of 3D7 strain suggests a potential candidate as
antimalarial. (54)
Enhancement of Glucose Transport: Study evaluated the effect of water-ethanol extract of T. crispa
on glucose transporter (GLUT1 and GLUT4) and AMPK alpha1 and PPAR gamma expression. Results
showed enhancement of glucose transport by T. crispa in L6 myotubes, mediated by the up-regulation of
GLUT1, AMPK alpha and PPAR gamma expression. (46)
Immunomodulatory Effects: Study investigated the immunomodulatory effects of a standardized 80%
ethanol extract of stem on innate immune responses by evaluation of chemotaxis and phagocytic activity
of neutrophils isolated from blood of male Wistar rats. Main extract ingredients were identified as syringin
and magnoflorine. Results showed increased chemotactic activity of neutrophils, a dose-dependent
increase in number of migrated cells and neutrophilic phagocytic activity, a dose-dependent T- and B-
lymphocyte proliferation with concanavain A and lipopolysaccharide. Results suggest immunomodulatory
activity and potential for use in the prevention of immune diseases. (47)
Antifungal / Stem Bark: Study of ethanol of stem bark of T. crispa showed antifungal activity against
C. albicans (20.59%). Of five fractions obtained, fraction 1 exhibited the greatest antifungal activity
(27.73%). (49)
Effect on Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HepG2) / Synergism with Gelam Honey
Mixture:Study investigated the effect of T. crispa and Gelam (Melaleuca cajupati) honey mixture on
human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) and normal human hepatocytes.. Results showed potent
antioxidant activity and moderate antiproliferative activity against human heptocellular carcinoma cells
(HepG2) depending on treatment concentration. Furthermore, the extract may improve insulin sensitizing
activity, with its potential to increase expression of PY20. (50)
Thrombolytic Activity / Gelam Honey Mixture: Study evaluated a methanol extract of stems of T.
crispa for thrombolytic (in vitro clot lysis) and cytotoxic (brine shrimp lethality bioassay) activities. Results
showed the stem possesses promising thrombolytic activity in vitro against human blood as well as
preliminary cytotoxic activity on brine shrimp. Study suggests potential as thrombolytic medicine. (51)
Anti-Inflammatory / Antinociceptive / Stem: Study evaluated an ethanol extract of T. crispa stem for
antinociceptive (writhing and hot plate tests) and anti-inflammatory (carrageenan-induced paw edema
test) activities. Intraperitoneally administered exhibited significant (p<0.05) antinociceptive and anti-
inflammatory activities in a dose-dependent manner. (52)
Hypoglycemic in Metabolic Syndrome / Dry Powder Stem: Randomized double-blind placebo-
controlled crossover design evaluated T. crispa dry powder in patients with metabolic syndrome. Results
showed significant reduction of blood glucose from baseline. Results raised the concern of using T.
crispa dry power in patients on statin with statin elevated liver enzyme. ((also see: study 38) (53)
Availability
- Wild-crafted.
- Capsules, supplements in the cybermarket.
Last Update November 2016

Makahiya
Mimosa pudica Linn.
BASHFUL MIMOSA
Pa chou cao
Scientific names Other common names

Mimosa hispidula Kunth Babain (Ilk.)
Mimosa pudica Linn. Damohia (Tag.)
Mimosa pudica var. pudica Dilgansusu (Ilk.)
Harupai (S. L. Bis.)
Huya-huya (Bis.)
Kiromkirom (S. L. Bis.)
Makahia (Pang., Tag.)
Sipug-sipug (Sub.)
Tuyag-huyag (P. Bis.)
Torog-torog (Bik.)
Bashful mimosa (Engl.)
Humble plant (Engl.)
Sensitive plant (Engl.)
Shame plant (Engl.)
Tickle-Me plant (Engl.)
Touch-me-not (Engl.)
Makahia is a common name shared by Mimosa pudica (bashful mimosa) and Biophytum sensitivum (Damong
bingkalat, little tree plant).
Mimosa pudica L. is an accepted name The Plant List

BENGALI: Laajak, Lajjavathi, Lajjabati.
CHINESE: Pa chou cao, Zhi xiu cao, Hu he cao, Han xiu cao.
DANISH: Almindelig mimose.
DUTCH: Kruidje-roer-me-niet.
FINNISH: Tuntokasvi.
FRENCH: Mimeuse commune, Mimeuse pudique, Sensitive.
GERMAN: Gemeine Mimose, Sinnpflanze.
HINDI: Chuimui, Lajaalu, Lajjavanthi, Lajouni.
ITALIAN / SWEDISH: Sensitiva.
MALAYSIAN: Semalu.
SANSKRIT: Khadiraka, Lajjalu, Namaskaar, Namaskaari, Raktapaadi, Samangaa, Shamipatra.
SPANISH: Dormidera, Sensitiva, Vergonzosa.
TAMIL: Tottalavaadi.
TELUGU: Attaapatti.
Botany
Makahiya is a diffusely spreading, half-woody herb, with branched stems up to 1 meter long, sparingly
prickly with numerous deflexed, bristly hairs. The leaves are very sensitive, both pinnae and leaflets,
folding when touched. Pinnae are usually 4, digitately arranged at the end of each petiole, and 4 to 9
centimeters long. The leaflets are narrowly oblong, inequilateral, 1 to 1.5 centimeters long, sessile,
sparingly bristly, with pointed tips. Heads are long-peduncled, solitary or 2 to 3 in each axil, about 1
centimeter in diameter. Pods are flat, slightly recurved, 1 to 2 centimeters long, with 3 to 5 one-sided
joints that fall away on maturity. Florets are red in the upper part with pink to lavender filaments.
Distribution
- Common weed widely distributed in the Philippines in open, moist, waste places, open grasslands and
open thickets, at low and medium altitudes in settled areas.
- Introduced from tropical America.
- Pantropic weed.
Constituents
- Seed contains a toxic alkaloid, mimosine, a non-protein alpha-amino acid, known to cause hair loss and
depressed growth in mammals (an unlikely event in humans as this will require unusually large doses).
- Roots yield flavonoids, phytosterol, alkaloids, amino acids, tannins, glycoside, fatty acids.
- Leaf extract have yielded an adrenaline-like substance.
- Seeds contain a mucilage composed of d-xylose and d-glucoronic acid, yielding 17% greenish yellow
fatty oil.
- Plant contains (1) tubulin with an ability to bind colchicene with its sulfhydryl groups. (2) crocetin
dimethyl ester.
- Plant yields turgorine.
- Leaves and stems reported to contain the alkaloid mimosine; leaves yield mucilage; the roots yield
tannins.
- Proximate composition showed a moisture content of 9.67% 0.15, protein 8.37% 0.15, fat 1.43%
0.01, ash 3.57% 0.06, crude fiber 3.30%, carbohydrate 73.7%. Vitamin analysis yielded ascorbic acid
13.5 mg/100g, thiamine 0.60, riboflavin 1.10, and niacin 0.40. (48)
- Methanolic extract of leaves yielded terpenoids, flavonoids, glycosides, alkaloids, quinines, phenols,
tannins, saponins, and coumarins. (60)
Properties
- Considered expectorant, anti asthmatic. analgesic, antispasmodic, alterant, sedative and
antidepressant.
- Roots are bitter, astringent, acrid, alexipharmic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, constipating, cooling,
diuretic, emetic, febrifuge, resolvent, vulnerary.
- Leaves are bitter, sudorific, tonic.
- Emetic effect attributed to mimosine.
- Studies have suggested antibacterial, antivenom, antifertility, antidepressant, anticonvulsant, and
aphrodisiac properties.
Leaflet movement physiology

The leaflets fold together in the early evening and reopens at sunrise. It is called bashful or sensitive
because the leaflets fold together on touching, warming and shaking. The phenomenon is
called seismonastic movement due to a rapid change in turgor pressure and changes in membrane
permeability in the pulvini cells in the leaf regions with rapid movement of calcium ions. At night, the
leaves also fold and bend, termed nyctonastic movements (reaction to absence of light).
When the leaflets fold together on touching, they reopen in about 10 minutes.
Seismonastic Movement / Actin Cystoskeleton: Study showed fragmentation of actin filaments
occurring during bending was involved in the regulation of movement. The effect of phosphatase
inhibitors on the actin cytoskeleton affects dynamic reorganization of actin filaments and causes the
seismonastic movement.
Parts utilized
Whole plant, leaves, roots.
Uses
Folkloric
- In the Philippines, roots used as diuretic;
also used for dysentery and
dysmenorrhea.
- Entire plant in decoction used as
alterant and antiasthmatic.
- Root considered aphrodisiac,
and used for bladder gravel and
similar urinary complaints.
- Decoction or infusion of leaves
used in asthma; expectorant.
- Used for hypertension,
menorrhagia, glandular swelling,
sore throat and hoarseness.
- Powdered seeds applied to
wounds and sores.
- Bruised leaves applied to
bruises.
- Decoction of leaves used for
diabetes.
- Powdered roots and leaves taken
with milk for piles and fistula.
- Juice applied externally to
fistulous sores.
- Poultice of leaves for glandular
swellings.
- Leaves and roots used for piles
and fistula.
- Used as antifertility agent in
some parts of India.
- 1:1 ethanol water extract used for pain relief.
- Seeds used a coffee substitute
- In China, used for treatment of anxiety and depression.
- In Ayurveda, used as antiasthmatic, aphrodisiac, analgesic and antidepressant; also used in diseases
associated with corrupted bile and blood, bilious fever, piles, jaundice, leprosy, ulcers, and small pox.
- In India, used for birth control.
- In Ayurveda, root is used as vulnerary, and for the treatment of leprosy, dysentery, vaginal and uterine
complaints, inflammation, asthma, fatigue, and blood diseases. In the Unani system, decoction of root is
used as a gargle to reduce toothache. (52)
- In the Antiles, Guiana, and La Reunion, roots used vomitive.
- In Indo-China, seeds used as emetic.
- In Mexico, used to alleviate depression.
- In Punjab and Cashmere, seeds used for sore throat.
- In Concan, paste of leaves applied to hydrocoeles and glandular swellings.
- Infusion of leaves used for dysentery; also as
bitter tonic.
- Roots used for leucoderma, vaginopathy,
metropathy, ulcers, dysentery, inflammations,
jaundice, asthma, small pox, strangury, fevers.
- Leaves used for hydrocoele, hemorrhoids,
fistula, scrofula, conjunctivitis, wounds and
hemorrhages.
- Whole plants used for bladder calculi;
externally, for edema, rheumatism, myalgia and
uterine tumors.
- Whole plant, crushed, used for itching and
scabies.
- In Malaysia, root decoction drunk as tonic;
pounded leaves applied as poultice on body
swellings. (48)
Studies
Antimicrobial: Study showed antimicrobial
activity against Aspergillus fumigatus, Citrobacter
divergens and Klebsiella pneumonia. (6)
Antimicrobial: Ethanolic extracts activity
against B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, K. pneumonia,
A. flavus and T. rubrum. The antimicrobial
activity was attributed to the presence of active
constituents like alkaloids or tannins.
Anticonvulsant: Study showed intraperitoneal
use of Mimosa pudica decoction protected mice
against pentylentetrazol and strychnine-induced
seizures.
Plant extracts showed the plant to be a
moderate diuretic, depressed duodenal
contractions (similar to atropine), promoted nerve regeneration and reduce menorrhagia.
Also shown to have antidepressant activity.
Antifertility Effect / Roots: Studies on the root extract of M. pudica showed antifertility effect with
prolongation of the estrous cycle and disturbance of the secretion of gonadotropin hormones in albino
mice. (2)
Antitoxin / Sea Snake Venom: A study in India
screened several herbal plants for antivenin
activity against common sea snake venom
Enhydrina schistosa, the most toxic among the
common sea snakes. The investigation showed
antivenom activity in the alcoholic extract of
Mimosa pudica, Mucuna pruriens, and
Andrographis paniculata. (3)
Antitoxin: Study on the aqueous extract of
dried roots of Mimosa pudica showed significant
inhibitory effect on Naja naja and Bangarus
caerulus venoms. (9)
Antitoxin / Venom Neutralizing: Of 17 plants
screened, only M pudica showed 100% ability in
neutralizing venom lethality. Study showed the
potential use of M pudica as an antivenom agent
of plant origin against five poisonous snake
venoms found in Malaysia.
Two new C-glycosylflavones from Mimosa
pudica: Two new C-glycosylflavones were
isolated from the whole plant of Mimosa pudica,
and their structures were determined as
6,7,3?,4?-tetrahydroxyl-8-C-[?-l-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1 ? 2)]-?-d-glucopyranosyl
flavone (1), 5,7,3?,4?-tetrahydroxy-8-C[?-d-
apiose-(1 ? 4)]-?-d-glycopyranosyl flavone
(2). (4)
Chromoblastomycosis: Study isolated
Fonsecaea from the thorns of M pudica and
suggests it could be a natural source of infection
for the fungus Fonsecaea pedrosoi.
Seed Mucilage / Sustained-Release
Excipient: Study showed the dissolution profile from formulation containing mucilage to drug in the
proportion of 1:40 was found to be similar to the commercial sustained-release formulation of diclofenac.
Anti-Depressant: Study suggests that M pudica produces antidepressant effect in rats with a profile
similar to two tricyclic antidepressants.
Mimosine / Anti-Malarial: Mimosine found to be an iron chelator acting on malarial bugs by preventing
the replication of cells.
Apoptotic: Mimosine also causes apoptosis and studied for treating ovarian cancer and other highly
vascularized tumors.
Anthelmintic: The Anthelmintic effect of Makahiya (Mimosa pudica) leaves Extract in Native Chicken
(Gallus domesticus) naturally infected with Gastro-intestinal Parasites (Thesis) (5)
Anti-Hepatotoxic / Antioxidant: Study showed the co-administration of Mimosa pudica aqueous
extract significantly lowered the level of lipid peroxidation in alcohol-fed mice. (16)
Anti-Hyperglycemic: Mimosa pudica is one of eight medicinal plants in an Ayurvedic herbal
formulation, Ilogen-Excel, showing antihyperglycemic effect in STZ-induced diabetic rats. (17)
Nerve-Regenerative: (1) Study showed Mimosa pudica extract possess nerve-regenerative potential in
rats with sciatic nerve injury. (2) In rats with experimentally injured sciatic nerves, nerve regeneration was
30-40% higher in rats treated with M. pudica extract than the hydrocortisone treated group.
Antidiabetic Activity / Leaves: In a study of alloxan-induced diabetic rats, the ethanolic extract of
Mimosa pudica leaves showed significant decrease of blood glucose level compared with Metformin as
standard drug. (18)
Antioxidant / Antibacterial: Comparative antioxidant, antibacterial and general toxicity studies on
extracts of two Bangladeshi medicinal plants, M pudica and M rubicau, showed both exhibited prominent
antioxidant property. While M. rubicaulis did not show any antibacterial activity, M pudica displayed
considerable bacteriostatic activity against all six bacterial strains tested - B cereus, B subtilis, E coli,
ampicillin-resistant E coli, S aureus and P aeruginosa.
Antinociceptive / Toxicity Studies: In an acute toxicity study, a single dose of aqueous extract of
2000 mg KBW showed no clinical signs of toxicity or mortality. Study also showed dose-dependent
central and peripheral analgesic property. (22)
Hypolipidemic / Leaves: Study screened a chloroform extract for hypolipidemic activity in
hyperlipidemia induced by an atherogenic diet in Wistar albino rats. Results showed significant
hypolipidemic effect with lowering of the serum levels of biochemical parameters (lowering of TC,
triglycerides, LDL,VLDL) with a significant rise in HDL, similar to standard drug atorvastatin. The extract
showed significant protection of the atherogenic index against hyperlipidemia. Biologically active
phytoconstituents such as flavonoids, glycosides, and alkaloids may be responsible for the hypolipidemic
effect. (23)
Tannins / Antivenom: Study showed tannins obtained from M. pudica was better than tannic acid in
neutralizing the lethality of N. kaouthia venom in vitro. Results suggest M. pudica has a potential for
treating N. Kaouthia snakebites. (25)
Wound Healing: (1) Study of the methanolic extract exhibited good wound healing activity, an effect
attributable to phenol constituents. (2) Study of shoot and root extracts showed good wound healing
activity when compared to standard drug Gentamicin. (3) In an incision wound model, topical application
of chloroform and methanolic root extracts showed wound-healing activity with a significant rise in
breaking strength, dry weight, and hydroxyproline content of the granulation tissue. (12)(28)(29)
Hepatoprotective / Carbon Tetrachloride Induced Toxicity: Study evaluated the hepatoprotective
effect of a methanolic extract of leaves of M. pudica in carbon tetrachloride induced liver damage in
wistar albino rats. Results showed significant hepatoprotective effect with lowering of biochemical
parameters and confirming histopathological changes. Results were comparable to standard
hepatoprotective drug Silymarin. Effects may be due to active phytoconstituents flavonoids, glycosides,
and alkaloids. (31) The oral administration of crude powder of Mimosa pudica showed hepatoprotective
activity of M. pudica on experimentally induced carbon tetrachloride hepatotoxic rats. (54)
Antiulcer: Evaluation in rats of extracts of M. pudica for anti-ulcer activity in ulcer models -- aspirin,
alcohol, and pyloric ligation -- showed the alcoholic extract to significantly decrease the volume of gastric
acid secretion, PH, free acidity and ulcer index. (32)
Homeophathic Mother Tinctures: Study showed significant differences in samples of mother
tinctures. Alcohol content influenced the viscosity of tinctures.
Antioxidant Activity: Study evaluated the total flavonoid (TF) and total phenolic (TP) contents of
ethanol extracts of whole plant, stem, leaf, and seed. Results showed the leaf extract with the highest
amount of TF and TP, Results suggested Mp could be a potential rice source of natural antioxidants. (33)
Antioxidant: Study evaluated the in vitro antioxidant effect of an ethanolic extract of Mimosa pudica
against free radical damage by different assay methods (DPPH, NO, ABTS, and H2O2). Results showed
potent activity on Nitric Oxide and DPPH, compared to ascorbic acid and rutin as standards. (34)
Nootropic: Study evaluated nootropic effects in both acute and chronic models of amnesia induced by
scopolamine and AlCl3. Results confirmed nootropic (cognition enhancement) activity of EEMP,
attributed to flavonoids and its antioxidant property. (35)
Analgesic / Anti-Inflammatory: Study evaluated an ethanolic extract for analgesic and anti-
inflammatory activity. Results showed potent antinociceptive action confirming the extract's central
activity. In a carrageenan-induced paw edema model, results clearly demonstrated anti-inflammatory
activity. (36)
Antitumor / Glycosylflavones: Six glycosylflavones isolated from Mimosa pudica were evaluated for
antitumor activity. Results showed inhibition on the proliferation of three tumor cells studies, viz. MCF-7,
JAR, and N-2 A. (37)
Cytotoxicity / Antioxidant: Various extracts of different plant parts (aerial parts and root) were
screened for in vitro cytotoxicity, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities. The methanolic crude extract of
aerial parts showed moderate antioxidant activity. The petroleum ether and methanol crude extract
showed potential cytotoxic activities by brine shrimp lethality assay. All crude extracts showed poor or no
activity against test organisms. (38)
Mimosine Extraction: Mimosine, -[N-(3-hydroxypyridone-4)]--aminopropionic acid, occurs in the
shoots and stem of Mimosa pudica L. Study describes the extraction of mimosine using leaves,
branches, and stems of sensitive plants aged about 4 months. Mimosine solution extracted by 70%
ethanol solvent was condensed by releasing ethanol to make drinks. The product contains a variety of
amino acids and minerals. (39)
Hypolipidemic / Butter Induced Hyperlipidemia: Study evaluated the hypolipidemic activity of M.
pudica extract n high fat diet induced models of hyperlipidemia in rats. An ethanol extract showed
significant hypolipidemic effects with decrease in TC, LDL, Triglycerides, and VLDL, and increase in HDL
comparable to standard drug Lovastatin. (40)
Anti-Asthmatic / Roots: Study evaluated the antiasthmatic activity of aqueous extract of Mimosa
pudica on in vitro and in vivo animal models. Results showed anti-asthmatic activity which could to
attributed to bronchodilating, antihistaminic (H1-antagonist), mast cell stabilizing properties, suggesting
potential in prophylaxis and management of asthma. (42)
Adaptogenic / Nootropic: Study evaluated the adaptogenic activity of an ethanolic extract of Mimosa
pudica in chronic Alzheimer's model. Results showed significant improvement in memory, observed from
test models, viz. morris water maze, radial arm maze. For adaptogenic testing, using Forced swim test,
the EEMP showed significant reduction in swimming endurance time. Results suggest the EE at dose of
500 mg/kbw p.o. produces potential changes in chronic Alzheimer's model and stress. (43)
Suppressive Effects on LPS-Induced Pro-Inflammatory Mediators: Study isolated fourteen
compounds from extract of whole plant. Some compounds were tested for anti-inflammatory effects, viz.
ethyl gallate (3), gallic acid (10), caffeic acid (7), L-mimosine (12), jasmonic acid (11), crocin (14) and
crocetin (4). The compounds showed anti-inflammatory effects in vivo and in vitro through reduction of
LPS-induced pro-inflammatorry mediators. (44)
Pilot Clinical Studies Menorrhagia: 1986 Pilot clinical studies evaluated Mimosa pudica in women
with excessive menstrual bleeding. Findings showed promise for further detailed trials in a larger sample
size of patients with dysfunctional uterine bleeding. Tolerability of M. pudica was good. Result suggest
conventional phase 1 studies with organ function tests, prior to embarking on large scale phase III
studies. (45)
Anti-Inflammatory / Leaves: Study evaluated an ethanolic extract of M. pudica leaves using
carrageenan induced paw edema and cotton pellet granuloma testing in albino rats. Results showed
significant dose dependent anti-inflammatory effect in acute and chronic phases of inflammation. (46)
Antifungal: Study evaluated the antifungal activity of M. pudica extract against five potentially
pathogenic microorganisms: Trichophyton mentagrophyte, T. verrocuson, Microsporum nanum,
Aspergillus niger, and A. flavus. Antifungal activity against the isolates increased significantly with
concentration. No activity was seen against Aspergillus niger. (47)
-Adrenoreceptor Mediated Relaxation of Myometrium: Study investigated the molecular
mechanism of tocolytic activity of methanol extract of M. pudica seeds on isolated uterine strips of
pregnant buffaloes. Results showed concentration dependent inhibitory effect on buffalo myometrium,
probably through inhibitory -receptors. Calcium channels did not seem to regulate the tocolytic effect of
the seeds extract. (50)
Antimalarial / Leaves: Study evaluated the ethanolic extract of leaves of P. niruri and Mimosa pudica
for antimalarial activity against Plasmodium berghei infections in mice. The leaf extracts showed
significant antiplasmodial activity in all three models of antimalarial evaluation. Phytochemical screening
yielded antiplasmodial constituents such as terpenoids, flavonoids, and alkaloids. (53)
Anti-Inflammatory / Free Radical Scavenging: Study evaluated the in vitro free radical content and
anti-inflammatory activity of Mimosa pudica using carrageenan-induced paw edema assay and cotton
wool granuloma in rats. Results showed the ethanolic extract of MP possesses potent anti-inflammatory
activity possibly due to its free radical scavenging properties. The reference drug was ascorbic acid. (54)
Analgesic / Antiepileptic / / Free Radical Scavenging: Study of ethyl acetate extract of leaves of
Mimosa pudica on rodents showed potent dose dependent analgesic activity by hot plate, tail flick, and
acetic acid-induced writhing in rats. Antiepileptic activity was evidenced by significant reduction in the
duration of seizures induced by MES and delayed onset of tonic-clonic seizures produced by PTZ and
INH. Decreased locomotor activity was assessed through actophotometer, rotarod test, and traction test
in mice. (55)
Phytochemical Profiling / Bioactive Compounds: Study GC-MS study and phytochemical profiling
yielded a number of bioactive phytocompounds such as glycerin, phytol, myo-inositol and squalene, all of
which possess a wide range of proven therapeutic uses. (56)
Immunomodulatory / Free Radical Scavenging / Flavonoids: Flavonoid isolated from dried samples
of M. pudica exhibited dose dependent enhancement of activity in DPPH and hydroxyl radical
scavenging assays. The flavonoids also showed in vitro growth stimulatory effect on isolated normal
lymphocytes. (57)
Diuretic: Study evaluated M. pudica for diuretic activity using the lipschitz test. Results showed
significant diuretic activity at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kbw by increasing total urine volume and ion
concentration of Na, K, and Cl. Furosemide was used as standard drug. (59)
Aphrodisiac / Roots: Study evaluated M. pudica ethanolic extract of roots for its effect on libido of
sexually normal Swiss albino male mice. General libido and potency was compared with standard
reference drug sildenafil citrate. Results showed a significant and sustained increase in the aphrodisiac
activity of normal male mice, with increased libido and hormone levels of testosterone, without adverse
effects. (61)
Glucuronoxylan / Drug Release Formulation / Seeds: Glucuronoxylan, a polysaccharide extruded
from the seeds of M. pudica, is used for drug release (delayed/targeted/sustained release) formulations
due to its high swelling index. M. pudica (Singh et al 2009; Kumar & Kumar 2011; Ahuja et al 2013) (63)
Mimosine: Mimosine, a -[N-(3-hydroxypyridone-4)]--aminopropionic acid, occurs in the shoots and
stem of Mimosa pudica. Mimosine is synthesized from 3,4-dhydropyridine and O-acetylserine through
the action of an isoform of cystein synthase. Mimosine has various pharmacological properties i.e.,
antimicrobial, the ability to block the cell cycle before G1/S transition, inhibit cardiac fibrosis, prevent
neuronal death. (39)
Alternative Therapy for Urinary Tract Infections / Roots: Study evaluat3d the therapeutic effect of
root extracts against urinary tract infections. Results suggest decocted roots of M. pudica is comparable
in effect to commercial drug in the treatment of urinary tract infection. (64)
Anxiolytic / Antidepressant: The review focuses on the anxiolytic and antidepressant properties of M.
pudica. The anxiolytic activity of M. pudica could be explained by the present of some components in
extracts that interact with benzodiazepine/GABAA receptors as agonists, or with 5-HT1A receptors as
agonists, or with NMDA receptors as antagonists. (65)
CNS Depressant / Antinociceptive / Aerial Parts: Study evaluated the CNS depressant (open field
and hole cross test) and antinociceptive activity (acetic acid writhing test and formalin induced pain) of
methanolic extract of aerial parts. In open-field and hole cross test, there was statistically significant
(p<0.05) decrease in locomotor activity. There was significant (p<0.05) and dose dependent decrease in
writhing effects in acetic acid and formalin induced inflammatory pain. (66)
Analgesic / Antiepileptic / Leaves: Study evaluated the antiepileptic and analgesic properties and
effect of leaves on motor activities on rodents. The ethyl acetate extract showed dose-dependent
analgesic activity. There was also dose-dependent improvement in motor performance. Extract showed
significant reduction (p<0.01 and p<0.001) reduction in duration of seizures induced by maximal electro
shock (MES) and delayed duration of convulsion against seizure induces. (67)
Diuretic / Laxative / Leaves: Study evaluated methanol extract of leaves for diuretic and laxative
activities in wistar albino rats. Results showed significant diuretic as well as laxative activities in a dose
dependent manner. Activities were comparable to furosemide and agar-agar. (68)
Antifungal / Leaves: Study evaluated ethanol and aqueous extracts of M. pudica leaves against fungi
isolated from razor bumps. Trichophyton verrucosum and T. soudanense showed the highest diameter of
zone of inhibition. Antifungal activity of ethanol extracts showed to be more effective than aqueous
extracts. (69)
Diuretic / Roots: Study evaluated the diuretic activity of ethanolic extract of root in albino rats. Results
showed significant diuretic activity as evidenced by increased urine volume and enhancement of
elimination of sodium, potassium, and chloride. Results suggest a beneficial role in volume overload
conditions. (70)
Availability
- Wild-crafted.
- Tinctures, powders, seeds, extracts in the cybermarket.

Updates December 2015
Malunggay
Moringa oleifera Lam.
BEN OIL TREE
La mu

Guilandina moringa Linn. Arunggai (Pang.)
Hyperanthera moringa (L.) Vahl Balungai (P. Bis.)
Moringa oleifera Lam. Dool (Bik.)
Moringa zeylanica Burmann Kamalongan (P. Bis.)
Kalamungai (C. Bis.)
Kalungai (Bik., Bis., Tag.)
Kalunggay (Bik.)
Kamalungai (Pamp., Tag.)
Komkompilan (Ilk.)
Molongai (Tag.)
Malungay (Tag.)
Malunggue (Pamp.)
Malungit (Pamp., Bis.)
Marogoi (Sbl.)
Marugaai (Ilk., Ibn.)
Ben oil tree (Engl.)
Ben tree (Eng.)
Behn tree (Engl.)
Behen tree (Engl.)
Drumstick tree (Engl.)
Horse-radish tree (Engl.)
Miralce tree (Engl.)
Moringa oleifera Lam. is an accepted name The Plant List

AFRIKAAN: Yuru, Ew il (Benin), Paizlava, Djihir (Cameroun), Kag n'dongue (Chad), Shelagda, Aleko
(Ethiopia), Yevu-ti, Babatsi (Ghana), Mkimbo, Mzungu (Kenya), Kalokola (Malawi), Nvrd (Mali),
Windi-bundu (Niger), Gawara, Zogall (Nigeria), Binebeddai, Sap-sap (Senegal), Dangap (Somalia),
Ruwag (Sudan), Mlonge (Tanzania), Yovovoti (Togo), Zakalanda (Zimbabwe).
ARABIC: Alim, Halim, Habbah ghaliah, Rawag, Ruwag, Shagara al ruwag, Shagara al ruway.
ASSAMESE: Sojina.
BENGALI: Munga ara, Saajanaa (Sajna), Sojna, Sojne danta, Sujana.
BURMESE: Daintha, Dandalonbin, Dan da lun, Dan da lun bin.
CHINESE: La mu.
CZECH: Moringa olejn.
DANISH: Behenndtr.
DUTCH: Benboom, Peperwortel boom.
FRENCH: Ben ail, Ben aile, Ben olifre, Moringa aile, Pois qunique.
GERMAN: Behenbaum, Behennussbaum, Meerrettichbaum, Pferderettichbaum.
GUJARATI: Midho saragavo, Saragavo, Saragvo, Seeng ni phali, Suragavo.
HINDI: Munagaa, Munga ara, Munuga, Muranka, Muruggai, Sahijan, Senjana, Suhujna.
HUNGARIAN: Lretekfa.
ITALIAN: Been, Bemen.
JAPANESE: Marungai, Marunga oreifera, Wasabi no ki.
KANNADA: : Nuggaeekayee, Nuggekayee.
KHMER: Daem mrom, Daem mrum.
LAOTIAN: B'loum.
MALAY: NKachang kelur, Kelor, Kalor, Lemunggai, Meringgai, Remunggai , Sajor kelor, Semunggai.
MALAYALAM: Moringa, Morunna, Muringa, Muringai, Muringakka (fruit), Murinna, Sigru.
MARATHI: Shevga, Shevga chi seeng, Shivga, Sujna.
NEPALESE: Sajiwan, Sitachini, Swejan.
PORTUGUESE: Accia branca, Moringa, Muringueiro.
PUNJABI: Saajinaa, Sanjina, Soanjana.
SANSKRIT: Danshamula, Shobhanjana, Sigru Shobhanjan, Sobhan jana.
SINHALESE: Moo rin guu, Murunga.
SPANISH: rbol del ben, Arbol do los aspragos, Arbol de las perlas, Marango, Resada
SWAHILI: Mboga chungu, Mjungu moto (Tanzania), Mlonge, Mlongo, Mronge, Mzungu (Kenya) Shingo.
TAMIL: Morunga, Murungai, Murunkai.
THAI: Ka naeng doen, Ma khon kom, Phak i huem, Phak nuea kai, Se cho ya.
VIETNAMESE: Chm ngy.
Botany
Malunggay is a much-branched small tree growing as high as 9 meters, with a soft and white wood and
corky and gummy bark. Leaves are alternate, usually thrice pinnate, 25 to 50 centimeters long. Each
compound leaf contains 3-9 very thin leaflets dispersed on a compound (3 times pinnate) stalk. The
leaflets are thin, ovate to elliptic, and 1 to 2 centimeters long. Flowers are white and fragrant, 1.5 to 2
centimeters long, on spreading panicles. Pod is 15 to 30 centimeters long, pendulous, three-angled, and
nine-ribbed. Seeds are three-angled, and winged on the angles.
Distribution
Planted throughout the Philippines in settled areas at low and medium altitudes.
Introduced from Malaya or some other part of tropical Asia in prehistoric times.
A common backyard vegetable and a border plant.
Now pantropic.
Propagation
Propagation by seeds and stem cuttings.
Mature malunggay cuttings should be 2 centimeters or more in diameter and not less than 80 cm (30
inches) in length. Mature cuttings are preferred as they sprout earlier and grow faster.
The only pests known to attack malunggay are mites of the Tetranychus spp.
Properties
Root has the taste of horseradish.
Considered galactagogue, rubefacient, antiscorbutic, diuretic, stimulant, purgative, antibiotic, antifungal.
Anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor activities on mice studies.
Antioxidant, anti-aging, anti-ulcer.
Estrogenic, antiprogestational, hypoglycemic, antihyperthyroidism, hypocholesterolemic,
antihyperthyroid, antispasmodic.
Considered abortifacient and emmenagogue.
Purported to be beneficial for decreasing blood pressure, relieving headaches and migraines, reducing
inflammatory and arthritic pains, anti-ulcer, anti-tumor. Purported to be beneficial for decreasing blood
pressure, relieving headaches and migraines, reducing inflammatory and arthritic pains.
Constituents
Root yields a essential oil, pungent and offensive in odor.
Seed contains traces of an acrid and pungent alkaloid, Ben of Behen oil, which contains palmitic,
stearic, myristic, oleic, and behenic acids, phytosterin; two alkaloids the mixture of which has the same
action as epinephrine.
Bark exudes a reddish gum with the properties of tragacanth, which is utilized for tanning.
Gum yields bassorin, dextrin, enzyme myrosin and emulsin. The astringency of the gum is attributed to
the presence of moringo-tannic acid
Studies of MO leaves have yielded phytochemicals to which are attributed hypotensive effects and anti-
cancer properties. The root bark has sex hormone-related properties.
Root bark contains alkaloids, moringine which is similar to benzylamine, and moringinine; traces of
essential oil, phytosterol, waxes and resins. Also contains a rich combination of zeatin, quercetin, beta-
sitosterol, caffeoylquinic acid, pterygospermin and kaempferol.
Comparative content: Gram for gram, 7 times the vitamin C in oranges, 4 times the calcium and twice
the protein in milk, 4 times the vitamin A in carrots, 3 times the potassium in bananas.
100 gms or 1 cup of cooked malunggay leaves contain 3.1 g protein, 0.6 g fiber, 96 mg calcium, 29 mg
phosphorus, 1.7 mg iron, 2,820 mg beta-carotene, 0.07 mg thiamin, 0.14 mg riboflavin, 1.1 mg niacin,
and 53 mg of vitamin C. (Dr. Lydia Marero of the Food and Drug Research Institute -FNRI)
100 g of edible portion of leaves yield: water 77.5 g; energy 91.0 kcal; protein 6.1 g; fat 1.9 g;
carbohydrates 12.4 g; fiber 1.8 g; ash 2.1 g; calcium 346.0 mg; phosphorus 118.0 mg, iron 4.5 mg,
vitamin A 1,290.0 g; thiamine 0.21 mg, riboflavin 0.52 mg, niacin 3.1 mg, ascorbic acid 231.0 mg. (The
Philippine Food Composition Tables, 1997. Food and Nutrition Research Institute, Department of
Science and Technology [FNRI-DOST]).
-Chemical composition and
nutritional analysis of dried M.
oleifera leaf powder collected from
Mexico yielded varying moisture
levels 3.06 to 3.34%, lipids 10.21 to
10.31%, fiber 7.29 to 9.46%, ashes
10.71to11.18%, crude protein 10.74
to 11.48%, and carbohydrate 54.61
to 57.61%. Predominant elements
were calcium 2016.5-2620.5
mg/100g, potassium 1817 to 1845
mg/100g, and magnesium 322.5 to
340.6 mg/100g. HPLC yielded
phenolic acids (gallic and
chlorogenic acids) and flavonoids
(rutin, luteolin, quercetin, apigenin,
and kaempferol). (46)
- Macronutrient analysis of dried
leaves (g/100g) yielded maximum values of 11.8% moisture, 30.3g proteins, 17.1g lipids, 19.9g crude
fibers, 11.1g ashes, 63.1g carbohydrates, 355.7 kcal energy, 1488.2 kJ energy. (51)
- Phytochemical analysis of ethanol extract of leaves yielded tannins, carbohydrates, saponins,
glycosides, reducing sugars, terpenoids, steroids, flavonoids, and alkaloids. (see study below) (52)
- Biochemical study on seed oil showed the sterol fraction to be rich in -sitosterol (45.11%), stigmasterol
(19.20%), campesterol (16.90%), and 5-avenasterol (10.00%). Major fatty acids identified were oleic
acid (65.00%). (58)
- Phenolic and tocopherol content (ppm) of MO oil showed total phenolic compound of
160.008.90, -tocopherol 150.007.50, -tocopherol 70.804.10, and -tocopherol 55.503.15.
Sterol analysis yielded 12 components with -sitosterol (45.113.11), stigmasterol (19.201.33) and
campesterol (16.900.91) as main components. (58)
- Seed analysis yielded (%dry weight) moisture 4.900.55, oil 45.004.10, protein 7.100.65, fiber
5.300.61, ash 31.652.90, and carbohydrate 10.951.15 . (58)
- Study shows immature pods contain about 46.78% fiber and around 20.66% protein. Pods yield about
30% amino acid content, leaves 44% and flowers with 31%. Immature flowers and pods showed similar
amounts of palmitic, linolenic, linoleic, and oleic acids. (59)
- Prelimiary phytochemical screening of leaves yielded carbohydrates, protein, steroid, flavonoids, tannin,
alkaloids, glycosides (saponin, anthraquinone, cynogenetic). Protein was maximum in leaves (23.35%)
followed by fiber, starch, oil, sugar, alkaloid, tannin, flavanoid, and phenolic. (see study below)
Parts utilized
Flowers, leaves, young pods
Uses
Nutritional
Flowers, young leaves and young pods eaten as a vegetable inn the Philippines, Malaya, and India.
In Malaya, seeds also eaten as peanuts.
Seeds can be removed from pods and boiled like peas, fried or eaten like peanuts.
Leaves can be used as fresh leaves (used like spinach or as supplement for sauces) or dried powder.
Dried leaves can be milled and added to sauces or porridges.
Flowers can be cooked or fried, or added to relishes.
Roots are used as seasoning because of it horseradish flavor.
Young leaves are a rich source of calcium, iron, phosphorus and vitamins A, B and C.
High in HDL (high density lipoproteins); a source of amino acids, omega oils, antioxidants.
Young fruit yields a high amount of protein and phosphorus, a fair source of calcium and iron.
Folkloric
- Decoction of leaves used for hiccups, asthma, gout, back pain, rheumatism, wounds and sores.
- Young leaves, usually boiled, used to increase the flow of breast milk.
- Pods for intestinal parasitism.
- Leaves and fruit used for constipation.
- Decoction of boiled roots used to wash sores and ulcers.
- Decoction of the bark used for excitement, restlessness.
- In India pounded roots used as poultice for inflammatory swelling. Flowers used for catarrh, with young
leaves or young pods.
- In Nicaragua decoction of roots used for dropsy.
- Roots have been used as abortifacient. In India, bark is used as abortifacient.
- Decoction of root-bark used as fomentation to relieve spasms; also, for calculous affections.
- Gum, mixed with sesamum oil, used for relief of earaches. Same, also reported as abortifacient.
- In Java, gum used for intestinal complaints.
- Roots chewed and applied to snake bites.
- Decoction of roots is considered antiscorbutic; also used in delirious patients.
- Juice of roots is used for otalgia.
- Bark used as rubefacient remedy.
- Decoction of roots is use as gargle for hoarseness and sore throat.
- Leaves used as purgative.
- Chewing of leaves used in gonorrhea to increase urine flow.
- Fresh roots used as stimulant and diuretic.
- Seeds for hypertension, gout, asthma, hiccups, and as a diuretic.
- Rheumatic complaints: Decoction of seeds; or, powdered roasted seeds applied to affected area.
- Juice of the root with milk used for asthma, hiccups, gout, lumbago.
- Poultice of leaves applied for glandular swelling.
- Pounded fresh leaves mixed with coconut oil applied to wounds and cuts.
- The flowers boiled with soy milk thought to have aphrodisiac quality.
- Root is rubefacient and plaster applied externally as counterirritant.
- In Egypt, powder from dried seeds has been used as a handwash.
- In West Bengal, India, roots taken by women, esp prostitutes, for permanent contraception (Studies
have shown total inactivation or suppression of the reproductive system).
- In African savannah, used in the treatment of rheumatic and articular pains.
Others
Dye: In Jamaica the wood is used for dyeing blue color.
Oil: known as ben oil, extracted from flowers can be used as illuminant, ointment base, and absorbent
in the enfleurage process of extracting volatile oils from flowers. |With ointments, the oil allows longer
shelf life without undergoing oxidation. The oil, applied locally, has also been helpful for arthritic pains,
rheumatic and gouty joints.
Water purifier: Moringa seed powder has been used as water purifier. Its water-clarifying property has
been attributed to a positively charged protein call MOPC (Moringa oleifera Cationic Protein)the
crushed seeds added to water will kill some of the microbes, clumping together, and settling at the
bottom of the container.
Breast feeding women
Malunggay leaves and pods are helpful in increasing breast milk in the breast-feeding months. One
tablespoon of leaf powder provide 14% of the protein, 40% of the calcium, 23% of the iron and most of
the vitamin A needs of a child aged one to three. Six tablespoons of leaf powder will provide nearly all of
the woman's daily iron and calcium needs during pregnancy and breast-feeding.
Preservation Methods: Moringa can be preserved for a long time without loss of nutrients. Leaves can
be dried or frozen for storage. Preservation by dehydration improves shelf life. Study (Yang et al.)
showed low temperature oven used to dehydrate the leaves retained more nutrients except vitamin C
than freeze-dried leaves. (59)
Dosing: Overuse may cause undue accumulation of iron. High iron can cause gastrointestinal distress
and hemochromatosis. 70 g a day is suggested, a dose that prevents over accumulation of nutrients. (59)
Processing of Moringa: Phytochemicals are higher in raw seed flour and amino acid content was
highest in fermented and germinated seed flour. Study evaluated leaves for retention of nutrients after
boiling, simmering and blanching. Boiling was the most effective since it reduced the cyanide, oxalate,
and phytate contents more significantly than the two other methods. (59)
Studies
Anti-Inflammatory / Anti-tumor: A study
showed the crude ethanol extract of dried seeds
inhibited the carrageenan-induced inflammation
in the hind paw of mice by 85% at a dosage of 3
mg/g body weight; the mature green seeds by
77%. The crude ethanol extract also inhibited
the formation of Epstein-Barr virus-early antigen
(EBV-EA) induced by 12-0-
tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA). At a
dosage of 100 ?g/ml, the extract inhibited EBV-
EA formation by 100% suggesting its antitumor-promoting activity. (1)
Ovarian Cancer: Possible Role of Moringa oleifera Lam. Root in Epithelial Ovarian Cancer: A hormonal
etiology of epithelial ovarian cancer has been long suspected. Study suggests M Oleifera can interfere
with hormone receptor-related and neoplastic growth-related cytokine pathways through centrally acting
mechanisms.
Asthma: Antiasthmatic activity of Moringa oleifera Lam: A clinical study: Study showed improvement in
forced vital capacity, FEV1, and peak expiratory flow rate. It suggests a usefulness for MO seed kernel in
patients with asthma. (3)
Antibiotic: 50 years ago, a study yielded Pterygospermin, a compound that readily dissociates into two
molecules of benzyl isothiocyanate which has been shown to have antimicrobial properties.
Unfortunately, many of the reports of antibiotic efficacy in humans were not from placebo controlled,
randomized clinical trials. Recent studies have demonstrated possible efficacy against H. pylori.
Hormonal properties / Abortifacient: Biochemical observations and histologic findings have been
correlated with the anti-implantation action of aqueous extracts, one possible explanation for its use as
an abortifacient. source
Antiurolithiatic: Study showed lowering of stone forming constituents in the kidneys of calculogenic
rats with the use of aqueous and alcoholic extracts of MO suggesting antiurolithiatic activity. (6)
Antimicrobial / Water Purifying: Study of MO seeds paste for water purification yielded a steroidal
glycoside, strophantidin, a bioactive agent in the seed. The seed paste was found effective in clarification
and sedimentation of inorganic and organic matter in raw water, reducing total microbial and coliform
counts by 55% and 65% respectively, in 24 hours, compared to alum with 65% and 83% reduction. (7)
Study has shown that the water purifying ability of moringa seed powder was due to a positively charged
protein called the Moringa Oleifera Cationic Protein (MOCP), which when added to water was observed
to kill some of the microbial microorganisms.
Antipyretic / Wound Healing: Study of the ethanolic and ethyl acetate extracts of MO showed
significant antipyretic activity in rats; the ethyl acetate extract of dried leaves showed significant wound
healing on rat wound models. (8)
Analgesic / Seeds: Previous studies have shown analgesic activity from the leaves of MO. This study
on the alcoholic extract of MO seeds showed potent analgesic activity comparable to that of aspirin dose
of 25 mg/kg BW. (9)
Hepatoprotective / Antioxidant: Study concluded that the alcoholic extracts of MO produced
significant hepatoprotective and antioxidant activity, the aqueous extracts of the fruit less than the
alcoholic extract. (10)
Anti-Ulcer: Study of M oleifera extract showed ulcer by protection by modulating 5-HT secretion
through EC dell via 5-HT3 receptors in the gastrointestinal tract. (18)
Anthelmintic: In a comparative study of the anthelmintic activity of M oleifera and V negundo against
Indian earthworm Pheretima posthuma, dose-dependent activity was observed with M oleifera showing
more activity than V negundo. (14)
Comparison with Atenolol: Study comparing the effects of M oleifera with atenolol in adrenaline-
induced rats on serum cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose level, heart and body weight showed the M
oleifera leave extract made significant changes in each cardiovascular parameter. (17)
Hepatoprotective: Study in acetaminophen-induced liver disease in mice showed that leaves of MO
can prevent hepatic injuries by preventing the decline of glutathione level.
Antioxidant / Hypolipidemic / Anti-Atherosclerotic: Study showed lowering of cholesterol levels and
reduction of the atherosclerotic plaque formation. Results indicate MO possesses antioxidant,
hypolipidemic and antiatherosclerotic activities and has therapeutic potential for the prevention of
cardiovascular diseases.(19)
Chemomodulatory / Chemopreventive: Study showed the possible chemopreventive potential of
Moringa oleifera against chemical carcinogenesis. (20)
Anti-Diabetic / Leaves: Study of the aqueous extract of MO leaves in STZ-induced sub, mild, and
severely diabetic rats produced lowering of blood glucose levels, significant reduction in urine sugar and
urine protein levels. Study validates scientifically claims on MO as ethnomedicine in the treatment of
diabetes mellitus. (21) Study formulated dehydrated green leafy tablets using drumstick leaves for a
supplementation study to evaluate for antidiabetic property. Results showed drum stick leaves are a
suitable source of green leafy vegetable to reduce diabetic complications. (48)
Anti-Inflammatory: Study of the aqueous extract of roots in rats reduced the carrageenan-induced
edema similar to the anti-inflammatory drug indomethacin. (23)
Analgesic / Leaves: Study showed the analgesic potential of leaves of malunggay in mice using the
acetic acid-induced writhing test. (24)
Antioxidant Activity / Phenolic Content / Young and Mature Leaves : Study evaluated leaf extracts
in two stages of maturity using standard in vitro methods. Results showed extracts of both mature and
tender leaves have potent antioxidant activity against free radicals, preventing oxidative damage to major
biomolecules and providing protection against oxidative dames. (25)
Chemopreventive Potential / Colitis-Related Carcinogenesis: Study investigated the
chemopreventive effect on azoxymethane (AOM)-initiated and dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-promoted
colon carcinogenesis in mice. Findings suggest M. Oleifera pod exerts suppressive effects in colitis-
related induced carcinogenesis models and could serve as a potential chemopreventive agent. (26)
Antidiarrheal / Roots: Study evaluated a hydroalcoholic extract of root against castor oil-induced
diarrhea model in rats. Results showed a significant and dose-dependent reduction in severity and
frequency of diarrhea, intestinal fluid accumulation, intestinal content volume and transit time. (27)
Augmentation of Breast Milk Volume: A double-blind, randomized controlled trial sought to determine
if there is a significant difference in the volume of breast milk on postpartum days 3 to 5 among mothers
with preterm infants who take malunggay leaves compared to those given placebo. (28)
Benefits in Chronic Hyperglycemia and Hyperlipidemia: Review of current scientific data showed M.
oleifera leaf powder holds some therapeutic potential for chronic hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia. (29)
Drinking Water Purification: The powder from seeds of M. oleifera tree has been shown to be an
effective primary coagulant for water treatment. The powder acts as a coagulant binding colloidal
particles and bacteria to form agglomerated particles (flocs). Study describes dosing methods: optimum
dosage to remove turbidity, influence of pH and temperature and shelf life of the seeds. Seeds aged 24
months showed a significant decline in coagulant efficiency. (30)
Arsenic Removal Using Activated Moringa oleifera: A new low cost adsorbent, activated Moringa
oleifera has been developed for aqueous arsenic removal. Study concludes that M. oleifera is an
effective and alternative biomass for removing As(V) from aqueous solution due to high bio-sorption
capacity, easy availability, and being environmentally friendly. (31)
Enhancement of Cytotoxic Effect of Cisplatin: Moringa oleifera synergistically enhanced the
cytotoxic effect of cisplatin on Panc-1-cells. It inhibited the growth of pancreatic cancer cells, the cells NF-
kB signaling pathway, land increased the efficacy of chemotherapy in human pancreatic cancer
cells. (32)
Leaf Powder as Handwashing Product: Moringa oleifera leaf powder was tested as a hand washing
product on hands artificially contaminated with E. coli. In dried and wet application forms, the powder had
the same effect as non-medicated soap. M. oleifera could be very useful in places where soap or water is
not available, and where the tree grows naturally. (33)
Gastroprotective / Antioxidant / Induced Ulcers: Study of alcoholic leaves extract in pylorus-ligated,
ethanol, cold restraint stress, and aspirin-induced ulcer in rats showed dose-dependent gastroprotective
effects attributed to the antioxidant property of the extract. The antioxidant defense mechanism of the
extract was probably due to metabolizing lipid peroxides and scavenging H2O2. (34)
Moringinine / Cardioprotective / Blood Pressure Lowering Effect / Hypocholesterolemic: Root
bark yields the alkaloid moringinine. Review reports on bioactive compounds from M. oleifera leaves that
exert direct effect on blood pressure. Compounds with blood pressure lowering effect including nitrile,
mustard oil glycosides, and thiocarbamate glycosides present in the leaves. (35)
Adsorption / Municipal Solid Waste Leachate: Study showed M. oleifera seed coagulant could be
employed effectively for removal of Chemical Oxygen Demand and Total Dissolved Solids in a municipal
solid waste leachate. (37)
Preformulation Study on M. oleifera Gum: A preformulation study on the gum of Moringa oleifera
found the gum to be hygroscopic and organoleptically acceptable, with a potential to be used in different
pharmaceutical formulations and food preparations. (38)
Chelation of Heavy Metals: Study reports the use of Moringa oleifera as a natural chelating agent
gave a significant improvement in the depollution of contaminated water sample. (39)
Stem Bark in Urinary Tract Infection: Study evaluated stem bark of Moringa oleifera as a potential
medicine for 30 patients with urinary tract infections. Results showed 66.67% cured, 13.33% improved,
13.33% with no change. Report suggests a large scale study. (40)
As Biolubricant Blend with SAE40: Study evaluated a blend of Moringa oleifera oil with conventional
lubricant SAE40 for industrial application. The MOL 10 blend showed nearly same properties comparable
with the base lubricant (SAE 40) in terms of density, viscosity and wear rate, suggesting it could be
commercially viable for industrial application. (42)
Antiatherogenic Effect of M. oleifera & MK-886: Book reports on the antiatherogenic activity of a
hydroalcoholic extract of M. oleifera leaves and 5-Lipoxygenase inhibitor MK-886 in experimental
animals.
(43)
Cardiac Benefits and Obstetrical Benefits: Aqueous, ethanol, and ether extracts of M. oleifera leaves
contain compounds that cause reduction of heart rate and cardiac muscle relaxation and may have
benefit in the management of hypertension. The herb may also have obstetrical uses, but caution is given
as it may cause contractions leading to miscarriages and abortions. (44)
Antifungal / Environmental Impact on Shrimp Farming: The use of M. oleifera in the treatment of
water for human consumption has been reported. The plant has shown inhibition of bacterial and fungal
species. This study evaluated water treatment and inhibition of fungi in shrimp culture by use of MO
extracts. Results showed different M. oleifera extracts exhibited antifungal activity against Candida spp.
and H. weneckii. Chloroform extract of flowers showed better antifungal activity, inhibiting all fungal test
strains. Results bring perspective to the use of MO extracts as an alternative to the practice of
sustainable shrimp farming. (ROCHA, Marcos Fbio Gadelha et al. Moringa oleifera inhibits growth of Candida spp. and Hortaea
werneckii isolated from Macrobrachium amazonicum prawn farming with a wide margin of safety. Moringa oleifera inibe o crescimento de
Candida spp. e Hortaea werneckii isoladas da criao de camares Macrobrachium amazonicum com ampla margem de segurana. Cienc.
Rural [online]. 2014, vol.44, n.12, pp.2197-2203) (47)
Adsorption Study / O. oleifera Seeds and Banana Peel / Removal of Pb, Ni, Cd: Study evaluated
the effectiveness of MO seeds and Musa cavendish (banana) peels for removing heavy metals (lead,
nickel and cadmium) from contaminated groundwater. Results showed Moringa seeds, banana peel and
their combination have the potential as low-cost and natural alternative treatment material for the
purification of drinking waters polluted with heavy metals such as Pb, Ni, and Cd. (49)
Treatment of Surface Water with MO Seeds and Alum: Study using a pilot scale water treatment
plant evaluated the treatment of turbid surface water from a stream using processed Moringa oleifera
seed and alum as primary coagulants. Low residual turbidities were achieved from low, medium, and
high initial turbidities. From a high turbidity (163 to 494 NTU), minimum residuals of 1.4, 1.9. and 0.9 NTU
were achieved after treatment with MO, alum, and alum with MO as coagulant aid, respectively. The
mechanism for turbidity removal by seed was attributed to a combination of partial-charge neutralization
and micro-bridging or an electrostatic patch mechanism based on zeta potential measurements. (50)
Weaning Food and Supplement: Study investigated the use of MO as supplement to West African
weaning food produce, and assessing M. oleifera leaves in terms of nutritional values and anti-nutritional
factors. Results showed MO not only increases protein value but also essential amino acids. There is
also increase in vitamin A and B2 values, together with an increase in mineral values of calcium,
magnesium, iron, zinc, and phosphorus. Study confirms that the implementation of M. oleifera is
positively correlated with the overall dietary quality of West African weaning foods. Although MO is not
the single solution, it is a good source of important nutrients. (51)
Acute Toxicity Study / Leaves: Study investigated the acute toxicity and phytochemical constituents of
ethanol leaf extract of Moringa oleifera. LD50 of ethanol leaf extract in mice was found to be less than
5000 mg/kg body weight. (see constituents above) (52)
Abortifacient / Leaves: Study investigated the abortifacient potential of Moringa oleifera leaves in
pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats. Results suggest the leaves may be abortifacient and potentially occurs in
the 1st trimester of pregnancy. This information should be made available to women who are considering
pregnancy and devotees of Moringa herbal medicine. (53)
Toxicity Effects on Blood Indices of Graded Doses of Leaf Extract: Study investigated the effect of
graded doses (2000, 3000, 5000, and 7000 mg/kg for 21 days) of M. oleifera leaf extract on blood indices
of 20 adult wistar rats. Results suggest excessive consumption of aqueous leaf extract may have little
effect on blood parameters with slight changes in white blood cells. (54)
Anti-Migraine Activity / Leaves: Study explored the anti-migraine potential of an alcoholic fraction of
leaf juice in three animal models of antimigraine studies. Results showed M. oleifera significantly reduced
the apomorphine induced climbing behavior, 1-5-HTP induced syndrome, and MK801 induced
hyperactivity in a dose dependent manner. Results indicate MO may be acting via dopaminergic and
sertonergic receptors and suggests it may be effectively used in the treatment of migraine. (55)
MO Cake Residue For Waste Water Treatment: Moringa oleifera cake residue (MOCR) is one of the
alternatives to replace chemical coagulants for water treatments. MOCR exhibited an excellent reduction
in turbidity (97% removed), together with bacterial reduction, elevation of dissolved oxygen (DO), and
reduction of Pb (82.17%). MOCR can also be stored for as long as six months without affecting its
biological properties. (56)
Antibacterial / Leaves: Study evaluated the antibacterial activity of leaf juice and extracts of Moringa
oleifera in vitro against human pathogenic bacteria. The fresh leaf juice and cold water extract of fresh
leaves displayed potential antibacterial activity against all gram-positive and gram negative test bacteria.
Results suggest a promising natural antimicrobial agent with potential applications in the pharmaceutical
industry. (57)
Biochemical Studies of Seed Oil: Study on biochemical analysis of seed oil from Saudi Arabia
demonstrated attributes similar to other Moringa oils reported in literature. The fatty acid composition
placed it in the category of high oleic oils. The considerable amount of tocopherol and phenolic
compounds similar to that found in olive oil suggests it can be utilized as a source of vegetable oil for
human consumption. (see constituents above) (58)
Drinking Water Purification / Seeds: Study of M. oleifera seedsdried, dehusked, crushed and
added to waterhas shown it to be an effective primary coagulant for water treatment. Study evaluated
the efficacy of seeds on parameters affecting the effectiveness of MO for purification of drinking water.
Study showed the most suitable dosing method was to mix the powder in a concentrated paste to form a
stock suspension. Seeds up to 18 months of age did not have any noticeable effect on dose level and
percentage reduction in turbidity. At 24 months, there was a significant decline in coagulant
efficiency. (60)
Review of Safety Studies: Review of SafNo adverse effects were reported in any human studies to
date, including a human study conducted with whole leaf powder at up to a single dose of 50 g or in a
study using 8 gm per day dose for 40 days. Various animal studies on the general safety of extracts have
demonstrated a very high degree of safety. (61)
Healing Effect on UV-B Induced Psoriasis Changes in Rats / Aerial Parts: Study evaluated the
healing effects of a methanolic extract of aerial parts on Ultraviolet light-B induced psoriasis-form
changes in rats. Results showed enhanced fibroplasia, reduced inflammation and production of high
amounts of scar tissue and enhanced rate of wound healing and re-epithelisation. (62)
Anti-Termite / Leaf and Seed: Study evaluated the efficacy of leaf and seed extracts of M. oleifera
polar and non-polar solvents on the mortality of workers and soldiers of subterranean termites,
Odontotermes obesus (Ramb.) Minimum LT50 values were recorded in N-hexane leaf extracts at all
concentrations, while the seed extract at 1% concentration showed a minimum LT50 of 181.879.13. (63)
Anti-Hyperglycemic / Leaves: Study investigated the possible mechanism of action of M. oleifera
extract in animal diabetic models. Results showed no significant changes in insulin secretion in vivo.
There was substantial effect on retarded glucose absorption and in the in situ perfusion study of rat
intestinal model. There was also inhibition of a-amylase action. Combined in vitro, in vivo and in situ test
results justified an anti-hyperglycemic activity at a tissue level mechanism. (64)
Water Treatment / Seeds: Seeds of M. oleifera are used as primary coagulant in drinking water
clarification and water water treatment due to the presence of water-soluble cationic coagulant protein
which reduces turbidity of treated water. Seeds are powdered and added to the water directly or after
preparing crude extract. Protein powder showed more removal efficiency followed by de-oiled and
shelled blended powder. (65) In search of a simple, effective, and low-cost technical solution for the
access of safe drinking water, study suggests M. oleifera as an alternative, since the seeds yield a
natural coagulant able to effectively reduce the turbidity of raw water. (66)
Mo-LPI / Protein Isolate / Antihyperglycemic and Antioxidant: Study isolated a leaf protein, Mo-LPI,
and assessed its hypoglycemic and antioxidant effects of alloxan-induced diabetic mice. The Mo-LPI
showed hemagglutinating activity and cross-reaction with anti-insulin antibodies. Results showed the
protein to be a promising alternative as complementary agent in the treatment of diabetes. (67)
Effect on Red and While Blood Cell Counts: Study evaluated the effect of ethanolic extract of leaves
of M. oleifera on blood cell counts of Wistar rats. Results showed a significant increase (p<0.05) in both
red and white cell counts suggesting the presence of active ingredients required for the formation and
maturation of blood cells. (68)
Hepatoprotective / Antioxidant / Leaves: Study evaluated the antioxidant capacity and
hepatoprotective potential of M. oleifera against liver degradation caused by AS-AQ (Artesunate-
Amodiaquine) antimalarial combination in female albino rats. The combination causes liver damage,
neurotoxicity, agranulocytosis, and hemolytic anemia as adverse effects. The aqueous-methanol extract
reduced liver cell distortion induced by high doses of AS-AW. Results suggest the leaves be useful in the
mitigation of free-radical initiated disease conditions. The bioprotective activity of the leaves is attributed
to its antioxidant properties due to phenolic, flavonoid, and ascorbic acid contents. (69)
Resin as Polymer Electrolyte in DSSC Solar Cells: Preliminary study reports on the application of M.
oleifera resin as polymer electrolyte in dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC). (70)
Effect on Winter Season Skin Sebum Secretion: Study evaluated the efficacy of M. oleifera on
undersirable skin sebum secreted by sebaceous glands during winter season in humans. A cream
formulated from 3% leaves extract significantly reduced undesirable skin sebum secretion during winter
months. The results also suggest potential applications against acne vulgaris, acne rosacea and others.
(71)
Effect on Osteogenic Differentiation of Porcine Bone Marrow: Study investigated the effect of M.
oleifera leaves extract on osteogenic differentiation of porcine bone marrow derives from mesenchymal
stem cells. Results showed enhancement of osteogenic differentiation and suggest a potential for use in
bone marrow regeneration in pre-clinical models and bone alternative medicine. (72)
Antibacterial: Study evaluated powdered leaf, stem, and root methanol extracts for antimicrobial
activities. The extracts showed antibacterial activities against all test bacteria. The stem extract showed
better effectiveness against Salmonella typhi than standard Gentamicin with MIC of 10.89 and 13.88
mg/ml, respectively. (73)
Moringa Leaves as Spice Component: Study evaluated the sensory, chemical, and microbial
assessment of Moringa based spice in various formulations of nine blends of moringa-ginger-garlic. The
moringa-ginger blend showed significantly low microbial count when compared to other blends. Results
suggest moringa based spice products with 20% inclusion of moringa are acceptable for use in
household consumable products. (74)
Anxiolytic / Leaves: Study evaluated the anxiolytic effect of drumstick leaves using elevated plus maze
(EPM) and staircase models at four doses. Results showed anxiolytic activity in both models at higher
doses (200 and 400 mg/kg). (75)
Potential Oral Anticancer Drug / Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma / Leaves: M. oleifera has been
reported to have anticancer activity against various human cancer cell lines. Study evaluated leaf
extracts in human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells. Results showed significant reduction (44-52%)
in proliferation of HepG2 cells and A549 non-small cell lung cancer cells. Results suggest the water
soluble MOL extract may be a novel and promising natural anticancer drug candidate. (76)
Antidiarrheal / Leaves: Study evaluated the in vivo anti-diarrheal potential of M. oleifera leaves in a
castor oil-induced model. At 150 and 300 mg/kbw, the extract showed significant )p<0.01) anti-diarrheal
activity compared to control. (see constituents above) (77)
Fodder Potential of Leaf Meal: Four thesis studies characterized Moringa oleifera as a fodder for dairy
cows under dry tropical conditions in Nicaragua. A study of Moringa leaf meal as a protein source in
concentrates to dairy cows found no significant difference in milk production. Moringa as sole roughage
resulted in higher digestibility of both CP and fiber with no effect on milk yield. Results suggest that with
optimal planting density-fertiliser D2 and N3 combination, moringa leaf meal can successfully replace
commercial concentrate ingredients for dairy cows. (78)
Anticancer Potential / Breast and Colorectal Cancer Cell Lines / Leaves and Bark: Study
evaluated the anti-cancer effect of Moringa oleifera leaves, bark, and seed extracts against MDA-MB-231
and HCT-8 cancer cell lines. Extracts of leaves and bark showed remarkable anticancer properties, and,
surprisingly, seeds hardly exhibited activity. There was significant increase in number of apoptotic cells.
GC-MS analysis yielded numerous known anti-cancer compounds viz. eugenol, isopropyl isothiocynate,
D-allose, and hexadeconoic acid ethyl ester. (79)
Moringa Tree as a Local Solution to Malnutrition: The paper presents moringa as a possible solution to
malnutrition in Africa, discussing its nutritional value, its use in malnutrition prevention programs
In the news
In Leyte, extracted malungay juice is mixed with lemonsito juice to make ice candies or cold drinks,
making it more palatable and agreeable to children who detest vegetables.
Because of its high vitamin A, C, and E content, all potent antioxidants, malunggay is a very effective in
removing unstable free radicals that is damaging to molecules and pro-aging.
For the men: The fruit is reported to increase sperm count!
For increasing breast milk: One rounded tablespoon of leaf powder provides 14% of protein
requirements, 40% of calcium, 23% of iron, and the daily vitamin A needs of a child aged one to three.
Six rounded tablespoons of leaf powder will provide the woman's daily iron and calcium needs during
pregnancy and breast-feeding.
Highest Antioxidant Score: In an independent, Moringa oleifera scored the highest antioxidant content
of any food yet discovered, beating the record-holding aci berry by over 50% margin, measuring over
157,000 umoles using the Oxidant Source Absorbent Capacity (ORAC) system.
Recent uses and preparation:

- Constipation: Eat one or two cups of the cooked leaves at supper time, with plenty of water.
Wound wash: Apply crushed leaves directly to the wound, maintaining cleanliness during the process.
Biofuel source
Moringa oil extracted from the seed of the malunggay plant is now being tapped as source of biodiesel.
It is gaining preferable status over Jatropha as a source of biofuel. All parts of the malunggay plant are
used whereas Jatropha is left with poisonous waste after oil extraction. Also, malunggay needs only one
to two years for seedling maturation compared to Jatropha's three to five years. The math of malunggay's
commercial potential is attractive: Seeds are bought at P10 per kilo, and a hectare of malunggay
seedlings can harvest 20,000 kilos in 2 years with a potential profit of P200,000. (Philippine Star)
Toxicities
Root bark contains 2 alkaloids, as well as the toxic hypotensive moringinine. (Moringinine also
stimulates cardiac function through its effect on the sympathetic nervous system.)
Has dose-dependent negative inotropic effect, in isolated frog heart study.
Niazinin A, niazimicin and niaziminin A and B isolated from the ethanol extract produced hypotensive,
bradycardic and negative inotropic effects in experimental animals.
The bark may cause violent uterine contractions that can be fatal. Chronic high-dose use may cause
liver and kidney dysfunctions.
In frequent or large doses, Interior flesh of the plant can cause toxic nerve paralysis from the alkaloid
spirochin. source
Superstitions
Malunggay ingestion is avoided in the immediate period after a family member's death. In the
superstitions-laden isms of rural Tagalog life, as a malunggay branch or twig will shed off all its leaves
within a few hours of being snapped off a tree, ingesting malunggay might bring death to a relative.
Avoiding its use is strongly advised during the ritual of nine days of prayers after a death.
Availability
- Wild-crafted.
- Garden and back-yard cultivation.
- Commercial production of oil extracted from flowers.
- Malunggay capsule (Natalac) each containing 250 mg dried young malunggay leaves.
- Seeds, extracts, leaf powder, supplements and various Miracle Tree products in the cybermarkets.
Updated July 2017 / June 2017 / September 2016

Manzanilla
Chrysanthemum indicum
WINTER ASTER; GROUND APPLE
Nue ji cao

Achillea bandana Buch.-Ham. [Invalid] Dolontas (Tag.)
Acrotis elegans Thunb. Manzanilla (Sp., Fil.)
Bidens bardanna Wall. [Invalid] Mansanilya-a-babasit (Ilk.)
Bidens marginata DC. Roman camomile (Engl.)
Chrysanthemum indicum L. Garden camomile (Engl.)
Chrysanthemum japonicum Thunb. Winter aster (Engl.)
Chrysanthemum koraiense Nakai Ground apple (Engl.)
Chrysanthemum lushanense Kitam. Mother's daisy (Engl.)
Chrysanthemum nankingense Hand.-Mazz. Whig plant (Engl.)
Chrysanthemum procumbens Lour.
Chrysanthemum purpureum Pers.
Chrysanthemum tripartitum Sweet
Collaea procumbens (Rich.) Spreng
Dendranthema indicum (L.) Des Moul.
Dendranthema nankingense (Hand.-Mazz.) P.S.Hsu
Matricaria indica (L.) Desr.
Pyrethrum indicum (L.) Cass.
Tanacetum indicum (L.) Sch.Bip.
Some compilations list C. indicum and C. sinense as synonyms. Quisumbing's compilation lists them separately. Mansanilla
is a shared common name by the two species. C. sinense is similar to C. indicum, burt usually taller.
Chrysanthemum indicum L. is an accepted name The Plant List

CHINESE: Chua hua, Hsia yeh chua hua, Ku yi, Lu bian huang, Shan ju hua, Huang ju zi, Ju hua nao,
Ye ju, Nui ji cao.
ITALIAN: Crisantemo comune.
TAMIL: Civanti.
Botany
Manzanilla is an erect or ascending, aromatic, somewhat hairy herb, 30 to 60 centimeters in height.

Leaves are thin, pinnately lobed, ovate to oblong-ovate, and 4 to 6 centimeters long. Lobes 2 to 3 on
each side, ovate or oblong-ovate, and sharply toothed. Upper surface of the leaves deep green while the
under surface gray-green. Flowering heads are yellow, peduncled, corymbosely panicled, and 1.5 to 2.5
centimeters in diameter. Involucre bracts are
oblong or elliptic, as large as the achenes.
Receptacle is smooth or pitted, not paleaceous.
Ray flowers are 1-seriate, female, ligule
spreading, disc flowers numerous, perfect, limb
4- to 5-fid. Fruits are achenes, very small,
cuneate-oblong, somewhat compressed and
grooved.
Distribution
- Widely scattered in cultivation, esteemed for
ornamental and medicinal purposes.
- Established in Benguet at 1,800 meters
altitude.
- A native of China and Japan, now cultivated in
most warm countries.
Constituents
- Leaves and flowers of C. japonicum yielded a
volatile oil (kiku oil), 0.16%; glucoside;
chrysanthemin, 7%; anthocyanin.
- The active ingredient is chrysanthemin.
- Essential oil contains chrysanthenone.
- A glucoside, chrysanthemin, an isomer of
asterin, has been isolated from the flowers of
the red variety.
-From the "Ruby King" variety, a glucoside has been isolated, monoglucoside of cyanidine, 7 per cent.
- Study of methanolic extract of flowers yielded flavone and flavone glycosides together with three new
eudesmane-type sesquiterpenes, kikkanols A, B, and C. (see study below) (27)
- Ethanol extract of flowers yielded seven compounds: acacetin, acacetin-7-O-(6"-O-acetyl) beta-D-
glucopyranoside, linarin, apigenin-7-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside, chlorogenic acid, vanillic acid, and
sucrose. (13)
- Flower oil yields 1,8-cineole, germacrene D, camphor, -cadinol, camphene, pinocarvone, -
caryophyllene, 3-cyclohexen-1-ol, and -curcumene. (see study beloow) (22)
Properties
- Considered antifungal, antiviral, antiinflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, bactericidal, febrifuge,
vulnerary, depurative and tonic.
- Glycoside chrysanthemin considered antibacterial.
- Studies have shown antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, hepatoprotective,
anti-diabetic, anti-dermatitis, antioxidant, acetylcholinesterase inhibitory properties.
Parts utilized
Flowering heads.
Entire plant also used.
Uses
Culinary / Edibility
Seeds, flowers, leaves are edible.
Folkloric
Preventive for cough, flu, epidemic meningitis.
Entire plant or flower used for whooping cough.
For gas pains -- warm oil, add and mix the flower heads, let stand for 30 mins and strain. Then apply
the warm oily solution to abdomen.
Used for eczema, poisonous snake bites, sprains and bruises. Also used for mammary carbuncles.
Flowers used for hypertension.
Emulsion of flowers used for infections of the cervix .
Flowers are burned for use as Insect repellent.
Tea used as a wash for sore eyes, open sores, and wounds.
Infusion of flowering heads used as carminative.
In Deccan, plant used in conjunction with black pepper for treatment of gonorrhea.
Combined with bitter sweet as ointment, used for bruises, sprains, calluses.
In China, used for migraines, hypertension, inflammation, respiratory problems. Also, flowering heads
are made into tonic and sedative preparations. Infusions are used as collyrium in eye affections.
In Malaya flowers are used for sore eyes and to promote longevity.
The Hindus consider the plant heating and aperient; used for affections of the brain, calculus, as well as
antidote to mental depression.
In Indo-China leaves are used as depurant and prescribed for migraine. Also, flowers are used for sore
eyes and inflammation of the abdomen.
In Guam infusion of flowers are used as remedy for intermittent fevers; also, used by women as remedy
for hysteria and monthly irregularities.
Studies
Antimicrobial / Essential Oils: Study yielded three essential oils with major constituents of 1,8-
cineole, camphor, borneol and bornyl acetate. Results showed both essential oils from air-dried and
processed flowers possessed significant antimicrobial effect. With higher camphor percentage, the oil of
processed flowers greater bacteriostatic activity than air-dried ones. (1)
Antiinflammatory / Immunomodulatory: Anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities of the
extracts from the inflorescence of Chrysanthemum indicum Linn: Study showed CI possesses
antiinflammatory, humoral and cellular immunomodulatory and phagocytic activity probably from its
flavonoid contents. (2)
Antiinflammatory: Study showed C indicum extract to be an effective anti-inflammatory agent in
murine phorbol ester-induced dermatitis and suggests a potential for treatment of immune-related
cutaneouse diseases.
Anti-Cancer: Study of C indicum extract showed a significant apoptotic effect through a mitochondrial
pathway and arrested cell cycle by regulation of cell cycle-related proteins in MHCC97H cells lines
without effect on normal cells. The cancer-specific selectivity suggests the plant extract could be a
potential new treatment for human cancer. (4)
Anti-Cancer / Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Study documents anti-metastatic effect through a decrease
of MMP expression, simultaneous increase of TIMP expression. Results suggest CI is a potential novel
medicinal plant for treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma or cancer invasion and metastasis. (6)
Anti-Cancer / Antiproliferative In Human Hepatocellular Cells: Study performed in rats with human
cells showed CI extract inhibited proliferation of human hepatocellular cells in a time- and dose-
dependent manner without cytotoxicity.
Flavonoids / Anti-Arthritis: Study showed the total flavonoids of C indicum, extracted from the dried
buds could induce synoviocytes apoptosis and suppress proliferation of synoviocytes in adjuvant-induced
arthritis rats. (7)
Flowers / Chemical Composition: Study of C. indicum flowers yielded 63 volatiles which included
eucalyptol, a-pinene, a-neoclovene among others. Ten flavonoids were identified, including quercitrin,
myricetin and luteolin-7-glucoside. It suggests C indicum flower is a good source of natural quercitrin and
myricetin for the development of potential pharmaceuticals. (8)
Aldose Reductase Inhibitory Activity: Study has shown inhibitory activity against rat lens aldose
reductase and nitric oxide (NO) production in lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophages.
Anti-Inflammatory: Study suggest the anti-inflammatory properties of CIE might results from the
inhibition of inflammatory mediators, such as NO, PGE2, TNF-alpha and IL01beta, via suppression of
MAPKs and NF-kappaB-dependent pathways. (9)
Flavanone Glycosides / Rat Lens Aldose Reductase Inhibition: Study isolated two flavanone
glycosides and a new phenylbutanoid glycoside from the flowers of Chrysanthemum indicum together
with eight flavonoids. Both of the new flavanone glycosides showed inhibitory activity for rat lens aldose
reductase. (10)
Aldose Reductase Inhibitors: Methanol extract of flowers yielded flavone and flavone glycosides,
together twith three new eudesmane-type sesquiterpenes, kikkanols A, B, C. (12)
Hepatoprotective / Flowers: Study evaluated the hepatoprotective effect of a hot water extract of CI
flowers in in vitro and in vivo systems using normal human hepatocytes and hepatocellular carcinoma
cells against CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity. Results showed HCIF inhibited bioactivation of CCl4-induced
hepatotoxicity and downregulated CYP2E1 expression in vitro and in vivo. (14)
Topical Application Attenuates Atopic Dermatitis: Study evaluated the effect of topically applied C.
indicum in mice with atopic dermatitis-like symptoms. CIL treatment dose-dependently reduced severity
of clinical symptoms of dorsal skin, ear thickness, and number of mast cells and eosinophils.
Improvement with CIL-high was similart to hydrocortisone but without skin atrophy and secondary
infection. Study concludes CIL may be an alternative substance for management of atopic
dermatitis. (15)
Teratogenicity Study / Safety: Under experimental conditions, C. indicum extract did not show any
significant effects in SD pregnant rats, with no apparent teratogenicity and embryotoxicity. (16)
Apoptosis in Huan Hepatocellular Carcinoma: CI extract exerted a significant apoptotic effect
through a mitochondrial pathway and arrested the cell cycle by regulation of cell-cycle related proteins. A
cancer-specific selectivity suggests a promising novel treatment for human cancer. (17)
Antioxidant / Prevention of Radical-Induced DNA Damage / Flowers: Ethanol-based extract of
flowers prevented free radical-induced DNA damage and did not show any cytotoxicity. Antioxidant
activity was highly correlated with phenolic and flavonoid contents. (18)
Silver Nanoparticles from C. indicum / Antibacterial: The antimicrobial effect of synthesized AgNPs
from C. indicum revealed a significant effect against K. pneumonia, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa, with no
toxicity toward mouse embryo fibrobalst cells. (19)
Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors / Flowers / Alzheimer's Disease: Ethanol extract of flowers
markedly decreased AChE activity. Study yielded acaiin and acacetin-7-O--D-galactopyranoside as
active compounds responsible for the AChE inhibition which present as potential therapeutic agents for
Alzheimer's disease. (20)
Safety and Mutagenicity Evaluation of Flower Oil: Acute oral toxicity evaluation of flower oil showed
no mortality or clinical signs of toxicity at 2,000 mg/kg body weight per day. Levels of 15.63-500 g C.
indicum flower oil/plate did not induce mutagenicity in S. typhimurium and E. coli. Results showed the
flower oil produced no bone marrow micronucleus abnormalities, mutagenicity, or chromosomal
aberrations, and can be considered a functional food or medicinal ingredient. (see constituents
above) (22)
Anti-Tyrosinasec/ Skin Whitening: Study evaluated the ability of C. indicum extracts to inhibit in vitro
tyrosinase activity and skin care effects of cosmetic formulations containing 0.5% water extracts in
human volunteers. Methanol and water extracts dose dependently inhibited mushroom tyrosinase
activity. Methanol extract effect was similar to kojic acid, a known tyrosinase inhibitor. Water extract also
reduced melanin levels. Luteolin and acacetin-7-O-rutinoside were the major flavonoid compounds in the
weater extract. Results suggest the water extract has potential as a natural skin-whitening agent for
functional cosmetic uses, due to its melanin-reducing efficacy. (23)
Attenuation of Atopic Dermatitis: Study evaluated the effect of topically applied C. indicum in mice
with atopic dermatitis (AD)-like symptoms. CIL treatment dose-dependently reduced severity of cliical
symptoms of dorsal skin, ear thickness, and number of mast cells and eosinophils, together with
significantly reduced IgE, IgG1, IL-4, and IFN- levels and reduced mRNA levels of IFN-, IL-4, and IL-13
in dorsal skin lesion. Results suggest a potential alternative for the treatment of AD. (24)
Linarin / Inhibition of Proliferation of A549 Cells / Lung Cancer / Flowers: Study reported on the
anti-proliferative and molecular mechanism of C. indicum on A549 human alveolar basal epithelial cells.
Results showed linarin-mediated inhibition of cell prolifereation is associated withh suppression of Akt
activation and induction of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitory p27. Findings suggest a further evaluation
and a potential for linarin for the treatment and prevention of lung cancer. (25)
Enhancement of Osteoblast Function / Prevention of Osteoporosis: Study evaluated the protective
effects of Chrysanthemum indicum extract on response of osteoblasts to oxidative stress. Results
showed CIE signficantly increase cell survival, ALP activity, and calcium deposition, and decreased the
production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and Tumor Necrosis Factor- (TNF-) in osteoblasts. The
enhancement of osteoblast function by CI extract may prevent osteoporosis and inflammatory bone
disease. (26)
Aldose Reductase Inhibitors / Flowers: A methanolic extract from flowers of C. indicum was shown
to have inhibitory adtivity against rat lens aldose reductase. Bioassay guided separation yielded flavone
and flavone glycosides and three new eudesman-type sesquiterpenes. (see constituents above) (27)
Availability
- Wild-crafted.
- Cultivated for ornamental use.
- Herbs, granules, extracts in the cybermarket.
- Chrysanthemum tea from flowers.
Moras
Chrysopogon zizanioides ( L.) Roberty
VETIVER
Yan lan cao

Anatherum muricatum ( Retz.) P.Beauv. Amoora (C. Bis.)
Anatherum zizanioides ( L.) Hitchc. & Chase Amoras (Ilk.)
Andropogon muricatus Retz. Anias de moras (Pamp.)
Andropogon zizanioides ( Linn.) Urban Giron (P. Bis.)
Chamaeraphis muricata (Retz.) Merr. Ilib (Pamp.)
Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty Mora (Bik., Bis.)
Holcus zizanioides (L.) Stuck. Moras (Tag., Bis., Bik.)
Phalaris zizanioides Linn. Moro (Tag.)
Rhaphis zizanioides (L.) Roberty Narawasta (Sul.)
Sorghum zizanioides (L.) Roberty Rais de moras (Span.)
Vetiveria arundinacea Griseb. Rimodas (P. Bis.)
Vetiveria muricata (Retz.) Griseb. Rimora (Sbl.)
Vetiveria odoratissima Lem.-Lis. Rimoras (Bik.)
Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash Tres-moras (Bis.)
Cuscus grass (Engl.)
Fragrant grass (Engl.)
Indian couch grass (Engl.)
Vetiver (Engl.)
Vetiver grass (Engl.)
Yan lan cao (Chin.)
Moras is a common name shared by Morus alb (morera) and Andropogon zizainoides (moras).
Andropogon zizanioides (L.) Urb. is a synonym of Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty The Plant List

AFRICA: Khus-khus grass.
BANGLADESH: Kash=khas.
CHINESE: Xiang gen cao, Yan lan cao.
DANISH: Vetiverrod
DUTCH: Vetivergras, Akar wangie.
FRENCH: Chiendent odorant, Chiendent des Indes, Vtiver.
GERMAN: Vetivergras, Vetiverwurzel.
HINDI: Gandar, Khas khas.
ITALIAN: Gramigna indiana, Gramigna delle Indie.
KANNDA: Vetiveru
MALAYALAM: Ramacham
PORTUGUESE: Vetiver-da-India.
SANSKRIT: Reshira, Sugandhimula, Sugandhimuta, Ushira.
SPANISH: Zacate violeta
TAMIL: Vettiver
TELUGU: Kuruveru
Botany
Moras is a coarse, erect, tufted perennial, growing 1 to 2 meters high. Roots are fibrous and fragrant.
Leaves are arranged in two rows, about 1 meter long, 1 centimeters or less in width, and folded. Panicles
are terminal, erect, purple or greenish, about 20 centimeters long; the branches are slender, whorled,
spreading or ascending, 5 to 12 centimeters long. Sessile spikelets are about 4 millimeters long and
muricate; the awn of the fourth glume is very short or absent.
Distribution
- Widely distributed in the settled regions of the Philippines.
- Commonly planted on dikes of rice paddies and on river banks
to prevent erosion.
- Introduced into the Philippines.
- Now pantropic.
Constituents
- Yields an oil known as vetiver oil; also, as cuscus.
- Vetiver oil yields various substances: vetivenes, vetivenol,
vetivenic acid, vetivenyl acetate and other similar compounds.
- Study of roots yielded khusimol (2) together with other
sesquiterpenes, including -vetivenene (1), vetiselinenol (3),
isovalencenol (4), vetivenic acid (5), -vetivone (6) and -
vetivone (7). (see study below) (10)
- Study of essential oil identified 25 compounds. Major
components were cedr-8-en-13-ol (12.4%), -amorphene
(7.80%), -vatirenene (5.94%) and -gurjunene (5.91%). (see
study below) (11)
- Study of roots for essential oil yielded sesquiterpenes (3-4%),
sesquiterpenols (18-25%), and sesquiterpenones (7-8%).
Economically active compounds were khusimol, -vetivone and
-vetivone which constitute about 35% of the oil. (16)
- GC-MS analysis of essential oil yielded major components of
khusimol (19.57%), E-isovalencenol (13.24%), -vetivone
(5.25%), -vetivone (4.87%), and hydroxy-valencene (4.64%).
(see study below) (17)
Properties
- Root reported as cooling, carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, refrigerant, tonic,
stomachic.
- Studies suggest antimicrobial, repellent, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic and
hypoglycemic properties.
Parts used
Roots, essential oil.
Uses
Culinary
- Oil sometimes used to flavor sherbets.
Folkloric
- Decoction of roots used for tonic baths.
- Decoction of roots taken internally as a lithotripic - to dissolve or break kidney stones.
- Roots used for thirst, inflammation, acne, stomach irritability.
- Weak infusion of roots used for fever.
- In Ayurveda, different plant parts used for various ailments and diseases, including boils, burns,
epilepsy, fever, scorpion stings, snakebites, mouth sores, headaches, lumbago, malarial fever.
- Essential oil of vetiver used in aromatherapy for relieving stress, anxiety, nervous tension, and
insomnia.
- Root used as carminative, stimulant, and diaphoretic.
- Root decoction taken internally for nervous and circulatory problems. Externally, used for tonic baths,
muscle pains and treating lice.
Others
Weaving: Roots used for weaving fans, baskets, and making fragrant mats. Flower stalks are used in
making mats, and occasionally, brooms. Leaves sometimes made into awnings and sunshades.
Perfume: Prized for its agreeable odor, akin to that of sandal wood. Dried roots used to perfume clothes.
Shavings used for filling sachet bags.
Oil: Vetiver oil is a constituent of high-grade perfumes and cosmetics. Used for making agarbattis,
soaps, soft drinks, pan masala.
Phytotechnology : A super-absorbent and deep rooted perennial grass with use for landfill
rehabilitation, erosion, and leachate control. Also recommended for rehabilitation of mining areas.
Studies
Antihypertensive / Antispasmodic: Study of aqueous-methanolic crude extract of A muricatus
showed a cardiodepressant effect on the rate and force of spontaneous contractions. In isolated rabbit
jejunal preparations, it showed a relaxation of spontaneous and high K-induced contractions, suggesting
a spasmolytic effect mediated possibly through calcium channel-blockade. Phytochemical screening
yielded phenols, saponins, tannins, and terpenes, which may be responsible for the cardiodepressant,
vasodilator and antispasmodic effects. (1)
Anti-Inflammatory: Study showed that A. muricatus extract possesses anti-inflammatory property by
inhibiting serotonin, histamine and prostaglandin biosynthesis.(2)
Termite Repellent and Toxicant / Nootkatone: Study isolated nootkatone which was found to be a
significant repellent and toxicant of termites. Nootkatone is an effective repellent or toxicant either alone
or as an addition to other substrates, including mulches made from vetiver grass roots or other wood
products. It is non-toxic to humans and environmentally safe. (3)
Phytoremediation of Arsenic-Contaminated Soils: A greenhouse study evaluated the capacity of
vetiver grass to accumulate arsenic from pesticide-contaminated soils. Results showed vetiver is capable
of tolerating moderate levels of arsenic. High biomass, widespread root system and environmental
tolerance makes it an attractive choice for remediation of soils contaminated with arsenic. (7)
Antimicrobial / Roots: Study of roots yielded khusimol (2) together with other sesquiterpenes (1, 3-7).
Kushimol was slightly active against tested microorganisms. (see constituents above). (10)
Essential Oil / Anti-Inflammatory / Antioxidant: Study of essential oil yielded 25 compounds. VZEO
may suppress inflammatory responses of LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages, including NO
production and cell apoptosis, by regulating expression of inflammation-related enzymes, inducible NO
synthase and COX-2 and inflammatory cytokines TNF-a, interleukin-1 and interferon-. The anti-
inflammatory activity correlated with its antioxidant activity. (see constituents above) (11)
Decontamination of Irrigation Water: Study evaluated the phytoremediation potential of Vetiver grass
in decontaminating leachate from conventional agricultural irrigation. Analysis of water and leachates
indicated the species significantly decreased the concentration of some chemicals such as nitrates,
nitrites, and phosphates. (12)
Anti-Diabetic / Roots: Study evaluated C. zizanioides roots extracts in STZ-induced diabetic wistar
rats. Results showed significant improved glycemic control, antioxidant and hypolipidemic properties,
together with protective effect against hepatic and renal injury associated with diabetes. (13)
Synergistic Sedative-Hypnotic Effects: Study evaluated the sedative-hypnotic effects of two dose
levels of ethanolic extract and one dose of essential oil of VZ root. Ethanolic extract and essential oil
showed significant sedation and hypnosis in Swiss albino mice. Findings show comparable therapeutic
efficacy with diazepam in insomina. (14)
Phytoremediation for Tetracycline: Study evaluated the potential of vetiver grass as
phytoremediative agent in removing tetracycline from aqueous media. Results showed a cost-effective
in-situ phytoremediation technique to remove TC from wastewater. (15)
Antinociceptive / Anti-Inflammatory / Essential Oil: Study evaluated the antinociceptive and anti-
inflammatory effects of C. zizanioides essential oil in rodents. EO at 50 and 100 mg/kg significantly
reduced the number of writhes (51.9 and 64.9%, respectively) and the number of paw licks during phase
2 (56.7 and 86.2%, respectively) of a formalin model. In paw edema test, 100 mg/kg of EO inhibited all
three phases of edema equally well, suggesting a non-selective inhibitory effect on the release or action
of these mediators. (see constituents above) (17)
Bioremediation of Uranium Mill Tailings: Study evaluated the uranium immobilization potential of
vetiver grass under simulated conditions using complex tailings. Results showed the plant could
bioremediate up to 49% of the uranium at the 90th day of experiment. The remediation efficiency of
vetiver increased with time and the uranium was predominantly localized in the roots. (18)
De-Fluoridation Efficiency: Consumption of fluoridated water (>1.5mg/L) leads to fluorosis which has
no cure. Of the 1.21 billion living in India, 62 million suffer from fluorosis. Study evaluated the de-
fluoridation efficiency of C. zizainoides and Ocimum tenuiflorum leaves alone and in combination.
Results showed 70%-40% de-fluoridation in C. zizainoides treated water. Fresh Ocimum tenuiflorum
leaves showed fluoride reduction from 60%-30%, and adsorbent combination of 1:2 showed maximum
reduction of 89% in 1 mg/L solution. (19)
Analgesic / Anti-Inflammatory: Study evaluated an ethanolic extract of V. zizainoides in Wistar rats
and Swiss albino mice showed analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity possible mediated through
central and peripheral mechanisms. (20)
Antihyperglycemic / Roots: Study evaluated an ethanol extract of roots of V. zizainoides for anti-
hyperglycemic activity in alloxan induced diabetic rats. Results showed significant reduction of blood
glucose levels. The antihyperglycemic effects were compared with those of glibenclamide. (21)
Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles: Study reports on a simple biological and ecofriendly method for the
synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles using Chrysopogon zizainoides. The nanoparticles can have
clinical use as antibacterial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic agent and can be used for biomedical applications.
(22)
Availability
Wild-crafted.
Updated June 2017 / October 2015

Niyog
Cocos nucifera Linn.
COCONUT
Ke ke ye zi
Calappa nucifera (L.) Kuntze Gira-gira (Sbl.)
Cocos indica Royle I-ing (It.)
Cocos nana Girff. Iniug (Ibn.)
Cocos nucifera Linn. Lobi (S.L. Bis.)
Palma cocos Miller [Illegitimate] Lubi (C.Bis., P. Bis.)
Niyog (Ilk., Bik., Bis., Ibn., Tag.)
Ngot-got (Pamp., Sbl.)
Ogot (Ibn.)
Ponlaing (Sub.)
Punlaing (Yak.)
Ugut (Pamp.)
Coconut (Engl.)
Cocos nucifera L. is an accepted name The Plant List
Other vernacular names (20)

ARABIC : Gawz el hind, Jauz al hind, Nrgl.
ARMENIAN : Hantkakan engouz (Hentgagan engouz).
BENGALI : Daab, Naarakel (Narkel), Naarakela, Narikel.
BULGARIAN : Kokos.
CHINESE : Ke ke ye zi (Taiwan), Ye zi, Ye shu, Ho ho yeh ji.
ESTONIAN : Kookospalm.
FINNISH : Kookosphkin, Kookospalmu.
FRENCH : Noix de coco, Cocotier
GERMAN : Kokos, Kokosnu, Kokosnuss, Kokospalme.
HINDI : Naariyal (Nariyal), Naariyal kaa per (plant), Khopar.
INDONESIA : Kelapa
ITALIAN : Cocco, Noce di cocco, Palma del cocco .
JAPANESE : Koko yashi, Koko yashi, Natsume yashi.
KHMER : Doung.
KOREAN : K'o k'o neos.
LAOTIAN : Kok mak phao.
MARATHI : Naaral.
PORTUGUESE : Coco, Coco da Bahia, Coco da India, Coqueiro, Noz de coco.
RUSSIAN : Kokos, Kokos orekhonosnmi, Kokosobaia pal'ma.
SANSKRIT: Narekela, Sadaphala, Trinadruma, Dridhaphala.
SPANISH : Coco, Cocotero, Nuez de coco, Palma de coco, Palmera de coco.
THAI : Maphrao, Ma phrao on, Maak muu.
VIETNAMESE : Da.
Gen info
Coconut is one of the most useful plants in the world, providing a multitude of uses, from arrack to food
staple, sugar to vinegar, fibers and fodder, thatching and lumber, and virgin coconut oil among many
others. In addition, it yield 3 to 4 tons of copra (nut meat) per hectare and over two tons of oil.
Botany
Coconut is an unarmed, erect, tall palm reaching a
height of 25 meters. Trunk is stout, 30 to 50 centimeters
in diameter, thickened at the base; marked with annular
scars. Leaves are crowded at the apex of the trunk, 3.5
to 6 meters long, with a stout petiole, 1 meter or more in
length. Leaflets are bright green, numerous, linear-
lanceolate, flaccid, 60 to 100 centimeters long. Spadix is
about 1 meter long, erect, drooping, straw-colored,
simply branched. Male flowers are small and yellowish
with small, ovate, valvate sepals and oblong, valvate
petals. Female flowers are much larger, rounded, with
imbricate sepals and shorter convolute petals. Fruit is
variable in size, shape and color, obovoid to subglobose,
often obscurely 3-angled, 15 to 25 centimeters long.
Endosperm forms a thick white layer of fleshy fibrous
substance adherent to the membranous testa which is
adherent to the stony-black shell. The shell is covered by
a fibrous husk. The embryo is opposite one pore.
Fruit is composed of an outer epicarp (outer skin),

mesocarp (fibrous portion between the epi-endocarp)
and the endocarp (the hard dark core.) Inside is the
endosperm, the solid white albumen of varied thickness,
depending on the age of the fruit, and the liquid albumen
referred to as coconut water.
Distribution
- Extensively cultivated in the Philippines, especially in regions where the dry season is not too
prolonged.
- Native of Polynesia.
- Pantropic in cultivation.
- Introduced during prehistoric times.
Constituents
Fixed oil, 57.5 - 71%; volatile oil, wax containing the myricyl ester of cerotic acid.
Coconut oil is composed mostly of triglycerides of saturated fatty acids - Lauric (dodecanoic acid, 40 to
55%) and myristic acid (tetradecanoic acid, 15 to 20%), and other fatty acids at concentrations of 5 to 10
%.
High-grade coconut oil is nearly colorless, bland tasting, with a peculiar odor of coconuts, consisting
largely of glyceryl ester of lauric and myristic acids, and glyceryl ester of other fatty acids as caproic,
capryllic, capric, and oleic.
Meat: protein, 6.3%; vitamins A, B, and C; nonyl alcohol; methyl heptyl ketone; methyl undecyl ketone;
capronic, decylic, caprylic, lauric and myristic acids; lecithin; stigmasterin, phytosterin; choline; globulin;
galactoaraban; galactomannan.
Water, 93%; protein, 0.5%; ash, 1%; saccharose; oxidase; catalase, diastase.
Phytochemical screening of constituents of endosperm showed the presence of terpenoids, alkaloids,
resins, glycosides and steroids. Macronutrient analyses yielded carbohydrates, proteins, reducing sugar,
fats and oil. Oil is considered the major constituent. (16 )
Water extract of husk yielded catechin and epicatechin, together with condensed tannins (B-type
procyanidins). (see study below) (43 )
Coconut water vs coconut milk: Coconut water is the aqueous part of the coconut endosperm; coconut
milkgata in the Philippines, santan in Malaysia and Indonesiais the liquid product obtained by
grating the solid endosperm, with or without the addition of water. Coconut water is mainly water (about
94%) while coconut milk yields about 50% water, fat and protein. (31)
Study of crude fiber extracts yielded nineteen chemical constituents. The major chemical constituents
were 9-Octadecenoic acid methyl ester (58.86%), hexadecanoic acid methyl ester (19.025%), 6-
octadecanoic acid methyl ester (9.14%). (see study below) (48)
Coconut Water:
- Coconut water contains sugar, fiber, proteins, antioxidants, vitamins and minerals with an isotonic
electrolyte balance.
- 100 g (3.5 oz) of water yields 79 kj (19 kcal) of energy; 3.71 g carbohydrates (sugars 2.61 g, dietary
fiber 1.1 g); 0.2 g of fat; 0.72 g of protein; negligible amounts of B vitamins, 3 g of folate, 2.4 mg of
vitamin C; 25 mg of magnesium and 250 mg of potassium; and 94.99 g of water. (31)
- Sugar analysis yielded a total of 2.61 g/100g with sucrose 9.18 mg/mL, glucose 7.25 mg/mL and
fructose 5.25 mg/mL. Sugar alcohols were mannitol 0.8 mg/mL, sorbitol 15, myo-inositol 0.01, and
scyllo-inositol 0.05. (38)
- Coconut water is ideal for hydration and maintenance of electrolyte levels during fevers and sweating.
Its natural sugars make it preferable to sports drinks loaded with refined sugars and high fructose corn
syrup.
- Cytokinins identified in coconut water are N6-isopentenyladenine, dihydrozeatin, trans-zeatin, kinetin,
ortho-topolin, dihydrozeatin O-glucoside, trans-zeatin O-glucoside, trans-zeatin riboside, kinetin riboside,
and trans-zeatin riboside-5'- monophosphate. (see study below) (44)
- Preliminary phytochemical screening of flowers yielded the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols,
sterols, tannins and carbohydrates, with an absence of saponins and anthraquinones. (45)
- In a Southern Nigerian study of Cocos nucifera for mean concentration of electrolytes, results yielded
sodium of 74.83 9.35 mmol/l, potassium 47.212.21 mmol/l, bicarbonate 5.380.14 mmol/l, chloride
70.784.14 mmol/l, total calcium 10.991.43 mmol/l and zinc 1.170.46 mg/l. (see study below) (50)
Properties
- Considered antitumor, antidotal, antiseptic, aperient, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, depurative,
diuretic, pediculicide, refrigerant, stomachic, styptic, suppurative, vermifuge.
- Roots considered antiscorbutic, astringent, and diuretic.
- Fresh coconut water considered astringent and possibly vermifuge. Also considered demulcent, and
aperient in large doses.
- Endosperm cocomilk is considered refrigerant, nutrient, aperient, diuretic and anthelmintic.
Parts used
Roots, bark, "bloom" of the leaf, the cabbage, flowers, and
the fruit (husk, shell, water, endosperm, oil.)
Uses
Edibility / Culinary / Nutrition
- Use oil for cooking; take meat and/or gata (cream) as
food.
- The ubod part is a delicacy used in a variety of
preparations: lumpia, achara, salads.
- A good source of iron and calcium.
- The cocomilk, the juice expressed from the grated
endosperm was a popular substitute for cow's milk during
World War II.
- Fresh coconut juice is considered astringent; allowed to
stand, it loses astringency.
- The endosperm is eaten in its various stages of
development: (1) malauhog - the early mucoid stage
(2) tagop - the stage
between malauhog and malakanin (3) malakanin, a
consistency best used for salads. (Alagan is the mature stage of the endosperm, not suitable for
culinary use.) The coconut water of malauhog is mildly sweet, becoming increasingly acidic as the
coconut matures.
Folkloric
- Myriads of use in the traditional systems worldwide: abscesses, asthma, baldness, burns and bruises,,
cough and colds, kidney stones, scabies, ulcers, among many others.
- Constipation: Take 1 to 2 tablespoons of gata (cream).
- Dandruff: Massage oil on scalp, leave overnight, and wash hair.
- Diarrhea and/or vomiting: Drink water of young fruit, as tolerated. Water from the young coconut has
been used as a substitute for dextrose infusion in emergent situations during World War II.
- Dry skin: Apply oil and massage into affected area.
- Young roots astringent for sore throats.
- Ash of bark used for scabies.
- In New Guinea, young leaves chewed to a past and applied to cuts to stop the bleeding.
- In Java used for dysentery and other intestinal complaints.
- In Amboinia oil used as vermifuge.
- In Jamaica, used for coughs.
- Malays use poultice of roots in syphilis and gonorrhea; also, for rheumatism.
- In India, young roots employed as astringent gargle for sore throat. Also, boiled with ginger and salt,
used in fevers.
- In the Gold Coast, bark used for curing toothache and earache.
- In Nigeria, coconut water twice daily prescribed for treatment of diabetes. Also used to prevent
abortion.
- In India ash of the bark used as dentrifice and as antiseptic. Ash is also used for scabies. The soft,
downy, light-brown substance on the lower surface of the leaves used as styptic. Husk used in the
treatment of tapeworms; in Punjab and Cashmere, used for throat inflammation. The tar obtained from
burning the shell considered rubefacient; used for ringworm, itches and other parasitic infections.
- In India, a toddy-poultice (fresh toddy and rice flour) used as application for gangrenous ulcerations,
indolent ulcers, and carbuncles. Heating coconut shells yield an oil that is used for ringworm infections.
- In Malaya. ash obtained from the coconut shell used for swellings, pains in the stomach, and for
rheumatism. Coconut water is also used as diuretic.
- In Mexico, coconut water used as diuretic and anthelmintic.
- Roots used for strengthening the gums.
- In Brazil, decoction of husks used in the treatment of diarrhea and arthritis.
- In Kenya, fruit used for skin rash caused by HIV.
- Decoction of ground roots drunk in cases of small pox.
- Flowers reported to be astringent; chewed in immature state for gonorrhea. Flowers have also been
used for diabetes, dysentery, leprosy and urinary discharges.
- In Mexico, decoction of the fibers of the trunk used as diuretic.
- Tar obtained from burning the shell is used for toothache.
- Water is fed to infants with diarrhea.
- In emergencies, water has been used as intravenous drips. Anecdotal reports of use during cholera
epidemics.
- In Sri Lanka, immature inflorescence used in the treatment of menorrhagia.
Others
- Toddy: Tuba, or toddy, is considered a pleasant drink, stimulating and mildly laxative. In India, the
toddy is considered refrigerant and diuretic.
- Toothbrush: In India, brushing the teeth with the fibrous husk is a common oral hygiene practice. (41)
- Cosmetics: Coconut oil/extract is widely used in natural skin care and beauty products. It has an
excellent humectant effect when topically applied, moisturizing and preventing water loss. It is believed
to diminish the and prevent the appearance of acne scars.
- Most versatile of all palms with its wide range of utility: as lumber, food, drink, alcohol, vinegar,
thatching material, manufacture of baskets, rope, hats, brooms; shell for making charcoal and utensils as
cups, bowls, spoons; oil for food, massage, and as base for medications for external use; cooking,
illumination, soap making; decorative for celebrations and religious rituals.
- Lauric acid, the dominant fatty acid in coconut oil, finds application in cooking, detergents, soaps and
cosmetics.
- Water as Intravenous Hydration Fluid: Water in the undamaged coconut is considered sterile. In
emergencies, sterile coconut water in the unopened coconut fruit has been used as intravenous drips.
There are anecdotal reports of use during cholera epidemics and as emergency transfusions during
World War II.
Coconut oil and MCFA (medium chain fatty acids)
- Increasingly popular, natural coconut oil is now being touted as the most beneficial of all oils. Although
high in saturated fat, it is the richest natural source of health-promoting MCFAs (medium-chain fatty
acids). The recommendation is 3 1/2 teaspoons (50 gms) of coconut oil daily, estimated from the amount
equivalent to the MCFAs found in human breast milk, known to be effective in nourishing and protecting
infants Alternative sources are:
3 1/2 teaspoons of pure coconut oil
7 ounces of fresh coconut meat (about half a coconut)
2 3/4 cups of dried, shredded coconut
10 ounces of coconut milk
There is no known toxicity for coconut oil. The FDA includes it in its GRAS list (Generally Recommended
As Safe). An easy supplemental use is to use it as cooking oil. It tolerates moderately high-cooking
temperatures, but best to keep it below smoking point of 350 degrees. As in any other cooking oil, avoid
overheating because of toxic by-products. When available, the best is the "virgin" coconut oil, made from
fresh coconuts, extracted by boiling, fermentation, refrigeration, mechanical press or centrifuge, not
subjected to high temperatures or chemical solvents.
Also available as RBD (Refined, Bleached, and Deodorized) coconut oil, usually made from dried
coconut, copra, that might have undergone sun-drying, smoking or kiln processing, using higher
temperatures and chemical solvents. Consumers beware, there are cochin oils, that may be labeled
"virgin" which may be made from cheap sun-dried copra, gaining impurities and mold in the process.
(Source: The Coconut Oil Miracle)
Studies
Analgesic / Antioxidant: Antinociceptive and
free radical scavenging activities of Cocos nucifera
L. (Palmae) husk fiber aqueous extract: The study
demonstrated the analgesic and radical scavenging
properties of CN aqueous extract
from the husk fiber. Topical
treatment of rabbits with the
extract did not induce significant
dermic or ocular irritation. (1)
Antioxidant: In vitro evaluation
of antioxidant properties of
Cocos nucifera Linn. water: The
antioxidant activity as most
significant in fresh samples of
coconut water, diminishing with
heat. Maturity also drastically
decreased the scavenging
ability. The scavenging ability
may be partly attributed to the
ascorbic acid, an important
constituent of coconut water. (3)
Hypertension / Combination
of Coco Water and Mauby: The
control of hypertension by use of
coconut water (Cocos nucifera)
and mauby (Colubrina
arborescens): two tropical food
drinks provided significant
decreases, approximately double
the largest values seen with
single interventions. (5)
Anti-neoplastic / Husk Fiber:
Study of aqueous extracts of the
husk showed antitumoral activity
against a leukemia cell line.
Study suggests a very
inexpensive source of new
antineoplastic and anti-multidrug
resistant drugs. (6)
Burn Wound Healing Property: Study concluded that the oil of Cocos nucifera is an effective burn
wound healing agent. There was significant improvement in burn wound contraction in the group treated
with the combination of CN and silver sulfadiazine. It suggests C nocifera can be a cheap and effective
adjuvant to other topical agents. (8)
Anti-Ulcerogenic: A study of warm water crude extract of coconut milk and a coconut water dispersion
showed that coconut milk and water had protective effects on ulcerated gastric mucosa. The coconut
milk provided stronger protection on indomethacin-induced ulceration than coconut water in rats. (9)
Anthelmintic: A study of the liquid extracted from the bark of the green coconut and butanol extract on
mice showed that the Cocos nucifera extracts may be useful in the control of intestinal nematodes. (10)
Protein Content: Study showed native coconut proteins consisted of four major polypeptides. The
proteins had a relatively high level of glutamic acid, arginine and aspartic acid. (11)
Anti-Neoplastic Activity:
Study of aqueous extracts of
Cocos nucifera showed
antitumoral activity against
leukemia cell line K562 and
suggests a potential for an
inexpensive source of new
antineoplastic and anti-multidrug
resistant drugs. (12)
Antimicrobial / Coconut Oil
Cream Formulation: Study
showed that coconut oil can be
formulated into an elegant cream
which is active on both fungal
and bacterial organisms. (14)
Antimalarial: Study showed
the crude methanol extract to
contain phytochemical
constituents that significantly
reduced the parasitemia in all 3
in vivo assessment assays.
There was no significant
increase in survival time of the
infected mice. Results suggest
the Malaysian folkloric medicinal
application of C. nucifera has
pharmacologic basis. (15)
Cardiotonic Activity of
Coconut Water: Study showed
undiluted coconut water showed
better responses compared to
diluted coconut water. The
dilution of coconut water restores
cardiac activity on Frog's heart,
ie., decreasing rapidity and force of contraction.(18)
Leaf Extract / Toxicity Study:Toxicity study of leaf extracts in Swiss albino mice showed no
noticeable toxicity in both acute and sub-chronic studies. (21)
Antioxidant / Antimicrobial / Endocarp: Study of extracts of endocarp of Cocos nucifera reported
strong antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Endocarps of cocos nucifera are discarded as waste.
The study provides information for the potential utilization of coco agro wastes for therapeutic
purposes. (22)
Wine Production from Coconut: Wine was produced at 1:4 (must:sugar) from coconut using various
sugar and yeast recipes (A-D). Recipes A-C showed very little difference in taste testing. There were not
significant differences in the different recipes with the tested parameters. Wine from the control was
similar in taste and characteristic with natural palm wine. The wines can be consumed within 48 hours of
production withe storage. (23)
Alcohol-Induced Hepatotoxicity / Attenuating Effects / Production from Coconut: Results of study
suggests further study for coco nucifera's possible use as an alternative in the management of alcohol-
induced hepatotoxicity. There was dose-dependent decrease in markers. Possibly CN improved the
functions of the liver via the antioxidant pathway. (24)
One-Layer Particle Board: Study validated the technical possibility of making one layer experimental
particle board from coconut chips bonded with EMDI isocyanate resin. (25)
Coconut Oil Hair Care: A 2003 study by the R&D Department of Nature Care Division in Mumbai,
India conducted a study to determine possible properties of coconut oil in hair damage prevention.
Results showed application of coconut oil to both damaged and undamaged hair resulted in reduction of
protein loss. (26)
Antibacterial / Mesocarp Extract: Study set out to confirm the anti-bacterial effect of cocos nucifera
mesocarp powder using E. coli and S. typhi. The antibacterial activity was found highest in the benzene
solvent against E Coli, and highest with diethyl ether for S. typhi. Active biocomponents in the mesocarp
were identified as tocopherol, palmitoleyl alcohol, cycloartanol and -sitosterol. Results showed Cocos
nucifera mesocarp powder can be utilized to develop indigenous antibiotics with a potential to replace
conventional antibiotics. (27)
Antimicrobial / Endocarp Extract: Study evaluated a distilled extract of endocarp (hard shell) for
antimicrobial activity. Results showed potential growth inhibition of B. subtilis and Aspergillus
species.(28)
Antimalarial / Husk Fiber: Study evaluated the in vitro antimalarial and toxicity potentials of husk fiber
extracts of Nigerian varieties of Cocos nucifera. The WAT ethyl acetate extract fraction yielded alkaloids,
tannins, and flavonoids, and showed antimalarial activity, active in continuous culture against
Plasmodium falcifarum, and in vivo against P. berghei. There were no adverse liver or cardiovascular
effects; however, renal functions may be impaired at higher doses. (32)
Antibacterial / Root and Bark / UTI Pathogens: Study showed an aqueous extract of root of Cocos
nucifera to be more effective in inhibiting the growth of UTI pathogens than the ethanolic extract and
decoction. (33)
Coconut Oil and Hair Growth: Study evaluated the potential of coconut oil towards hair growth mixed
with two herbs, Nigella sativa and Aleurites moluccana. Coconut oil consists of lauric acid which has a
high affinity and low molecular weight able to penetrate the hair shaft and promote hair growth. The
mixture of coconut oil and Nigella sativa showed to be the most effective to promote hair growth than the
others.
Conceptive and Anti-Abortive: Study investigated the conceptive and anti-abortive effects of coconut
water using female albino rats. Results concluded that Cocos nucifera water was able to aid pregnancy.
The extract also promoted diuresis with minimal loss of electrolytes. (37)
Effects of Coconut Oil on Learning Ability: Study investigates the effects of Cocos nucifera oil on
the learning disability of Drosophila melanogaster mutants. Drosophila melanogaster, colloquially known
as the fruit fly, is an organism used as a model of human disease, able to mimic Alzheimer's disease
through similarities in brain structure and manipulation of genes. The study question was: Does
administration of coconut oil in a solution of 1,500 ppm for a week affect the learning ability of Drosophila
melanogaster APPL mutants trained to avoid apple cider vinegar? The hypothesis was that CN oil
introduced into DM mutant's diet would decrease the amount of negative reinforcement required to adopt
an avoidance behavior. The results of experimentation suggest CN oil may potentially benefit individuals
with Alzheimer's disease. Study suggests further research and extension of study into other
neurodegenerative disorders. (39)
Absorption of Reactive Red-158 Dye: Study evaluated the use of chemically conditioned C. nucifera
shell powder as a low cost, readily available, and renewable adsorbent for removal of reactive textile
Red-158 dye from aqueous solutions. (40)
Antimicrobial / Oral Pathogens / Husk: Study evaluated the antimicrobial property of an alcoholic
extract of husk against common oral pathogens like cariogenic bacteria, periodontal pathogens and
candidal organisms. Results showed concentration dependent antimicrobial activity against all tested
organisms except Actinomyces species. However, the effect was less than chlorhexidine. (41) In a study
that evaluated coconut husk for antimicrobial activity, results showed antimicrobial activity that increased
with concentration, more effective against gram-negative than gram-positive bacteria. (47) .
Antibacterial and Antiviral / Husk: Crude water extract from coconut husk fiber showed antibacterial
activity against Staphylococcus aureus. The CWE and one of the catechin-rich fractions showed
inhibitory activity against acyclovir-resistant herpes simplex virus type 1 (FSV-1-ACVr). (see constituents
above) (43)
Cytokinins / Coconut Water: Cytokinins are currently the most important component of coconut
water. Cytokinins, a class of phytohormones, have shown anti-ageing, anti-carcinogenic and anti-
thrombotic effects in various studies. Cytokinins identified in coconut water are N6-isopentenyladenine,
dihydrozeatin, trans-zeatin, kinetin, ortho-topolin, dihydrozeatin O-glucoside, trans-zeatin O-glucoside,
trans-zeatin riboside, kinetin riboside, and trans-zeatin riboside-5'- monophosphate. (44)
Anti-Diabetic / Husk: Study evaluated the anti-diabetic effects of Cocos nucifera husk extracts on
alloxan-induced diabetic rats. The extract was prepared by boiling the husk, filtering, and using the tea in
the experiment. Results showed a significant hypoglycemic and anti-diabetic effect, comparable to
Daonil and Metformin. Results suggest a potential adjunct in the management of diabetes, and suggests
a study to be done using human subjects. (46)
Hemolytic Property / Fiber Extracts: Study evaluated the hemolytic property of Cocos nucifera crude
fiber extracts. Results showed maximum lysis of RBCs with 100% inhibition indicating the predominant
role of cytotoxic effect. Nineteen chemical constituents. Results suggest excellent biologic potential (see
constituents above) (48)
Anti-Inflammatory / Coco Water and Oil: Study showed Cocos nucifera possesses potential anti-
inflammatory properties. (49)
Alternative for Oral Rehydration Therapy: Study evaluated the electrolyte levels in Cocos nucifera
water and its suitability as oral electrolyte replacement solution. Results showed Cocos nucifera water
contains adequate concentration of electrolytes to correct daily nutritional deficits. The weight of Cocos
nucifera related to the volume of water but not necessarily to higher electrolyte concentrations. (see
Adsorption of Methylene Blue: Study evaluated the adsorption characteristics of C. nucifera
activated carbon prepared from the coconut coir. A maximum removal of almost 100 % was achieved at
60 mgL1 of dye concentration by increasing the adsorbent dose from (3 to 7) gL1. (51)
Topical Coconut Oil for Treatment of Dermal Infections: Review summarizes in vivo and in vitro
studies of topical anti-infective properties of coconut oil and its medium-chain fatty acids. Applied locally,
it has a very low risk of allergic reactions or adverse effects. Its constituents, predominantly lauric acid,
have in vitro and in vivo evidence of killing a wide variety of gram- positive and gram-negative bacteria
and Candida species. It may be a reasonable option for mild to moderate dermal infections, viz., acne
vulgaris, atopic dermatitis, impetigo, or wound infections. (52)
Anti-Diabetic / Antioxidant / Flowers: Study evaluated the antidiabetic and antioxidant nature of C.
nucifera flower extract in STZ-induced diabetic rats. Oral administration of flower extract significantly
reduced the levels of blood glucose, glycosylated hemoglobin, urea, uric acid, and creatinine. The
antioxidant competence was improved after extract treatment. (53)
Volatile Elements of Coconut Toddy: Analysis of volatile components of coconut toddy. Thirty one
volatile components were identified. The highest peak of volatile components in the fresh toddy was
Lupeol and Squalene. (54)
Antileishmanial Effect / Husk: Study evaluated the in vitro antileishmanial effect of C. nucifera husk
fiber. Results showed complete inhibition of cellular growth of L. amazonensis promastigote forms (MIC
10 g/mL) and killed 100% of both developmental stages of the parasite. (Mendonca-Filho RR et al) (56)
Antiurolithiasis / Coconut Water: Study evaluated the effect of coconut water as prophylactic agent
in experimentally induced nephrolithiasis in a rat model. Treatment with coconut water inhibited
deposition in renal tissue as well as reduced number of crystals in urine. Coconut water protected
against impaired renal function and development of oxidative stress in the kidneys. Results suggest a
potential candidate for phytotherapy against urolithiasis. (57)
Biocidal / Husk: Study investigated the antimicrobial activities of husk extract of Cocos nucifera on
some bacterial associated with human diseases. The cytoplasmic membrane disruptions of
Enterococcus faecalis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were investigated. Cytoplasmic membranes
provide barrier to the passage of materials such as antibiotics into the protoplasm. Results showed
minimum inhibitory concentrations led to the leakage of protoplasmic inclusion. (58)
Vasorelaxant / Antihypertensive / Endocarp: Study investigated an ethanolic extract of Cocos
nucifera endocarp for vasorelaxant activity on isolated rat aortic rings and antihypertensive effects in
deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA) salt-induced hypertensive rats. Results showed vasorelaxant and
antihypertensive effects through nitric oxide production in a concentration and endothelium-dependent
manner via activation of nitric oxide/guanylate cyclase pathway, stimulation of muscarinic receptors
and/or via cyclooxygenase pathway. (59)
Antleishmanial / Immunomodulatory / Synergism with Ocimum sanctum: Study investigated the
antileishmanial and immunomodulatory effects of Ocimum sanctum and Cocos nucifera during the
progression of visceral leishmaniasis in BALB/c mouse model. Results showed the combined
administration of the plant extracts as compared to administration alone showed greater rescue of the
affected mice from the disease. Effect was attributed to antileishmanial and immunomodulatory
effects.(60)
Anemia Treatment: Study evaluated the therapeutic efficacy of Cocos nucifera in anemia treatment in
Wistar rats with anemia from phenylhydrazine-induced hemolysis. The Cocos nucifera extract
completely corrected the anemia within two weeks by stimulating hemoglobin synthesis, production and
early release of immature red cells into the blood stream. The effect was dose dependent, specific, and
did not affect platelet lineage. (61)
Virgin Coconut Oil vs Mineral Oil in Xerosis / Improved Barrier Function: A randomized double-
blind study compared virgin coconut oil against mineral oil in 34 patients with mild to moderate xerosis.
Results suggest coconut oil was equal to (with a trend toward superior) mineral oil as an emollient,
resulting in significant skin hydration and increased surface lipid levels, and with equal safety. There is
also data to suggest that VCO can improve barrier function in low birth weight infants, possibly
decreasing morbidity and mortality due to sepsis. (62)
Effect on Progesterone and Estrogen Levels in Female Rats: Study evaluated AQSPA (ethyl
acetate soluble proanthocyanidins) obtained from immature inflorescence for effect on the reproductive
hormonal levels in female rats. Results no significant difference in both estrogen and progesterone
levels between control and test group animals. This may be due to low bioavailability of AQSPA due to
high molecular weight profile and/or inadequacy of dose/time duration of administration. Results contrast
to a previous study that showed changes in serum progesterone level with EASPA treatment. (63)
Anti-Inflammatory / Antipyretic / Wound Healing / Fresh Juice & Kernel Extract: Study of fresh
juice and aqueous kernel extract exhibited significant (p<0.05) anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activities
and promoted would healing in all assays used. (64)
Availability
- Ubiquitous in the rural landscape.
- Common cultivation as a plantation tree.
- Commerce of coconut oil capsules, virgin coconut oil.

Basic Botanical Info of Apple.:
If I Were An Apple
If I were an apple
And grew on a tree
I think I'd drop down
On a nice boy like me.
I wouldn't stay there
Giving nobody joy
I'd fall down at once
And say, "Eat me, my boy
Up.
Basic Botanical Info of Apple.:

Order:Rosales
Family:Rosaceae(the rose family)
Genus:Malus(apple)
Species:M.domestica(Malus domestica)
Botanical:Pyrus malus,Malus domestica Borkh.-Apple tree domestic,a. cultural
Synonyms:Wild Apple. Malus communis. Malus sylvestris Mill. subsp. mitis (Wallr.)
Mansf., Pyrus malus L. var. mitis Wallr.
Parts Used:Apple peel and Apple core
Habitat:Temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere.
Apples contain a large concentration of flavonoids, as well as a variety of other

phytochemicals, and the concentration of these phytochemicals may depend on many
factors, such as cultivar of the apple, harvest and storage of the apples, and processing
of the apples. The concentration of phytochemicals also varies greatly between the
apple peels and the apple flesh.
In numerous epidemiological studies, apples have been associated with a decreased

risk of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, and asthma.
Biology and morphology of Apple.:

Tree from 3-6 to 10-14 m tall. Diameter of the trunk reaches 90 cm. Crown wide
branching, sometimes spherical or ovoid. Shoots remain pubescent for a long time.
Buds are ovoid-conical. Leaves are 5-10 cm long, ovoid, with pointed peak and rounded
or slightly heart-shaped base, crenate-serrate, pubescent. Leafstalk is no more than 1/3
of the blade length. Corolla has 1-2 or 4-5 cm diameter, white or pinkish. Fruits differ in
shape, size (usually more than 3 cm diameter), color and texture of peel, time of
maturity and storage quality. Fruits have sour, sour-sweet or sweet taste. Average mass
of the fruit is 150-160 g, but sometimes reaches 600 g (Antonovka Polutorafuntovaja)
and even 900 g (Aport Alexandr). Flowers in April-June, bears fruit in August-October
(December). Chromosome number: 2n=34, 51, 68.
Up.
Apple Distribution.:
Malus domestica grows in all countries with temperate, warm climates. In the countries
of the former USSR, the northern border of distribution extends through Karelia between
60 and 65 degrees of northern latitude, through the islands Mantinsaari and Valaam in
Ladoga Lake, through Nikolsk (Vologda province), Kotlas, Perm, further across Ural
(Ekaterinburg, Chelabinsk), Omsk, Tomsk, Novosibirsk, Krasnojarsk, Irkutsk, Gorno-
Altaisk, southern Amur province, and south of Habarovski krai, on Sahalin
(Aleksandrovsk). It originates from different species and forms of the wild apple tree.
East Asia (Far East of Russia, Japan and China) and Caucasus are the centers of the
origin and varieties of the apple tree.
Ecology of Apple.:
Apple trees grow and bear good fruits on loamy and sandy loam soils, as well as on
sandy soils with the addition of organic fertilizations. Depression of growth and
development is observed on saline, swampy and peaty soils. Life duration is 30-100 (on
average 60-70) years. Area of significant cultivation of large-fruited varieties, as a rule,
is located in the south. Summer types are grown in areas having approximately -2000
growing degree days (GDD), autumn types in areas having 2200 GDD, and winter types
in areas having 2400 GDD.
Utilization and Economic Value:
Apple tree is the main fruit tree in the countries of the former USSR. There are about
10 thousand varieties, and in the former USSR, there are more than 300 varieties (70-
80 varieties are the most widespread). Kitaika Zolotaja Rannaja, Papirovka, Naliv Beli,
Korichnoje Polosatoje, Osenneje Polosatoje, Aport, Antonovka, and Babushkino are the
most widespread varieties. Plantations cover more than 2.25 million hectares. Fruits are
an important dietetic food, as they contain numerous valuable vitamins, 12-13% sugar,
apple acid (3.7-4.1%), lemon acid (0.09-0.13%), pectin (0.43-1.2%), and tannins (0.025-
0.1%). Fruits are utilized in fresh and dry states, processed into juice, compote, jam,
puree, pastila, jelly and wine. Productivity ranges from 10 to 140 tons per hectare.
Up.
Saging
Musa sapientum Linn.
BANANA
Da jiao

Karkandela x malabarica Raf. Saging (Tag., C. Bis.)
Musa x acutibracteata M.Hotta Saaging (Akl.)
Musa x alphurica Miq. [Illegitimate] Banana (Engl.)
Musa x alphurica Rumph. ex Sagot
Musa x arakanensis F.W.Ripley. ex Blechynden [Invalid]
Musa x bacoba Rottb.
Musa x berteroi Colla
Musa x bidigitalis De Wild.
Musa x champa Baker
Musa x chapara Perr.
Musa x chiliocarpa Backer ex K.Heyne
Musa x corbieri A.Chev.
Musa x corniculata Lour.
Musa x dacca Horan.
Musa x decrescens De Briey ex De Wild.
Musa x discolor Planch.
Musa x emasculata De Briey ex De Wild.
Musa x masculata Jacq.
Musa x nigra Perr.
Musa x odorata Lour.
Musa x paradisiaca Linn.
Musa x protractorachis De Wild.
Musa x purpuerotomentosa De Wild.
Musa x sapientum Linn.
Musa x vittata W.Ackm. ex Rodigas
Musa sapientum L. is a synonym of Musa paradisiaca L. The Plant List
Musa paradisiaca L. is an accepted name The Plant List

BURMESE: Taw nget byaw, Hnget pyaw, Nget pyaw, Nga pyaw thee.
CHINESE: Da jiao, Fen ba jiao.
DANISH: Banan, Banantrae, Bananbusk.
DUTCH: Banaan, Banaanboom, Bananeplant.
FRENCH: Banane, Bananier des sages, Bananier commun.
FINNISH: Banaanit, Banaanikasvi, Banaanirata.
GERMAN: Banane, Banannen, Bananenpisang.
HINDI: Kela, Kelaa, Kelaa kaa phuul.
ITALIAN: Banana comune, Banano comune, Fico d'Adamo.
JAPANESE: Banana.
KANNADA: Balayhanu.
KHMER: Cheek nam'vaa, Chec.
KOREAN: Panana.
LAOTIAN: Mak guy, Kwayz, Kok khone.
MALAY: Biu, Cau, Djantoong, Gedang, Getang, Puti, Kulo, Pisang.
NEPALESE: Kadali.
PORTUGUESE: Banana, Bananeira.
RUSSIAN: Banan.
SINHALESE: Kehel, Kehel mal.
SPANISH: Banana, Bananeira, Guineo, Platano.
SWAHILI: Ndizi, Maso.
SWEDISH: Bananer.
TAMIL: Vaazhai, Vaazhaipoo (flower).
TELUGU: Arati, Artipandu, Kadala.
THAI: Kluai, Kluay, Klue, Kluey, Gluai, Glooway.
TURKISH: Muz.
Gen info
- The word banana may be West African in origin, possibly from the Wolof word banana and passed into
English via Spanish and Portuguese. (Ayoola 2011) (44)
- Grown in about 130 countries, more than 100 million tons of banana and plantain were produced
worldwide in 2007 according to FAO estimates. (44)
- in 2007 more than 9.9 million hectares of banana and plantain were harvested worldwide.
- Africans consume about 21 kg of banana and plantain per capita. Ugandans consume 191 kg per year
more than one half kg per day, the highest per capita consumption in Africa. (Ayoola 2011) (44)
Botany
The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant. The main or upright stem is actually a
pseudostem, growing from a corm, to a height of 6 to 7.6 meters. Leaves are spirally arranged, as long
as 2.7 meters and 60 cm wide, fragile and easily torn by wind, with the familiar frond look. Each
pseudostem produces a single bunch of bananas; the pseudostem dies after fruiting, as offshoots
usually develop from the base of the plant. Each pseudostem produces a single inflorescence, the
banana heart, containing many bracts between rows of flowers. The banana fruits develop from the
heart, in a hanging cluster made up of tiers (hands), up to 20 fruit to a tier.
Bananas and Plantains

The botanical classification of banana and plantain is quite confusing. Plantain is often viewed as a
subspecies of banana and banana as a subspecies of plantain. (59)
The edible fruit of the plantain has more starch than the banana and is not eaten raw. Plantain has a
maximum starch before ripening. It is usually cooked green, either boiled or fried. (59)
The Plant List lists Musa x paradisiaca and Musa x sapientum as synonyms.
For consider plantains as a member of the banana family. As a variety, they are starchy and low in
sugar, eaten cooked as they are unsavory and unsuitable when raw.
Plantain averages 65% moisture content (bananas average 83% moisture). Hydrolysisthe conversion
of starch to sugar occurs faster in high moistureis faster in bananas than in plantains.
Plantains are often used as vegetable while banana is eaten as fruit. (60)
Distribution
- Cultivated throughout the
Philippines in many
varieties.
Constituents
- Juice of the flower-stem
contains potash, soda,
lime, magnesia, alumina,
chlorine, sulfuric anhydride,
silica and carbon
anhydride.
- High potassium content -
a medium banana contains
about 450 mg of potassium.
(Because of potassium
homeostasis in the body,
40K ingested is balanced
by 40K potassium excreted.
The net dose of a banana
is zero.)
- Preliminary phytochemical
screening of fresh stem
juice yielded vitamin B,
oxalic acid, sulphate,
vitamin C, starch, tannin,
glycosides, phenolic
compounds, gum mucilage.
- Study yielded 6
triterpenes: 6 triterpenes:
cyclomusalenol,
cyclomusalenone, 24-
methylenecycloartanol, stigmast-7-methylenecycloartanol, stigmast-7-en-3-ol, lanosterol, and a-amyrin
and eight flavonoids.
- Mineral content and nutritional value of varieties (lakatan, latundan, saba, and bungalan) showed the
carbohydrate content to exceed 25%.
- Stems yielded tannins and glycosides in abundance, with moderate amounts of saponins, flavonoids,
alkaloids, polyphenols and reducing sugars. Phlobatannins was absent. (see study above) (22)
- Proximate analysis of roasted plantain showed high crude protein of 7.1.7% followed by fat content of
4.35% while boiled plantain showed crude protein of 6.01% and fat content of 3.69%. Musa paradisiaca
both roasted and boiled are good sources of protein and carbohydrate.
- Phytochemical analysis of flowers yielded alkaloids, saponins, glycosides, tannins, flavanoids, and
steroids. (see study below) (56)
Image insert
- Bunch of bananas with "puso" - male inflorescence.
Properties
Demulcent, nutrient, cooling, astringent, antiscorbutic, antifebrile, restorative, emmenagogue,
cardialgic, styptic.
The ripe fruit is laxative, demulcent, and nutrient.
Unripe fruit is cooling and astringent.
Dried fruit considered antiscorbutic.
Root is antibilious and alterative.
Juice of the plant is styptic.
Because of its high potassium content, bananas are naturally slightly radioactive, more than other
fruits.
Good sources of vitamin A, fair sources of vitamin B, and good sources of vitamin C. All are deficient in
calcium and phosphorus, and only fair in iron.
Studies have attributed biologic activities: antiulcerogenic, antidiabetic, antiatherogenic, antidiarrheic,
antitumoral, antimutagenic, antihypertensive.
Parts used
Leaves, fruit, roots, flowers.
Uses
- The "puso" (male inflorescence) of saba is extensively used as a vegetable.
- Unripe fruit is sugared and candied.
- Ripe fruits also used in making brandy, rum, and wine.
- Rich in vitamins A, B, and C; a fair source of iron.
Folkloric
Young leaves used for cool dressing of inflamed and blistered surfaces and as cool application for
headaches.
Powdered roots used for anemia and cachexia.
Mucilage prepared from seeds used for catarrhal and mild inflammatory forms of diarrhea.
Juice of tender roots used as mucilage for checking hemorrhages from the genitalia and air passages.
In China, juice of roots used as antifebrile and restorative.
Juice of the trunk applied to scalp to increase hair growth and prevent hair from falling.
In West Africa, used for diarrhea.
In Gambia, sap of inflorescence used for earaches.
In French Guiana, flowers used as emmenagogue.
In the Gold Coast, sap from roots given as enema for diarrhea.
In Cambodia, Java and Malaya, juice from trunk used for dysentery and diarrhea.
Juice from flowers, mixed with curds, for dysmenorrhea and menorrhagia.
Flour made of green bananas used for dyspepsia with flatulence and acidity.
Ripe fruit, mixed with half its weight in tamarinds and a little salt, is a valuable food in chronic dysentery
and diarrhea,
Cooked flower used for diabetes. Flowers also used as cardialgic.
Sap of the flower used for earaches.
In Bangladesh used for treatment of diarrhea.
In Western Ghat in India, leaves are used for bandaging cuts, blisters and ulcers.
Ripe bananas combined with tamarind and common salt used for dysentery.
In traditional medicine in India, used for diabetes.
Used as hemostatic in Brazil and India.
In South-Western Nigeria, green fruits used for diabetes.
In Southern Uganda, leaves put under the pillow at bedtime to prevent nightmares and hallucinations.
Also, infusion of leaves used for bathing in pre-hepatic jaundice. (55)
Others
Papermaking / Clothing: Plant fibers used in the manufacture of paper and clothes. A related species,
Musa textiles (Abaca, Manila hemp) is produced on a commercial scale for its fiber use in the
manufacture of paper.
Wrapping / Cooking: Leaves used for wrapping food for cooking.
Leaves used for polishing floors, lining pots for cooking rice.
Studies
Hypoglycemic / Flowers: Study on the chloroform extract of M sapientum flowers showed
hypoglycemic activity with significant reduction of blood glucose, glycosylated hemoglobin and
improvement in glucose tolerance.
Hypoglycemic/ Fruits: Study on the green fruits of M paradisiaca indicate it possesses hypoglycemic
activity and lends credence to its Nigerian folkloric use for diabetes.
Antioxidant: (1) Musa sapientum flower extract showed improved antioxidant activity in diabetics. (2) A
study of extracts of M. sapientum var. sylvesteris showed concentration-dependent scavenging effects,
with antioxidant activity stronger than that of vitamin C.
Gastroprotective: Study on the unripe plantain extract of M sapientum and unripe pawpaw meal
showed alteration of the gastric phospholipid profile and through a prostaglandin pathway may have a
profound effect on the gastroduodenal mucosa and implications for gastric and duodenal ulcers in
rabbits. (3)
Antihyperglycemic / Flowers: Study showed banana flower extract to have an antihyperglycemic
action and antioxidant properties, comparatively more effective than glibenclamide. (4) Study
evaluated the hypoglycemic potential of M. paradisiaca flower extract in STZ-induced diabetic rats. Acute
oral toxicity study revealed the non-toxic nature of the extract. At 200 mg/kbw, there was significant
reduction of blood glucose, glycosylated hemoglobin, urea, uric acid and creatinine. The efficacy was
comparable to glycazide, a known hypoglycemic drug. (36)
Analgesic: Study of the aqueous and ethanolic extract of Musa sapientum showed central analgesic
action. (5)
Wound healing: Study of aqueous and methanolic extracts of Musa sapientum showed wound healing
properties through increased wound breaking strength, reduced glutathione, decrease percentage of
wound area, scar area and lipid peroxidation. Wound healing was probably through antioxidant effect
and various biochemical parameters. (6)
Anti-Ulcer Activity: Study of dried powder of banana pulp showed anti-ulcerogenic activity, esp in the
unripe, mature green plantain banana (var. paradisiaca). (7)
Banana Peels Phytochemicals: Study showed the peel can be a good source of carbohydrates and
fiber. The study of anti-nutrients showed generally low values except for saponins. Study suggests,
properly processed and exploited, the peel could be a good source of livestock feed, providing a high
quality and cheap source of carbohydrates and minerals. (8)
Antimicrobial Activity: Study of ethanolic extracts of unripe bananas, lemon grass and turmeric
showed antimicrobial activity at stock concentrations. Unripe bananas showed a high antimicrobial
activity against all test organisms. (9) Ethanol extract of Musa sapientum showed antibacterial activity
against the tested microorganisms - Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (B. subtilis, B. cereus,
and E coli.)
Anti-Helicobacter pylori / Anti-Internalisation Activity: In a study of 9 Thai plant extracts used for
gastric ailments, Musa sapientum and Allium sativum showed marked anti-internalisation and present a
potential benefit in H pylori , prevention eradication, therapy and avoidance of antibiotic resistance. (10)
Anticonvulsant: Study in mice showed AMS prevented convulsions possibly through prevention of
inhibition of vitamin B6 metabolism with subsequent increase in GABA synthesis in the CNS or due to
facilitatory effect on GABAergic neurons - an effect mediated by the antioxidant potential of
phytoconstituents present in the AMS. (14)
Indigenous Antiulcer Activity / Leucocyanidin: Study investigated the anti-ulcerogenic activity of an
aqueous extract of M. sapientum. Study yielded an active compound--a monomeric flavonoid,
leucocyanidin, that showed anti-ulcerogenic activity, in congruous with standard drug
esomeprazole. (15)
Antioxidant / Antibacterial /Hemagglutination Inhibition: Study of methanolic extract of leaves of M.
sapientum var. Sylvesteris showed antioxidant and antibacterial activity in vitro. It also showed
hemagglutination inhibition activities and hydrogen peroxide induced hemolysis inhibition activity of
human red blood cells. (16)
Antimicrobial / Cytotoxicity: A methanolic extract of M. sapientum L subsp. sylvestris showed good
antimicrobial activity the pulp, moderate activity with the peel, and insignificant activity with the seed. On
cytotoxicity evaluation using Brine Shrimp Lethality, pulp>seed>peel. (17)
Anti-Allergic: A water extract of pulp of ripe M. sapientum was reported to have significant anti-allergic
activity on antigen-induced degranulation in RBL-2H3 cells with an IC50 value of 13.52.4 (Tewtrakul et
al., 2008). (21)
Haematopoeitic and Immunomodulatory / Stems: Study evaluated various extracts of stems on
Musa paradisiaca stem on haematological parameters in albino Wistar rats. There was a significant
increase in levels of RBC, PCV, and Hb. Findings indicate phytochemicals that stimulate the formation of
erythropoeitin. Results showed stem extrude of M. paradisiaca contain phytochemicals that could be
responsible for haematopoeitic and immunomodulatory property. (see constituents above) (22)
Antidiabetic / Ulcer Healing: Study evaluated the effects of extract of M. sapientum fruit on ulcer
index, blood glucose level and gastric mucosal cytokines, TNF- and IL-1 and growth factor, TGF- in
acetic acid-induced gastric ulcer in diabetic rat. Results showed antidiabetic and better ulcer healing
effects compared with OMZ (omeprazole) or insulin in diabetic rat. (23)
Antidiarrheal / Antioxidant / Antimicrobial / Seed: Study evaluated the antidiarrheal, antioxidant,
and antibacterial potential of a methanolic extract of M. sapientum seed. Results showed antidiarrheal
effects in a castor oil and magnesium sulfate induced diarrhea model and charcoal induced
gastrointestinal motility test in mice. There was good dose dependent antioxidant potential in DPPH and
NO scavenging methods, and strong antibacterial effect against E. coli, S. dysenteriae, and P.
aeruginosa. (24)
Surgical Wound Healing / Gel from Peel: Study evaluated the optimum concentration of gel obtained
from unripe banana peel for wound treatment in Wistar rats. A 4% gel obtained from unripe banana peel
caused better epthelization of wounds healed by secondary intention compared with other gel
concentrations. (25)
Hemostatic Potential of Sap: Study evaluate the hemostatic properties of M. sapientum sap and its
mechanism of action. Results suggest the hemostatic effect results partly from vasoconstriction and also
from the formation of a protein network that serves as a focal point for cell aggregation that works
together in stopping bleeding. (26)
Anti-Ulcer / Peel: Study investigated the anti-ulcer and ulcer healing potentials of the methanol extract
of M. sapientum peel in laboratory rats. Results showed an anti-ulcer effect of the methanol extract
attributed to its anti-secretory and cytoprotective activity. The ulcer base healing could be related to
basic fibroblast growth factors responsible for epithelial regeneration. (27)
Anti-Inflammatory / Antioxidant / Peel: Study investigated the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant
activities of banana peel extracts using nitric oxide and DPPH scavenging assays. The water extract of
fresh ripe peel exhibited the most potent NO inhibitory activity with no antioxidant activity. A decoction
extract of fresh unripe peel exhibited strong antioxidant activity as well as highest total phenolic
compound. (28)
Anti-Diabetic / Sucker: Study investigated the effect of a methanolic extract of Musa sapientum
sucker on alloxan induced hyperglycemic rats. Results showed significant lowering of fasting blood
glucose with significant recovery of pancreatic histology suggesting rejuvenation of damaged pancreas.
Results compared favorably with reference drug glibenclamide. (29)
Hepatoprotective / Stem / CCl4-Induced Hepatotoxicity: Study investigated the hepatoprotective
activity of aqueous extract of central stem of M. sapientum against carbon tetrachloride induced
hepatotoxicity in rats. Results showed hepatoprotective activity which was attributed to its antioxidant
property. The activity was comparable to standard drug silymarin. (30)
Antidiabetic / Antihyperlipidemic / Stem: Study evaluated the antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic
effects of the stem of M. sapientum in STZ induced diabetic rats. Treatment with lyophilized stem juice
resulted in significant decrease in FPG and PPG, with increased serum insulin, decreased HbA1C, with
restoration of lipid profile, muscle and liver glycogen and enzymatic parameters to near normal
levels. (31)
Effect on Male Reproductive Functions / Fruit: Study evaluated the effect of mature green fruits of
Musa paradisica on semen quality of adult male Wistar rats. Results showed significant increment in
semen parameters on lower dose (500 mg/kg/day) of plantain flour. However, those on high doses (1000
mg/kg/day) showed marked and significant reduction in sperm cell concentration and percentage of
morphologically normal spermatozoa. Results suggest moderate consumption may provide beneficial
effects of enhancing male reproductive functions. (33)
Antimicrobial / Peel: Study of banana peel extract showed antimicrobial activity
against Porphyromonas gingivalis and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans. (34)
Hyperglycemic Effect / Stem Juice: Study evaluated the effect of M. paradisiaca stem juice on blood
glucose of normal and diabetic rats. A dose of 500 mg/kbw produced significant rise of 28.3% in blood
sugar level after 6h of oral administration in normal rats. (35)
Hypoglycemic / Banana Leaves: Study evaluated the acute effect of crude extract, n-butanol and
aqueous residual fractions of Musa x paradisiaca leaves on glycemia, serum insulin secretion and
glycogen content in an in vivo approach. Results showed beneficial effects on the regulation of glucose
homeostasis as evidenced by reduced glycemia, increased liver glycogen, in hyperglycemic rats,
inhibited maltase activity and the formation of advanced glycation end products in vitro. There was also
significant increase in insulin secretion and muscle glycogen content in hyperglycemic rats with the n-
butanol fraction. Phytoanalysis demonstrated flavonoids and rutin as the major compound. (37)
Antiovulatory / Anti-Estrogenic / Antifertility / Stems: Study evaluated the effect of various extracts
of stem on the estrous cycle of female albino rats. Results showed significant antifertility activity, possibly
due to its antiestrogenic effect, either by blocking the estrogen receptors or by diminished estrogen
synthesis. Ethanol extracts of leaves has potential use to induce abortion and can be further investigated
as contraceptive. (38)
Acute and Sub-Chronic Toxicity Study / Leaves: Study evaluated the safety profile of M. paradisiaca
leaf by acute and sub-chronic toxicity study of various extracts in Swiss albino mice. No toxic effect or
death was observed in acute toxicity study up to 2000 mg/kbw. In sub-chronic toxicity study, no mortality
or biochemical alterations were detected. Results suggest MP leaf is safe in adult male albino mice. (39)
Set-Retarding Admixture in Cement Paste and Mortar / Pseudo-Stem Pith Fluid: Study showed
that the use of M. paradisiaca pseudo-stem pith fluid (up to 0.75%) as set-retarder in cement mortar
enhance the structural properties such as compressive strength towards the production of type 'M'
mortar fr general application. (40)
Antibacterial / Leaves: Study evaluated the antibacterial activity of various leaf extracts against four
bacterial strains viz, B. subtilis, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus. Ethanol extracts of Musa
paradisiaca showed broad spectrum antibacterial activity with high inhibitory potency against E. coli and
S. aureus. Ciprofloxacin was used as standard drug. (41)
Adaptogenic / Fruit Peels: Study evaluated the antistress activity of acetone extracts of M.
paradisiaca unripe and unripe fruit peels with special reference to stress induced depression in animal
models. Plant sterols and triterpenoids were expected to reduce the cholesterol level and modulate the
effect of cholesterol in stress and chronic depression. The potentially high antioxidant levels in peel
extracts is hypothesized to produce adaptogenic activity. Results showed significant increase in mean
endurance time and significant antidepressant activity in the anoxia stress model. (43)
Hemostatic Effect / Stem Juice: Haemostatis involves the spontaneous arrest of bleeding from
damaged vessels. Study evaluated the haemostatic effect of stem juice in arresting fresh wound
bleeding. Results showed a haemostatic property with blood clotting and bleeding times significantly
reduced (p<0.05) when the stem juice was introduced. (45)
Mineral and Heavy Metal Composition / Peels: Peels account for 40% of the total weight of fresh
bananas or plantains and are currently used as fertilizer or discarded in many countries. Study
investigated the mineral and heavy metal composition of peels of unripe plantain (UP), ripe plantain
(RP), unripe banana (UB) and ripe banana (RB). Calcium content were not significantly different
(P>0.05) in RP, UP, and RB peels, but was significantly lower than UB peel. Magnesium content of ripe
and unripe banana peels were not significantly different from each other, but were significantly higher
than ripe and unripe plantain peels. There were no significant differences in the potassium, phosphorus
and sodium content of the peels. Zinc was significantly higher (P<0.05) in unripe plantain peel, while
unripe banana peel had the least. There were no significant difference in the copper contents. There
were no significant differences (P>0.05 in the lead content RP, RB, and UB, while the lead content was
significantly higher (P<0.05) in the ripe banana peel. Study results stresses the nutritional relevance and
medicinal potentials of peels of banana and plantains, with the potential of of converting the peels of the
plants into more useful products. (46)
Mineral and Heavy Metal Composition / Peels: Diarrheal diseases causes 1 in 9 child deaths
worldwide, making it is second leading cause of death among children under the ag4 of 5. In Nigeria, the
prevalence of diarrheal infection is as high as 18.8%. Study evaluated the sap of M. paradisiaca for its
secondary metabolities and antidiarrheal activity in rat models of castor oil-induced diarrhea, castor oil-
induced enteropooling, and gastrointestinal motility models in rats. In all the models, the sap produced
changes that compared well with the reference drugs. The activity was attributed to alkaloids, phenolics,
flavonoids, and/or saponins, which may involved enhancing fluid and electrolyte absorption through de
novo synthesis of sodium potassium ATPase and/or reduced nitric oxide levels. (47)
Mineral and Heavy Metal Composition / Peels: Study of corm extract of M. paradisiaca cv. Puttabale
on in vivo models showed anticonvulsant (maximum electroshock/MES, PTZ, and locomotor test), CNS
depressant (forced swim test, muscle coordination test) and antinociceptive (acetic acid, tail-flick test,
and hot plate) properties attributable to the presence of phenolics and flavonoids. (48)
Healing Effects in Diabetic Rats with Co-Occurring Gastric Ulcer: Study evaluated the effects of M.
sapientum fruit on ulcer index, blood glucose level and gastric mucosal cytokines, TNF-, IL-1, and
growth factor, TGF- in acetic acid induced gastric ulcer in diabetic rat. The MSE showed antidiabetic
and better ulcer healing effects compared with omeprazole or insulin and could be more effective in
diabetes with concurrent gastric ulcer. (49)
Effect on Blood Pressure: Study investigated changes in blood pressure after consuming banana.
Results showed bananas contain phytochemicals that significantly reduces blood pressure among
hypertensive individuals. Effects could be related to diuretic activity due to banana intake which showed
increase in urine volume and electrolyte excretion in animal studies. The sustained drop of blood
pressure could be due to potassium ions, present in higher quantity in the banana. (50)
Anthelmintic: Study investigated the anthelmintic activity from corm ethanol extracts of M. paradisiaca
cv. Puttabale using Pheretima posthuma as experimental model. At 100 mg/ml, there was significant
effect in time of paralysis and death time. (51)
Androgenic and Anabolic Effects on Testicular Functions: Study investigated the effect of oral
administration of aqueous extract of M. pardisiaca root on testicular function parameters of male rat
testes. Results showed enhancement of testosterone-dependent normal functioning of the testes and
exhibited both androgenic and anabolic properties. (52)
Wound Healing / Stem Juice: Study evaluated ash values of dried stem powders and wound healing
activity of stem juice in an excision would model. Study showed the stem juice of Musa paradisiaca Linn.
has considerable wound healing activity when compared to standard drug Nitrofurazone. (53)
Wound Healing / Stem Juice: Study showed hexane fraction of hydromethanolic extract of M.
paradisiaca and C. indica contains active ingredient/s with the capacity to correct diabetes-induced
testicular dysfunction from germ cell apoptosis by regeneration of pancreatic -cells and/or recovery of
oxidative stress injury. (54)
Galactagogue / Flowers: Study investigated Musa x paradisiaca flower extracts for potential to
promote milk production in lactating rats and its effects on growth of suckling pups. Results showed
significant galactagogue activity in rats. The flowers may be a potential use not only for hums but also for
ruminants in promoting milk production. Some phytoconstituents may increase serum prolactin level, the
hormone involved with milk secretion. (see constituents above) (56)
Antiulcer / Antioxidant / Leaves: Study investigated the antiulcer potential of ethanolic extract of
Musa paradisiaca leaves on ethanol induced ulcer models. The leaf extract at dose of 100 mg/kbw by
mouth decreased gastric content, total acidity, ulcer index, and increased pH in the gastric pylorus
ligation ulcer model. There was also significant reduction of lipid peroxidation and significant increase in
glutathione activity. The antioxidant activity may be one of the important factor in its antiulcer effect. (58)
Antidermatophytic / Leaves: Study investigated the antidermatophytic activity of a methanolic leaf
extract of M. sapientum against Microsporum canis, Trichophyton tonsurans and T. rubrum. Time-kill
kinetics showed the extract exhibited bacteriostatic and bacteriocidal effects against M. canis and T.
tonsurans. It had not inhibitory or fungicidal effect against R. rubrum. (61)
Antileishmanial / Cytotoxicity / Fruit Peel: Study investigated the in vitro antileishmanial activity of
triterpenes and sterols isolated from M. paradisiaca fruit peel traditionally used to treat leishmaniasis.
Five compounds were identified: three triperpenes (cycloeucalenone, 31-norcyclolaudenone and 24-
methylene-cicloartanol) and a mixture of two sterols (-sitosterol and stigmasterol). With the exception of
cycloeucalenone, all compounds showed statistically similar activity against promastigote to
pentamidine. Against amastigotes, excluding-norcyclolaudenone, other compounds showed activity
similar to amphoterecin B. All compounds showed low cytotoxicity to mammalian cells. (62)
Diuretic / Flower: Study investigated the diuretic activity of M. sapientum flowers in Wistar albino rats
using Lipschitz method. Results showed significant diuretic activity with increase total volume of urine
and concentration of sodium, potassium, and chloride ions compared to furosemide standard. (63)
Availability
- Wild-crafted and commercial cultivation.
- Tinctures and capsules in the cybermarket.

Pakuan
Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai
WATERMELON
Han gua

Anguria citrullus Mill. Pakuan (Tag.)
Citrullus amarus Schrad. Timun (Sul.)
Citrullus anguria (Duchesne) H.Hara Watermelon (Engl.)
Citrullus aquosus Schur.
Citrullus battich Forssk.
Citrullus caffer Schrad.
Citrullus caffrorum Schrad.
Citrullus chodospermus Falc. & Dunal
Citrullus citrullus H. Karst.
Citrullus edulis Spach
Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Mansf.
Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai
Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.
Cucumis citrullus (L.) Schrad.
Citrullus citrullus (L.) Ser..
Cucuribita citrullus L.
Cucuribita gigantea Salisb.
Cucuribita pinnatifida Schrank
Momordica lanata Thunb.
Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai is an accepted name The Plant List

AFRIKAANS: Waatlemoen, Egusi melon.
ARABIC : Battikh (ba), Battikh ahmar (red-fleshed), Bateekh, Betteakh (Egypt).
BENGALI : Taramuj, Tormuj.
BULGARIAN : Dinia.
CATALAN : Sindriera.
CHINESE : Shi yong xi gua, Choei koa, Ts'ing teng koa, Han koa, Hia koa, Xi gua, Han gua.
CROATIAN : Lubenica.
CZECH : Cukrov meloun, Lubenice meloun, Lubenice obecn, Meloun vodn, Vodn meloun.
DANISH : Vandmelon.
DUTCH : Watermeloen.
ESTONIAN : Arbuus, Vesimelon.
FRENCH : Melon d'eau, Pastque.
GERMAN: Wassemelone, Wassermelone , Gewhnliche Wassermelone, Wasserzitrulle.
GREEK : K Karpusi, Karpouzia (Cyprus).
HEBREW : Avatiach, Avatiach pashut.
HINDI : Kharbuza ( kharmuja), Tarabja, Tarabuuza.
ITALIAN : Anguria, Cocomero (Tuscany), Melone d'acqua, Pastecca.
KOREAN : Su bak (Soo bahk).
LAOTIAN : M, Tng m.
NEPALESE : Tarabuujaa (Tarbuja).
PORTUGUESE: Melancia, Melncia.
SPANISH : Sanda, Meln de agua.
SWAHILI : Mtango, Mtikiti.
TAMIL : Palam, Vattkku.
THAI : Taeng chin, Taeng moh, Matao.
VIETNAMESE : Da hu, Da hu rut .
See Sorting Citrullus names for the complete listing
Etymology
Citrullus lanatus derives from Greek and Latin words: Citrullus from the Greek word "citrus"
and lanatus is Latin, meaning woolly or referring to the short hairs on stems and leaves. (31)
Botany
Pakuan is a spreading, hairy, tendril-bearing annual vine reaching a length of several meters. Leaves
are long-stalked, oblong-ovate, 8 to 20 centimeters long, deeply 3- to 7-lobed, pinnatifid with usually
narrowed segments. Flowers are monoecious, yellow, and about 2 centimeters in diameter, occurring
singly in axils of the leaves. Fruit is very large, smooth, ellipsoid to oblong, light green with irregular dark
green-mottled stripes, sometimes covered with a white, waxy bloom, about 30 centimeters long. The
flesh is white, yellowish, pink or red; crisp, soft and juicy. Seeds are compressed, sometimes red, usually
black.
Distribution
- Widely cultivated in the Philippines.
Constituents
- Citrullus lanatus produced a fruit that is 93% water, hence, the name watermelon. (31)
- Fruit extract yielded carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, steroids, glycosides, flavonoids, tannins and
polyphenols.
- The skin contains a fixed oil, arachidic acid, and traces of copper.
The seeds contain oil, 15 to 45%, made up of glycerides of linoleic acid, oleic acid and palmitic and
stearic acids. The oil contains a small amount of phytosterol.
- A study suggests the active principle in the seed is a glucoside-saponin named cucurbocitrin.
- Flesh of fruit contains saccharose, dextrose, levulose, invert sugar, citrullin, lycopin, carotin, etc.
- All parts of the watermelon - rind, flesh, and seeds - contain citrulline, a non-essential amino acid,
which converts to L-arginine when eaten.
- Seeds are a rich source of enzyme urease.
- Unsaturated fatty acid content of an ether extract in water melon seeds was reported at 76.1%, mainly
linoleic acid.
- A 1967 study isolated a new amino acid from the pressed juice of Citrullus vulgaris and named p-
(pyrazolyl-N)-alanine on the basis of its nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum and other properties. (25)
- Study of vine yielded ten compounds: pentadecanoic acid, monopentadecanoin, 2, 3-dihydroxypropyl
nonadecoate, lignoceric acid-2, 3-dihydroxy-propanenyl ester, lancerebroside 5, salicylic acid, 4-
hydroxybenzoic acid, hydroquinone, succinic acid and vanillic acid. (15)
- Alcoholic and aqueous extracts revealed the presence of carbohydrates, proteins, flavonoids,
saponins, fixed oils, glycosides and steroids. (See study below) (18)
- Physiochemical composition yielded moisture 19.21%, ash content 2.85%, acid soluble 2.105%, acid
insoluble 1.00%, fibre content 13.67%, oil content 35.2%, iodine value 179.0, acid value 148.0, invert
sugar 39.95%. (19)
- Analysis of fatty acid profile of seed oil confirmed the presence of palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and
linoleic acids, with linoleic acid being the
most abundant of the five. Physiochemical
characteristics of seed oil showed a
saponification value of 132.33 mgKOH/g,
acid value 06.48KOH/g, peroxide value 21
meq/kg, iodine value 123 gI2/100g, specific
gravity 0.915, refractive index 1.46. (22)
- Macronutrient profile (per 1 cup diced
watermelon [approx. 152 g]): 45 calories, 1 g
protein, 11.5 g carbohydrate, 0.2 g fat.
Watermelon is an excellent source of
vitamin C 12.3 mg (20.5% DV), vitamin
A 865 IU (17.3% DV); a very good source of
potassium 170 mg (4.9%DV). Other
minerals and vitamins are magnesium 15
mg (3.8% DV), vitamin B6 0.07 mg (3.5%
DV), vitamin V1 0.05 mg (3.3% DV), vitamin
E 0.08 mg (3% DV), manganese 0.06 mg
(3% DV), dietary fiber 0.6 g (2.4% DV), iron
0.4 mg (2.2% DV), phosphorus 17 mg (1.7%
DV), folate 5 mcg (1.3% DV), and calcium
11 mg (1.1% DV). (DV is daily value based
on a 2,000 calorie diet, as established by
USFDA) (26)
- Dried egusi seed with shell per 100 g yield
water 5.1g, energy 2340 kJ (557 kcal),
protein 38.3 g, fat 47.4 g, carbohydrate 15.3
g, calcium 54 mg, phosphorus 755 mg, iron
7.3 mg, thiamin 0.19 mg, riboflavin 0.15 mg,
niacin 3.55 mg, and folate 58 g.
(Schippers, 2002) (31)
- Phytochemical screening of seed extracts
yielded steroids, alkaloids, flavonoids,
terpenoids, and saponins in ethanol and
petroleum ether extracts. The ethanol
extract also yielded anthraquinones, tannins,
and reducing sugars. (see study below) (41)
Properties
- Seeds considered cooling, demulcent,
diuretic, vermifuge, nutritive, pectoral and
pectic.
- The crude extract of seeds believed to
have a lowering blood pressure effect.
- Studies have shown antioxidant,
antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antihypertensive,
mosquitocidal, repellent, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, radioprotective, anti-ulcer, laxative properties.
Parts utilized
Seeds, fruit, roots.
Uses
Edibility / Nutrition
- Widely eaten in the Philippines.
Not high in nutritive value; only a fair source of calcium and iron.
- Seeds are oily; sometimes used as substitute for peanuts.
- African cuisine used the entire fruit: Seeds are eaten as snacks, added to dishes, ground in flour; rind
can be stir-fried, stewed, candied, pickled, or grilled; flesh eaten or juiced or fermented into
alcohol. (26)
Folkloric
- The juice of the roots used for hemorrhage after abortion.
- Juice of fruit use as antiseptic in typhus fever.
- With cumin and sugar, juice is used as a cooling drink in strangury and affections of the urinary organs,
such as gonorrhea; also used for hepatic congestion and intestinal catarrh.
- In China, rind of the fruit is powdered after drying and incineration and used for aphthous mouth sores.
- Pulp is used as a drastic purgative.
- In Tonkin, pericarp used for diarrhea.
- Seeds used to alleviate symptoms of acute cystitis.
- In traditional Chinese medicine, used to relieve scanty urination, excessive thirst, for treating icteric
hepatitis and urinary tract infections.
- Used in Chinese herbal medicine for erectile dysfunction, acne, diabetes, nephritic edema.
Others
- Water source / Alternative Food Source: In the semi-arid central Tanzania, water melons are
available in appreciable quantities to be used as livestock as water source during the dry season. One
hectare can produce sufficient water melons to supply water to a growing bull for 3-5 months. In years of
famine, the rind is dried and made into porridge. Farmers also extract oil from the melon seeds to use for
cooking.
Studies
Hypothyroidism: Protective role of Mangifera indica, Cucumis melo and Citrullus vulgaris peel
extracts in chemically induced hypothyroidism: Results showed thyroid stimulatory and antiperoxidase
roles. (1)
Mosquitocidal / Repellent: Mosquitocidal and repellent activity of the leaf extract of Citrullus vulgaris
(cucurbitaceae) against the malarial vector, Anopheles stephensi liston (diptera culicidae): The C
vulgaris plant showed insect growth regulatory activity against Anopheles stephensi. (4)
Thyroid Stimulation / Regulation of Lipid Peroxidation: Study of the fruit peel extracts of M indica,
C melo and Citrullus vulgaris showed stimulatory thyroid activity in PTU-induced hypothyroid animals
and lipid peroxidation inhibition. but only when treated individually. A parallel increase in hepatic and
renal LPO was observed when used in combination.
Citrulline / Rind: Watermelon is a natural and rich source of the non-essential amino acid citrulline. It
is used in the nitric oxide system, with potential antioxidant and vasodilatory effects. Red flesh
watermelons had slightly less citruline than yellow or orange flesh watermelons. Rind contains more
citrulline than flesh. The watermelon rind, an underutilized agricultural waste, presents as a rich source
of natural citrulline. (5)
Supplementation / Improved Aortic Blood Pressure: Study showed watermelon supplementation
improves aortic hemodynamics through a decrease in the amplitude of the reflected wave in individuals
with prehypertension. Supplementation was well tolerated by all subjects, with no adverse effects
reported. (9)
Antimicrobial / Leaves: Study showed the leaves extract of C. colocynthis, C. lanatus and C. vulgaris
were very effective against bacteria and some fungal strains than other species. All three showed
maximum inhibition against E. coli and Candida albicans. (14) Study evaluated methanol extracts and
fractions of leaves of C. lanatus for antimicrobial activity against various clinical isolates. All fractions
showed significant activity against test microbes including Strep. pyogenes, Strep. faecalis, Bacillus
cereus, Corynebacterium ulcerans, E. coli, K. pneumonia, P. fluorescens, S. typhi, Candida albicans and
C. krusei. Ethylacetate fraction showed highest activity. (32)
Anti-Diabetic Effect: Study evaluated the anti-diabetic potential of various extracts of watermelon in
vivo in streptozotocin induced diabetic mice. Results showed significant reduction of blood glucose
levels, increased insulin levels, and protection from pancreatic cell death. Results showed beneficial
antidiabetic effects. (16)
Corrosion Inhibitor / Peels: Study showed Citrillus vulgaris peels can serve as effective inhibitor on
zinc in natural sea water environment. Results suggest the adsorption of inhibitor on zinc metal surface
is exothermic and followed by spontaneous process. (17)
Anti-Obesity / Anti-Arthritic / Seeds: Study evaluated the anti=obesity and anti-arthritic activities of
seed extracts of C. vulgaris in rat models. The extracts exhibited significant anti-obesity activity with
reduction of glucose, cholesterol, LDL, VLDL, triglycerides, with increase in HDL in induced obesity
models in rats, with Sibutramine as standard reference. Extracts also showed significant anti-arthritic
activity in FA induced arthritis in rat models. (18)
Effect on Spermatogenesis / Seeds: Study evaluated the effect of Citrillus vulgaris on
spermatogenesis in Wistar rats. Results showed a significant increase in sperm population, motility and
viability. (20)
Prostatic Hyperplasia / Seeds: Study evaluated the effects of a methanolic extract of Citrullus lanatus
seed on experimentally induced benign prostatic hyperplasia in adult male Wistar rats. Treatment with
the extract caused a significant decrease in prostate enlargement, seminal vesicle and testes size,
together with a decrease in prostate weight. (24)
Increased Testosterone / Seeds: Study in adult Wistar albino rats showed a significant increase in
serum testosterone at 30 mg/kg of extract (P <0.05). (27)
Radioprotective Effect / Lymphocyte Membrane: Study investigated the mechanisms of
radioprotection on lymphocyte membrane in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats. Results showed Citrullus
vulgaris has radioprotection properties and lymphocytes were destroyed by formation of pores on their
membrane. Radioprotection could be due to the presence of antioxidants, particularly vitamin A, C, and
lycopene. (28)
Analgesic / Peels: Study of aqueous extract of C. lanatus peels for analgesic activity using Eddy's hot
plate method showed good analgesic potential with a potential as alternative to conventional
NSAIDS. (29)
Ameliorative Effect on Cytoarchitecture of Testes: Distorted cytoarchitecture and reduction in
interstitial cells has been linked with infertility following administration of unripe papaya sees. Study
showed Citrillus lanatus has an ameliorative effect on the cytoarchitecture of testes in Wistar rats
following prolonged exposure to methanolic extract of Carica papaya. (33)
Globulins / Antihyperglycemic Activity / Seeds: Study evaluated the hypoglycemiic of storage
proteins of five species of Cucurbitaceae on male Wistar rats. Among extracted proteins, globulins
constitute the most abundant class of storage proteins. Citrillus lanatus and Cucurbita moschata yielded
the highest levels of globulin, 275.34 and 295.11 mg/g dry matter, respectively. Study showed selected
Cucurbitaceae seeds contain globulins with significant anti-hyperglycemic activity. (34)
Antioxidant / Seeds: Study evaluated the in-vitro antioxidant activities of n-hexane, chloroform, and
ethanol extracts of Citrullus lanatus seeds using DPPH radical scavenging activity, Ferric reducing
power activity, H2O2 scavenging activity and NO scavenging activity. All extracts showed antioxidant
activities in order of n-hexane>ethanol>chloroform extracts. (35)
Anti-Ulcer / Seeds: Study evaluated the anti-ulcerogenic activity of crude methanol extract of Citrullus
lanatus seeds in two ulcer models in albino Wistar rats. Results showed significant effect in pyloric
ligation and in water immersion stress induced ulcer models. The ulcer protective effect may be due to
anti-secretory and cytoprotective mechanisms. (36)
Antioxidant / Anti-Inflammatory / Analgesic / Seeds: Study evaluated various extracts of seeds for
analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential. The methanolic extract showed highest
antioxidant activity using DPPH and H2O2 methods. The MECL showed dose-dependent significant
(p<0.05) anti-inflammatory activity by carrageenan induced rat paw edema and analgesic activity by tail
flick and tail immersion methods. (37)
Antidiabetic / Antioxidative / Juice: Study evaluated the antioxidative and antidiabetic potentials of
watermelon in a in vivo assay on alloxan induced diabetic rats. Results showed watermelon juice caused
increased in weight, hypoglycemia, and increases in GPH, GPx, catalase, and SOD% inhibition activities
with reduced MDA concentration after treatment. (38)
Anti-Nutrient Components: Study evaluated pulp, seeds, and rind of C. lanatus for anti-nutrient
components. Results showed anti-nutritional components such as saponin, alkaloid, hydrocyanic acid,
phenols, oxalate, tannins, and phytates were detected in all samples but in varying tolerable
concentrations. Flavonoid was significantly high in the pulp and seed. Phytate and oxalate were higher in
seeds compared to pulp and rind. Anti-nutrient compounds were below FAO/WHO recommended safe
levels. (39)
Antidiabetic / Lipid Effects / Rind: Study evaluated the antidiabetic effects of a methanolic extract of
C. lanatus rind in alloxan induced diabetic male albino wistar rats. Results showed significant decrease
in triglycerides, LDL cholesterol and VLDL with increases in HDL. Study suggests C. lanatus rind can
possibly normalize some biochemical and hematological abnormalities associated with the
pathophysiology of diabetes mellitus in a dose dependent manner. (40)
Antidiabetic / Seeds: A methanol seed extract showed significant reduction of plasma glucose at
weeks 2 and 4 in a study on female Wistar rats. Possibly, the hypoglycemia was induced by triggering of
insulin release from the pancreatic -cells or by hepatic glucose reduction. (21) Study evaluated the
effects of petroleum ether and ethanol extract of seeds on blood glucose in alloxan induced diabetic
mice. Results showed significant (p<0.05) lower of blood glucose levels in a dose dependent manner.
(see constituents above) (41) Study of watermelon seed extract on STZ-induced diabetic rats showed
antihyperglycemic and antioxidative effects. (44)
Laxative / Fruit Pulp: Study evaluated the possible laxative effect of aqueous fruit pulp extract of
Citrullus lanatus in albino Wistar rats. Results showed a significant laxative effect and reduced
loperamide effect in a dose dependent manner. Effect was similar to reference drug sodium picosulfate.
(42)
Silver Nanoparticles / Fruit Rind: Study reports on a one-step green synthesis of silver nanoparticles
synthesized using silver nitrate and aqueous extract of C. lanatus fruit rind as reductant and capping
agent. (43)
Immunomodulatory / Antioxidant / Seeds: Study evaluated the antioxidant and immunomodulatory
activities of C. lanatus seed extract in in-vitro models. Results showed good antioxidant activity by DPPH
assay. C. lanatus stimulated phagocytic activity of leucocytes in a dose dependent manner by NBT
(nitroblue tetrazolium dye) assay. (45)
Nutritive Value and Antioxidant Activity / Fruit: Study evaluated the nutritive contents, free radical
scavenging activities and phytochemical components of C. lanatus fruit. Results showed very high
moisture content with its crude protein, crude fat, crude fiver and ash in traceable amounts. Sugar
content was high compared to other nutritive contents. Lycopene and -carotene were estimated to be
4537.83 and 308.71 g/100g, respectively. Fruit extract exhibited significant (p<0.05) DPPH (IC50 of
0.10 mg/mg) and hydrogen perioxide radical scavenging activity (IC50 0.62 mg/mg). (46)
Effect in Male Potency / Flesh Extract: Study evaluated the effects of flesh extract on male sexual
behavior using animal models. Extract at dose of 1000 mg/kg did not produce mortality or signs of
toxicity. There was significant decrease in mounting latency and intromission latency (p<0.05).
Aphrodisiac effects in animal models suggest a potential use for men with erectile dysfunction. (47)
Protein Hydrolysates / Potential in Management of Hypertension: Study evaluated the in vitro
antihypertensive, antiradical, and hydrogen peroxide scavenging properties of protein hydrolysates from
C. lanatus seed obtained through enzymatic digestion. Hydrolysates were investigated for inhibitory
activity against angiotensin-1-converting enzyme (ACE) activity. Results showed protein hydrolysates
possess bioactivities with potential for use in the management of hypertension. (48)
Lycopene Extraction: Study focused on the extraction of lycopene from C. lanatus fruits.
Phytochemical analysis yielded bioactive compounds such as phenolics, alkaloids, saponins, tannins,
steroids, and flavonoids. Lycopene by column chromatography was 68.0285 mg/k fresh weight. Study
suggests watermelon as a good source of antioxidant with potential as raw material in drug formulation.
(49)
In the news
Citrulline / Natural Viagra: The fruit is rich in the amino acid citrulline, which is converted to the amino
acid arginine (L-arginine is the precursor for endothelial nitric oxide synthesis), which is known to relax
and dilate blood vessels, an effect similar to Viagra and other drugs used to treat erectile dysfunction. A
4-ounce serving of watermelon (about 10 watermelon balls) provides about 150 milligrams of citrulline. A
2007 study of volunteers who drank three 8-ounce glasses of watermelon juice daily for three weeks
boosted their arginine levels by 11%. However, like many herbs and fruits touted as herbal viagra, the
citrulline-viagra connect is short on science. Men with erectile dysfunction are not deficient in arginine.
Still, alternative practitioners recommend citrulline for the treatment of impotence. The normal
supplemental dose is 16 to 18 g of citrulline malate. (6)
Caution !
Watermelon-induced citrullinemia and urea cycle disorders: Elevated plasma citrulline and
arginine due to consumption of Citrullus vulgaris (watermelon): A Case of a 19-month old with
developmental delay who developed watermelon-induced citrullinemia. Its laboratory hallmarks are
elevation of plasma citrulline and moderate elevation of plasma arginine.
While high levels of citrulline might not affect most people, it can be harmful to those with citrullinemia,
a genetic disorder affecting the urea cycle.
Current dietary management of citrullinemia and other urea cycle disorders include restriction of
protein, sodium benzoate, and certain dietary supplements or essential amino acids with intermediates
such as arginine. One fruit that should be avoided is watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris).
Availability
- Cultivated.
- Citrulline supplements.
Plagiarism of the Compilation on Philippine Medicinal Plants Under the Guise of Fair Use
Updated August 2017 / Jamiary 2016

Patatas
Solanum tuberosum Linn.
POTATO
Ma ling shu
Solanum andigenum Jus. & Bukasov Patatas (C. Bis., Bik., Tag.)
Solanum kesselbrenneri Juz. & Bukasov Potato (Engl.)
Solanum subandigena Hawkes
Solanum tuberosum Linn.
Solanum tuberosum is the preferred name. EOL

ARABIC: Batates, Batata (Morocco).
BENGALI: Aalu.
CHINESE: Ma ling shu, Tu dou, Yang yu.
CROATIAN: Krumpir.
CZECH: Brambor.
DANISH: Kartoffel, Kartofler.
DUTCH: Aardappel.
FINNISH: Peruna, Potaati.
FRENCH : Ardoffel, Mailinterra, Parmentire, Patate, Pomme de terre, Tartuffel, Tiffel, Truffel..
GERMAN : Aardapfel, rdppel, Bramburi, Erdapfel, Erdbirne, Erpele, Frundbirne, Gummel, Grundbirn,
Happere, Hardopfel, Harpfel, Kartoffel, Kartoffeln, Kautffel, Ketffel, Krumbirn, Krumbiir, Tartuffli.
HEBREW:Tapouah' adama, Tpoohy.
HINDI: Aloo, Aalu.
HUNGARIAN: Burgonya.
ITALIAN: Patata, Pom da terra, Pomi di terra, Tartufolo.
JAPANESE: Jaga imo.
NEPALESE: Aalu.
POLISH: Ziemniak, Kartofel.
PORTUGUESE: Batata, Batata-da-terra-semelha, Batatas (pl.), Batateira
RUSSIAN: Kartofel', Kartoshka.
SERBIAN: Krompira.
SLOVAKIAN: Bramboru.
SLOVENIAN: Krompirja.
SPANISH : Papa, Papa comn, Patata, Patatas.
SWEDISH: Jordpron, Kartoffel, Potatis, Pott, Tartuffel.
TAMIL : Urulaikkilangnku.
THAI: Man farang.
TURKISH: Patates.
VIETNAMESE: Cy khoai ty, Khoai ty.
Botany
Patatas is a perennial herb with rough, pinnate leaves. Flowers are rather large, white or purple, star-
shaped, and borne on compound inflorescences, 3 to 4 centimeters in diameter. Roots grow round and
edible fleshy tubers.
Distribution
- Cultivated at higher altitudes, especially in
the Mountain Province, Luzon, and in the
Lanao region in Mindanao
- Introduced from America.
Constituents
The entire plant contains toxic
glycoalkaloids but usually in harmless
quantities in the edible tubers. (9)
Study yielded a gluco-alkaloid, solanine, in
the fresh plant, 0.0101 to 0.0489 %; flowers,
0.6 to 0.7 %; unripe fruit, about 1 %; seeds,
0.25 %; tubers and buds, 0.02%; skin, 0.07%,
starchy region, 0.002%; shoots, 0.02 to
0.05%.
Sprouting, growing tubers are considered
poisonous, as well as the flowers, unripe
seeds, and leaves as they contain solanine.
The full-grown tuber does not contain
solanine.
Study isolated putrescine N-
methyltransferase, a calystegine,a nortropane
alkaloid with glycosidase inhibitory activity. (9)
- Study of fresh unripe fruit yielded -
chaconine, -solanine, and chlorogenic acid.
Aerial parts yielded -chaconine, -solanine,
aculeatiside A and B. Tubers yielded -
chaconine, -solanine and protodioscin. (13)
Analysis of nutritive value of potatoes, fresh
and skin, all varieities, per 100g yielded:
(Principle) energy 77 Kcal, carbohydrates
17.49 g, protein 2.05g, cholesterol 0, dietary
fiber 2.1g; (Vitamins) folates 15 mcg, niacin
1.061 mg, pantothenic acid 0.278 mg, pyridoxine 0.298 mg, riboflavin 0.032 mg, thiamin 0.081 mg,
vitamin A 2 IU, vitamin C 19.7 mg, vitamin K 2 mcg; (Electrolytes) sodium 6 mg, potassium 425 mg;
(Minerals) calcium 12 mg, iron 0.81 mg, magnesium 23 mg, manganese 0.141 mg, phosphorus 57 mg,
zinc 0.30 mg; (Phytonutrients) carotene- 4 mcg, cryto-xanthin- 0 mcg, lutein-xanthin 21 mcg. (USDA
National Nutrient data base) (16)
Properties
Antiscorbutic, aperient, diuretic, galactagogue, stimulant, emollient, antidote, antispasmodic.
Considered a nervous sedative and stimulant in gout.
Leaves believed to be poisonous.
Studies have shown antioxidant, antibacterial, anticonvulsant, corrosive inhibition, anti-ulcer properties.
Uses
Nutritional
- Very high starch content; valuable as an energy-giving food.
- Potatoes grown in Baguio are deficient in calcium, and only fair sources of iron.
- Good source of fiber, vitamins B and C, and minerals.
- Peels are high in potassium.
Folkloric
- Gently laxative, but non-purging.
- Promotes milk.
- Useful for gout.
- Potato-peel tea for hypertension.
- Poultice of leaves as a tonic.
- Used for scurvy, dyspepsia, hyperacidity, gout and arthritis.
- Decoction of leaves for chronic cough.
- Potato, ground to a paste, applied as a plaster to burns caused by fire.
- Poultice of grated raw potato used for light burns, arthritis, itching, etc.
- Boiled potatoes used as emollient poultices.
- Used as antidote to poisoning by iodine.
- Extract of leaves used as an antispasmodic in chronic coughs, producing opium-like effects. Extract
also used as a narcotic.
- In Tanzania, raw potato tubers are squeezed and juice applied as eye drops to improve poor
vision. (12)
Studies
Antioxidant: A 2006 study of commonly consumed roots crops in the Philippines Kamote (Ipomoea
batata); ubi, purple yam (Dioscorea alata); cassava (Manihot esculenta); taro or gabi (Colocasia
esculenta); carrot (Daucus carota); yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius) showed them to be rich sources of
phenolic compounds with antioxidant activity, highest in sweet potato, followed by taro, potato, purple
yam and lowest in the carrot. (2)
Anticonvulsant: A study showed
potato juice exerted significant
anticonvulsant activity in mice. It
suggests that potato juice, as well as
potato, may influence brain GABA-
activity. (1)
Teratological and Toxicological
Studies: Study was done on the effects
of acute and chronic administration in
pregnant and non pregnant rats of
alkaloidal, glycoalkaloidal and phenolic
compounds from Solanum tuberosum.
None of the compounds produced
neural tube defects; a few fetuses had
rib abnormalities. (4)
Antiobesity of New Purple Potato
Variety: Study of a purple potato variety
showed anti-obesity potential via
inhibition of lipid metabolism through
p38 MAPK and UCP-3 pathways.
Anti-Adhesion / Antimicrobial
Properties: A study showed S
tuberosum has the potential of
interfering with the adhesion of oral
bacteria. Also, S tuberosum methanolic
extract showed a greater then 25 mg/ml
MIC value against S epidermis, S typhi
and B subtilis. (6)
Antioxidant / Peels: Study
investigated in-vitro hydroxyl and NO,
DPPH radical scavenging activities and total phenolic content of S. tuberosum peel extracts. Results
showed an ethyl acetate extract to contain higher amounts of polyphenolic contents compared to the
methanol extract. DPPH radical scavenging activity was dose-dependent . (7)
Corrosion Inhibition: Study of an acid extract of Solanum tuberosum showed potential as a corrosion
inhibitor for mild steel which may be due to adsorption of alkaloids and other phytoconstituents. (8)
Putrescine N-Methyltransferase: Potatoes yield calystegines, nortropane alkaloids with glycosidase
inhibitory activity. Based on calystegine formation by the tropane alkaloid pathway, study investigated
PMT genes and enzymes. Sprouting tubers coontain both N-methylputrescine and PMT activity. Results
confirm potato genes and enzymes specific for the tropane alkaloid metabolism are expressed and
active. (9)
Antibacterial / Peel: Study investigated the in vitro antibacterial effects of S. tuberosum ethanol extract
of peels. Results showed antibacterial properties more pronounced on gram-positive bacteria, especially
S. aureus. (10)
Anti-Ulcer / Tubers: Study evaluated the potential of S. tuberosum for anti-ulcer activity in pylorus-
ligation model and stree-induced ulcers by cold water immersion. Results showed both alcoholic extracts
and aqueous extracts of tubers possess anti-ulcer activity. Phytoconstituents tannins, flavonoids, and
triterpenes reported to have anti-ulcer activity were present in both extracts. LD50 was 2000 mg/kg body
weight. (11)
Solanine / Antibacterial / Leaves: Study isolated solanine from leaves of potato plant leaves. The
solanine showed effective inhibition against Bacillus subtilis and sllght inhibition against Staphylococcus
aureus. (15)
Toxicity !
Potato poisoning
Occurs when someone eats the green tubers or new sprouts of the potato plant. The poisonous
ingredient is Solanine which is very toxic even in small amounts. Potatoes should never be eaten when
spoiled or green below the skin. Sprouts should always be discarded.
Symptoms: Delirium, diarrhea, dilated pupils, fever or hypothermia, hallucinations, headache,
numbness, paralysis, shock, vision changes, vomiting.
Treatment: Do not attempt home treatment or alternative remedies. Seek immediate medical help.
Depending on severity, treatment might necessitate use of activated charcoal, breathing support, IIV
fluids and gastric lavage. (3)
Leaves toxicity
Potato leaves are generally considered toxic. Its use as food is a restricted custom in high mountain
communities where the availability of fresh herbs is restricted by long winters, and at times, it may serve
as emergency staple. Toxicity is less in young leaves, and preparations that leach out toxins is evidence
of adaptive ingenuity of mountain populations.
Availability
Wild-crafted use of leaves.
Cultivated for the potato.
Updated July 2017 / March 2014

Patola
Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb.
SPONGE GOURD
Guang dong si gua

Cucumis acutangulus Linn. Patola (Tag.)
Cucumis lineatus Bosc. Patula-baibing (Sul.)
Cucumis megacarpus G.Don Saykua (Bis.)
Cucumis operculatus Roxb. ex Wight & Am. Bath sponge (Engl.)
Curcubita acutangula (L.) Blume Angled luffa (Engl.)
Luffa acutangula (L.) Ridge gourd (Engl.)
Luffa amara Roxb. Ridged luffa (Engl.)
Luffa drastica Mart. Chinese okra (Engl.)
Luffa fluminensis Roem. Sponge gourd (Engl.)
Luffa foertida Cav. Towel gourd (Engl.)
Luffa forskalii Schweinf. ex Hams
Luffa gossa Ham
Momordica tubiflora Wall.
Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. is an accepted name The Plant List

BENGALI: Jinghey
CHINESE: Guang dong si gua, Kak kuey, Leng jiao si gua, Si gua, Yue si gua, Sin qua.
DANISH: Kantagurk
FRENCH: Courge anguleuse de Chine, Papangay, Papengaye
HINDI: Hireballi, Jhinga torooee, Jhingil torai, Kali, Torai, Turai
INDONESIA: Hoyong, Ketola, Ketola sagi, Oyong.
JAPANESE: Shokuyou hechima
KHMER: Ronng Chrung
LAOTIAN: Looy
PORTUGESE: Bucha de purga, Lufa riscada
SINHALESE: Dara veta kola, vata kolu, veta kola, Wetakolu
SPANISH: Calabaza de Aristas
TAMIL: Peerkan kai, Pekan aki
THAI: Buap, Buap liam, Manoi liam
VIETNAMESE: Murop kai
Botany
Patola, a vegetable, is a coarse, annual, herbaceous vine. Leaves are subrounded-ovate, 10 to 20
centimeters long, shallowly five-lobed, and heart-shaped at the base. Female flowers are pedicelled,
occurring singly in the axils of the leaves. Male flowers are yellow, 2 centimeters long, borne in axillary
racemes. Calyx lobes are lanceolate and pointed. Fruit is oblong-oblanceolate, 20 to 25 centimeters
long, about 5 centimeters in diameter, green, and characterized by 10 prominent, longitudinal sharp
angles. Seeds are numerous and close-packed.
Distribution
- Cultivated for its edible fruit, but not established.
- In cultivation in the Old World Tropics.
Constituents
- Fruit contains a bitter principle, luffeine.
- Seed contains a fixed oil of glycerides of palmitic, stearic, and myristic acids.
- Study isolated seven oleanane-type triterpene saponins, acutosides A-G. Acutoside A was identified as
oleanolic acid 3-O--D-glucopyranosyl-(12)--D-glucopyranoside. Acutosides B, D, E, F and G have a
common prosapogenin structure, acutoside A, and only differ in the structures of the ester-linked sugar
moieties. (5)
- Nutrition assessment of fruits of L. acutangula var. amara (gm/100 g fruit powder) yielded high moisture
94.6%, crude fiber 42.94%, carbohydrates 3.86, fat content 0.1, and energy 18.18 Kcal/100g. Vitamin
constituents per 100 gm were: vitamin A 0.0001 g, thiamine (B1) 0.7692 mg, riboflavin (B2) 0.2061mg,
niacin (B3) 3.1282 mg, and vitamin C 0.083mg. Mineral constituents (mg/100gm) yielded Cu 0.9, Fe
34.1, Mg 27.38, Mn 2.34, Ca 99.78, and Zn 9.52. (27)
- Phytochemical screening of ethanol extract of fruit yielded alkaloids, saponins, carotenoids, and
terpenoids with the absence of flavonoids, tannins, and anthraquinones. GC-MS analysis yielded six
compounds: 2,3-dihydro,3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-(4H)-pyran-4-one; 3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-
1-ol; (3, 20R)-cholest-5-en-3-ol; n-hexadecanoic acid; 9, 12, 15-octadecatrienoic acid methyl ester and
citronellyl tiglate. (33)
Properties
- Fruit is considered demulcent, diuretic, nutritive.
- Seeds considered purgative and emetic.
- Studies suggest antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer,
cardioprotective, gastroprotective, antidiabetic, hypolipidemic,
hepatoprotective properties.
Parts utilized
Leaves, fruit.
Uses
Nutrition
Edible; cooked or fried, used in soups and sauces.
Occasionally, stem tops with young leaves and flower buds used as leafy vegetable.
Young fruits of cultivars, eaten raw or pickled.
Unripe fruit is a good source of calcium, iron and phosphorus.
Fruit considered a fair source of
vitamin B.
Folkloric
Decoction of leaves for amenorrhea.
Poultice of leaves for hemorrhoids.
Juice of fresh leaves for granular
conjunctivitis in children. Also used to
prevent the lids from adhering at night
from excessive meibomian secretion.
Juice of leaves also used externally for
sores and various animal bites.
Pulp of fruit used internally, like
calocynth, to cause vomiting and
purging.
Powdered dried fruit made into snuff
for use by those afflicted with jaundice.
Seed oil used for dermatitis.
In Russia, roots is used as a purge.
In Iran and Iraq infused seeds used as
purgative and emetic.
In India, roots is used for dropsy and
as laxative; leaf and fruit juice used to
treat jaundice.
In Java, leaf decoction used for uremia
and amenorrhea.
In Bangladesh, pounded leaves used for hemorrhoids, splenitis, leprosy. Juice of leaves used for
conjunctivitis in children.
In West Africa, leaf extract of ridged gourd applied to sores caused by guinea worms; leaf sap used as
eyewash in conjunctivitis; fruits and seeds used in herbal preparations for treatment of venereal
diseases.
In Mauritius, seeds eaten to expel intestinal worms; leaf juice applied to eczema.
Seed used as insecticidal.
Others
Sponge/Brush: Fibrous nature of the mature fruit, devoid of pulp, dries into a matrix of stiff vascular
bundles and used as a bath brush or sponge.
Pesticide: In China, has been used as a pesticide.
Fibers sometimes used for making hats.
Studies
Trypsin Inhibitors: Study isolated two trypsin inhibitors, LA-1 and LA-2, both consisting of 28-29 amino
acid residues, respectively. Both strongly inhibit trypsin by forming enzyme-inhibitor complexes. (4)
Constituents: Study isolated seven oleanane-type triterpene saponins, acutosides A-G. ( see
Antioxidants : An antioxidant-guided assay yielded eight compounds. Results showed consumption of
sponge gourds can supply some antioxidant constituents to the human body. (6)
Antimicrobial / Water Disinfectant : Study showed the some antimicrobial potential of seeds and
fruits of Lc as a disinfectant of drinking water. However, the disinfection performance was less that would
be required to be considered reliable. (7)
Antimicrobial / Fruit: A fruit extract of Luffa acutangula was found to have more potent antibacterial
and antifungal activity than leaf extract. Staph aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa species showed
higher sensitivity to the leaf and fruit extracts. (10)
Hepatoprotective / CCl4 and Rifampicin Induced Toxicity : Study evaluated a hydroalcoholic extract
for hepatoprotective activity against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) and rifampicin- induced hepatotoxicity in
rats. Results showed significant hepatoprotection. Results suggest the contribution of endogenous
antioxidants and inhibition of lipid peroxidation of membrane to its hepatoprotective property. (11)
Antidiabetic / Antihyperlipidemic: Study evaluating methanolic and aqueous fruit extracts of L.
acutangula fruits showed antihyperlipidemic and antidiabetic activity, with the methanol extract superior
to the water extract. (12)
Cardioprotective / Nephroprotective / Doxorubicin Induced Toxicity: Study evaluated the
protective effect of a hydroalcoholic extract of L. acutangula o doxorubicin induced cardio- and
nephrotoxicity in mice. The protective activity was attributed to its antioxidant property with resulting
membrane stabilization. (13)
Anticancer / Apoptosis / Leaf Extracts: Study evaluated leaf extracts of Luffa acutangula and Lippia
nodiflora for in vitro anticancer effect against human lung cancer cell line (NCI-H460). Results showed
high antiproliferative activity against the cell line tested. (14)
Gastroprotective / Anti-Ulcer: Study evaluated various extracts of L. acutangula for gastroprotective
effect on type 2 diabetic rats. A methanolic extract produced significantly increase mucosal glycoprotein
and antioxidant enzyme levels in gastric mucosa of diabetic rats. The ulcer healing effect was better than
glibenclamide and the water extract. (15)
Attenuation of Oxidative Damage in Human Erythrocyte: Study evaluated the ability of L.
acutangula to attenuate t-BPH induced oxidative damage in human erythrocyte. A methanolic extract
exhibited higher antioxidant activity compared to other extracts. Results showed the aqueous fraction of
fruit possess a beneficial role in mitigating t-BPH induced oxidative stress in erythrocyte. (16)
Apoptosis Inducing Activity in Leukemia Cells: Study showed partially purified methanolic extract,
F-3, dose dependently induced apoptosis in leukemia cell line HL-60, probably mediated by an intrinsic
pathway. (17)
Gastroprotective / Anti-Ulcer: Study on L. acutangula Roxb. var. amara ethanolic seed extract
showed potent antioxidant activity by DPPH assay, significant anti-inflammatory activity (diclofenac as
standard) and significant analgesic activity. (18)
Antiproliferative / Antiangiogenic / Fruit Extracts: Study evaluated L. acutangula fruit for its potential
as anti-cancer agent. Results showed significant antiproliferative activity on human lung adenocarcinoma
epithelial cell line (A-549). (19)
Antioxygenic Activity on Peroxidation Models: Ridge gourd pulp and peel powders and various
fractions were evaluated for antioxygenic activity. Peel powder and its extracts showed slightly higher
antioxygenic activity than gourd pulp powder and its extracts, probably because of higher phenolic and
flavonoid contents. (20)
Anthelmintic: Study showed moderate anthelmintic activity against adult earthworm Pheretima
posthuma. Anthelmintic activity increased with concentration. (22)
In Vitro Cytotoxicity / Human Neuronal Glioblastoma and Human Lung Adenocarcinoma Cell
Lines: In vitro studies evaluated the cytotoxic potential of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of L.
acutangula against human neuronal glioblastoma cells and human lung cancer cells. Results showed
significant concentration dependent decrease of cell viability in both MTT and SRB assay. In brine
shrimp lethality bioassay, the aqueous extract showed more potent cytotoxicity than the ethanolic
extract.(23)
Antioxidant: Study evaluated the antioxidant activity of various extracts of Luffa acutangula fruit and its
derived fractions. Phytochemical screening yielded phenolic and flavonoid compounds in all fractions
except the n-hexane fraction. The highest antioxidant activity was shown by the n-hexane fraction. and
the highest total phenolics/flavonoids contents were seen with the ethyl acetate extract. Results suggest
the fruit as a potential rich source of natural antioxidant for use in food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical
products. (24)
Silver Nanoparticles / Antimicrobial: Study reports on the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles by
aqueous extract of Luffa acutangula. Antimicrobial activities of the AgNPs were investigated against
Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. (25)
Manganese Peroxidase / Fruit Juice: Study evaluated the enzymatic properties of the manganese
peroxidase present in L. acutangula fruit juice. Results report the second manganese peroxidase
reported from a plant source. The enzymatic properties are similar to the manganese peroxidase from
Musa paradisiaca stem juice and other fungal manganese peroxidases. (26)
Immunomodulatory / Free Radical Scavenging / Pericarp: Bioactive ethanolic extracts of pericarp
showed potent in vitro antioxidant activity by various assays. Immunomodulatory activity was evidenced
by increased phagocytic index (0.028 0.002) and increased % neutrophil adhesion (24.63 0.87%).
Isolated phenolic acid constituents i.e., gallic acid and p-hydroxybenzoic acid could be responsible for
the potent antioxidant and immunomodulatory activity. (28)
Abortifacient: Study evaluated the abortifacient effect of L. acutangula in 11 pregnant Wistar rats.
Results showed ingestion of L. acutangula during pregnancy may inhibit normal development in exposed
rat pups as suggested by reduced fetal weight and occurrence of a single cleft palate. (29)
Antihyperglycemic / Antinociceptive / Fruits: Study evaluated a methanolic extract of L. acutangula
fruits for antihyperglycemic and antinociceptive potentials in Swiss albino mice. Results showed
significant and dose-dependent reduction of blood sugar concentrations. In an acetic acid-induced
gastric pain model in mice, the extract significant dose-dependent reduction in number of abdominal
constrictions. (30)
CNS Depressant Activity / Fruits: Study of ethanol extracts of L. acutangula var. amara fruits
exhibited dose-dependent CNS depressant activity. (31)
Removal of Acid Yellow / Seed Hull: Study reports on the removal of acid yellow 24 (AY24) dye from
aqueous solution using the low cost activated carbon of L. acutangula seed hull. Results showed L.
acutangula seed hull is a potential adsorbent for the removal of AY24 through a chemical adsorption
process rather than phytosorption. The high adsorption capacity suggests an alternative to commercially
activated carbon for the removal of various anionic dyes. (32)
Availability
Cultivated.
Common market vegetable.
Seeds and sponges in the cybermarket.

Pinya
Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.
PINEAPPLE
Bo luo

Bromelia comosa Linn. Apagdan (Bon.)
Bromelia ananas Linn. Pangdan (Bon.)
Bromelia pigma Perr. Pia (C. Bis., Span., Tag.)
Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Pinya (Tag.)
Ananas sativus Schultes f. Pineapple (Engl.)
Ananassa ananas Karst. Bo luo (Chin.)
Feng li (Chin.)

AFRIKAANS: Pynappel.
ARABIC: Anns.
ASSANESE: Anarox
BENGALI: Anannas, Aanaaras.
BURMESE: Na naq th.
CATALAN: Pinya d'Amrica, Pinya tropical.
CHINESE: Lu dou zi
DANISH: Ananas.
DUTCH: Ananas
ESTONIAN: Ananass.
FINNISH: Ananas.
FRENCH: Ananas, Ananas commun.
GERMAN: Ananas.
GREEK: Ananas.
GUJARATI: Ananas.
HINDI: Anannas, Anannaasa.
HUNGARIAN: Anansz.
INDIA: Amortui (Tripuri).
ITALIAN: Ananasso, Ananasso ordinario.
KANNADA: Ananas.
KHMER: M'noah.
KOREAN: P'a in ae p'ul.
LAOTIAN: Mak nat.
MALAY: Nanas, Nanas (Indonesia).
MARATHI: Ananus.
NEPALESE: Bhui katar.
ORIYA: Supuri anasianas.
PERSIAN: Annans, Anns.
POLISH: Ananas jadalny.
PORTUGUESE: Abacaxi, Anans.
RUSSIAN: Ananas
SANSKRIT: Anamnasam, Bahunetraphalam.
SPANISH: Anan, Pia, Pia de Amrica, Pia tropical.
SWEDISH: Ananas.
TAMIL: Annaaci, Anachi pazham, Anasippazham, Annasipazham
THAI: Sapparot
TELUGU: Annasapandu, Anasapandu.
TURKISH: Ananas, Festa.
URDU: Annans, Anns.
VIETNAMESE: Cy da (plant), Qu da (fruit), Thm da, Tri thm.
Botany
Pia is a fruit bearing tropical plant with an erect stem, 0.5 to 1.5 meters high. Leaves are numerous,
linear-lanceolate, 1 to 1.5 meters long, 5 to 7 centimeters wide, the margins sharply spiny-toothed, green
and shiny on the upper surface, pale beneath. Leaves subtending the inflorescences are red, at least at
the base and much reduced. Heads are terminal, solitary, ovoid, 6 to 8 millimeters long, much enlarged
in fruit; with the bracteoles reddish, numerous, triangular-ovate to oblong-ovate, acute and imbricated.
Sepals are ovate, thick and fleshy, about 1 centimeter long. Petals are three, oblanceolate, about 2
centimeters long, white below, violet-purple above. Mature fruit is up to 20 centimeters or longer.
Distribution
- Widely cultivated in the Philippines in two forms: Native and Smooth Cayenne.
- Native form was introduced by the Spaniards, smaller, fibrous with a better flavor. Smooth Cayenne
was introduced from Hawaii.
Constituents
- Native variety has a higher carbohydrate content than the Smooth Cayenne variety.
- Flesh of the fruit contains sugar, 10-15% saccharose; 7-11% glucose; 1% fructose; 0.6% invert sugar;
2.74% mannite, 1% citric acid; traces of vanillin and enzyme, bromelin.
- Ash contains phosphoric and sulfuric acid, lime magnesia, silica, iron, and chlorides of potassium and
sodium.
- Contains citric acid, phosphoric and sulfuric acid, lime, magnesia, iron, silica, sodium and chlorides of
potassium.
- Fruit yields citric and malic acids in good quantities, with moderate amounts of vitamin C.
- Bromelain is the name given to a family of proteolytic enzymes derived from Ananas comosus.
- Antihelminthic property of fresh fruit juice attributed to its constituent, bromelin, a proteolytic ferment,
that is toxic to Ascaris lumbricoides and Macracanthorynchus hirudinaceous.
- Phytochemical screening of leaves extract yielded alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, phytosterols,
glycosides and phenols. (see study below) (15)
Properties
Anthelmintic, vermicide, diuretic,
aperient, antiscorbutic,
diaphoretic, refrigerant,
digestive, styptic,
emmenagogue.
Parts used
Leaves, fruits.
Uses
Nutritional
- The native variety has a much
higher carbohydrate content than
the Cayenne variety. Both are
fair sources of calcium and iron,
good sources of vitamins A and
B, and excellent sources of
vitamin C.
- A fruit in many commercial end
products: candies, jams, juice,
yogurt, ice creams, wine and
vinegar.
- Oil or essence of pineapple
used for confectionery flavoring.
Folkloric
- Juice of leaves used as
anthelmintic and vermicide. For
intestinal animal parasites, a
decoction of fresh young leaves,
4x daily.
- Leaf extract used as antimicrobial, vermicide, purgative, emmenagogue, abortifacient, and anti-
inflammatory.
- Ripe fruit good for acid dyspepsia and aids digestion,.
- Juice of ripe fruit increases urine flow, gently laxative, cooling and digestive.
- In India and in the Moluccas, immature pineapple juice is taken internally as vermifuge for children and
abortifacient for women.
- In Tripura, India juice of underground stem used for dyspepsia.
- In Malacca, used as diuretic and treatment of gonorrhea.
- The acid in the ripe fruit taken for acid dyspepsia, the tryptic ferment aiding digestion.
- In the Gold Coast, the immature fruits are boiled and taken as remedy for venereal diseases.
- Juice of ripe fruit considered antiscorbutic, diuretic, diaphoretic, aperient, refrigerant and digestive.
- Juice of unripe fruit considered acid, styptic, diuretic, anthelmintic and emmenagogue.
- In Mexico, juice of fruit used as anthelmintic.
Others
Textile: In the Philippines, source of textile fiber called piacommonly used for making the formal
native wear of Barong Tagalog for men and Baro't Saya for women.
Wine: Wine produced from pineapple has taste and characteristics similar to natural palm wine. (11)
Studies
Antitumor activity: Stem bromelain, a cysteine proteinase from the pineapple stem, showed an anti-
tumor effect on mice, superior to that of 5-FU with an antimetastatic action independent of the primary
antitumor effect. (1)
Hypolipidemic: Study showed the ethanolic extract of AC inhibited HMGCoA reductase activity by 20-
49% in vitro suggesting AC as a potential natural product for the treatment of hyperlipidemia. Its action
differed from fibrates but was similar to statins, and as such, a possible adjuvant for fibrates. (2)
Phenolic Constituents: Study isolated 7 compounds from the leaves of pineapple: ananasate, 1-O-
caffeoylglycerol, 1-O-coumaroylglycerol, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, beta-sitosterol and
daucosterol. (3)
Anti-Diabetic / Anti-Dyslipidemic / Anti-Oxidative: Study of the ethanolic extract of Ananas comosus
leaves showed anti-diabetic, anti-dyslipidemic and anti-oxidative activities significantly decreasing
blood glucose, increasing HDL, and lowered lipid peroxidation productions of blood, brain, liver and
kidneys, and presents a potential for development of a plant medicine for diabetes and its complications.
(4)
Diuretic: Study of the root extracts of Ananas comosus and Carica papaya in rats significantly
increased urine output (P<0.01), 79 and 74% respectively, of the effect of an equivalent dose of
hydrochlorothiazide. Urine osmolality and electrolyte excretion suggest the A comosus effect was
intrinsic whereas C papaya could have been due to high salt content of the extract. (5)
Bromelain / Review: 1988 Review of bromelain lists its pharmacologic promise and properties: (1)
interference with growth of malignant cells (2) inhibition of platelet aggregation (3) fibrinolytic activity (4)
anti-inflammatory (5) skin debridement property - biologic functions that modulate tumor growth, blood
coagulation, inflammation, burn debridement and drug absorption. (6)
Bromelain / Wound Healing: (1) Bromelain is the name given to a family of proteolytic enzymes
derived from Ananas comosus. In a Czech study with long bone fractures, those given 90 mg of
bromelain had less post-operative swelling compared to patients given placebo. (2) In 1993, German
Commission E approved bromelain for the treatment of swelling and inflammation of the nose and
sinuses caused by injuries and surgery. (8)
Insulin Sensitivity: Study of ethanol extract of Ananas comosus suggest that AC may improve insulin
sensitivity in type 2 diabetes and presents a new potential natural product for handling insulin resistance
in diabetic patients. (7)
Insulin Sensitivity: Study evaluated a leaf extract for enzymatic activities related to wound healing,
antimicrobial property and toxicity. Proteomic studies showed the presence of fruit bromelain as a major
protein constituent. Results showed considerable antimicrobial property, together with nonspecific
protease activity, gelatinolytic, collagenase, fibrinolytic perosixdase, DNAse and RNase activities. There
was no toxicity in both acute and sub-acute doses. (12)
Nutraceutical Properties of Fruit Residue / Potential Benefits for Diabetes: Study evaluated
pineapple fruit residue for nutraceutical properties as an alternative or adjunct to diabetes therapy.
Analysis showed active components viz. sinapic acid, daucosterol, 2-methylpropanoate, 2,5-dimethyl-4-
hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone, methyl 2-methylbutanoate and triterpenoid ergosterol. Micronutrient analysis
yielded magnesium, potassium, and calcium. Adipogenic potential, anti-glycation property, and DNA
damage protection were promising. (13)
Immunochemical Study / Allergic Cross-Reactivity: Study aimed to characterize the allergens of
pineapple. Sera from patients with allergic symptoms after eating pineapple were tested for specific IgE
antibodies. Specific IgE in pineapple allergic patients binds several allergens in a pineapple extract.
Inhibition experiments with kiwi extract suggested cross-reactivity between these two fruits. (14)
Antidiabetic / Leaves: Study evaluated the antidiabetic and antioxidant properties of A. comosus
leaves in STZ induced diabetic rats. Results showed significant antidiabetic activity which could be
partially due to its antioxidant nature. (see constituents above) (15)
Reversal of Haloperidol Induced Catalepsy: Study showed haloperidol induced catalepsy in wistar
albino rats was significantly reversed by the administration of hydroalcoholic extracts of Parkinsonia
aculeata seeds and Ananas comosus. (16)
Regulation of Liver Fat Metabolism: Study investigated the effect and mechanisms of pineapple leaf
phenols on liver fat metabolism in high-fat diet fed mice. Results showed the PLP significantly reduced
abdominal fat and liver lipid accumulation. The PLP enhanced liver fat metabolism by upregulating CPT-
1 expression in the mitochondria. Results suggest a potential alternative natural product in the treatment
of fatty liver disease. (17)
Abortifacient / Leaves: Study observed an antifertility effect of an extract of white parts of leaves of
Ananas comosus. Of the phytoconstituents isolated, ergosterol peroxide (compound 1) showed
maximum abortifacient effect at both stages of pregnancy. Compound IIb (5-stigmastene-3,7-diol) and
Compound III (5-stigmastane-3,5,6-triol), followed by Compound IIc (5-stigmastene-3,7-diol),
showed the most consistent results before and after implantation and without apparent side effects. (18)
Silver Nanoparticles / Leaves: Plant mediated synthesis of nanoparticles is a green chemistry
approach that interconnects nanotechnology and plant biotechnology. Study demonstrated the synthesis
of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) or Green-Silver using extracts of Ananas comosus reducing aqueous
silver nitrate.
(19)
Corrosion Resistance / Juice Extract: Study investigated the use of Ananas comosus juice extracts
as additives on the electrodeposition of zinc on mild steel in acid chloride solution. Results showed the
use of pineapple juice produced good zinc electrodepositon on the steel surface. (20)
Availability
Bromelain caps in the cybermarket.
Sampalok
Tamarindus indica Linn.
TAMARIND
Da ma lin
Tamarindus indica Linn. Asam (Sul.)
Tamarindus occidentalis Gaertn. Kalamagi (Bis., Ibn.)
Tamarindus officinalis Gaertn. Salamagi (Ilk.)
Tamarindus umbrosa Salisb. Salomagi (Ilk.)
Salunagi (Ting.)
Sambag (P. Bis.)
Sambagi (Bis.)
Sambi (Bis.)
Sambak (Bik.)
Sambalagi (Bik.)
Samabalagi (Bik.)
Tamarind, (Engl.)
Tamarindi (Arabic)
Tamarindo (Span.)
Sweet tamarind (Engl.)
Tamarindus indica L. is an accepted name The Plant List

AFRIKAANS: Tamarinde.
ARABIC: Aradeib, Ardeib, Tamar el hindi, Hhawmar, Humar, Sbar, Tamar hindi.
ASSAMESE: Teteli.
BEMBA: Mushishi.
BENGALI: Ambli, Amli, Tentul, Tentuli.
BURMESE: Ma gyi, Ma jee pen, Ma gyi thi (Myanmar).
CHINESE: Suan dou, Suan mei, Suan jiao, Luo wang zi, Luo huang zi, Da ma lin.
CROATIAN: Indijska datula, Indijska urma, Tamarind.
CZECH: Tamarind.
DANISH: Tamarind.
DUTCH: Assem, Indische dadel, Tamarijn, Tamarinde, Tamarindeboom.
ESTONIAN: Tamarindipuu, Tamarind.
FINNISH: Tamarindi.
FRENCH: Tamar indien (Assam-India), Tamarin, Tamarinier, Tamarinier des Indes.
GERMAN: Indische Dattel, Sauerdattel, Tamarinde, Tamarindenbaum.
GREEK: Tamarin.
GUJARATI: Ambla, Amli.
HEBREW: Tamar hindi.
HINDI: Ambli, Anbli, Chinch, Imalii, Imlii, Tamrulhindi.
HUNGARIAN: Indiai datolya, Tamarindusz gymlcs.
ITALIAN: Tamarandizio, Tamarindo, Tamarindo dolce.
JAPANESE: Tamarindo
KANNADA: Amla, Amli, Gotu, Huli, Hunase hannu, Hunase mara (tree), Hunise mara.
KHMER: 'm'puul, Ampil (Cambodia), Ampil khui, Ampil tum, Khoua me.
KOREAN: Ta ma rin du.
LAOTIAN: Khaam, Kok mak kham, Mak kham, Naam maak khaam.
MALAY: Asam, Asam jawa, Asam kuning, Kemal (Java), Tambaring.
MALAYALAM: Amlam, Amlika, Madhurappuli, Puli
MARATHI: Ambali, Chicha.
NEPALESE: Amilii, Titrii.
ORIYA: Kainya, Koina, Konya, Omlika, Telul, Tentuli.
PERSIAN: Tamar i hindi (Iran), Tamre hendi.
POLISH: Tamarynd.
PORTUGUESE: Tamarindo (Brazil), Tamarindeiro, Tambarina.
PUNJABI: Imbli, Imlii.
RUSSIAN: Finik indiiskii, Indiyskiy finik, Tamarind, Tamarind indiiskii.
SANSKRIT: Amla, Amli, Amlika, Chukra, Sarvamda, Tintiri, Tintiddii.
SERBIAN: Indijska urma, Tamarinda.
SINHALESE: Siyambala, Siyambula.
SLOVAKIAN: Tamarindy.
SLOVENIAN: Indijska tamarinda.
SPANISH: Tamarndo, Tamarndo de la India.
SWAHILI: Mkwaju, Msisi, Ukwaju.
SWEDISH: Tamarind.
TAMIL: Ambilam, Amilam, Indam, Puli.
TELUGU: Amlika, Chinta, Chinta chettu, Chintapandu, Sinja, Sinta.
THAI: Bakham somkham,Ma khaam, Ma kham wan.
TURKISH: Demirhindi, Hind hurma, Hind hurmas, Hint hurmas, Temer hindi aac, Temir hindi aac,
Temirhindi.
URDU: Imlii.
VIETNAMESE: Cy me, Me, Me chua, Qu me, Tri me.
Botany
Sampalok is a large tree 12 to 25 meters high, nearly glabrous. Leaves are evenly pinnate, 6 to 10
centimeters long, with 20 to 40 leaflets, rather close, oblong, obtuse, 1 to 2 centimeters long. Racemes
are mostly axillary though sometimes panicled, and reaching a length of 5 to 10 centimeters.
Calyx is about 1 centimeter long, the calyx tube turbinate, the teeth lanceolate, much imbricated, the
lower 2 connate. Petals are yellowish with pink stripes, obovate-oblong, less than 1 centimeter long. Only
the 3 upper petals developed, the 2 lateral ones ovate, the upper hooded, the 2 lower ones reduced to
scales. Stamens monadelphous, only 3 developed, ovary many-ovuled. Fruits are pods oblong,
thickened, 6 to 15 centimeters long, 2 to 3 centimeters wide, slightly compressed, the exocarp thin and
crustaceous, the mesocarp pulpy acid and edible.
Distribution
- Planted throughout the settled areas of the Philippines.
- An attractive ornamental along avenues.
- Prehistoric introduction.
- Probably a native of tropical Africa.
- Pantropic in cultivation.
Constituents
- Fixed oil, 15-20%; citric, acetic, butyric and oxalic acids; tannin; pectin.
- Various studies have shown high amounts of crude protein and essential amino acids, carbohydrates,
minerals, potassium, phosphorus, calcium and
magnesium.
- An analysis of tamarind pulp yielded: citric acid, 9.40;
tartaric acid, 1.55; malic acid, 0.45; bitartrate of potash,
3.25; sugar, 12.5, gum, 4.7; vegetable jelly (pectin),
6.25; parenchyma, 34.35; and water, 27.55.
- Seed yielded tannin, a fixed oil, and insoluble matter.
Analysis showed albuminoids, fat, carbohydrates,
63.22; fiber; and ash containing phosphorus and
nitrogen.
- Fruit yields a trace of oxalic acid.
- Bark of old trees yield 7 per cent tannin.
- Plant yielded thirty two fatty acids, two other
compounds 9, 19-cyclo-4 4, 4, 14, -trimethyl-5-
cholestan- 3-ol, 24R-ethyl cholest-5-en, 3-ol and 12
essential elements viz., arsenic, calcium, cadmium,
copper, iron, sodium, manganese, magnesium,
potassium, phosphorus, lead, and zinc. The largest
amount of SFAs is 14.5% n-heptadecanoate, 13.00% hexadecanoic acid and n-nonadecanoate, 6.1% n-
octadecanoic, 5.00% methyl-n-pentacosanoic 4.45%, n-tetradecanoate 4.2 %, n- heptacosanoate 4.1%.
The largest amount of (UFAs) is nenodecenoic acid 9.2 %,10-octadecenoicacid 7.8%, etc. (30)
- Elemental analysis yielded (mg/kg) Mn 25.9, Ca 20.2, P 30.4, Na 10.9, As 54.25 g/kg, Fe 14.07, Zn
8.52, K 7.16, Pb 0.27, Cd 3.36, Cu 0.76, Mg 60.1. (30)
- Nutrient analysis of fruit per 100 g yielded: (Principle) energy 239.00 Kcal, carbohydrates 62.50 g,
protein 2.80 g, total fat 0.60 g, cholesterol 0 mg, dietary fiber 5.10 g; (Vitamins) folates 14.00 g, niacin
1.938 mg, pantothenic acid 0.143 mg, pyridoxine 0.066 mg, thiamin 0.428 mg, vitamin A 30 IU, vitamin C
3.5 mg, vitamin E 0.10 mg, vitamin K 2.80 g; (Electrolytes) sodium 28 mg, potassium 628 mg;
(Minerals) calcium 74.0 mg, copper 0.86 mg, iron 2.80 mg, magnesium 92.0 mg, phosphorus 113.00 mg,
selenium 1.30 g, zinc 0.10 mg; (Phytonutrients) carotene 19 g, crypto-xanthin- 0 g, lutein-
zeaxanthin 0 g. (USDA National Nutrient Data Base) (33)
Properties
- Propagation by seed, soaked in water for 8 to 9 days before transplanting.
- Flowering from April to October.
- Astringent, tonic, digestive, antiasthmatic, febrifuge, carminative, antiscorbutic, antibilious.
- Bark is considered astringent and tonic.
- Pulp considered refrigerant and laxative.
- Seed and testa are astringent.
Parts used
Leaves, fruits, flowers, and bark.
Uses
Edibility / Culinary / Nutrition
- As a souring condiment.
- Source of vitamins B and C.
- Sweetened and candied. The seeds, surrounded by a brownish pulp, tamarindo, are made into balls
from which jams, sweets and drinks are made. The
pulp, malasebo, is often eaten outright, with or without
salt. The pulp is also an ingredient in Indian curries and
chutnies.
- In India, seeds are eaten after the outer skin has been
removed by roasting or soaking; then boiled or fried.
- The seed is sometimes used as famine food by
aboriginal tribes.
- Young leaves and very young seedlings and flowers
are cooked and eaten as greens and used popularly in
the Philippines for seasoning "sinigang," and
in India for curries. In Zimbabwe, leaves used in soups,
flowers in salads.
- In some part of tropical America, a fermented drink is
made from the pulp.
Folkloric
In the Philippines, the bark, leaves, flowers, fruits, and
seeds are used medicinally in the way it is used in
other countries.
Decoction of leaves used as an aromatic bath for
fevers, puerperism, and convalescence.
Fever: Macerate pulp or ripe fruit in water, sweeten to
taste, and drink.
Laxative: Pulp is considered a mild laxative because
of the presence of potassium bitartrate. Eat pulp of ripe
fruit liberally and follow with plenty of water.
Asthma: Bark; chop and boil a foot-long piece of bark
in 3 glasses of water for 10 minutes. Adults, 1 cup after
every meal and at bedtime; children, 1/2 cup 4 times daily; babies, 2 tbsp 4 times daily.
Decoction of ash: For colic, indigestion; as gargle for sore throats, aphthous sores.
Ash is considered astringent and tonic; used internally as a digestive. Ash preparation: Fry the bark with
common salt in an earthen pot until it turns to powdered white ash; a heaping teaspoon of the ash to half-
cup of boiling water; cool and drink for colic and indigestion.
Poultice or lotion from bark applied to ulcers, boils, and rashes.
Poultice of leaves to inflammatory swellings of ankles and joints.
Decoction of leaves as postpartum tea; also used as a wash for indolent ulcers.
Flowers used for conjunctival inflammation. Internally, as decoction or infusion, for bleeding piles (4
glasses of tea daily).
Pulp surrounding the seeds is considered cooling and a gentle laxative.
Gargle of tamarind water used for healing aphthous ulcers and sore throat.
Tamarind pulp considered preventive and curative for scurvy.
In Mauritius, the Creoles mix salt with the pulp and use it as a liniment for rheumatism.
Tamarind infusion considered carminative and digestive, antiscorbutic and antibilious.
Young leaves used as fomentation for rheumatism and applied to sores and wounds.
In Malaya decoction of leaves used for fevers.
The leaves crushed with water and expressed, used for bilious fever and in scalding of urine.
Poultice of leaves crushed in water used for ankle and joint inflammations to reduce swelling and pain.
Decoction of leaves used as a wash for indolent ulcers.
Poultice of flowers used for conjunctival inflammation. Juice expressed from flowers used internally for
bleeding piles.
In rural India where natural spring water yields high amounts of fluoride, a small amount of tamarind
fruit is added to a pot of water overnight to be used for drinking. (See fluoride toxicity amelioration) (18)
Juice of leaves, warmed by dipping a red hot iron, used in dysentery.
Powdered seeds are given in dysentery; boiled and decocted, used as a poultice for boils.
In Cambodia, filtered hot juice of leaves used for conjunctivitis.
In the West Indies, decoction of leaves used jaundice and for worms in children.
Hindu physicians apply pounded leaves to erysipelas.
In Mauritius a bark decoction is used for asthma.
In Madagascar, bark decoction used for asthma and amenorrhea.
In East Sudan, the bark is considered tonic and febrifuge.
Others
- Dyeing / Mordant: Leaves and flowers useful as mordants in dyeing. Yellow dye from the leaves colors
wool red and turns indigo-dyed silk to green. Leaves used in bleaching buri palm to prepare it for hat
making. In Java, an ink is obtained by burning the bark. The Hindus Kamaras use the starch in doll
painting.
- Fodder: Leaves eaten by cattle and goats. Also, a fodder for silkworms.
- Nectar: Flowers are considered a good source of nectar for honeybees in South India.
- Seeds: Powder from tamarind kernels used in the Indian textile industry in several processes - sizing,
finishing cotton, jute and spun viscose.
- Wood: Highly prized for furniture, paneling, wheels, axles, mill gears, planking, mallets, handles,
walking sticks, etc. In Mexico, wood is used for boiling purposes and provided an excellent source of
charcoal for the manufacture of gunpowder.
- Oil: Seeds yield an amber oil, useful as illuminant and a varnish.
Studies
Antibacterial: Aqueous pulp extract study showed antibacterial activity against all strains tested.
Phytochemical screening yielded saponins, alkaloids and glycosides. Study confirms the traditional use
of the plant for the treatment of infections. (1)
Antibacterial: Study evaluated the antibacterial activity of extracts from T. indica ripe fruit and Piper
nigrum seed against S aureus, E coli, P aeruginosa and Salmonella typhi. The ethanol extract of T indica
showed higher activity against all test bacteria than that from P nigrum.
Hepatoprotective / Paracetamol Induced Toxicity: Study showed a significant hepatoprotective
effect with the aqueous extracts of tamarind leaves, fruits and unroasted seeds on paracetamol
intoxicated rats. (2) Study evaluated the protective effects of ethanolic extract of T. indica leaves and
seeds in comparison to vitamin E on paracetamol induced hepatotoxicity in Long Evans rats. Results
showed hepatoprotective activity comparable to vitamin E, a known hepatoprotective agent. (31)
Anti-venom activity: Extracts of tamarind inhibited the major hydrolytic enzymes of early
envenomation (local tissue damage, inflammation, hypotension). It also neutralized indirect hemolysis. It
presents an alternative to serum therapy. (3)
Aspirin Bioavailability: Study showed
Tamarindus indica fruit extract significantly
increased the bioavailability of aspirin. (4)
Cosmetic Potential: Seed husk extract
with polyphenolic components (Polyant-T)
was tested for antioxidant efficiency and
provides a potential use for color cosmetics
and sunscreens. (5)
Hypolipidemic / Blood Pressure Effect /
Fruits: Fruits were evaluated for effects on
lipid profile, blood pressure and weight.
Dried and pulverized pulp of fruits showed a
beneficial effect on the lipid profile with a
significant lowering of the total and LDL-
cholesterol without affecting the HDL level.
There was also a significant reduction of
diastolic blood pressure. (6)
Chemical Constituents: Study revealed
the presence of 21 saturated (67.5%) and
11 unsaturated fatty acids (30.15%). The
results showed great variation in fatty acids,
elemental composition and total protein
attributed to environmental and ecological
factors.
Anti-Diabetic / Seeds / Pancreatic Islets:
Study of aqueous extract of Tamarindus
indica seeds against STZ-induced damages
in pancreatic islands showed AETIS partially
restores pancreatic beta cells and repairs
STZ-induced damages in rats. (10)
Anti-Diabetic / Seeds: Study of aqueous extract of seed showed potent antidiabetogenic activity that
reduces blood sugar in streptozotocin-induced diabetic male rat. (14) Study evaluated the hypoglycemic
and anti-hyperglycemic activity of T. indica seed powder in non-diabetic and diabetic rat models. Results
showed significant antihyperglycemic activity in T2 diabetic rat model, attributed, at least in part, to
inhibition of intestinal glucose absorption. (36) (42)
Anti-Diabetic / Fruits and Seeds: Study showed extracts of both fruit and seeds significantly lowered
blood glucose levels in mice compared to control.(16)
Anti-Melioidosis: Melioidosis, caused by Burkholderia pseudomallei, is a life-threatening infection
common among paddy cultivators in Southeast Asian countries. Study showed the methanolic extracts of
T indica has anti-B. pseudomallei inhibitory potentials under in-vitro conditions. (11)
Spasmolytic: Study of the methanolic extract of fruits of Tamarindus indica on rabbit's jejunum
preparations showed relaxing effects probably through calcium channel blockade. (12)
Genotoxicity Study: Study of Tamarindus indica fruit pulp extract was devoid of clastogenic and
genotoxic activities in cells of rodents, when administered orally at three acute doses. (13)
Antioxidant: Study of T indica seed coat extract was found to possess strong antioxidant activity
attributed to free radical scavenging activity. (15)
Analgesic: Study showed the aqueous extract of T indica possesses potential antinociceptive activity
at both peripheral and central levels, mediated via an opioidergic mechanism. (17)
Fluoride Toxicity Amelioration: Fluoride is a cumulative poison, toxicity leading to bony and dental
lesions developing over a period of time. Study showed the extracts of both T. indica and M. oleifera
have some potential to mitigate fluoride toxicity. Changes in plasma biochemistry suggested less hepatic
and renal damages in animals receiving plant extracts along with fluorinated water compared to those
receiving fluorinated water alone. (18)
Anthelmintic: Study using an Indian earthworm as test worm confirmed T. indica's anthelmintic activity.
The root extract not only demonstrated paralysis and also caused death in a shorter period of time
compared to the reference drug Piperazine citrate. (19)
Acute Toxicity / Hepatotoxicokinetic Studies / Stem Bark: A crude extract of stem-bark was
evaluated for toxicity and hepatotoxicokinetics on Wistar rats. Brine shrimp lethality assessment resulted
in 70% (200 g/mL) and 10% (20g/mL) nauplii death with crude extract. Hepatotoxicokinetics dosing
wistar rats with crude fractions at 25% and 50% of predetermined LD50 on chicken embryos showed
elevation in the AST and ALT. Results suggest that dose standardization in folk herbal medicine is
imperative as T. indica used as food and medicine has been shown to be toxic at high doses. (22)
Antibacterial / Stem Bark and Leaves: Phytochemical studies yielded tannins, saponins,
sesquiterpenes, alkaloids, and phlobatamins. Extracts of stem bark and leaves were active against both
gram positive and gram negative bacteria. (23)
ENO1 / Effect on Alpha Enolase Release / Lipid Effects: Study of a methanol extract of T. indica fruit
pulp altered the release of ENO1, ApoA-I, TTR and GDI-2 from HepG2 cells. Results support the effect
of T. indica on cellular lipid metabolism, particularly that of cholesterol. (24)
Antibacterial / Pulp Extract: Study evaluated an aqueous pulp extract of T. indica against four
bacteria (E coli, S aureus, P aeruginosa and S typhi). The extract showed activity against tested bacteria:
S. aureus >E coli>P aeruginosa. (25)
Hepatoprotective / CCl4-Hepatotoxicity: Study in Wistar rats showed an ethanolic extract of fruit pulp
of Tamarindus indica ameliorated the damage caused by CCl4, with lowering of enzymes and bilirubin,
further verified by histopathological improvement. (26)
Antioxidative / Diabetic Benefits / Bark: Study evaluated the antioxidative effect of an ethanolic
extract of bark of T. indica to normoglycemic and alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Results showed a
significant decrease in peroxidation products, an increase in glutathione and glycogen content. The
extract exhibited antioxidant property and an antidiabetic effect more effective than glibenclamide. (27)
Tamarindus indica seed polysaccharide (TSP) Eye Drops / Dry Eye Syndrome: Clinical trials
evaluated a form of eye drops utilizing Tamarindus indica seed polysaccharide for the treatment of
severe dry eyes, including Sjogren's syndrome, for patients sensitive to preservatives. Results showed
long lasting effect, clinical improvement in dry eye symptoms, compatibility with contact lenses, and
mucomimetic properties. (28)
Hypocholesterolemic / Antioxidant / Fruit Pulp: Study postulates that tamarind fruit pulp exerts
hypocholesterolemic effect by increasing cholesterol effux, enhancing LDL-C uptake and clearance,
suppressing triglyceride accumulation and inhibiting cholesterol biosynthesis. The fruit pulp extract has
potential antioxidative effects and is potentially protective against diet induced
hypercholesterolemia. (32)
Ameliorative Effect in Renal Cancer: Study analyzed the histological alterations and oxidative stress
markers in an experimental animal model in N-diethylnitrosamine-initiated and ferric nitrilotriacetate-
promoted renal cell carcinoma and the effect of seed extract against acute nephrotoxicity and
carcinogenesis. In the acute study, the TSE ameliorate necrosis and renal failure. TSE also decreased
both oxidative stress markers and decreased renal cell carcinoma progression. (34)
Defluoridation / Biosorbent for Removal of Fluoride Ions: Study showed tamarind fruit cover in its
natural and acid treated forms has a potential for use as an alternative biosorbing agent in the removal of
fluoride ions from aqueous media. (35)
Biosorption of Chromium / Fruit Shell: Study investigated the use of crude tamarind fruit shell in the
adsorption of chromium (VI) ions from aqueous solutions. Results showed outstanding adsorption
capacities and suggests a potential and excellent alternative sorbent for the removal of chromium ions.
(39)
Removal of Dye from Textile Effluent / Hull: Study evaluated the use of Tamarind hull as biosorbent
to remove cationic dye from textile effluent. Results of adsorption kinetics showed Tamarind hull has
potential as biosorbent to remove cationic dyes from contaminated watercourses. (43)
Antidiabetic / Hepatoprotective / Hypolipidemic / Fruit Pulp: Study investigated the antidiabetic,
hypolipidemic, and hepatoprotective of ethanolic extract of fruit pulp in alloxan induced diabetic rats.
Results showed significant alterations in alloxan induced changes in serum glucose, lipid profile and
serum enzyme levels. (37)
In Vitro Anticataract Activity: Study evaluated the efficacy of T. indica on preventing cataract
formation in vitro on galactose induced cataract model in model of goat lenses. Results showed
cataractous lenses showed higher MDA and water-soluble protein content. Lenses treated with T. indica
showed higher protein content and prevented formation and progression of cataract by galactose. (38)
Hypolipidemic / Fruit Flesh and Rind: Study evaluated the hypolipidemic effects of 70% ethanolic
extract of T. indica fruit flesh and rind in male Wistar rats with Tirton X-100 induced hyperlipidemia.
Results showed the extracts of fruit rind and flesh can significantly (p<0.01) reduce total plasma
cholesterol and triglycerides. (40)
Anti-Snake Venom / Seeds: Study evaluated aqueous and alcoholic extracts of dried seed powder of
T. indica for antioxidant and inhibitory activity on toxic enzymes like PLA2 and proteinases of Naja naja
venom. Results suggest the methanolic extract of seeds possess compounds that inhibit the activity of
Phospholipase A2 and Proteinases of cobra venom. It presents a rich source of potential toxin inhibitors
and a potential alternative treatment to serum therapy. (41)
Antioxidant / Fatty Acid Profile / Tocopherols / Seeds: Study evaluated the composition of seeds re
its antioxidant potential, fatty acid profile and tocopherol content. Results showed seed have high content
of carbohydrates (71.91%) with relevant content and antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds. Seed oil
showed high oxidative stability and significant total tocopherol content (57.77 mg/kg). It also showed a
higher percentage of unsaturated fatty acids, its main component being linolenic (59.61%), an essential
fatty acid. (44)
Ameliorative Effect on Cattle Fluorosis / Fruit Pulp: Study studies dried powder of tamarind pulp in
endemic fluorosis in cattle. Results showed the fruit pulp has ameliorative potential on management of
fluorosis in cattle. (45)
Effect on Gene Expression in HepG2 Cells / Antioxidant / Leaves: Study sowed antioxidant-riich
leaf extract of T. indica showed protective effects in HepG2 cells by inhibiting lipid peroxidation,
suppressing ROS production, and enhancing antioxidant enzyme activities. The leaf extract also directly
targeted the expression of genes and encoded proteins involved in the coagulation system and
antimicrobial response providing molecular evidence associated with the medicinal properties of the leaf
extract. (46)
Availability
- Wild-crafted.
- Cultivated for fruiting and culinary use.
- Sweetened and candied.
Updated June 2017 / August 2016
Sibuyas tagalog
Allium ascalonicum L.
SHALLOT
Huo cong
Scientific name Common names

Allium ascalonicum Linn. Bawang pula (Tag.)
Allium cepa (L.) var ascalonicum (L.) Backer. Lasona (Ilk.)
Sibuyas-Bisaya (Bis.)
Sibuyas-na-pula (Tag.)
Sibuyas-tagalog (Tag.)
Chinese red onions (Engl.)
Chinese red shallots (Engl.)
Shallot (Engl.)
Garden shallot (Engl.)
Baker's garlic (Engl.)
Huo cong (Chin.)
Quisumbing made separate entrees for Allium cepa (sibuyas) and Allium ascalonicum (sibuyas-Tagalog). Some compilations list them as
synonyms.
CHINESE: Xi xiang cong, Xiang cong, Xia hong cong.
FRENCH: chalote rouge 'Red Sun'.
PORTUGUESE: Cebolha roxa.
Botany
Sibuyas-tagalog is a low herb, 15 to 50 centimeters high, with red, ovoid, subterranean bulbs, 1.5 to 4
centimeters long, 1 to 4 centimeters in diameter, with accessory bulbs. Leaves are fistular, terete and
glaucous with pointed and subulate tips. Pedicles are long, erect, fistular and 20 to 50 centimeters long.
Umbels are rounded, 2.5 to 3.5 centimeters diameter, containing many flowers. The pedicels are 1 to 1.5
centimeters long. Sepals are free, ovate-oblong, white or pale lilac, 0.4 to 0.9 centimeter long.
Distribution
Introduced during remote times.
Grown extensively in Batangas Province and cultivated in other provinces in Luzon.
Originated in the Levant.
Now cultivated in Java, Malaya, and India.
Constituents
Contains ash, phosphorus, calcium and iron.
Contains a volatile oil that stimulates the tear glands and upper mucous membranes causing the eyes
and nose to water. This property is the homeopathic basis for using it in treating illnesses associated
with tearing eyes and nasal discharge, such as hay fever and colds.
Phytochemical screening showed presence of secondary metabolites such as alkaloids,
anthraquinones, saponins, cardiac glycosides, tannins, cyanogenetic glycosides and flavonoids.
Properties
Bulbs considered stomachic, tonic, anthelmintic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, diuretic, expectorant,
febrifuge, hypotensive
Uses
Culinary
Edible parts are flowers, leaves and roots.
Added to salads, used as flavoring or vegetable.
Bulbs used for pickles in brine.
Folkloric
In the Philippines, bulbs are used as anthelmintic, stomachic, and tonic.
Also used for diarrhea, choleraic attacks, pain in the loins, headaches, laryngitis with hoarseness,
coughs, amenorrhea, neuralgic pains.
Poultice of bulb for earache; also, juice dropped into canal.
In Africa, juice is rubbed on the body for fevers.
In Malaya, juice of bulk, with tumeric juice, is used for stomach aches.
In the Gold Coast, mixture of bulbs with palm oil and large Capsicums used for fever.
Bulbs used as aphrodisiac and for earache.
Studies
Anti-Helicobacter pylori: Crude extract of leaf of AA showed therapeutic potential against H pylori
and gastroduodenal disorders.
Renal Protective / Antioxidant: Study showed the protective potential of shallot extract against
cyclosporine nephrotoxicity, a benefit probably contributed to by its antioxidant property.
Antibacterial: One of 15 medicinal herbs studied for antibacterial properties, A ascalonicum showed
effect against B cereus.
Antifungal: Study investigated the antifungal activities of the fresh extract of Allium ascalonicum. It
showed remarkable activity against saprophytic fungi followed by Candida species and dermatophytes.
Antiangiogenesis: Study showed the ethyl acetate fraction potently inhibited angiogenesis in vitro and
in vivo. Findings provide basis for further investigations on shallot for therapeutic and preventive
activities against angiogenesis related disorders.
Hypoglycemic / Attenuation of Contractile Responsiveness: Study of AA on diabetic rats showed
oral administration for two months could improve hyperglycemia and showed attenuation of contractile
responsiveness of the vascular system and thus, may help prevent the development of hypertension in
diabetic rats.
Anti-Cancer / Anti-Inflammatory: Study showed the aqueous extract of A. ascalonicum with most the
anti-growth activity on the cancer cell lines and significant anti-inflammatory activity in vivo.
Anti-Diabetic / Hypolipidemic Effect: Study in diabetic rats showed oral administration of AA had a
time-dependent significant hypoglycemic effect and improved the lipid profile except for HDL cholesterol.
Antihemolytic / Anti-Lipid Peroxidation: Study showed the hexane-extract of shallot had a very high
activity on protecting the human erythrocyte from radicals, inhibiting lipid peroxidation and glutathione
depletion in erythrocytes.
Antioxidant: Study showed the antioxidant activity of Thai shallot and the tendency of application for
protection and scavenging activity on hydroperoxide formation in the biological system.
Antimicrobial Activity: Study evaluated various extracts for antimicrobial activity. Fresh extracts of
garlic showed more activity than similar extracts of onion and shallots. Fungi were more sensitive to
shallot extract than bacteria. Among bacteria, Bacillus cereus was most sensitive; among fungi,
Aureobasidium pullulans and Microsporum gypseum.
Antimycobacterial: Study evaluated the antibacterial activity of Allium ascalonicum against
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Results showed antimycobacterial activity with an MIC value of 500ug/ml.,
and implies the extract could be used as an effective agent against M. tuberculosis.
Antimicrobial / Crude Juices: Study evaluated the antimicrobial activity of crude juices of Allium
ascalonicum, Allium cepa, and Allium sativum. Results showed strong antibiotic properties, and the
complete absence of development of resistance from juices of Allium species merit consideration.
Antihyperglycemic / Cardiovascular Effects: Study evaluated the effects of Allium ascalonicum on
contractile reactivity of isolated thoracic aorta from diabetic Wistar rats. Results showed oral
administration of AA for two months improved hyperglycemia and attenuated the contractile
responsiveness of the vascular system, and may help prevent the development of hypertension in
diabetic rats.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Inhibition: Study evaluated the activity of extracts of underground bulbs
on Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Results showed P. aeruginosa was sensitive to the bactericide type effect
of the extract. The most effective was a 50% aqueous solution.
Analgesic / Anti-Inflammatory: Methanol and aqueous extracts significantly exhibited dose-
dependent inhibition of albumin-induced paw oedema in rats. The methanol extract showed analgesic
activity at all test doses.
Ethnoveterinary Antidermatophytic: Crude methanol extracts of Piper betle leaves, Alpinia galanga
rhizomes, and Allium ascalonicum bulbs were tested against selected zoonotic dermatophytes
(Microsporum canis, M. gypseum, and Trichophyton mentagrophytes) and yeast-like Candida albicans.
All extracts suppressed the growth of fungi in a concentration-dependent manner.
Availability
Cultivated market produce.

m, is known in several varieties: Capsicum annum (Sili); Capsicum annuum var. longum (Siling-haba); Capsicum ann
Capsicum fructescens (Siling-labuyo).
Siling-haba Siling-bi
m Capsicum annuum var. longum Capsicum annuum var. gro
ic names Other scientific names
s C. annuum var. longum Sendt.
um
es Common names Common names
Sileng-haba (Tag.) Sileng-bilog (Tag.)
) Sileng mahahaba (Tag.) Rounded pepper (Engl.)
Long pepper (Engl.)
a
Spanish pepper (Engl.)
A a
per (Engl.) A a
Description Description
mooth, annual herb, 30-50 cms Fruit is greenish-yellow or red, oblong lanceolate, Fruit is ovoid to oblong-ovoid
h ends. Flowers are solitary and narrowing to a tapering tip, up to 6 cm long and 1.5 ripening, 6-10 cm long and 5
in diameter. Petals are white to cm across. It is spicy hot, often used in local pickles The variety is usually eaten a
is of various sizes and varieties. (achara) and for seasoning. stuffed with meat.
is known in several varieties: Capsicum annum (Sili); Capsicum annuum var. longum (Siling-haba); Capsicum annuum (Siling-bilog, S
uyo).
Other vernacular names (Capsicum annuum L. var. grossum (L.) Sendt.

AFRIKAANS: Soet rissie.
ARABIC: Felfel roomy, Filfil halwah (Iraq).
CHINESE: Deng long jiao, Tian jiao, Shi tou fan jiao, Yuan tian jiao, Da la jiao, Qing jiao, Shi zi jiao.
CROATIAN: Paprika slatka.
DANISH: Soed capsicum.
DUTCH: Zoete peper.
FRENCH: Poivron, Poivron doux, Poivron d'Espagne, Piment doux.
GERMAN: Spanischer Pfeffer .
HEBREW: Pilpel matok.
HINDI: Shimlaa mirch.
HUNGARIAN: Paprika.
ITALIAN: Peperone dolce.
JAPANESE: Ama tougarashi, Shishi tougarashi, Beru peppaa, Piiman.
MALAY: Cabai manis, Lombok besar (Indonesia). Chili manis, Cili manis, Chili besar, Cabe besar, Lada
besar (Malaysia).
NEPALESE: Bhede khursaanii.
NORWEGIAN: Grnn paprika.
PERSIAN: Dolmeh felfel.
PORTUGUESE: Pimento doce, Pimentao doce, Pimento doce (Brazil).
ROMANIAN: Ardei gras, Ardei lung, Ardei de boia.
SLOVENIAN: Sladka paprika.
SPANISH: Chili dulce, Pimiento dulce, Chile dulce, Chile morrn (Mexico).
THAI: Phrik yak.
URDU: Shimlaa mirch.
General info
When Carolus Linneus first identified the genus Capsicum in the mid-1700s, there were only two
species. By the 1900s, more than 100 cultivated species of Capsicums have been described. However,
the variations were so minor that horticulturists have distilled the list anew to two: C. annuum, which
includes cayenne peppers and chiles, as well as bell peppers, and C. fructescens, which is the pepper
from which Tabasco sauce is made.
Capsaicin is the active ingredient in the extract of hot peppers. It is most concentrated in the rib or
membrane, less in the seeds, least in the flesh. Capsaicin for medicinal use comes from Capsicum
fructescens, a species of the cayenne pepper.
Constituents
- Capsaicinoids: capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, homodihydrocapsaicin,
homocapsaicin.
- Carotenoid pigments: capsanthin, capsorubin, carotene, lutein.
- The skin has coloring matter capsicum red or carotin.
- The young fruit contains an alkaloid (solanine), citric acid, palmitic acid, volatile and fatty oils,
pentosans and pectin.
Properties
- Red pepper is a powerful local irritant, heart stimulant, and general stimulant; also considered
stomachic and tonic.

Leaves and mature fruit.
Uses
Nutritional
- An excellent source of calcium and fair source of iron and phosphorus and vitamin B.
- In India, C. annuum var. longum is a principal ingredient of various curries and chutney.
Folkloric
- Paste of the pepper is used a rubefacient.
- Infusion with cinnamon and sugar used for delirium tremens.
- Capsaicum, in equal parts with rhubarb and ginger, for gout and rheumatism.
Others
- Oleoresin capsicum: used in self-defense pepper sprays with transient immobilizing and incapacitating
effects.
Studies
Capsaicin: Capsaicin for medicinal use comes from Capsicum fructescens. Capsaicin depletes
substance P in afferent type C sensory nerve fibers and treats pains without affecting the other aspects
of the nervous system. Capsicum cream is available in several potencies and has been found useful for
post-herpetic neuralgia, post-mastectomy pain, hemodialysis-associated pruritus, psoriatic itching and
pain, painful neuropathies, especially diabetic neuropathy, and other superficial neuropathies.
(see: Capsaicin) / Siling Labuyo
Antimicrobial: Extracts of Capsicum species (C. annuum, C baccatum, C. chinense, C frutescens and
C. pubescens were tested for their antimicrobial effects. The study yielded two pungent compounds,
capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin, extracts of which showed varying degrees of inhibition against B cereus,
B subtilis, Clostridium sporogenes, C tetani and S pyogenes. (2)
CAY-1 / Antifungal: Saponin CAY-1 from cayenne pepper showed antifungal activities against
Candida albicans and Aspergillus spp. Results on dermatophytes of T mentagrophytes, T rubrum, T
tonsurans and Microsporum canis indicate potential for treatment of dermatomycoses. (5)
Plasma Glucose Lowering: Volunteers who received capsicum showed significantly lower plasma
glucose levels and higher insulin levels. Results present clinical implications in the management of type 2
diabetes.
Antioxidant: Capsicum pepper has powerful antioxidant capacity. 100 g of the pepper was shown to
have an antioxidant equivalent activity of 826 mg of vitamin C.
Herb-Drug Interactions: (1) Theophylline absorption may be increased. (2) Increase the cough
associated with ACE inhibitors (3) Increase sedative effects of drugs. (4) May antagonize hypotensive
effects of antihypertensives. (5) May increase absorption of acetaminophen.
Gastric Acid Secretion: Aqueous extracts of C annuum or C frutescens induced gastric acid secretion
dose-dependently. (7)
Corrosion Inhibition / Fruit Extract: Study reported green capsicum annuum fruit extract as inhibitory
for mild steel corrosion in acid solution. Results showed maximum efficiency of 85%. Corrosion inhibition
was attributed to molecular absorption of inhibitory over mild steel surface. (9)
Antibacterial: Study evaluated methanol and ethanol fruit extracts of Capsicum annuum and C.
frutescens for antibacterial activities selected bacteria. Both extracts were effetive against Vibrio cholera,
Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella typhimurium. The methanol extracts showed higher antibacterial
activity., and C. annuum showed greater activity than C. frutescens. (10)
Availability
Wild-crafted.
Cultivated in its varieties; occasionally spontaneous.
Fruit cultivated as condiment.
Topical capsicum ointments.

Suha
Lukban
Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr.
POMELO
Pu tao you

Aurantium decumana (L.) Mill. Cabugao (P. Bis.)
Aurantium decumanum (L.) Mill. Gunal (Ting.)
Aurantium maximum Burm. Luban (If.)
Citrus costata Raf. Lubban (Ibn.)
Citrus decumana Linn. [Illegitimate] Lukban (Tag., Bik., Ilk.)
Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck Panubang (Bon.)
Citrus obovoidea Yu. Tanaka Pu tao you (Chin.)
Citrus. maxima (Burm.) Merr. Sua (Ilk., Pamp.)
Citrus pompelnos Risso Suha (Tag.)
Citrus sabon Siebold ex Hayata Taboyog (Bon.)
Citrus yamabuki Yu. Tanaka Forbidden fruit (Engl.)
Grape-fruit (Engl.)
Pomelo (Engl.)
Pummelo (Engl.)
Shaddock (Engl.)
Citrus decumana L. is a synonym of Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. The Plant List
Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. is an accepted name The Plant List

ARABIC: Laymn hind.
BENGALI: Btb lbu, Chakotra, Jmbur lbu, Mahanibu, Sadaphal, Puml.
BURMESE: Shouk ton oh.
CHINESE: Dou you, Pu tao you.
DANISH: Pompelmus.
DUTCH: Pompelmoes, Pomelo.
FINNISH : Pummelo.
FRENCH: Pamplemousse doux des Antilles, Chadec, Shadek.
GERMAN: Riesenorange, Lederorangenbaum.
GUJARATI: Obakotru.
HINDI: Bataawii niimbuu, Caktar, Mahanibu, Sanadphala.
ITALIAN: Pampaleone.
JAPANESE: Buntan, Pomero, Bontan, Zabon.
KANNADA: Chakota, Chakota hannu, Chakotre, Sakkota, Tranji.
KHMER: Krch thlng.
LAOTIAN: Kingz s'aangz, Ph'uk, Smz '.
MALAY: Jeruk bali, Jeruk besar, Limau besar, Limau betawi, Limau serdadu.
MALAYALAM: Pamparamasam, Pamparamasan.
MARATHI: Papnasa.
RUSSIAN: Pomelo.
SANSKRIT: Madhukarkati,
SPANISH: Cimboa, Pampelmusa.
TAMIL : Elumicham, Pambalimasu.
TELUGU: Nimmapandu, Pampalamasam, Pampara.
THAI: Som o, Ma o.
VIETNAMESE : Bi, Bi chm Thi Lan.
Botany
Suha is a small tree, 6 to 13 meters in height, with long, sharp, solitary spines. Leaflets are entire or
nearly so, sparingly hairy beneath and on the margins, ovate-oblong to elliptic, and 8 to 12 centimeters
long. Petioles are obovate and broadly winged. Flowers are white, fragrant, and crowded in short,
axillary racemes. Fruit is large, obovoid to spherical, up to 20 centimeters in diameter. Rind is very thick
and spongy, easily removed from the segments of the fruit. Pulp is pale yellow, pink or red, sweet or
acrid, with large, distinct vesicles.
See:
Dalanghita
Distribution
- Found throughout the Philippines, in settled areas, usually planted.
- Probably not a native of the Archipelago.
- Found throughout all warm countries.
- Native of the Old World.
Constituents
Leaves - volatile oil, 1.7% - dipentene, 25%; linalool, 15%; citral, 3.5%; a-pinene, 0.5-1.5%; d-limone,
90-92%.
Pericarp yields saccharose, reducing sugar; organic acid.
Juice yields insulin like substance; lycopene; vitamin C; peroxidase; sugar, 14.3%; acid, 1.1%; fat,
0.33%; cellulose, 1.3%; nitrogenous substances, 1.6%
Rind yields a crystalline glycosidal bitter principle, naringin (previously reported as hesperidin), 0.2-
1.6% ; , 10%; pectin, 10%; peroxidase. Also yields a volatile oil, "pompelmus" oil, containing d-pinene,
o.5-1.5%; d-limonene, 90-
92%,; linanlool, 1-2%; citrate,
3-5%' geraniol, 1.2%; linalyl
and geranylacetate; citral 25%;
free alkaloid, 8.61%; and ester,
4.38%.
Phytochemical studies of
various Citrus spp. yielded
naringin, hesperidin, diosmin
and naringenin.
Phytochemical study of the
peel of the grapefruit isolated
five compounds: friedelin, b-
sitosterol, limonin, cordialin B,
and a previously unreported
compound, 7(3',7',11',14'-
tetramethy)pentadec-2',6',10'-
trienyloxycoumarin.
Parts used
Leaves, flowers, fruit, rind.
Uses
- Food: Fresh fruit and preserved rind.
- Fresh fruit is a good source of vitamin B, iron and calcium.
Folkloric
- Nausea and fainting: Squeeze rind near nostrils for patient to inhale.
- In the Philippines, leaves are used for aromatic baths.
- Infusion or decoction of flowers, leaves and pericarp used as sedative for nervous affections; also for
coughs and ulcers.
- Peel or rind, dried or in decoction, used for dyspepsia.
- Boiled seeds in a gallon of water can be used for sitz-baths.
- In Malaya, lotion of boiled leaves used for painful swellings.
In the Himalayas, fruit juice recommended for ulcers; used in diabetes; and mixed with black pepper and
a little rock salt, used for malaria. Fruit juice with its pulp, with honey, is given to improve urinary
flow. source
Studies
Interaction of with Cytochrome P450 Enzymes: Study of the relationships of plant constituents and
CYP450 enzymes, such as grapefruit with CYP2A6. (1)
Antimicrobial: Grapefruit seed extract (C paradisii) was found effective against P aeruginosa. The
active ingredient was naringenin.
Anthelmintic: Alcoholic extract of the rind of Citrus
decumana showed good in vitro anthelmintic activity
against human Ascaris lumbricoides. (4)
Antioxidant / Anti-inflammatory / Analgesic: Study of
peel extract in four solvent systems showed significant
dose-dependent antioxidant activity, a significant
decrease in paw volume and pain. Results suggest the
peel extract may be a useful as a natural antioxidant in
the treatment of inflammation and pain. (5)
Antioxidant / Free Radical Scavenging: Fresh red
pomelo juice is an excellent source of antioxidant
compounds and showed great efficiency in scavenging
different forms of free radicals including DPPH,
superoxide anion, and hydrogen peroxide radicals. (8)
Cyclosporin / Pharmacodynamic Effects / : Co-
administration of Citrus grandis peels significantly
decreased the systemic exposure of cyclosporin and
resulted in higher macrophage and Th1 type activities
than in mice treated with cyclosporin alone. (9)
Anti-Inflammatory / Nobiletin: Study yielded a
nobilietin, shown to contribute to pharmacological
activities such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and
antioxidant effects. Results showed dangyuja leaves can inhibit LPS-induced production of inflammatory
markers by blocking NF-kB and MAPKs signaling in RAW264.7 cells. (10)
Flower Fragrance / Components: Study of active components attributed to the fragrance of the C.
grandis flowers showed the buds and blossoms of the flower possessing a strong floral-, jasmine- and
orange-like aroma contain B-myrcene, limonene, ocimene, linalool and caryophyllene as the major
compounds. (11)
Antidepressant / Leaves: Study evaluated the antidepressant effect of an aqueous extract of leaves
of Citrus maxima Merr. in mice. Results showed significant reduction of immobility time in both TST and
FST. It showed psychostimulant effect of locomotor activity testing. The antidepressant effect may be
mediated by an increased in norepinephrine level in the synapses. (14)
Hypoglycemic / Glucose Tolerance and Lipid Profile Effects: Study evaluating C. maxima fruit juice
showed beneficial effects on glucose tolerance and lipid profile in STZ-induced type-II diabetic rats. (15)
Antibacterial / Pseudomonas aeruginosa: A comparative study was done on antibacterial activity of
ethanolic extracts of V. negundo, F. vesca, T. arjuna, and C. maxima. Citrus maxima showed maximum
zone of inhibition for Pseudomonas aeruginosa. (16)
Inhibition of Acetylcholinesterase Activity / Radical Scavenging: Study evaluated the effects of
some citrus fruit juices-- C. maxima, C. paradisii, C. limoni, C. reticulata. shaddock--on
acetylcholinesterase activity in vitro. The juices exhibited dose-dependent radical scavenging and dose-
dependent inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity. Results suggest citrus juices make good dietary
supplements for the management of Alzheimer's disease. (18)
Cardioprotective / Doxorubicin (DOX)-induced Cytotoxicity: Study investigated the protective effect
of pummelo (C. maxima) fruit juice in rat cardiac H9c2 cells against doxorubicin (DOX)-induced
cytotoxicity. Results showed CM fruit juice can be promoted as a functional fruit to protect cells from
oxidative cell death, enhance phase II GSTP enzyme activity, and decrease senescenvce phenotype
population induced by cardiotoxic agent suc as DOX. (19)
Endothelial Health Benefits / Potential for Cardiovascular Risk Reduction /
Fruit: Study investigated the effects of pomelo fruit extract on human umbilical vein endothelial cell
(HUVECs) migration and aging. HUVECs treated with fruit extract improved cell migrtion and hindered
the onset of phenotypical aging. Further animal and human studies are warranted before it can be
promoted as a functional fruit for cardiovascular risk reduction. (21)
Antitumor Activity / Leaves: Study evaluated a methanol extract of C. maxima leaves for antitumor
activity against Ehrlich's Ascites Carcinoma cell in Swiss albino mice. Results show dose-dependent
significant decrease in tumor parameters, i.e., tumor volume and viable tumor cell count and increase in
body weight, hematological parameters and life span. (22)
Caution !
Drug interactions / Impaired Absorption
(A) P-Glycoprotein / Organic Anion Transporting Polypeptide: Concerns have been reported on
drug-grapefruit interactions because of the ability of grapefruit juice to inhibit the metabolism of some
drugs. Grapefruit weakly inhibits the intestinal wall P-glycoprotein (p-GP), an efflux pump in enterocytes
which is responsible for the intestinal secretion of many drugs. Another transport system affected by
grapefruit is the OATP, organic anion transporting polypeptide; drugs handled by this system may suffer
decreased absorption.
(B) Furanocoumarins / Bergamottin: Grapefruit contains furanocoumarins, the most common are
bergamottin and 6'7'-dihydrobergamottin which irreversibly inhibits cytochrome P450 3A4 isoenzymes in
the intestinal wall, which may affect the metabolism of certain drugs consumed up to 72 hours of
grapefruit consumption.
Some Drugs that should be avoided with grapefruit (incomplete list)
amiodarone (Cordarone) colchicine quinidine (Quinaglute)
atorvastatin (Lipitor) lovastatin (Mevacor) sildenafil (Viagra)
budesonide (Entocort) mifepristone (Mifeprex) simvastatin (Zocor)
buspirone (BuSpar) pimozide (Orap) sirolimus (Rapamune)
Some Drugs that should be used with caution with grapefruit (incomplet list)
albendazole (Albenza) diazepam (Valium) losartan (Cozaar)
aripiprazole (Abilify) 5 erythromycin nifedipine (Procardia)
bupropion (Wellbutrin) felodipine (Renedil, Plendil) simvastatin (Zocor)
dextromethorphan fexofenadine (Allegra) triazolam (Halcion)
For a complete list of food to be avoided with grapefruit, go to:

powernetdesign.com (17)
Availability
Talong
Solanum melongena L.
EGGPLANT
Qie zi

Solanum melongena L. Berengena (Span.)
Solanum cumingii Dunal Brinjal (English)
Solanum pressum Dunal Talong (Bik., Tag., Bis., Bon.)
Solanum undatum Poiret sensu Ochse Tarong (Ilk.)
Tolung (Sul.)
Aubergine (Europe)
Eggplant (English)
Qie zi (Chin.)
Some compilations list Solanum melongena (talong) and Solanum cumingii (talong-talongan) as synonyms. Quisumbing's
compilation lists them as separate species.

AFRIKAANS: Eiervrug.
ARABIC: Badinjan.
BENGALI: Begun.
BULGARIAN: Patladzsan .
BURMESE: Kayan.
CHINESE: Qie, Qie zi, Ai gua / ngai gwa (Cantonese name).
CROATIAN: Patlidan .
CZECH: Lilek, Lilek baklan.
DANISH: ggplanta, Aubergin.
DUTCH: Aubergine, Eierplant.
FINNISH: Aubergiini, Munahedelm, Munakoiso.
FRENCH: Aubergine, Bringelle, Mlongne.
GERMAN: Eierfrucht, Eierpflanz.
GREEK: Melitzana.
GUJARATI: Ringna.
HEBREW: Hatzil.
HINDI: Baigan, Baijani, Baingan.
HUNGARIAN: Padlizsn , Padlizsnos.
ITALIAN: Maranziana, Melanzana, Mulignana, Petonciano, Petrociana.
JAPANESE: Daimaru nasu, Daimaru nasu, Nasu.
KHMER: Trb vng, Trb put lonhoong.
LAOTIAN: Kha ham maaz, Kha hlz, Kha poom.
MALAY: Terong, Terung (Indonesia), Encung (Indonesia), Tiung (Sumatra).
MALAYALAM: Vazhudhanaikkai, Vazhuthananga.
MARATHI: Vangi.
PERSIAN: Bdinjn.
POLISH: Oberynowy.
ROMANIAN: Patlagea vanata, Ptlgele vinete , Vanata, Vinete.
RUSSIAN: Baklazhan.
SANSKRIT: Bhantaki , Nattingan, Vatinganah, Varttaka.
SLOVENIAN: Jajevec, Patlidan jajcevec
SLOVAK: Baklan,
SPANISH: Berenjena, Albergnia
SWAHILI: Mbilingani, Mbiringanya.
SWEDISH: ggplanta.
TAMIL: Kathiri , Kathirikai, Kattiri .
TELUGU: Vankaya.
THAI: Makhua, Ma khuea yao, Makhua chan, Ma khuea khao.
TURKISH: Patlcan.
URDU: Baigan.
VIETNAMESE: C tim, C bat, C tin.
Botany
Talong is a coarse, usually branched, prickly or unarmed, erect, half-woody plant, growing to a height of
0.5 to 1 meter. Leaves are ovate to oblong-ovate, 10 to 25 centimeters long, stellate-hairy beneath, and
irregularly or shallowly lobed at the margins. Flowers are axillary, purplish, about 2.5 centimeters long.
Fruit is fleshy, smooth, purple, up to 25 centimeters long, extremely variable in shape, round, oblong, or
cylindric-oblong.
Distribution
- Cultivated throughout the Philippines for the edible fruit; the elongated variety, the most cultivated.
- Nowhere spontaneous.
- Cultivated in all warm countries.
Constituents
- Fruit contains trigonelline; choline; vitamins A. B, and C; fat, 01%; and protein, 2.2 %.
- Phytochemical studies have yielded flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins and steroids.
- Study isolated stigmasterol, stigmasterol--D-glucoside, -sitosterol--D-glucoside, dioscin,
protodioscin, and methyl protodioscin.
Properties
- Roots considered antiasthmatic and stimulant.
- Leaves considered anodyne.
- Fruit considered cooling, digestive, phlegmatic.

Fruits, roots, leaves, .
Uses
- Fruit is an excellent vegetable and popular in the rural day-to-day cuisine. It is eaten before it ripens,
preferred before the seed hardens.
- Also used in native pickles and curries in India.
- A good source of vitamins A, B, and C.
- A good source of calcium, phosphorus, and iron; carbohydrates and fiber.
Folkloric
- Decoction of roots taken internally for asthma and as a general stimulant.
- Leaves are used for piles.
- The boiled root of the wild plant, mixed with sour milk and grain porridge, has been used for the
treatment of syphilis.
- Decoction of roots, dried stalk, and leaves is used for washing sores, exudative surfaces and used as
astringent for hemorrhage from the bladder and other hemorrhagic fluxes.
- The juice of leaves used for throat and stomach troubles.
- Juice of the fruit, sometimes with pounded leaves, rubbed on suspected syphilitic eruptions of the
hands.
- Fruit considered cooling, and bruised with vinegar
- Chinese and Annamites used the roots for skin diseases.
- The fruit is considered cooling, and bruised with vinegar, is used as a poultice for abscesses and
cracked nipples.
- In Taiwan folk medicine, roots are used for rheumatism, inflammation and foot pain.
- Long fruit is phlegmatic and generative of phthisis, coughs, and anorexia.
- The peduncle, incinerated, used in intestinal hemorrhages, piles, and toothache.
- Seeds used as stimulant but may cause dyspepsia and constipation
- In French Guinea, decoction or infusion of leaves is used for stomach troubles and sore throat.
- In India, juice of various plant parts and pulp of fruits of S. melongena and its wild allies used for various
ailments: diabetes, otitis, toothaches, cholera, bronchitis, asthma, dysuria, among many others.
Studies
Hypocholesterolemic: Study on human volunteers showed that S. melongena infusion showed a
significant reduction of the blood levels of total and LDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein B. (1)
Hypolipidemic: Study of New Zealand hypercholesterolemic white rabbits fed with diets supplemented
with SM fruits showed significant reduction of TC, triglycerides, and LDL, with a 24.7% increase in HDL
cholesterol. The strong hypolipidemic effect with the improved HDL/LDL ratio suggests a potential benefit
for its use in the treatment of hyperlipidemic-associated ischemic heart disease and arteriosclerosis. (10)
Bronchospasmogenic: Methanol extract of fresh leaves of SM exerted a bronchospasmogenic rather
than a bronchospasmolytic effect, probably through muscarinic receptor stimulation. (2)
Bone Marrow and Chromosomal Aberration Protection: Study showed animals treated with both
SM extract and Doxorubicin, a potent antitumor drug, developed significantly fewer micronucleus assay
and chromosomal aberrations than those treated with DXR alone. SM are rich in flavonoids with
antioxidant activities. (3)
Antipyretic / Analgesic : Study showed the dry residue of fresh juice produced significant antipyretic
(dose-dependent) and analgesic effect. The results support its use in traditional medicine. (4)
Analgesic Effect Similar to Morphine: Study of hydroalcoholic extract on formalin injection-induced
pain showed an analgesic effect not significantly different from that of 4 mg/kg of morphine sulfate. (11)
Hypotensive: Study of SM extract on normotensive rats showed dose-dependent hypotensive
responses possibly through its influence on the renin-angiotensin system and SME-induced diuresis. It
suggests SME could be a potent hypotensive agent. (5)
Visual Benefits / Glaucoma : Study showed that Solanum melongena may be of benefit for patients
suffering from raised intraocular pressure (glaucoma) and convergence insufficiency. (7)
Phytochemicals / Xanthine Oxidase Inhibition: Study yielded stigmasterol, stigmasterol--D-
glucoside, dioscin, protodioscin and methyl protodioscin. The that phytosterols 1, 2 and 3 that showed
strong inhibition of xanthine oxidase. (6)
Antifungal: Different extracts of S melongena leaf were evaluated against three human pathogenic
dermatophytes (Trichophyton mentagrophytes, T rubrum and T tonsurans) and two opportunistic fungi (C
albicans T beigelli). Except for the water extract, all extracts showed significant antifungal property. (8)
Birth Control: Plant and allies yield glucoalkaloids (solasodine) that are under investigation as oral
contraceptive for birth control. (9)
Phenolics: The Mayo Clinic and the ADA recommended an eggplant-based diet for the management
of type 2DM. The rationale is a high fiber and low soluble carbohydrate content of eggplant. A study
proposed a more physiologically relevant explanation in the phenolic-linked antioxidant activity and
alpha-glucosidase inhibitory potential of eggplant which can reduce hyperglycemia-induced
pathogenesis. It also showed moderate ACE-inhibitory activity.. The phenolic antioxidant-enriched
dietary strategy also has a potential to reduce hyperglycemia-induced pathogenesis linked to cellular
oxidation stress. (12)
Peduncles in Periodontal Disease / Antioxidant: Aqueous peduncle extracts showed a higher
capacity to scavenge free radicals than the fruit itself., increasing total antioxidant activity and glutathione
levels in saliva of patients with periodontal disease. The extracts ameliorated pocket depth and bleeding
index. Results suggest peduncles of Sm used a mouthwash has a beneficial effect against periodontal
diseases. (13)
Effect on Cholesterol-Induced Atheromatosis: Study evaluated the histological effect of Solanum
melongena on experimental atheromatosis. Results showed lipid deposits could not be seen in paraffin
sections just after one day. Vascular wall histological changes were earliest visible after 10 to 14 days
with enlargement of the subendothelial space and honeycombed edema with fine dispersed lipids. (14)
Phenolics as Inhibitors of Key Enzymes in Diabetes and Hypertension: Programs have suggested
an eggplant-based diet with its high fiber and low carbohydrate content as a choice for management of
T2 diabetes. Study showed phenolic-rich extracts from eggplant with moderate free radical scavenging-
linked antioxidant activity had high alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activity and moderate high angiotensin-1
converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity. (16)
Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE) of Phenolics: Study confirmed the presence of polyphenols in
various parts of the eggplant, in particular skin, suggesting the entire vegetable as food. MAE
(microwave assisted extraction may be an alternative to conventional methods of phenolic extraction.
(17)
Anticonvulsant Activity / Roots: Study evaluated S. melongena root extract for antiepileptic activity
against experimental seizures. Results showed anticonvulsant effects and reduced mortality but the
extract did not block tonic convulsions and clonic-tonic convulsion. (18)
Antiplatelet / Antioxidant / Calcium Channel Blocking Activities: Study showed fractions of S.
melongena possess antiplatelet, antioxidant, and calcium channel blocking activities. Fractionation may
be responsible for the modification of the active compounds and their properties. (19)
Corrosion Inhibit on of Mild Steel: Study of ethanol extracts of leaves of Solanum melongena
showed to be a good adsorption inhibitor for corrosion of mild steel in HCl solution. Quantum calculations
showed the active constituents of ethanol extract of leaves are carotene, nicotinic acid, ascorbic acid and
riboflavin. (20)
Antifungal: Study evaluated the antifungal property of chloroform, methanol, and aqueous extracts of
S. melongena, Lawsonia inermis, and Justicia gendarussa against four common dermatophytic species,
viz. Trichophyton mentagrophytes, T. rubrum, M. gypseum and M. fulvum. Results showed
antidermatophytic activity and the C. extract of S. melongena was found to be most potent. (21)
Anticancer / Fruit Peels: Study evaluated methanol extracts of peels of Solanum melongena against
five human cancer cell lines. Study yielded five steroidal compounds; three steroidal alkaloids:
solasodine (S1), solamargine (S4) and solasonine (S5) together with two steroidal glycosides: -
sitosterol-3-O- -D-glucoside (S2) and poriferasterol-3-O- -D-glucoside (S3). Results showed moderate
to potent activities against the tested cancer cell lines. (22)
Analgesic / Roots: Study evaluated the analgesic activity of plant roots. Phytochemical screening
yielded saponins, alkaloids, glycoside, and flavonoids in various extracts. Results showed significant
analgesic activity using the Hot Plate, Tail Immersion, and acetic induced methods in rats and mice. (23)
Antiamnesic: Study evaluated the amnesic activity of a S. melongena extract using scopolamine, an
inducing agent and memory disruptor on various behavioral parameters. Results showed antiamnesic
property possibly through activity as direct free radical scavenger or regulator to inhibit
acetylcholinesterase due to presence of phytoconstituents mainly flavonoids. (24)
Antiulcer / Roots: Study evaluated a methanolic extract of roots of Solanum melongena in pylorus
ligated and ethanol induced ulcer models in Wistar albino rats. Results showed significant dose
dependent inhibition of gastric lesions in both models possibly through an antisecretory activity. (25)
Availability
Cultivated for its edible fruit.
Last Update August 2014
Talong punay
Datura metel Linn.
THORN APPLE
Man-t'-o-lo Tu

Datura metel Linn. Kachobong (P. Bis.)
Datura fastuosa Linn. Kachubung (P. Bis.)
Datura alba Nees. Kamkamaulau (Ilk.)
Kamkamawlaw (Ilk.)
Katsobong (P. Bis.)
Katsubung (Sul.)
Katsibong (Bis.)
Kachibong (Bis.)
Salanpune (Pamp.)
Siva (Iv.)
Susupan (Ibn.)
Talong-ounai na itim (Tag.)
Talong-punai (Bik., Tag.)
Talong-punai na morado (Tag.)
Talumpunay (Pamp., Tag.)
Tanompunay (Tag.)
Tarampunai (Tag.)
Tatchubong (Bis.)
Taubibong (Bis.)
Trampunai (Tag.)
Trampunay (Tag.)
Angel's trumpet (Engl.)
Devil's trumet (Engl.)
Jimson weed (Engl.)
Locoweed (Engl.)
Prickly burr (Engl.)
Raving nightshade (Engl.)
Thorn apple (Engl.)
Zombie cucumber (Engl.)

CHINESE: Man-t'-o-lo Tu.
INDIA: Dhustura (Sanskrit), Kala-dhatura, Krishmadhastura, Siahdhatura.
INDONESIA: Toru mabu, Kecubong, Kecubu, Kacubueng, Kacubung, Cobhung, Kecubung, Kucubu,
Padura.
MALAY: Kecubong, Terung pungak.
NEPAL: Kalo dhatura, Hakugu dudhale.
Botany
Talong-punay is a coarse, erect, branched, smooth or slightly hairy shrub or short-lived shrub, 0.5 to 2
meters high. Leaves are single, ovate to oblong-ovate, 9 to 18 centimeters long, with inequilateral base,
pointed tip and irregularly and shallowly lobed margins. Flowers are white or nearly purple, axillary and
solitary, with a large ovary. Calyx is green, about 6 centimeters long, cleft at the apex, cylindric and
divided into linear teeth. Corolla is white, about 15 centimeters long and the mouth about 8 centimeters in
diameter, trumpet-shaped when fully opened. Stamens are 5, stigma 2-fid. Fruits are rounded capsules,
green, about 3.5 centimeters in diameter and covered with stout, short spines, dehiscing at the apex
when ripe forming an irregular suture. Seeds are numerous, closely packed, nearly smooth, and pale
brown.
Distribution
- In open, waste places in and about settlements, throughout the settled areas in the Philippines.
- Also cultivated also for ornamental purposes.
- Now pantropic in distribution.
Parts utilized
Leaves, seeds and flowers.
Collect newly opened flowers and sun-dry.
Constituents
Yields tropane alkaloids such as hyoscyamine, scopolamine, anisodamine and anisodine.
Flowers - Scopolamine, 0.5%; hyoscyamine, 0.04%; atropine, 0.01%.
Leaves: Total alkaloid content is 0.426%, mainly as atropine and small amount of hyoscyamine.
Seeds contain 0.426% alkaloid, mainly hyoscyamine.
Roots: contain 0.35% hyoscyamine.
Phytochemical screening of seeds yielded tannins, phlobatanins, cardiac glycosides, carbohydrates
and flavonoids.
A 50% ethanol eluate fraction of a macroporous resin of the flower isolated a new compound,
yangjinhualin A and five known megastigmane sesquiterpenes. (14)
Screening of leaves yielded alkaloids and steroids, with an absence of saponins and flavonoids. The
concentration of Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe3+ and PO3- were found to be (4.280.05)104, 4 (3.860.009) 104,
(2.330.007)104 and (4.650.06)104 ppm respectively. (see study below) (25)
Properties
- Bitter tasting.
- Considered anesthetic,
antiasthmatic, antispasmodic,
antitussive, hallucinogenic,
hypnotic.
- Plant as a whole has narcotic,
anodyne, and antispasmodic
properties analogous to those of
belladonna.
- Dried seeds are considered a
more powerful soporific than the
leaves.
- Plant has long bee noted for it
intoxicating and narcotic
properties. An overdose causes
a violent narcotic poisoning.
Uses
Folkloric
Leaves used a lot in resolutive and mitigant
poultices. Smoked like stramonium in cases of
dyspnea produced by asthma. Seeds and roots have
the same uses; some considered the seeds to be
more potent.
Asthma: get dried leaves and stems, cut into small
slices and mix with equal quantity of tobacco and roll
into a cigarette and smoke 2 to 3 times a day.
Muscle pains and cramps due to rheumatism: get
drug, boil and obtain a concentrated decoction. Wash
the painful parts with the warm decoction.
Gastric pain: use 0.3 gm of dried material in
decoction.
Sprains, contusions, snakebites, piles: use pounded
fresh leaves and apply over afflicted areas.
Severe cold accompanied by excessive sneezing
similar to hay fever symptoms: use powdered seeds
(0.1 gm) in pills or loose.
Psoriasis: use the oil prepared by boiling Datura
seeds with sesame (linga) oil in an alkaline water
made from ashes of gabi. For the preparation of the
alkaline water, simply dissolve the white ashes of
gabi in water.
For rheumatic swelling of the joints, lumbago,
painful tumors, nodes, etc., the plant is applied locally
as poultice of leaves, epithem, fomentation or
liniment.
Leaves applied as anodyne poultice to inflamed
breasts, or to check excessive secretion of milk. A
paste made from turmeric and datura fruit is also
useful for the same.
Leaves boiled in oil, or the oil itself, is a useful application for hemorrhoids, anal fissures, and other
rectal diseases associated with tenesmus.
Juice of leaves administered internally for the prevention of gonorrhea.
Leaves steeped in spirits used to stimulate hair growth.
Heated leaves applied to the spleen for intermittent fever.
Malays used the leaves for boils, leg sores, hemorrhoids, rheumatism, swollen joints, and fish bites.
Heated leaves also used enlarged spleen and swollen testicles.
Juice of ears dropped inside the ear for earaches.
Ointment of seeds used for smallpox.
Flowers digested in wine used as an anesthetic tincture.
Lotion made from the flowers used for facial eruptions and feet swellings.
In Cambodia, coconut oil is heated inside the fruit capsule, and the juice, with the oil, is squeezed into
the ear.
Plant used as an indigenous substitute for belladonna in the treatment of cataract and other eye
diseases. Mydriatic potency has been reported - the watery extract of leaves is applied around the eyes
causing dilatation for two days. Also, dilatation may be achieved through an alcoholic extract of the
seeds in four ounces of spirits, the tincture evaporated to dryness in a water bath, and the residue
dissolved in an ounce of water.
Roasted leaves applied to the eyes for ophthalmia.
Powdered roots are rubbed on the gums for toothache.
Roots used for the bites of wild dogs.
Pill made from pounded seeds placed on decayed teeth to relieve toothaches.
Roots boiled in milk and administered with clarified butter and treacle for insanity.
Seeds pounded in oil used as embrocation in rheumatism; also applied to syphilitic swellings and boils.
In Konkan, plant juice is given with fresh curds for intermittent fevers.
In India, used for hysteria, insanity, diarrhea, asthma, skin diseases. For epilepsy, seeds of ripe fruit are
burned and the smoke inhaled. Seeds used in small doses as analgesic.
In China, used for asthma; the dried leaves are rolled and smoked like a cigar. Dried flowers used for
as anesthetic and prescribed for the treatment of asthma, cough, and convulsions.
Tincture preparation
Tincture may be prepared by macerating two and a half ounces of bruised datura seeds in one pint of
proof spirits, and left for seven days in a closed vessel, occasionally shaking it, and the mixture
eventually pressed, filtered, and measured, and sufficient spirit proof added to make one pint. The
tincture induces sedative and narcotic effects similar to opium.
Leaf extract preparation
100 grams of fresh leaves are crushed in a mortar to soften the leaves; add 5 liters of water to the
crushed leaves; and sieve after 3 days. (see study below) (29)
Others
Hallucinogenic: Used as a ritualistic herb for its hallucinogenic effects. In Nigeria, decoction of leaves
or fruits added to drinks to achieve a "high," as a substitute for marijuana. It has been reported that the
Moros intoxicated themselves with the plant before committing their massacres.
Poison: In India and Indo-China, reportedly used quite commonly with criminal intent. In China, often
mixed with tea that hides the poison without raising suspicion.
Toxicity / Poisoning !
All parts contain tropanic alkaloids in varying concentrations; mostly parasympatholytic.
Common side effects: tachycardia (fast heart beat), slight increase in blood pressure, dryness of the
mouth and eyes, sedation.
Early symptoms of poisoning are dilatation of the pupil, drowsiness, general weakness, with varying
degrees of hallucinations.
At toxic levels, tropanic alkaloids can cause hallucinations, delirium, mental confusion, coma and death.
Excessive doses can cause hallucinations, severe intoxication and death. The window of toxic and
medicinal dose is quite small.
With medium doses, recovery can occur in 12 to 24 hours, however, with loss of memory and confusion
that may last for days.
Studies
Anti-asthmatic: Quisumbing's compilation describes a mechanism for the plant's anti-asthmatic effect.
Asthma relief is attributed to depression or paralysis of the receptive mechanism of the parasympathetic
nerves in the bronchi (a known action of solanaceous alkaloids), an effect confirmed by the relaxation
produced by the alkaloidal extract from the smoke, on an isolated intercartilaginous portion of a bronchial
ring previously contracted by pilocarpine. When smoke is inhaled, it is possible the sticky, resinous
substance may help by coating the mucosa and thus lessening the bronchial irritation.
Hypoglycemic / Antihyperglycemic: Study of seed powder of DM produced significant dose-
dependent reduction of blood glucose. (3)
Cytotoxic Withanolides: Study on methanol extract of flowers of DM isolated 10 new withanolides with
seven known withanolides. Compounds 1,3,4 and 6 exhibited cytotoxic activities against lung, gastric
and leukemia cancer cell lines. (4)
Antimycotic: Study showed the chloroform fraction of Datura metel to be endowed with antifungal
activity against all three species of Aspergillus, i.e., A fumigatus, A flavus and A niger. However, the
cytotoxicity of the chloroform fraction was less than amphotericin B.
Antifungal: Study of root and shoot extracts showed significant suppression of growth of the target
fungal pathogen, Ascochyta rabiei, the cause of chickpea blight disease.
Herbicidal / Roots and Shoots: Study showed the root and shoot extracts of Datura metel contain
herbicidal constituents. The extracts exhibited activity against Phalaris minor Retz., one of the most
problematic weeds of wheat in Pakistan. (7)
Toxicity Studies: Suspensions of powdered leaf of Datura metel and D stramonium on virgin female
albino mice showed dose dependent reversible and irreversible changes. Generally, D metel-treated
mice showed less anatomical abnormalities than D stramonium-treated mice and suggests D metel could
serve as a substitute for D stramonium in drug development. (8)
Antibacterial / Alkaloid: A new antibacterial agent was isolated from Datura metel leaves with activity
against S aureus, P aeruginosa, P mirabilis, S typhi, B subtilis and K pneumonia. Results support its use
in phytomedicine for the treatment of asthma, cough, burns and wound healing in Nigeria. (9)
Deleterious Frontal Cortex Effect: A study of aqueous leaf extract in adult Wistar rats caused
deleterious effects on the frontal cortex of adult albino Wistar rats, with dose-depended vacuolations in
the stroma of the brains of treatment group. (11)
Sedation / Decreased Appetite: A study of seed extract for analgesic activity showed insignificant
results. The study showed a behavioral pattern of sedation and decreased appetite on administration of
the seed extract, attributed to action on u-type receptors in the CNS, which on stimulation have an
intrinsic potential to reduce the distress or the effective component of pains without any significant
change in the intensity of the actual sensation.
Antimicrobial / Alkaloid: In a study screening 17 different coastal medicinal plants for antibacterial and
antifungal activity , Datura metel showed a wide range of antimicrobial activity against many fish
pathogens. Results suggested DM can be used as a putative antimicrobial drug in the aquaculture
maintenance.
Spasmogenic: Study of D. metel leaf and root extracts, scopolamine and acetylcholine on isolated
smooth muscle preparations. Leaf extract and scopolamine showed antispasmodic effects while the root
extract and acetylcholine cause contracture in isolated rat uterus and rectum whole muscle. Results
suggest a spasmogenic factor in the DM root extract.
Antioxidant: Study the aqueous extract contained more phytochemical compounds than ethanol
extracts. Antioxidant activities were higher in the plant leaf than the bark. Results suggest the plant as a
natural source of antioxidants and phytochemical quality for antibacterial effectiveness. (15)
Antimicrobial: Study evaluated aerial parts of Datura metel for antimicrobial activity against resistant
pathogens of aquatic, human and plant origin. Results showed antimicrobial property and potential for
use in the treatment of infectious diseases caused by resistant pathogenic organisms. (17)
Anesthetic / Seeds: Study evaluated a methanolic extract of D. metel seeds as a potential oral
anesthetic in dogs. Extract induced surgical anesthesia in dogs with recovery without complications.
Results showed the seed extract to be relatively safe, inducing sleep similar to thiopentone sodium. (18)
Flower Components / Antimicrobial: Study of methanol extracts of D. metel flowers yielded four
compounds. Components identified as acetic acid, trifluoro-, 2,2-dimethylpropyl ester, 4-
Trifluoroacetoxyoctane and 1,4-Cyclohexadiene, 1- methyl- have antimicrobial property. (19)
Corrosion Inhibition of Mild Steel: Study evaluated the corrosion inhibition potential of D. metel in
acid medium on mild steel. Results showed significant corrosion inhibitive effect, probably through
adsorption of phytoconstituents. (20)
Anti-Inflammatory / Antioxidant / Leaves: Study evaluated the in vitro anti-inflammatory and
antioxidant potential of leaves of D. metel. Results suggest considerable activity and suggests in vivo
studies. (21)
Anti-Gout / Antiarthritis / Antioxidant / Leaves: Study of a methanolic extract of D. metel showed
more than 50% xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity in vitro, comparable to standard anti-gout medicine,
allopurinol. It also showed in vivo hypouricemic activity against potassium oxonate-induced
hyperuricemia in mice. (22)
Anti-Cancer / MCF-7 Cell Line: Study evaluated a methanolic extract of Datura metel for anticancer
activity against MCF-7 cell line. Results showed a leaf extract to have remarkable anticancer activity.
Isolation of the compound contributing to the activity has a potential for a novel and natural
phytomedicine for the disease. (23)
Bio-Pesticidal: Study evaluated solvent extracts of Datura metel against larvae of gram pod-borer
Heicoverpa armigera. The most active was the ethyl acetate fraction of the leaf extract, with a significant
potential for use as a bio-pesticide for the control of destructive polyphagous agricultural pestH.
armigera. (24)
Insecticide / Leaves / Red Ants and Grasshoppers: Study evaluated the leaf of Datura metel for
acute toxicity at varying concentrations on grasshoppers and red ants. Study showed a statistically
significant dose dependent decrease in the survival rate and an increase in the percentage mortality of
red ants and grasshoppers in the presence of Datura metel. (see constituents above) (25)
Antifertility / Seeds: Study evaluated crude acetone extracts of seeds of Datura metel in female albino
mouse for antifertility activity. A 2% seeds extract caused anti-implantation activity, and suggests a
potential good source of antifertility inducious compounds with minimal side effects after testing in human
models.
(26)
Mineral Composition / Phytomonitor Potential: Study evaluated the mineral compositions of leaf,
seed, and flower of D. metel. Results yielded 12 elements including Cu, Co, Ni, Mn, Zn, Fe, Na, K, Ca,
Mg, P, and Al. Leaves were minerally richer than seed and flower counterparts. Datura metel was found
tolerant for Co and Ni and may be used as phytomonitor for these elements in the soil. (27)
Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory Property / Withanolides: Study showed the acetylcholnesterase
inhibitory properties of Datura metel is due to the presence of withanolides. The methanolic extracts
showed more significant dose-dependent inhibition of acetylcholinesterase. (28)
Anti-Termite / Datura: Study evaluated the efficacy of extracts from Datura metel, local soap and garlic
in the management of Macrotermes belicosus. The synthetic insecticide, chlorpyrifos 0.1%, was used as
control. In the laboratory, all the treatments had 75% - 100% repellence value with 100% mean insect
mortality. On the field, only D. metel and chlorpyrifos were effective in preventing upsurge and rebuilding
of termitaria. Results suggest an eco-friendly botanical potential for the management of termites in the
field. (see leaf extract preparation above) (29)
Hallucinogenic / Seeds: Study evaluated the hallucinogenic effect of aqueous seed extract of D. metel
in male wister rats. Treated groups exhibited some behavioral changes: restlessness, aggressiveness,
agitation, and disorientation, with significant decrease in food and water intake. Results validate the
action of D. metel on the central and peripheral nervous system. The hallucinogenic effect may be due to
the presence of the alkaloid scopolamine. (30)
Availability
Wild-crafted.
Seeds in the cybermarket.
Tanglad
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf
LEMON GRASS
Xiang mao

Andropogon cerifer Hack. Balioko (Bis.)
Andropogon ceriferus Hack. Barani (Ilk.)
Andropogon citratus DC. Paja de meca (Span.)
Andropogon citriodorus Desf. [Invalid] Zacate limon (Span.)
Andropogon fragrans C.Cordem. Tanglad (Tag., Bik., Bis.)
Andropogon roxburghii Nees ex Steud. Salai (Tag.)
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Staph Sai (Mbo., Mand., Sul.)
Salaid (Tag.)
Citronella grass (Engl.)
Fever grass (Engl.)
Lemon grass (Engl.)
Sweet rush (Engl.)
Ginger-grass (Engl.)
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf is an accepted name The Plant List

AFRIKAANS: Sitroengras.
ARABIC: Hashisha al-limun.
BENGALI: Gandhabena.
BULGARIAN: Limonova treva.
BIURMESE: Moan.hing:hka: sa.pa:ling, Sabalin, Sabalin hinsa.
CHINESE: Ning men cao, Xiang mao cao, Xiang mao.
CZECH : Citrnov trva.
DANISH: Citroengras.
ETHIOPIAN: Tej-sar..
FRENCH: Verveine des Indes, Citronnelle.
GUJARATI: Lili cha.
HEBREW: Limonit rehanit, Essef limon.
HINDI: Aghin ghas, Gandhatrina, Gauti chai, Khawi, Sera, Verveine.
HUNGARIAN: zsiai citromf, Citromf, Indiai citromf.
ICELANDIC: Strnugras
INDONESIA: Sereh.
ITALIAN: Cimbopogone.
JAPANESE: Remon gurasu, Remonsou.
KANNDA: Majjige hullu.
KOREAN: Remon gurasu.
LITHUANIAN: Citrinol.
MALAY: Serai, Serai dapur, Serai makan, Sereh makan (Indonesia).
MALAYALAM: Terava pullu, Vasana pullu.
MALAYSIA: Sakumau.
MARATHI: Gavati chaha, Hirva cha.
MEXICO: Zacate limon.
NEPALESE: Pirhe ghaans.
ORIYA: Dhanvantari, Dhanwantari ghaasa.
POLISH: Palczatka cytrynowa.
PORTUGUESE: Capim-santo, Capim-cidro, Erva-cidreira (Brazil).
PUNJABI: Khawi
RUSSIAN: Chelnoborodnik limonnyj, Tsitronella, Zapadno-indijskoe limonnoe sorgo.
SANSKRIT: Bhustrina.
SERBIAN: Limun trava.
SINHALESE: Leman gras, Sera.
SPANISH: Caa de limn, Hierba de limn, Limonaria, Malojillo, Te de limon, Pasto cedrn, Pasto-
limn.
SWEDISH: Citrongrs.
TAMIL: Dta krai gaeng, Kaa hom, Khrai, Sere, Ta khrai.
TELUGU: Kamanchi kasu, Nimmagaddi.
THAILAND: Ta-khrai.
TURKISH: Limon otu.
URDU: Agan ghas, Aghin ghas.
VIETNAMESE: S
Botany
Tanglad is a tufted and perennial
grass. Leaves grow to a length of up
to 1 meter, about 1to 1.5 centimeters
wide, scabrous, flat, long-acuminate,
and smooth. Panicles are 30 to 80
centimeters long, interrupted below;
the branches and branchlets
somewhat nodding. Perfect spikelets
are linear-lanceolate, pointed, not
awned, and about 6 millimeters long.
Distribution
- Planted in most parts of the
Philippines for its fragrant leaves, but
is nowhere spontaneous.
- Cultivated commercially in Java, India, and Sri Lanka.
- Native of tropical East Asia and widely distributed in cultivation.
Constituents
- Distillation of the fresh plant yields lemon-grass oil, verbena oil, and Indian Molissa oil.
- Plant contains small amounts of methyl heptenone and terpenes (limonene and dipentene).
- Contains citral, an aldehyde found in lemon peel oil and other natural essential oils.
- Main constituents of essential oil are citral (aldehydes geranial and neral) and terpenes (myrcene,
monoterpene and geranial-terpenic alcohol).
- The exact value of the oil depends on the amount of citral it contains. High grade oil contains about 70
to 80 percent citral.
- Study of essential oil yields hydrocarbon terpenes, alcohols, ketones, esters and aldehydes.
- Leaves and roots have yielded alkaloids, saponin, a-sitosterol, terpenes, alcohol, ketone, flavonoids,
chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid and sugars.
- Plant yields flavonoids and phenolic compounds--luteolin, isoorientin 2'-O-rhamnoside, quercetin,
kaempferol, and apigenin.
Properties
- The oils are reddish-yellow with an intense odor and taste of lemons.
- Carminative, tonic, stimulant, diuretic, purgative, sudorific.
- Leaves considered antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and sedative.
- Possess pharmacologic activities: antimalarial, antimutagenicity, antimycobacterial, antioxidants,
hypoglycemic and neurobehavioral.
Parts utilized
Leaves and whole plant.
Uses
- Commonly used as a stuffing ingredient in pig spit-roasting to improve the flavor and decrease the
grease-taste.
- Used for cooking stale fish to improve the taste.
- Also used to flavor wines, sauces and spices.
- In Java, plant is used for spicing sherbet.
- The roots have a ginger-like flavor and used as a condiment and adding fragrance to gogo hair-washes.
Folkloric
For diarrhea, decoction of leaves with sugar and a small piece of crushed ginger taken orally. For
adults, 1 cup, 3 times daily taken after each loose bowel movement. For infants and babies, 1 tablespoon
3 times daily and after each loose bowel movement; 2-6 years, 1/4 cup 3 times daily and after each loose
bowel movement; 7-12 years, 1/2 cup three times daily and after each loose bowel movement.
One of the 10 herbal ingredients in the decoction-bath used in the post-partum ritual of suob.
(See: Suob)
Hot decoction of roots used for toothaches.
Roots also used as a diuretic.
Leaves used for aromatic baths.
Leaves applied to the forehead and face as a cure for headaches; infusion held in the mouth to alleviate
toothaches.
A stomachic for children. Tea made from leaves used as stomachic tonic, diuretic, and refrigerant.
Used as emmenagogue.
Used in baths and fomentations.
The oil, mixed with equal amounts of coconut oil, is used as a liniment for back pains, rheumatic
complains, neuralgia, sprains and other painful afflictions.
Decoction of leaves used as stomachic, diuretic, and refrigerant.
Used for stomach discomfort, toothache, sprain, vomiting and ringworm
In various traditional systems, leaf infusions used as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and sedative.
In Cuban folk medicine, used to lower blood pressure and as anti-inflammatory.
In Brazil, used as sedative, for gastrointestinal maladies, and as febrifuge. Also, tea from leaves used
for anxiolytic, hypnotic, and anticonvulsant effects.
In Malaya, used as a potion after childbirth.
In Indonesia, used as digestive, diuretic, sudorific and emmenagogue.
In India, used for gastrointestinal problems. Also, oil used as remedy for cholera.
In China, used as anxiolytic.
In Nigeria, used as antipyretic, stimulant and antispasmodic.
In Trinidad and Tobago, used for diabetes.
In various folk medicinal use: oil used for cough, cold, hemoptysis, rheumatism, back pain, bladder
problems
Others
- Essential Oil: Volatile oil, called Lemon grass oil, consists mainly of citral and used in perfumery, soap,
cosmetics, pharmaceutical, insecticide and food industries.
- Roots used for perfuming hair washes of gogo.
- Lemon grass oil is used in making perfumes, especially ionone (synthetic essence of violets).
- In India, cultivated around houses to repel snakes.
- Scavon Vet Spray: Andropogon citratus is one of the ingredients in a spray used for parasitic mite,
Demodex bovis, that causes demodectic mange in cattle.
- Repellent: To keep away mosquitos, plant it around your house or place crushed leaves on your
window sills.
- Liniment: Boil equal amounts of chopped leaves and roots with freshly made coconut oil. Also use as
insect repellant.
Studies
Antibacterial / Antifungal: (1) Studies have shown antibacterial activity, comparable to penicillin. (2)
Various studies has shown activity against C albicans, C pseudotropicalis, Mycrosporum gypseum and A
niger. (3) Study evaluated the antibacterial properties of alcohol and water extracts. The alcohol extract
was generally more effective than the water extract. The presence of alkaloids and phenols were
assumed responsible for the antibacterial activity of the extracts.
Neurobehavioral Effects: (1) Study of myrcene in rats suggests anxiolytic activity. (2) Study of
essential oil produced marked CNS depression in mice, similar to chlorpromazine effect. Also, it
increased sleepiness time, similar to a thiopental effect.
Antinociceptive / Analgesic: Myrcene extract from the essential oil has been shown to have an
antinociceptive effect.
Antitumoral: (1) Study showed a-myrcene possess antimutagenic activity in mammary cells. (2) Plant
compounds, a-limonene and geraniol showed inhibition of liver and intestinal mucous membrane cancer
in mice. (3) Study in Thailand showed inhibition of colorectal neoplasia in mice. (4) Study showed
inhibitory effects on early phase hepatocarcinogenesis in rats after initiation with diethylnitrosamine.
Insect repellent / Insecticidal: Studies of plant oil and powder have shown insect repellent and
insecticidal activity. Essential oil has shown activity against Anopheline mosquitos, A culicifacies and A
quinquefasciatus and certain developmental phase inhibition of A aegypti.
Mosquito repellent: Study on the mosquito repellency properties of volatile oils derived from
lemongrass (C citratus), citronella grass (Cymbopobon nadus) and May chang (Litsea cubeba) against
Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus showed no significant difference on repellency.
Vascular Smooth Muscle Relaxation Effect: Study evaluated the effects of methanolic extracts of
leaves, stems, roots, and citral on vascular smooth muscle using isolated tissue preparations. Citral,
leaves, and roots exhibited a dose-dependent relaxant effect on the PE-induced contractions. Citral
seemed to partially act via NO. Results suggest the relaxant effect of citral, leaves and roots is
endothelium-dependent and may be through its effect on intracelluar calcium concentration. A
vasodilator prostaglandin may mediate the effect of leaves. (12)
Toxicity / Repellent Activity: Essential oils of C. citratus (lemongrass) and Murray koenigii (curry leaf)
were tested for toxicity and repellant activity against C. maculatus in stored cowpea. Results showed
lemongrass oil to be a more effective contact toxicant on bruchids than curry leaf oil. (13)
Neurobehavioral Effect of Essential Oil: Study in Swiss male mice of essential oil from fresh leaves
produced increase in sleeping time, elevation of seizure threshold and/or blockage of seizure spread.
Results suggest sedative/hypnotic, anxiolytic, and anticonvulsant activity. (17)
Essential Oil / Phytochemical Composition / Antiinflammatory / Analgesic: Study evaluated the
anti-inflammatory and gastroprotective effects of C. citratus and Eucalyptus citriodora essential oils on
formol-induced edema and acetic acid-induced abdominal cramps in Wistar rats. C. citratus yielded 16
chemical constituents, among which geranial (27.04%), neral (19.93%) and myrcene (27.04%) were
major constituents. The oils exhibited significant dose-dependent edema inhibition. Results showed anti-
inflammatory activities and a potential role as adjuvant alternative in the treatment of inflammatory-
related diseases. (14)
Antioxidant / Hepatoprotective: Study evaluated the effect of C. citratus against carbon tetrachloride-
mediated hepatic oxidative damage in rats. Results showed a hepatoprotective effect attributed to its
antioxidant and free radical scavenging property. (15)
Citral / Housefly (Musca domestica) Control: Study showed the potential of C. citratus oil as an
excellent insecticide for housefly control, the results opening up the opportunity for oil/monoterpenes in
the development of an eco-friendly, economical, and acceptable product. (16)
Gastroprotective: Study evaluated C. citratus leaves essential oil for gastroprotection against injuries
caused by necrotizing agents (absolute alcohol and aspirin) in rodents. Results showed EOCC reduces
gastric damage induced by ethanol, in part, through mechanisms involving endogenous prostaglandins.
Inhibition of ACF (Aberrant Crypt Foci) in Rat Colon: Study showed lemon grass extract inhibits
release of activated aglycon, methylazoxymethanol, from a glucoronide conjugate in the colon, and
decreases the DNA adducts and ACF formation in the rat colon. (18)
Antileishmanial / Essential Oil: Study evaluated the inhibitory effect of C. citratus essential oil on
Leishmania amazonensis. Results showed a dose-dependent antiproliferative effect of the essential oil
on promastigotes and axenic amastigotes. Results showed citral-rich essential oil has promising
antileishmanial properties and a potential for a new anti-protozoan drug. (19)
Hypotensive / Diuretic / Anti-Inflammatory / Leaves: Study evaluated the effect of 10% and 20%
decoction of leaves on arterial pressure in rats, urine production and carrageenan-induced edema in rats.
Results showed dose dependent hypotensive effects given intravenously, and a weak diuretic and anti-
inflammatory effect when give orally. (20)
Treatment of Pityriasis Versicolor / Phase 1 and 2 Clinical Studies / Essential Oil: Pityriasis
versicolor is a fungal infection caused by Malassezia spp. Study evaluated the use of formulations
containing essential oil of Cymbopogon citratus in Phase 1 and 11 clinical studies of patients with
pityriasis versicolor. No significant adverse events were observed in volunteers during Phase 1. In Phase
2 studies, after 40 days of treatment, the rate of mycological cure was 60% (p<0.05) for the group treated
with essential oil and over 80% (p<0.05 for the group treated with ketoconazole formulations. (21)
Treatment of Oral Thrush in HIV/AIDS Patients: Randomized controlled trial of 90 patients evaluated
the safety and efficacy of lemon juice and lemon grass infusion (Cymbopogon citratus) in the treatment
of oral thrush in HIV/AIDS patients compared to use of gentian violet aqueous solution 0.5%. Although
the patient population was small,the use of lemon juice and lemon grass for treatment of oral candidiasis
in an HIV population was validated by randomized controlled trial. (22)
Anthelmintic: Study evaluated the anthelmintic potential of aqueous extract of Cymbopogon citratus
against earthworm Pheretima posthuma. Piperazine citrate was used as standard drug. Results showed
anthelmintic activity in a dose-dependent manner. (24)
Renal Protective Against Aminoglycosides: Study evaluated the renal protective activity of
Cymbopogon citratus in gentamycin-induced nephrotoxicity in male rabbits. Results showed the co-
adminstration of C. citratus with gentamicin successfully prevented renal damage associated with
aminoglycosides assessed by renal functioning parameters and histopathological examination. (25)
Reproductive Benefits in Diabetic Rats / GLUT3 and GLUT8 in Testis: Study evaluated the
localization of glucose transporters (GLUT3 and GLUT8) protein in testis of rats with alloxan induced
diabetes treated with aqueous extract of C. citratus. Results showed an increase in GLUT8 protein and
decrease in GLUT3, suggesting C. citratus may be helpful in minimizing male reproductive disorders in
diabetes. (26)
Eugenol / Antioxidant / Alternative to BHT: Study evaluated the potential of eugenol extracted from
Cymbopogon citratus to replace commercial antioxidants such as BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) in
packaging raw materials. Results showed the concentration of eugenol resulting in 50% inhibition of free
radicals (IC50 0.11 mg/ml) is lower than the IC50 value of BHT (0.14 mg/ml) indicating better radical
scavenging activity. (27)
Sub-Acute Oral Safety Study / Stems: Study evaluated the effects of two doses (13 and 130 mg/kg
body weight) of lemon grass stem infusion in female Sprague-Dawley rats to determine a safety
guideline for use. The stem infusions did not show hepatotoxic or nephrotoxic effects in rats, with no
significant changes in lipid profile, hepatic and renal biochemical parameters. Results showed lemon
grass stem infusion was not toxic even at 10 times higher than normal human consumption. (28)
Sub-Acute Oral Safety Study / Stems: Study evaluated the formulation of Cymbopogon citratus
leaves powder into tablets using acacia and gelatin as binders. Results showed C. citratus leaves tablets
could be formulated by wet granulation using acacia or gelatin as binder. (29)
Anti-Fungal / Oil: Study concludes a 100% lemongrass oil extract produced a zone of inhibition which
is comparable to the effect of the standard and therefore can serve as antifungal agent against
Tricophyton rubrum. (30)
Deleterious Effect on Frontal Cortex / Leaves: Study evaluated the histopathological effects of oral
consumption of aqueous leaf extract of C. citratus on the frontal cortex of Sprague-Dawley rats. Results
showed deleterious and toxic effects on the frontal cortex of rats with histopathological findings of
cytoarchitectural distortions ranging from neuronal degeneration, distortion, vacuolations and necrotic
lesions. (31)
Herb-Drug Interactions / Concerns (1) May interfere with actions of some chemotherapeutic
agents. (2) Avoid during pregnancy as high doses of citral and myrcene has cause birth defects in rats.
(3) Citral in essential oil shown to induce GS T. (4) -myrcene in lemongrass can interfere with
cytochrome P450 liver enzymes. (23)
Availability
- Wild-crafted.
- Cultivated for culinary use.
Tsa
Thea sinensis Linn.
TEA
Cha yei

Thea sinensis Linn. Tsa (Tag.)
Thea viridis L. Common tea (Engl.)
Camellia thea Link Tea (Engl.)
Camellia theifera Griff. Tea plant (Engl.)
Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze Tea tree (Engl.)
Cha yei (Chin.)
Tsa is a common name shared by two species: (1) Tsaang-gubat, tsa, Carmona retusa, Philippine wild tea, Theaceae,
and (2) Tsa, Thea sinensis, tea tree, Boraginacea.

ARABIC: Shay.
CHINESE: Cha
CZECH: Caj,
DANISH: Te, Tebusk.
DUTCH: Teestruik, Theestruik.
ESTONIAN: Hiina teepsas, Teekameelia.
FINNISH: Tee, Teepensas.
FRENCH: Arbre th, Th, Thier.
GERMAN: Teestrauch.
GREEK: Tsai.
HEBREW: Teh.
HINDI: Chaa, Chai, Chaay.
ITALIAN: Pianta del t.
JAPANESE: Cha, Cha no ki, Ichibi.
KANNADA: Chaha, Te.
MALAY: Teh.
PERSIAN: Chay,
POLISH: Kamelia.
PORTUGUESE: Ch , Ch-da-ndia, Ch, Ch-preto (Brazil).
RUSSIAN: Chai, Chainoe derevo.
SINHALESE: Cha, Chai, Te.
SPANISH: rbol del t, Planta del t, T.
SWEDISH : Te, Tebuske.
COUNTRY: Chaya, Thayila.
TELUGU: Teyaku
THAI: Cha.
TURKISH: Cay.
URDU: Cha, Chay.
Botany
Tsa is a shrub, about a meter or more high. Branches are smooth. Buds are silky. Leaves are elliptic-
oblong, 7.5 to 20 centimeters long, 3.5 to 6 centimeters wide, tapering at either end, with toothed
margins. Flowers are white, about 3 centimeters in diameter. Fruit is leathery, 3-celled capsule, each
capsule containing a seed. Seeds are nearly spherical, obtusely angled, smooth, pale brown, about 2
centimeters in diameter.
Distribution
- Introduced shortly before 1905.
- Scattered cultivation in the Baguio area.
- Originally from the triangle of countries of South China, Assam (northeastern India) and Cambodia.
- Planted in almost all tropical and subtropical regions of the world, but especially economically cultivated
in China, Japan, India, Sri Lanka and Indonesia.
Constituents
- Tea leaves, depending on source and fermentation process, yield: caffeine 0.9 to 50/0 caffeine, free or
bound with glycosides; 0.05% theobromine; some theophylline; purine derivatives xanthine,
methylxanthine, and adenine; tanning agents (tannin, polyphenols, gallic acid, and catechin derivatives),
and chlorophyll (in fresh or unfermented leaves).
- Also yields vitamins (A, B2, C, D, P, nicotinic acid), minerals (manganese), and carbohydrates (dextrin,
pectin), and essential oils (providing
aroma).
Properties
- Natural scent of the tea is from a fragrant volatile oil.
- Essential oil is both euphoriant and calming.
- Stimulant effect of the tea from the caffeine and theobromine and small amounts of alkaloids.
- Considered astringent, cardiotonic, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant.
- Considered nutraceutical, anti-inflammatory, immunostimulatory, insulin-enhancing, chemopreventive,
antimicrobial, antihypertensive.
- Fresh leaves contain four to five times more essential oil as dried or fermented leaves.
- Compared to coffee, the stimulant effect of tea's caffeine manifest more slowly and persist longer, as
the caffeine from tea must be liberated from tannic and glycosidic bonding.
Parts used
Leaves
Uses
- Edible: leave
- Green tea made from steamed and
dried leaves; black tea from
fermented and dried leaves.
- Tea extracts used for flavoring
alcoholic beverages, dairy desserts,
candy, baked goods, pastries and
puddings.
- Fixed oil from the seeds sometimes
used in making margarine.
Folkloric
- Recorded as early in the 6th century
as a Chinese herbal medicine,
recommended particularly for people
who slept too long. It was used to
promote blood circulation, promote
excretion of alcohol and other harmful
substances, invigorate the skin,
promote digestion, combat tiredness and depression, among many others. Strong infusions were used
as external applications for skin ailments, eruptions, abrasions and athlete's foot.
- Decoction of leaves used as stimulant and to relieve fatigue.
- Used to soothe headaches, aid digestion.
Others
- Essential oil from fermented and dried leaves used for perfumery and food flavoring.
- Edible oil made from the seed.
- Residual cake containing saponin are made into little round balls, used by Chinese for washing hair.
- Tea seed oil used in the manufacture of sanctuary or signal oil for burning purposes.
- Dye: A source of varied food colors - black, green orange, yellow.
- Wood: moderately hard, makes into a good walking stick.
Legend
- The tea plant is rich in rituals and legends. A monk version of its origin tells of Bodhidhama, a Buddhist
disciple, afflicted with sleepiness, easily falling to sleep while meditating. Angered that he could not keep
his eye open, he cut off his eyelids and cast them to the ground. On the ground, the first tea plant grew,
its leaves resembling the eyelids. The monks noticed the animating power of beverages made from the
leaves, and soon, it because a ritual drink before meditation.
Studies
Antioxidant: Tea contains flavonoids with its
beneficial antioxidant effects.
Anti-Diabetic: Study on the water extract of
Thea sinensis suggest the antidiabetic activity is
derived, at least in part, from a decrease in
plasma insulin, due to decreased insulin
resistance. (3)
Genital Warts: Polyphenon E, a proprietary
extract of green tea, has been approved in the
U.S. for external topical use for genital warts
caused by human papilloma virus.
Cardiovascular Benefits: Early studies
suggest that regular intake of green tea may help
reduce the risk of heart attacks or
atherosclerosis. Further clinical trials are needed
before firm recommendations.
Hypolipidemic: (1) Animal studies and limited
human research suggest benefits of green tea on
cholesterol and triglyceride levels. (2) In a
double-blind crossover study of green tea
(Camellia sinensis) in patients with
dyslipidemias, a beneficial effect was
demonstrated with a significant reduction of total
cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol.
Lactose Intolerance: Study results suggest the
lactose content of milk was reduced by adding
tea extracts and suggests that with milk-related
gastrointestinal problems have milk with herbal
tea extracts. (5)
Saponins / Alcohol Absorption and
Metabolism: Study showed the seed saponins
of T sinensis seem to suppress alcohol absorption by slowing gastric emptying and inhibiting absorption
across the cell membranes of the digestive tract. (6)
Effect on Drug Metabolizing Enzymes: Study on decaffeinated green tea is unlikely to alter the
disposition of medications primarily dependent on the CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 pathways of metabolism.
(7)
Antimicrobial: Study of extracts showed the highest % yield with chloroform followed by petroleum
ether, methanol and diethyl ether. Organisms inhibited were P aeruginosa, B subtilis, S dysenteria, E
coli, Yersinia, S typhi among others. Results indicate tea extracts have promising antibacterial
activity, especially for intestinal microorganisms causing diarrhea and dysentery. (8)
Colds and Flu / T Cell Function: Study of a proprietary formulation of Camellia sinensis show it to be
a safe and effective dietary supplement for preventing cold and flu symptoms and for enhancing T cell
function. (9)
Inhibitory Effect on Venom Neuromuscular Blockade: Study of Camellia sinensis extract showed an
inhibitory effect against the neuromuscular blockade induced by the South American rattlesnake
Crotalus durissus terrificus venom. Although the mechanism is unclear, theaflavins is suspected to be
significantly involved. (11)
Thea sinensis Melanin: Melanin extracted from Thea sinensis is a high molecular part of tea
polyphenols with physiochemical characteristics similar to typical melanin. TSM has exhibited a wide
range of biochemical and pharmacological activities - antioxidant, free radical scavenging,
immunomodulatory, as well as protective activity against toxic substances - snake venoms, benzidine,
among others.
Nephroprotective / Cisplatin-Induced Nephrotoxicity: Thea sinensis melanin pre-administration can
prevent the renal toxic effects of cisplatin as evidenced by inhibition of BUN elevation, prevention of
oxidative stress, complete blockade of cisplatin-induced elevation of S creatinine.(13)
Hepatoprotective Against Acetaminophen-Induced Hepatic Injury: Study showed melanin derived
from Thea sinensis leaves has protective effects against hepatic injury induced by NAPAP (N-acetyl-p-
aminophenol). (14)
Antioxidant / Radioprotector: Study evaluated the effect of black tea extract against consequences of
radiation exposure. The BTE scavenged free radicals and dose-dependently inhibited Fenton reaction-
mediated 2-deoxyribose degradation and lipid peroxidation. Extract also exhibited maximum protection
against radiation-induced damage in V79 cells. It is possible the key player in radioprotection is
elimination of ROS. (16)
Neurochemical and Behavioral Effects: Study was designed to monitor the effects of green tea
extracts in male albino rats for neurochemical and behavioral effects. Results showed decreased in food
intake, increase in locomotive activities, anxiolytic effects, and increase in dopamine and serotonin
turnover. (17)
Genoprotective: Study evaluated the genoprotective effects of two types of green tea in an in-vitro and
human supplementation trial. In-vitro testing of tea-treated cells showed increased resistance of
lymphocytic DNA to H2O2-induced challenge. In the supplementation trial, a significant increase in
resistance was also observed. Results showed significant genoprotective effects and evidence for green
tea as a "functional food." (18)
Antioxidant / -Glucosidase and -Amylase Inhibitory Activities: Study of tea fruit peel extracts
showed antioxidant activities on DPPH, ABTS, and reducing activity. Various extracts also exhibited
excellent inhibitory activity against -glucosidase and mild inhibition of --amylase activity. (19)
Antioxidant / Tea Flowers: Study of tea flower extract and fractions exhibited inhibitory effects on
hydroxyl radicals and DPPH radicals. Flavones, polyphenols, and catechin contents were highest in the
EE and EEA fractions. (20)
Availability
Wild-crafted.
Extracts, capsules, ointments in the cybermarket.
Last Update October 2013
Tubo
Saccharum officinarum Linn.
SUGAR CANE
Hong gan zhe
Scientfic names Common names
Saccharum violaceum F.-Vill. Agbo (Ibn.)
Saccharum officinarum Linn. Caa dulce (Span.)
Saccharum chinense Roxb. Tubo (Tag., Bik.)
Saccharum officinale Salisb. Tubu (Sul.)
Una (Ibn.)
Unas (Ilk.)
Unat (It.)
Noblecane (Engl.)
Sugar cane (Engl.)
Hong gan zhe (Chin.)

ARABIC: Qassab es sukkar.
BENGALI: Aankha, Ukha, Uuka.
CHINESE: Hong gan zhe, Guo zhe, Gan zhe.
DANISH: Suikerriet.
FRENCH: Canne a sucre.
GERMAN: Zuckerrohr.
HEBREW: Kaneh.
ITALIAN: Canna da zucchero, Canna mele.
JAPANESE: Satou kibi.
KHMER: 'mpu.
KOREAN: Sa t'ang su su.
LAOTIAN: 'o:yz.
MALAY: Tebu, Tebu telur, Tebu (Indonesia).
MALAYALAM: Karimbu, Karimpu.
MARATHI: Usa.
NEPALESE: Ganna, Sahacar, Ukhu.
NORWEGIAN: Sukkerrr.
PORTUGUESE: Cana de acar, Cana do acar, Canna de assucar.
PUNJABI: Gacnaa.
RUSSIAN: Sakharnyi trostnik kul'turnyi, Sakharnyi trostnik lekarstvennyi, Trostnik sakharnyi.
SANSKRIT: Ikshava
SPANISH: Caa de azcar, Caa dulce, Caamiel, Caa melar, Caa sacarina, Caa comn.
SUDANESE: Tiwu.
SWEDISH: Sockerrr.
TAMIL: Kaarumbu (Karumbu).
THAI: Oi daeng, Ton oi
URDU: Gannaa.
VIETNAMESE: Cy ma, Ma.
Botany
Tubo is a large, coarse and erect grass. Stems are solid, polished, green, yellow or purplish, attaining a
height of 1.5 to 4 meters, 2 to 5 centimeters thick, with long and short internodes. Leaves are very large
and broad, with blades 0.9 to 1.25 meters long and 4 to 5 centimeters wide. Panicles are very large,
white, drooping and terminal, 40 to 80 centimeters long; branches up to 35 centimeters long. Spikelets
are very numerous, 1-flowered, about 3 millimeters long, with surrounding white villous hairs about twice
as long as the spikelets.
Distribution
- Cultivated throughout the Philippines, very
extensively in some islands and provinces.
- One of the major crops of the Archipelago.
- Introduced.
Constituents
Sucrose is the product of the sugar cane juice.
Properties
- Crystals are odorless and sweet.
- Considered antidote, antiseptic, antivinous,
bactericidal, cardiotonic, demulcent, diuretic,
emollient, cooling, laxative, stimulant.
Parts used
Roots, sugar.
Uses
- Nutritious.
- Largely used for preserving meat and fruit.
Folkloric
- Refined sugar has been used for fevers, lack
of secretion, dry coughs.
- Molasses is used as a laxative.
- Sugar is applied to wounds, ulcers, boils, and
inflamed eyes.
- Pulped sugar used to dress wounds; the cane
used for splinting broken bones.
- In Mexico used to relieve coughs.
- Malay women use it in childbirth.
- Decoction of root used for whooping cough.
- In India, plant juices used for abdominal tumors.
- In Cote-d'-Ivoire, leaf decoction used for hypertension.
Others
Refined
Studies
Immunostimulating Effect: The phagocytic activity of peripheral blood leucocytes in chickens
increased significantly when orally administered sugar cane extracts, with higher antibody responses
and delayed type hypersensitivity responses.
Prokinetic Effect: S officinarum was one of seven known herbs in a polyherbal formulation. Study
showed increased gastric emptying and suggests a potential for use as a gastrointestinal prokinetic to
improve gastrointestinal motility.
Hypoglycemic Effect: Study reports the hypoglycemic effect of juice from sugar cane stalks. The
isolated constituent, saccharin, provided a transient reduction of blood glucose. The transient
hypoglycemic effect of complex polysaccharides is suggested to be possibly from increased glucose
utilization in the liver and peripheral tissues.
Phytochemicals / Antioxidant: Study of sugarcane leaves yielded luteolin-8-C (rhamnosylglucoside),
with radical scavenging activity. The juice yielded flavones diosmetin-8-C-glucoside, vitrexin,
schaftoside, isoschaftoside and 4',5'-dimethyl-luteolin-8-C glucoside. Its content of flavonoids suggest a
potential for sugarcane as a dietary source of natural antioxidants.
Steroidogenesis / Testosterone Effect: Study investigated the effect of sugar cane (S. officinarum)
molasses on steroidogenesis in testis cell culture. Results showed low concentrations of molasses
increase testosterone secretion. Study suggests molasses may be a potential diet supplement to
increase testosterone levels.
Optimization of Cytochrome C Production: Comparative study of Manihot Esculenta and
Saccharum officinarum showed S. officinarum to be a better optimizer for cytochrome C
production. Sugarcane had the higher rate of carbohydrate yield compared to Cassava in terms of
inoculum volume with a difference of 5.57%.
Toxicity concerns !
Sugarcane contains hydrocyanic. Sugar cane is a known teratogen. Molasses in excess amounts, alone
or mixed with feeds, may cause diarrhea, colic, urticaria, kidney irritation, sweating and paralysis in
domestic stock; horses seem more susceptible, and toxicity could prove fatal.
Availability
Cultivated.
Last Update February 2013

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